I.

II.

III.

Measures of central tendency a. Center of distribution b. Mean i. average c. Median i. Middle number, half way ii. Put the numbers in order iii. If even take the average of the middle 2 d. Mode i. Most occurring Graphs a. Normal i. Mean median are equal b. Skewed i. Mode median mean ii. Median unaffected iii. Skew occurs when there are outliers in the data iv. Cluster at the mode v. Negative makes an N vi. Determine skew by direction of the tai c. Interpolation i. When scores are percentages ii. Do not correspond to upper real limits or cumulative percentages d. Relative frequencies i. Many pop so large impossible to know actual size important inferential stats. e. Histograms i. Bar centered above each score height of bar hits each frequency ii. Height= frequency iii. Show real limits Sampling methods a. Random i. Best method ii. Each element equal chance being chosen iii. The less human involvement the better b. Systematic i. Every nth element chosen c. Convenience i. First one that they came across ii. Not the best method d. Stratified i. Divide into groups take samples from strata e. Cluster

i. Geographic groups ii. Choose sample each cluster IV. Scales a. Interval: i. Ordered ii. Equal sized categories iii. Direction and magnitude iv. rare b. ratio i. value of zero= none of variable ii. absolute amount (cant be negative) 1. height weight iii. nominal 1. unordered 2. names 3. race, gender iv. ordinal scale 1. ranks 2. words instead of categories 3. directional 4. big in spearman real limits a. boundaries located halfway between adjacent categories Variables a. Constructs i. Internal attributes not directly observed ii. intelligence b. discreet i. undividable categories ii. commonly whole and countable iii. possibly qualitative iv. occupation c. continuous i. infinitely divisible ii. time non experimental/quasi experimental a. does not manipulate variables b. does not indicate cause and effect experimental method a. demonstrates cause and effect b. one variable manipulated c. measure the observed effect

V. VI.

VII.

VIII.

IX.

X.

XI. XII. XIII.

XIV.

XV.

XVI.

XVII.

XVIII. XIX.

d. manipulated variable independent i. counting paper ii. money e. observed=dependent i. how much pain hot water correlational method a. two different variables observed to determine if relationship b. cannot demonstrate causality c. students waking up time and gpa Manipulation a. One variable value changed other observed to see effect b. Just another term similar to experimental method Control variable a. Ensures other variables dont effect relationship Sampling error a. Natural discrepancy error btw sample stat and population parameter Inferential stats a. Uses sample data general conclusions b. Provides limited info c. Sample stats are usually imperfect representations of pop Descriptive stats a. Methods for simplifying organizing and summarizing data b. Usually table or graph Population a. Total group of individuals b. Average score or parameter Sample a. Taken whole pop b. Rep. smaller group c. Called stat. Variability a. How spread out scores are in distribution b. Descriptive degree to which it is spread out Inferential a. How accurately individual score represents pop Standard deviation a. Average distance between scores and mean b. Compute deviation c. Square each deviation d. Find SS e. Compute mean f. Divide sum of squares by n

XX.

XXI. XXII.

XXIII.

XXIV.

XXV.

XXVI.

g. Take square root Z score a. Number of standard deviations from mean b. Z= x-mew/sd c. The mean z=0 d. Sd converts z=1 Probability a. Method determing likelihood certain outcome Binomial distributions a. Formed by b. P+q=1 c. Flipping a coin Alpha level a. We chose b. Cut off for making a decision about null hypothesis c. Alpha usually .05 or .01 d. The smaller the alpha level the less likely there is to be an error? Critical region a. Determined in part by alpha level b. Outcomes to unlikely to occur by chance c. If data is in it reject null hypothesis=significant difference d. If not fail to reject the null hypothesis=no significant difference e. Looked up in charts f. Observed calculation Distribution curves a. Normal b. Positive skew c. Negative skew d. Kurtosis i. Lepto (pinched and thin)kurtic ii. Mesocurtic=normal iii. Platikurtic=flat Hypothesis tests a. Z test i. Score to pop mean ii. Ho: mew=x iii. H1:mew does not=x b. Z test i. Sample to population ii. Ho:mew=M (sample mean) iii. H1:mew does not equal M c. One sample t-test

