An electric circuit is an interconnection of electric

elements. All elements can be interconnected in several ways. The circuit topology includes branch, nodeandloop.
A branch represents a single element. The point

betweentwoormorebranchesiscalledanode.Aloop isanyclosedpathinacircuit.

53 Branches Nodes Loops

Determinethenumberofbranchesandnodesin thesefigures.
(a) (b)

(c)

Current in a circuit will always be proportional to the voltage and resistance presented

v I R
V = IR
5

 R=0. Inpractice,ashort

circuitisusuallya connectingwire assumedtobeperfect conductor.

 R=.

P V I
P = VI
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 Twotypes:
1. 2.

Kirchhoffs CurrentLaw(KCL). Kirchhoffs VoltageLaw(KVL).

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 Kirchhoffs current law (KCL) states that the sum of

currents entering the node is equal to the sum of currentsleavingthenode.

i1+i2=i3+i4

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 Directionofcurrent:

Italwaysflowsfromahigherpotential(+ve)tolower potential(ve)ofpassiveelement. Generally,

Refertothearrowofcurrentsource. Itflowsfrom+ve terminalofvoltagesource.

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 Kirchhoffs voltagelaw(KVL)statesthatthesumofall

voltagesaroundaclosedloopiszero.
Thesignoneachvoltageisthepolarityoftheterminal

encounteredfirstaswetravelaroundtheloop.
Itiseitherclockwiseorcounterclockwise.

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 v+v1+v2=0 v=v1+v2
Fromequationabove

Sumofvoltagedrops=sumofvoltagerises

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Ifv=10V,R1=2 andR2=5,findi.

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Findio andvo inthecircuitshownbelow.

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 Twoelementsareinseriesiftheyshareasinglenode

andcarrythesamecurrent.

v v1 v2 i=i1=i2
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 Req =R1+R2

ForNresistors:Req =R1+R2+ +RN

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Determinev1andv2ifv=10v,R1=2 and R2=5.

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v1=[R1/(R1+R2)]*v v2=[R2/(R1+R2)]*v

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ByusingVoltageDivisionPrinciple,determine v1andv2ifv=10v,R1=2 andR2=5.

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 Two or more elements are in parallel if they are

connected to the same two nodes and have the samevoltageacrossthem.

v=v1=v2 i i1 i2
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 1/Req=(1/R1)+(1/R2) Then;Req =(R1*R2)/(R1+R2)

ForNresistors:

1/Req=(1/R1)+(1/R2)++(1/RN)
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Determinei1andi2ifv=10v,R1=2 and R2=5.

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i1=[R2/(R1+R2)]*i i2=[R1/(R1+R2)]*i

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ByusingCurrentDivisionPrinciple,determinei1 andi2ifv=10v,R1=2 andR2=5.

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 Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or voltage

sourcesarecalledaccircuit.
A sinusoidal current is usually referred as alternating

current(ac)whichhaspositiveandnegativeportions.

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 Generalequation/steadystateequation:

v(t)=Vm sint where Vm =themax.voltage =angularfreq.inrad/s =2f f=freq(50Hz;Malaysiaand60Hz;U.S.)

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v(t)=Vm sint i(t)=Im sin(t )

ACSignal

where =anglebetweenvoltage(v)andcurrent(i).
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 It is a complex number that represents the amplitude

andphaseofasinusoid.
Itcanberepresentedin3ways:

Rectangularform. Polarform. Exponentialform.

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 Rectangularform:

z=x+jy Where
j =(1)1/2 . x istherealpartofz. y istheimaginarypartofz.

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 Polarform:

z=|r| Where
|r|=(x2 +y2)1/2 representsthemagnitudeofz. tan 1 (y/x)representsthephaseofz.

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Imaginaryaxis z

2j r j y

x Realaxis

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 RMSstandsforrootmeansquare. It is statistical measure of the magnitude of a varying

quantity.
This term is very importance because in actual

practical, the rms value is the effective voltage that is usedinpracticalorintheoreticalanalysis.

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 RMSvoltage

Vrms =Vm /2
RMScurrent

Irms =Im /2

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1.

An ac signal is given as v(t) = 141.4 sin 314t. Determine the maximum voltage, the rms voltage andthefrequency. Findasteadystatecurrentiftherms currentis30A andthefrequencyis50Hz.

2.

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 Itisthecosineofthephasedifferencebetweenvoltage

andcurrent. PF=cos where istheanglebetweenvoltageandcurrent(v i).

