STRUCTURES AND PROPERTIES

f Why do ionic compounds have high melting paints?

2 Why do ionic compounds conduct electricity when we melt them or dissolve them in water?

GET I) RIGHT!

. oer that all ionic Rernem ds haye giant compoun Toe oppositely

structure~. . theSe

edlonsln

charg held together

structures are tatlc torces

by stron~ e\ectroS

at attractIon.

We have already seen that an ionic compound consists of a giant structure of ions arranged in a lattice. The attractive electrostatic forces between the oppositely charged ions act in all directions and they are also very strong. This holds the ions in the lattice together very tightly.

a) What type of force holds the ions together in an ionic compound?

Strong ionic bonds

Figure 3 Because the ions are free to move, a molten ionic compound can conduct electricity

~ Bulb lights as current flows

Additional chemistry

•••••••••••••••••••••••••

• •

• •

•

: ... put salt on your food, take a

•

.. careful look at the crystals and

•

: notice how they all have a

: similar shape. This is because : of the regular arrangement of

: ions in the giant structure of the

~ sodium chloride lattice. •

• •••••••••••••••••••••••••

NEXT TIME YOU .

KEY POINTS

1 It takes a lot of energy to break the bonds which hold a giant ionic lattice together. So ionic compounds have very high melting pointsthey are all solids at room temperature.

2 Ionic compounds will conduct electricity when we melt them or dissolve them in water because their ions can then move freely.

Figure 1 The attractive forces between the oppositely charged ions in an ionic compound are very strong

Because the attractive forces between the oppositely charged ions in the lattice are very strong, and there are lots of them to overcome, it takes a lot of energy to break the lattice apart. This means that ionic compounds have high melting points and boiling points. Look at the graph in Figure 2.

b) Why do ionic compounds have high melting points and boiling points?

1800 1600 ~ 1400

• Melting point

• Boiling point

+

OJ

i 1200

OJ

E 1000 ~

800 600

Figure 2 The strong attractive forces in a lattice of ions mean that ionic compounds have high melting points and boiling points

NaCI

KCI

CsCI

Once we have supplied enough energy to separate the ions from the lattice, they are free to move, and the ionic solid becomes a liquid. The ions are free to move anywhere in this liquid, so they are able to carry electrical charge through the molten liquid. A solid ionic compound cannot conduct electricity like this, because each ion is held in a fixed position in the lattice and cannot

move around. They can only vibrate in theirfixed positions. ,.

Moving ions carry the electrical charge through the molten

~

0K00 -.

K

K

o

Molten potassium chloride Many ionic compounds will dissolve in water, When we dissolve an ionic compound in water the lattice is split up by the water molecules, and the ions are free to move. In the same way as molten ionic compounds will conduct electricity, solutions of ionic compounds will also conduct electricity. The ions in the solution are able to move around.

c) Why can ionic compounds conduct electricity when they are molten or dissolved in water?

Ionic solid

Molten ionic compound Ionic compound in solution

---.-

High temperature provides Water molecules separate

energy to overcome strong ions from the lattice. Ions

attractive forces between free to move - will conduct

ions. Ions free to move - electricity.

will conduct electricity.

'--------~-- --------~------------------

Ions fixed in lattice - does not conduct electricity

I PRACTICAL

T ting conductivity

Using a circuit as shown in Figure 3, dip a pair of electrodes into a 1 cm depth of sodium chloride crystals. What happens?

Now slowly add water.

What happens?

Explain your observations.

1 Copy and complete using the words below:

attraction conduct high lattice molten

oppositely solution

Ionic compounds have melting points and boiling points because

of the strong electrostatic forces of between charged ions in

the giant Ionic compounds will electricity when or in

...... because the ions are able to freely.