i. Compares population to______ ii. Ho: mew=M (Sample mean) iii. H1:mew does not equal M d. Independent samples t i. Compares two sample means ii. Ho:mew1-mew2=0 iii. H1: mew1-mew2 does not=0 e. Repeated samples t test/related samples t test i. Ho:mewd=0 ii. H1: mew d does not=0 f. ANOVA i. Ho: mew1=mew2=mew3 ii. H1: mew1=mew2does not=mew 3 mew1 does not equal mew 2=mew3 mew1 does not equal mew 3=mew 2 one of these does not equal the other XXVII. Steps to hypothesis test a. State hypotheses select alpha level b. Locate critical region c. Compute test stat and draw a sketch d. Make a decision (is there a significance) XXVIII. Interpreting states a. Levenes test for homogeneity of variance: i. verify if K samples have equal variance ii. Determines if mews are equal? b. Cohens d i. Is there a sig. difference ii. Checks effect size z and t test iii. Measure effect size, how much means change (size of the difference) w/respect standard deviation iv. Mean difference/SD=M treatment-m no treatment/SD v. Effect size cohens d 1. .2=small 2. .5=medium 3. .8=large c. R squared = effect size t stat d. Tukey and schefffe post hoc ANOVA e. Eta squared= effect size ANOVA XXIX. Hypothesis test a. Evaluates stat significance of results from research study b. Test determines sample mean occurred without any contribution treatment effect XXX. Effect size

a. Measurement absolute magnitude of the treatment effect, independent of size of sample used b. Unaffected by sample size XXXI. T stat a. Allows researchers use sample data b. Hypothesis unknown population means, no knowledge pop. Standard deviation c. Sample mean and SD are unknown d. Only info about pop comes from sample e. All you need is sample and reasonable hypothesis population mean f. Use sample data to compute estimated Standard error of n i. Top= obtained difference b/w the sample and population mean ii. Bottom=SE how much expected by chance iii. SE g. Large t value= obtain diff btw data and hypothesis is greater than if treatment had no effect h. T stat=estimated z score i. Large sample=t stat similar to t score j. Small sample t stat poor estimate z score XXXII. Degrees of freedom a. How well t stat represents z score b. How well distribution approximates normal distribution (df=n-1) i. Large df=normal ii. Small df= flatter is spread out c. Z tests i. Na d. One sample t test i. Alpha level, find value of df for t stat, consult t table ii. If obtained t is larger than reject null iii. Obtained difference is sig larger iv. N-1 e. Independent sample i. (n1+n2)-2 f. Related samples i. N-1 g. ANOVA i. Df total: N-1 ii. DF between=k-1 iii. Df within= n-k iv. N=Total # scores v. K=# groups XXXIII. Assumptions for a t stat a. Values sample consist independent observations

b. Pop sampled must be normal XXXIV. Measuring effect size t stat a. Treatment causes scores change (observed variability) b. Percentage variance accounted for i. R squared= t squared/(t squared+df) c. Small p value= bigger r squared big effect size d. r squared sizes i. =.01 small ii. .09 medium iii. .25 large XXXV. Independent samples t tests a. Between subjects i. Two separate or independent samples ii. Test for mean differences between two distinct populations (men vs. women) or btw two diff treat conditions (drug vs. non drug) iii. Whether mean difference sig greater than can be explained by sampling error b. Standard error i. One sample t tests 1. Sm=SE mean ii. Independent sample t 1. S(mew1-mew2)=standard error of difference btw means iii. How much discrepancy sample stats and pop parameter c. Test stat independent sample t test i. If t stat indicates obtained diff btw sample means (numerator) is greater than difference expected to chance (denominator) we reject null and conclude real mean difference d. Effect size for independent measures t i. M1-M2/s squared p ii. R squared=t squared/t squared+df iii. You can compute an estimate of cohens D or r squared to obtain a measure of the percentage of variance accounted for by treatment e. Homogeneity of variance i. Exception of the independent measure assumption ii. Requires 2 pops from which the samples are obtained have equal variances iii. Sample variances and using pooled variance calc. of t stat XXXVI. Related samples t-test a. Before and after treatment b. Advantage i. Reduce variance and error removing individual differences c. The t stat for repeated measure i. T=Md-mewd/SMd ii. Df=n-1