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 Itisalsothecosineoftheangleoftheloadimpedance. Thepowerfactoralsoregardedastheratioofthereal

powerdissipatedintheloadtotheapparentpowerof theload.

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 In ac circuit, there are three main components

involved:
Resistor RinOhms() Inductor LinHenry(H) Capacitor CinFarad(F)

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 Z=R I=(V 0)/R

=|I| 0

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 Phasor diagram
v(t) = Vm sin t i(t) = Im sin t

Current,Iandvoltage,Vareinphase.

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 Since the angle between V and I is 0, then the power

factorwillbe p.f.=cos =cos 0 =1orunity

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Z=R+jXL=|Z| jXL =jL=j2fLinOhms.

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 I=(V 0)/(|Z|)=|I| Phasor diagram

v(t) = Vm sin t i(t) = Im sin (t )

Lagging direction

Current,Iislaggingthevoltage,Vby degree.
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 SincetheanglebetweenVandIis ,thenthepower

factorwillbe p.f.=cos lagging

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 Z=R+jXC=|Z| jXL = j(1/C)= j(1/2fC)inOhms.

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 I=(V 0)/(|Z| )=|I|

v(t) = Vm sin t

Phasor diagram

i(t) = Im sin (t + )

Leading direction

Current,Iisleadingthevoltage,Vby degree.

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InductiveLoad

CapacitiveLoad

=+ve CurrentLAG thevoltageby degree

= ve CurrentLEAD thevoltageby degree

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 Z=R jX

|Z|=(R2 +X2)1/2 =tan1 (X/R)

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v I Z
V = IZ
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Findthesteadystatecurrentforthiscircuit.Alsofind thephasor voltageacrosseachelementandconstructa phasor diagram.

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Findallcurrentsflowthrougheachelement. 2. Constructaphasor diagramshowingallthecurrents andthesourcevoltage.

1.

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 4types:
1. 2. 3. 4.

Complexpower,S. Apparentpower,|S|. Realpower,P. Reactivepower,Q.

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 The product of the voltage across the load and the

currentthroughtheload. S=VI* whereI*=Iconjugate.

Unit:VoltageAmpere(VA)

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IfV=|V|0 andI=|I| S=(|V|0)(|I| )* =(|V|0)(|I| ) =|V||I| =|S| =P+jQ

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 The product of the voltage across the load and the

currentthroughtheloadwherebythephaseangleare ignored. |S|=|V||I|

Unit:VoltageAmpere(VA)

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 Therealpower@activepower@averagepower@dc

power@actualpowersuppliedtotheload. P=|S|cos =|V||I|cos = |S|PF=|V||I|PF

Unit:Watt(W)

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 The reactive power @ imaginary power represent

energy that is first stored and then released in the magneticfieldofaninductororintheelectricfieldof capacitor. Q=|S|sin =|V||I|sin
Unit:VoltageAmpereReactive(VAr)

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 S=P jQ

|S|=(P2 +Q2)1/2 =tan1 (Q/P)

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 various elements are characterized by

theirabilitytogenerateorabsorbpower:

P=+ve circuitwillabsorbrealpower. P = ve circuit will generate real power. Q=+ve circuitabsorbreactivepower. Q=ve circuitgeneratereactive power.
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 Inductive load: it is consuming both real and

reactivepowerfromthesource. PXL =+ve andQXL =+ve

Capacitive load: it is consuming real power from

the source and supplying reactive power to the source PXC =+ve andQXC =ve .

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Calculate the current supplied to the load, the power factor of the load and the real, reactive, apparent and complex power to the load. Determine whether Z is consumingorsupplyingreactivepower.
62

1.

A load draws 25 kVA at a power factor of 0.85 laggingfromasupplyof240V.Calculatea)thereal and reactive power to the load and b) the load impedance. A load draws 15 kVA at a power factor of 0.85 laggingfromasupplyof240V.Calculate;a)realand reactivepowertotheload,b)theloadcurrentandc) theloadimpedance.

2.

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 PF is the cosine of the phase difference between

voltageandcurrent,PF=cos .

AnyloadwithlowPFdrawsmorecurrentthanaload

with high PF for the same amount of useful power transfer.

The high current increases the energy lost and

requireslargewireandotherequipment.

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 InMalaysia,theminimumpowerfactorspecifiedby

TNBis0.85.
To improve power factor, power companies install

bankofcapacitors(injectingQ).
Thiscapacitorisconnectedinparallelwiththeload.