2 Why is sea water a better conductor of electricity than water from a freshwater lake?

move

c

RV

1 Which type of substances have low melting points and boiling points?

2; Why are some substances gases or liquids at room temperature? [~igher]

3 Why don't these substances conduct electricity?

The covalent bonds between the hydrogen and oxygen atoms within a water molecule are strong. However, the forces of attraction between water molecules are relatively weak

STRUCTURES AND PROPERTIES

"

Simple molecules ;

,.

• c

When the atoms of non-metal elements react to form compounds, they share electrons in their outer shells, Then each atom gets a full outer shell of electrons. The bonds formed like this are called covalent bonds.

00

H;:; 0 ~ H

Additional chemistry

· GETrr~

~ ova\ent bonds AlthOugh tne C tne

. utes are strong,

. molec \ s

In n molecU e .

torces betwee

are weaK. tH\gher1

00

Look at the molecules in a sample of chlorine gas:

Strong covalent bon~CI

%-:. GI

0'0 . 0

0'~~#

'" ~

#

0~

W .. 8. a. k forces between molecules

Figure 3 Covalent bonds and the weak forces between molecules in chlorine gas. It is the weak intermolecular forces that are overcome when substances made of simple molecules melt or boil. The covalent bonds are not broken.

I(EY POINTS

Figure 1 Covalent bonds hold the atoms found within molecules tightly together

a) How are covalent bonds formed?

Substances made up of covalently bonded molecules tend to have low melting points and boilinq points.

Look at the graph in Figure 2.

Hel

Figure 2 Substances made of simple molecules usually have low melting points and boiling points.

0
-20
G
0 -40
e
;:;;J -60
"§
ao
Cl.
E -80
~
-100
-120 Melting point .1 Boiling point

Although a substance that is made up of simple molecules may be a liquid at room temperature, it will not conduct electricity.

Look at the demonstration below.

Bulb does not light ~ as no current flows

1 Substances made up of simple molecules have low melting points and boiling points,

2 The forces between simple molecules are weak. These weak intermolecular forces explain their low melting points and boiling paints. [Hlqher]

3 Simple molecules have no overall charge, so they cannot carry electrical charge. Therefore substances containing

, simple molecules do not conduct electricity.

~ ...
~ .",..,
~
i=. These low melting points and boiling points mean that many SUbstances with simple molecules are liquids or gases at room temperature. Others are solids with quite low melting points, such as iodine and sulfur.

b) Do the compounds shown on the graph exist as solids, liquids or gases at 20°C?

c) You have a sample of ammonia (NH3) at -120°C. Describe the changes that you would see as the temperature of the ammonia rises to zo-e (approximately room temperature).

Covalent bonds are very strong. So the atoms within each molecule are held very tightly together. However, each molecule tends to be quite separate from its neighbouring molecules. The attraction between the individual molecules in a covalent compound tends to be small. We say that there are weak intermolecular forces between molecules. Overcoming these forces does not take much energy.

d) How strong are the forces between the atoms in a covalent bond?

e) How strong are the forces between molecules in a covalent compound?

Conductivity

+

Figure 4 Compouridsmade of simple molecules do not conduct electricity

• What happens?

Uncharged molecules do not carry ch arge between

the electrodes

Because there is no overall charge on the molecules in a compound like ethanol, the molecules cannot carry electrical charge. This makes it impossible for substances which are made up of simple molecules to conduct electricity.

f) Why don't molecular substances conduct electricity?

1 Copy and complete using the words below:

boiling covalent melting molecules

strongly

Non-metals react to form which are held together by bonds.

These hold the atoms together very The forces between

molecules are relatively weak, so these substances have low points

and points.

2 A compound called sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) is used to stop sparks forming inside electrical switches designed to control large currents. Explain why the properties of this compound make it particularly useful in electrical. switches.