T=obtained difference/standard error X1 is first treatment X2 is second Null stats that pop difference scores have mean of 0 1. Ho:Mewd=0 2. H1=mewd does not equal= vii. Some will show positive change, some negative viii. Alterative hypothesis states that there is a systemic difference between treatments ix. Denominator is standard error x. Numerator difference sample mean and hypothesized population mean d. Confidence intervals i. Range values estimates the unknown population mean by estimating the t value ii. 376#15 problem book XXXVII. ANOVA a. Purpose of ANOVA i. Determine whether the mean difference that are obtained for sample data are sufficiently large to justify a conclusion that there are mean differences between the population from which the samples were obtained ii. Still looking sig difference b. Difference ANOVA and t test i. ANOVA used when there is more than two means being compared ii. T testcan be only used in situations where two means are involved c. Logic and the process of Analysis or Variance i. ANOVA protects researchers from excessive risk of type 1 error by comparing all means in one big hypothesis test with a single alpha level rather than a bunch of little ones 1. Why danger greater running three independent ones d. ANOVA test stat i. F-ratio: two sample variance ii. The sample variance called means squared or MS e. F-ratio i. F=obtained mean difference (including treatment effects)/differences expected by chance ii. MS between/MS within f. Between treatment variance i. Measure differences caused by 1. Systemic treatment effects 2. Random unsystemic factors ii. Within treatment variance 1. Measure differences by random unsystemic factors g. Between treatment variability

iii. iv. v. vi.

i. Although it is possible to compute a variance for the set of sample means it is usually easier to use the total, T for each sample instead of the mean, and compute variance for the set of T values h. Interpreting the f-ratio i. Difference (or variance) btw means can be cause two sources 1. Treatment effect: treatment have different effect 2. Cause the mean for one treatment to be higher (or lower) than the mean for another treatment ii. Chance or sampling error 1. If there is no treatment effect at all 2. You would still expect some difference btw samples 3. Example of random, unsystemic sampling error i. F-ratio i. F= treatment effect+random difference/random difference j. Interpreting F ratio i. A large value for the F ratio indicates that the obtained sample mean difference are greater than would be expected if the treatment had no effect ii. When the null hypothesis is true and there are no differences btw treatments, the F ratio is balanced iii. When the treatment effect is zero, the top and bottom of the F ratio are measuring the same variance iv. You should expect an F-ratio near 1.00 When the sample data produce an F ratio near 1.00 we conclude that there is no significant treatment effect v. A large treatment effect will produce a large value for the F ratio 1. When sample data produces large F ratio we will reject null 2. Conclude significant difference vi. Determine whether F ratio large enough to be significant 1. Select alpha level 2. Find df values for numerator and denominator of F ratio 3. Consult the F distribution table to find critical value 4. Which is which on table? vii. Computing the F ratio 1. Must go through an analysis that separates the total variability for the entire set of data into two components a. Within treatment variability (denominator) b. Between treatment variability( numerator) viii. Analysis 1. Null Hypothesis a. Ho: mew1=mew2=mew3 b. H1=There is some significant difference between at least two of the means

ix. Hypothesis testing tells us there is a difference but not which treatments are significantly different x. Post Hoc tests 1. Two types a. Tukey HSD b. Scheffe 2. Are done after an ANOVA Ho is rejected with more than two treatments, two at a time 3. Test significance of the mean differences xi. Measuring effect size for an analysis variance 1. Common technique for measuring effect size is to compute the percentage of variance that is accounted for by the treatment effects 2. For t this was r squared 3. ANOVA eta squared a. Eta squared=SS btw treatments/SS total xii. Repeated ANOVA 1. F= treatment effect+random differences/random differences 2. Second stage of analysis in which variability due to individual differences is subtracted out of error (must be removed) 3. Measures individual differences by computing SS btw and subtracting it from SS within, leaving a remainder a. MSbtw=SSbetween /df between b. MSerror=SSerror/df error c. F=MS between/MS error 4. Effect size for repeated measures ANOVA a. Eta squared= SS between/ SS total-SS between b. SS between/ SS between+SS error c. Must compute the percentage of variance (eta squared) d. Remove variability SS between e. Eta squared determines how much remaining unexplained variability is accounted for f. Advantage i. Individual differences can be eliminated for study XXXVIII. Correlation a. Measure and describe relationship btw two variables b. Relationship exists when changes in one variable tend to be accompanied by consistent and predictable changes in the other variable c. Measuring and describing i. Correlation typically evaluates three aspects 1. The direction a. + or