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 PF:Cos 2<Cos 1 C=Qc/(|V|2)inFarad(F).

whereQc=Q1 Q2
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OneloadZ=25 30 isconnectedwitha120V,50Hz source.Calculatethecapacitancevaluethatneededto improvetheoverallpowerfactorto0.95lagging.

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Van = |V| sin t Vbn = |V| sin (t 120) Vcn = |V| sin (t 240)

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 Itconsistsofgenerators,transmissionlinesandloads. Allthreeloadshavesamevalueofimpedance. All 3 voltages generated are having same amplitude

butdisplacedinphaseby120.

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 Phasor diagram(abc sequence)

Van = |V| sin t Vbn = |V| sin (t 120) Vcn = |V| sin (t 240)

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 Theadvantagesof3phasesystem:

1. Itispossibletogetmorepowerperkilogram

ofmetalfrom3phasemachine. 2. The power delivered to a 3phase load is constantatalltimesinsteadofpulsatingasit doesin1phasesystem. 3. The 3 motor having constant torque, start andrunmuchbetterthan1 motor.
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 Thereare2connectionsinthreephasesystemnamely:

Star/Wyeconnection Y Delta/Meshconnection

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73

 Thephasevoltages(linetoneutralvoltages):

VAN =|V| 0 VBN =|V| 120 VCN =|V| 240 =|V| 120 where|V|isthemagnitudeofphasevoltage

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 Thelinevoltages(linetolinevoltages):

VAB =VAN VBN =3|V| 0 VBC =VBN VCN =3|V| 90 VCA =VCN VAN =3|V| 150 where|V|isthemagnitudeofphasevoltage

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 Phasor diagram

76

 SinceVAB,VBC andVCA arealllinevoltagesandVisthe

phasevoltage,then

|Vline|=3|Vph| |Iline|=|Iph|

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78

 Thephasecurrents:

IAB =|I| 0 IBC =|I| 120 ICA =|I| 240 where|I|isthemagnitudeofphasecurrent

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 Thelinevoltages:

IA =IAB ICA =3|I| 30 IB =IBC IAB =3|I| 150 IC =ICA IBC =3|I| 90 where|I|isthemagnitudeofphasecurrent

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 Phasor diagram

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 SinceIA,IB andIC arealllinecurrentsandIisthephase

current,then

|Vline|=|Vph| |Iline|=3|Iph|

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Features Voltagemagnitude

YConnected |Vline|=3|Vph|

Connected |Vline|=|Vph|

Currentmagnitude

|Iline|=|Iph|

|Iline|=3|Iph|

abc phasesequence

Vab leadsVa by30

Ia lagsIab by30

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 Complexpower:

S3 =3Vph Iph*=VL IL*=P3 +jQ3

Apparentpower:

|S3|=3|Vph||Iph|=|VL||IL|

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 Realpower:

P3 =3|Vph||Iph|cos =|VL||IL|cos
Reactivepower:

Q3 =3|Vph||Iph|sin =|VL||IL|sin

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 ThecurrentintheneutralofthebalancedYconnected

loadsis In=Ia +Ib +Ic =0.

Since the neutral carries no current, a neutral wire of

any impedance may be replaced by any other impedance, including a short circuit and an open circuit.

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 SinglePhaseCircuitforPerPhaseAnalysis

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 Stepsofanalysis:
1.

2. 3. 4.

Determine the voltages, currents and powers at various points in the circuit with a perphase equivalentcircuit.(phasevoltageandcurrent). ConvertallconnectedloadtoYconnectedload: ZY =Z /3 Drawtheperphaseequivalentcircuit. Solveitascommoncircuitincircuittheory.

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A threephase, Y connected system has 200 V effectivelinevoltageandanequalimpedanceof(3+ j4).Determinethelinecurrents.

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A balanced 415V, 50Hz deltaconnected generator supplies a starconnected load, comprising three singlephase impedances, each of 20 + j12 . The line impedance is 0.02 + j 3.5 . Determine (a) the line current, (b) the phase voltage across the load, (c) the line voltage at the load terminals and (d) the real, reactive and complex power of the load including powerfactor.

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 It provide a compact way to represent the

interconnectionsofapowersystem.
Thevoltageandtypesofconnectionsofeachgenerator

andloadareusuallyshownonthediagram.

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Bus 1 Load 1 Y-connected G1 Y-connected Load 2 -connected

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Basedonfigureabove
1. 2.

FindtheoverallPFofthedistributionsystem. Findthetotallinecurrentsuppliedtothedistribution system.

Assumethattheimpedanceofdistribution lineisnegligible.
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