3 The melting point of hydrogen chloride is -115°C whereas sodium chloride melts at 801°C. Explain why. [Higher]

I STAY

STRUCTURES AND PROPERTIES

1 Howdo substances with giant covalent structures behave?

2 Why is diamond hard and graphite slippery?

3 Why can graphite conduct electricity? [Higher]

5000

4500

• Melting point

• Boiling point

4000

G

.~ 3500

:::J

l§

~ 3000 E

~

2500

2000

1500

C (diamond) Si02

Figure 2 The large attractive forces in a giant lattice of covalently bonded atoms means that these compciunds have high melting points and boiling paints

•••••••••••••••••••••••••

• •

• •

• •

• •

• Diamond is the hardest natural •

• •

: substance that we know. :

:. Artificial diamonds can be made : : by heating pure carbon to very :

: high temperatures under :

: enormous pressures. The :

: 'industrial diamonds' made like :

· . .

: this are used in the drill bits :

: which oil companies use when : : they dri.ll through rocks looking : ~ tor oil. :

••••••••••••••••••••••••••

While most non-metals react and form covalent bonds which join the atoms together in molecules, a few form very different structures. Instead of joining a small number of atoms together in individual molecules, the covalent bonds form large networks of covalent bonds. We call networks like this giant covalent structures. They are sometimes called macromolecules or giant molecular structures.

Substances such as diamond, graphite and silicon dioxide have giant covalent structures.

Diamond

Silicon dioxide (8i02)

Figure 1 The structures of diamond and silicon dioxide (sand)

All of the atoms in these giant lattices are held together by strong covalent bonds in both diamond and silicon dioxide. This gives these substances some very special properties. They are very hard, they have high melting points and boiling points and they are chemically very unreactive.

a) What do we call the structure of compounds which contain lots (millions) of atoms joined together by a network of covalent bonds?

b) What kind of physical properties do these substances have?

Figure 3 Hard, shiny.and transparent - diamonds make beautiful jewellery

We don't always find carbon as diamonds - another form is graphite (well known as the 'lead' in a pencil). In graphite, carbon atoms are arranged in giant layers. There are only weak forces between the layers so they can slide over each other quite easily.

c) Why is graphite slippery?

Another important property of graphite comes from the fact that there are free electrons within its structure. These free electrons allow graphite to conduct electricity, which diamond - and most other covalent compounds - simply cannot do. We call the free electrons found in graphite delocalised electrons. They behave rather like the electrons in a metallic structure.

The carbon atoms in graphite's layers are arranged in hexagons. So each carbon atom bonds to three others. (See Figure 4.) This leaves one spare outer electron on each carbon atom. It is this electron that becomes delocalised along the layers of carbon atoms.

d) Why can qraphite conduct electricity?

Fullerenes

Apart from diamond and graphite, there are other different molecules that carbon can produce. In these structures the carbon atoms join together to make large cages which can have all sorts of weird shapes. Chemists have made shapes looking Ilke balls, onions, tubes, doughnuts, corkscrews and cones!

Chemists discovered carbon's ability to behave like this in 1985. We call the large carbon molecules containing these cage structures fullerenes. They are sure to become very important in nanoscience applications. (See pages 138 and 139.)

1 Copy and complete using the words below:

atoms boiling carbon hard high I.ayers slide soft

Giant covalent structures contain many joined by covalent bonds.

They have melting points and points. Diamond is a very .

substance because the atoms in it are held strongly to each other:

However, graphite is because there are of atoms which can

....... over each other.

2 Graphite is sometimes used to reduce the friction between two surfaces that are rubbi~g together. How does it do this?

3 Explain in detail why graphite can conduct electricity but diamond cannot. [Higher]

Additional chemistry

Figure 4 The giant structure of graphite. When you write with a pencil, some layers of carbon atoms slide otf the 'lead' and are left on the paper.

,GET iT R~_GMT~ ~~

Giant covalent S valent bonds

ther by CO

held toge t tne structure. throughoU

Figure 5 The first fullerene to be discovered contained only 60 carbon atoms, but chemists Can now make giant tullerenes which contain many thousands of carbon atoms. Scientists can now place other molecules inside these carbon cages. This has exciting possibilities, including the delivery of drugs to specific parts of the bOdy.