b. Positive= two variables tend to change in the same direction, as one increases the other increases c. Negative= two variables tend to change in opposite directions: as one increases the other tends to decrease 2. The form a. Form of relationship is a straight line or linear relationship which measured by Pearson correlation 3. The strength a. Consistency of the relationship i. Measured by numerical value of the correlation ii. A value of 1 indicates perfect iii. 0 shows no relationship iv. Closer to one the stronger it is ii. Computing correlations 1. Need two scores, an X and a Y for each individual sample 2. Pearson correlation a. Must both be numerical values from an interval or ratio scale of measurement b. Measures the direction and degree (strength) of the liner relationship between two variables c. Compares the amount of convertibility( variation from the relationship btw X and Y) to the amount X and Y vary separately i. R= covariability of X and Y/variability of X and Y separately d. Magnitude of Pearson ranges from 0-1 e. Sign determines the direction of relationship f. R means i. Coefficient of determination (r squared) 1. Proportion of variability in one variable that can be determined from the relationship with the other variables 2. .01=small 3. .09=medium 4. .25=large 3. Spearman correlation a. Used in two situations i. In measure relationship between two ordinal variables: that is X and Y both consist of ranks ii. Consistency of direction relationship between two variables 1. The two variables must be converted to ranks before spearman computed

b. Requires i. Two variables are observed for each individual ii. Observed for each are rank ordered c. After variables have been ranked the Spearmen computed i. Using Pearson formula ii. Using special Spearmen formula 1. Assuming there are few if any tied ranks 4. Pearson correlation also used with one or two dichotomous variables a. Dichotomous variable= one for which there are exactly two categories 5. Point-biserial correlation a. One is dichotomous b. Assign numerical values to the dichotomous variables i. Traditionally 0 and 1 c. Use Pearson correlation formula to calc. correlation d. Closely related to independent measures t test 6. Phi-coefficient a. Both dichotomous b. Convert both into numerical values i. Traditionally 0 and 1 c. Use Pearson XXXIX. Regression a. Statistical procedure that determines the equation for the straight line that best fits a specific set of data b. Resulting straight line called regression line c. Y=mx+b (b and m are constancies) d. M=slope constant and determines direction and degree of the line e. B is the y intercept and determines where line crosses y-axis XL. Finding error a. Y (with a hat)=bx+a b. Error (distance) b/w the predicted value and actual value can be found by y(hat)-y (designed to produce the minimum sum of squared errors) c. Total error b/w data points and line is obtained by squaring each distance and then summing squared values ( sum of (y-y(hat))squared) XLI. Standard error of estimate a. Square root (sum of(y-y(hat)squared. N-2 b. Square root (((1-rsquared)SSy)/n-2) XLII. Chi-square test a. Non-parametric test i. No assumptions about population parameters ii. Dont test hypotheses about population b. Parametric tests

i. Do include assumptions about parameters and hypothesis about parameters c. For Chi-squared, the data are frequencies rather than numerical scores d. Chi-square test for goodness-of-fit i. Uses frequency data from a sample to test hypothesis about the shape or proportions of a population ii. Each individual is the sample is classified into one category on the scale of measurement iii. Observed frequencies 1. Simply count how many individuals from the sample are in each category iv. Null hypothesis specifies the proportion of the population that should be in each category by chance v. Proportion from the null hypothesis are used to compute expected frequencies 1. Describe how the sample would appear if it were in perfect agreement with null hypothesis vi. Uses chi-square statistic 1. Null hypothesis used to construct an idealized ample distribution of expected frequencies that describes how the sample would look in the data were in perfect agreement with the null hypothesis 2. Chi-square statistic is computed to measure the amount of discrepancy between the ideal sample (expected frequencies from Ho) and the actual sample data ( the observed frequencies=fo) vii. A large discrepancy results in a large value of chi-square and indicates that the data do not fit the null hypothesis and the hypothesis should be rejected viii. The fact that chi-square tests do not require scores from an interval or ratio scale make these test a valuable alternative to the t test, ANOVA, or correlation, because they can be used with data measured on a nominal or an ordinal scale