,_ I<EV POINTS

1 Some covalently bonded substances contain giant structures.

2 These substances have high melti.ng points and boiling points.

3 The giant structure of graphite contains layers of atoms that can slide over each other which make graphite slippery. The atoms in diamond have a different structure and cannot slide like this - so diamond is a very hard substance.

4 Graphite oan conduct electricity because of the delocalised electrons along its layers. [Higher]

CHEM STRY

STRUCTURES AND PROPEHTIES

PRACTICAL

aking models of melals

1 Why can we bend and shape metals?

2 Why do metals conduct electricity and heat? [Higher]

Figure 1 Drawing copper out into wires depends on being able to make the layers of metal atoms slide easily over each other

We can hammer and bend metals into different shapes, and draw them out into wires. This is because the layers of atoms in a pure metal are able to slide easily over each other.

Force ===>

Plastic container with soap solution

A regular arrangement of bubble 'atoms'

Areas of bubble 'atoms' meet like grain boundaries within a metal

Additional chemistry

••••••••••••••••••••••••

• •

• •

NEXT TIME YOU ..

· •

... get in a car, ride your bike or •

use anything made of metal, think how the metal object you are using has been made from

a piece of metal with a very different shape. The fact that

•

: you can use it depends on the

: way that the layers of metal : atoms can be persuaded to ~ slide over each other!

• •

•

• •

•

• •

• •

••••••••••••••••••••••••

KEY POINTS

1 We can bend and shape metals because the layers of atoms (or ions) in a metal can slide over each other.

2 Delocalised electrons in metals allow them to conduct heat and electricity well. [Higher]

We can make a model of the structure of a metal by blowing small bubbles on the surface of soap solution to represent atoms. Compressing or stretching the raft slightly leads to bubble 'atoms' being squashed together or pulled apart slightly, This shows how metals can return to their original shape after they have been bent slightly.

Compressing or stretching the bubble 'atoms' more leads to a permanent change in their position. This is what happens when we change the shape of a piece of metal permanently. In some areas a regular arrangement of bubble 'atoms' may be affected by a larger or smaller bubble. In others, areas of bubbles meet at different angles like the grain boundaries found in metals.

Why are models useful in science?

~"'-'A.oo~"""".J Layers slide over each other easily in a pure metal

Atoms are all the same size

'IO.....I~~~""-"" Pure metal

1 Copy and complete using the words below:

delocalised electricity heat

Metal cooking utensils are used all over the world, because metals are good conductors of heat. Wherever electricity is generated, metal wires carry the electricity to where it is needed. That's because metals are also good conductors of electricity.

a) Why can metals be bent and shaped when forces are applied?

A larger bubble 'atom' hasa big effect on the arrangement around it

The atoms in metals are held together in a giant structure by a sea of delocalised electrons. These electrons are a bit like 'glue', holding the atoms (or positively charged ions) together. (See page 124.)

However, unlike glue the electrons are able to move throughout the whole lattice. Because they can move and hold the metal ions together at the same time, the delocalised electrons enable the lattice to distort so that the metal atoms can move past one another.

b) How are metal atoms held together?

Metals conduct heat and electricity as a direct result of the ability of the delocalised electrons to flow through the giant metallic lattice.

c) Why do metals conduct electricity and heat?

shape

slide

The atoms in metals are held together by electrons. These also

allow the atoms to over each other so that the metal's can be

changed. They also allow the metal to conduct and .

[Higher] 2 Use your knowledge of metal structures to explain how adding larger metal atoms to a metallic lattice can make the metal harder.

3 How can metals be hard and easily bent at the same time?

4 Explain why metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. [Higher]

Figure 2 Metals are essential in OUf lives ~ the delocalised electrons mean that they are good conductors of both heat and electricity

Y STRUCTURES AND PROPERTIES

cience Ol1inB thingS - Whal c

e dO?

What is nil

III

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.-

~

t:I

~

t W[]rH

. wNan[]sc· Bnr::e

u I:

III

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~

fa thousand-millionth' - so nanoscience is

2: the science of really tiny things.

Nanoscience is a new and exciting area of science. 'Nano' is a prefix like 'milli' or 'mega'. While 'mill!' means 'onethousandth', 'nano' means 'one-

an

•

SCi

ce

•

usc e

w U Glass can be coated with titanium oxide

In

'~

IE

z

nanoparticles. Sunshine triggers a chemical reaction that breaks down dirt which then lands on the

window. When it rains the water spreads evenly over the surface of the glass washing off the dirt.

Our increasing understanding of science through the 20th century means that we now know that materials behave very differently at a very tiny scale. When we arrange atoms and molecules very carefully at this tiny scale, their properties can be truly remarkable.

Socks that are made from a fabric which contains silver nanoparticles never smell!

The se-enee 01 tinu thi D_ - what S OU d we dO?

A type of lizard called a gecko can hang upside

OJ down from a sheet of

f=! glass. That's because the

iii hairs on its feet are so

·U tiny they can use the

(g forces that hold molecules together. Scientists can IE make sticky tape lined with tiny nano-halrs that work

Z in the same way.

I

Nanoscience can do

~ some pretty amazing

D.'I things - these toy eyes ·u are being moved using a tn tiny current from an

~ electric battery

Using nanoscience, health workers may soon be able to test a single drop of blood on a tiny piece of plastic no bigger than a ten pence piece. The tiny nanolab would replace individual tests for infectious diseases such as malaria and HIV/AIDS. On a larger scale these tests are both time-consuming and costly.

But some nanoscience is pure science fiction - tiny subs that travel through your blood to zap cancer cells with a laser; selfreproducing nanobots that escape and cover the Earth in 'grey goo' - only in airport novels!

/' · -. '",OLOG'!

"'AN01E~", WA1ER

G\VES CL ano_membranes are

he wor\dts N. 0. easi\y-deaned

One-s\x.th o{ t: ccesS to ?ortab\e an uritj,deto)(Wy

?O?u\atiOn has no a nO. tWO systems th\~t ~te water ~ar

ie water, a . d desa \1'\ f\ s)

c.\e'an, sa . d die each an h ordinary \ ter .

mi\\ion Chl\ r:~er.re\ated better ~tn that _ they are \

ear irom w . ce Not o. Y )

Yo.' eases. 'Out nanoSclen chea?tOo\ !

.- IS the rescue. r=>:

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mal r

~~------------

Whenever we are faced with a possible development in science there are two possible questions - what can we do? and what should we do?

Look at the ideas on the previous page and the four headlines on this page. Ask yourself these two questions about one of the headlines - and present your answers to your group.

STRUCTURES AINID PIROPERTIES: C2 2.1 - C2 2.5

-

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Match the sentence halves together:

a) Ionic compounds A ...... conduct electricity
have ....... when molten or in
solution.
b) Ionic compounds ...... B ...... held together by
strong electrostatic
forces.
--
c) The oppositely charged C ...... a giant lattice of
ions in an ionic ions.
compound are ......
-
d) Ionic compounds are 0 ...... high melting
made of ...... points. 2 A certain ionic compouhd melts at exactly 800°C.

Suggest how this compound could be used in a device to activate a warning light and buzzer when the temperature in a chemical reactor rises above 800°C.

3 The table contains data about some different substances:

Substance Melting Boiling Electrical
point eC) point eC) conductor
nickel 1455 2730 good
carbon dioxide - -78 poor
aluminium oxide 2072 2980 solid - poor
liquid - good
copper 1083 2567 good
-
sodium bromide 747 1390 solid - poor
liquid - good
silicon dioxide 1610 2230 poor
hydrogen chloride -115 -85 poor
graphite 3652 4827 good a) Make a table with the following headings: Giant covalent, Giant ionic, Molecular, Giant metallic. Now write the name of each substance above in the correct column.

b) One of these substances behaves in a slightly different way than its structure suggests - why?

4 'Both graphite and metals can conduct electricity - but graphite is soft while metals are not.' Use your knowledge of the different structures of graphite and metals to explain this statement. [Higher]

EXAM~STYLE QUESTIONS

1 The table contains information about some substances.

Complete the missing information (a) to (g).

Melting Iloiling Electrical Electrical Solubility 'Iype of Type of
point point conductivity conductivity in water bonding structure
eel COC) when solid when
molten
1660 3287 (a) good insoluble metallic glant
-101 -35 poor (b) soluble covalent (e)
712 1418 puor good soluble (d) giant
-25 144 (e) poor insoluble (f) small
molecules
1410 2355 poor poor insoluble covalent (g) (7)

2 Quartz is a very hard mineral that is used as an abrasive.

It is insoluble in water. It is a form of silica, Si02• It can form large, attractive crystals that are transparent and can be used for jewellery. It melts at 161O°C. It does not conduct electricity when solid or when molten. It is used in the form of sand in the building and glass-making industries.

(a) Give three pieces of evidence from the passage that

tell you that quartz has a giant structure. (3)

(b) What type of bonding is in quartz? Explain your

answer.

(2)

(3) What are nanoparticies?

(b) Suggest two reasons why nanotechnology is being

developed rapidly. (2)

(c) Why are nanoparticles more likely to catch fire when exposed to air compared with normal

materials? (2)

5 Piezoceramics are smart materials that can be made to vibrate by passing an electric current through them. They can be made small enough to work inside mobile phones.

(a) Suggest a possible economic advantage of

piezoceramics.

(b) Suggest an environmental advantage of piezoceramics.

Some smart materials can only be seen at higher temperatures. They can be used in the manufacture of clothing.

(c) Suggest how this feature could be useful. (1)

6 A molecule of pentane can be represented as shown:

H H H H H

I I I I I

H-C-C-C-C-C-H

I I I I I

H H H H H

(a) What do the letters C and H represent? (1) (h) What do the lines between each C and H represent? (2)

(c) Explain why liquid pentane does not conduct

electricity. W

(d) Pentane boils at 36°C. Explain what happens to the molecules of pentane when liquid pentane boils and becomes a gas. (2) [Higher]

Additional chemistry

3 Copper can be used to make electrical wires, water pipes, and cooking pans.

(a) Suggest three reasons why copper is used to make

cooking pans. (3)

(b) Which two properties of copper depend on the ability of delocalised electrons to flow through the

metal? (2)

(c) Explain what happens to the atoms in the metal

when a piece of copper is pulled into a wire. (2)

[Higher]

4 Nanotechnology promises to revolutionise our world.

N anoparticles and new devices are being rapidly developed but production is still on a very small scale. The properties of nanoparticles that make them useful can cause problems if they are made in large quantities. These include explosions because of spontaneous combustion on contact with air.

HOW SCIENCE WORI(S QUESTIONS

(2)

A circuit was set up to test the conductivity of different solutions.

(1)

~l~l~j~

"" Solution

Two acids were tested to see how good they were at conducting electricity.

The results were set out in a graph:

(1)

250

Hydrochloric acid

Ethanoic acid

0.8

Concentration (moles/litre)

a} Describe the pattern shown by the graph for the

hydrochloric acid. (1)

b) Could the relationship between the concentration of the hydrochloric acid and the conductivity be described as directly proportional? Explain your

answer.

(2)

c} i) What evidence is there, on the graph, that a solution of ethanoic acid does conduct

electricity? (1)

ii) What evidence is there that it does not conduct electricity as well as the hydrochloric acid

conducts? (1)

d) What conclusion can you make about the

conductivity of acids in general? (1)

e) A range of different acids were then tested. Their conductivity was measured at 0.4 moles/em", How

would this data be presented? (1)

f) Does this evidence prove that acids separate into positive and negative ions? Explain your answer. (1)