1

2
What Is Physics?
Physics is the study of matter and energy.
MATTER : Anything that takes up space.
The picture to the left is filled with matter. The ear
family! the house! the trees! and much more.
E"ER#T$%&' %( MATTER)
E&ER'# : The aility to cause change.
The attery in the picture to the left will e put into
something gi*ing it energy to work. +hen the product
works! it has een changed.
Physics is important in our world ecause it studies what our uni*erse is made
up of! E&ER'# and MATTER.
Physicists are people who study physics.
Physicists answer ig ,uestions like :
$ow did the -ni*erse egin.
+hy does the (un shine.
+hat makes up matter.
/
Table of Contents
Tale of 0ontents................................................................................................................................. /
(peed................................................................................................................................................... 1
"elocity................................................................................................................................................. 2
Acceleration.......................................................................................................................................... 3
4ree 4all............................................................................................................................................... 5
Relati*e Motion..................................................................................................................................... 6
Pro7ectile Motion................................................................................................................................... 8
"ectors............................................................................................................................................... 19
&ewton:s 4irst ;aw............................................................................................................................. 11
&ewton:s (econd ;aw........................................................................................................................ 12
&ewton:s Third ;aw............................................................................................................................ 1/
0ircular Motion................................................................................................................................... 11
+ork < Power..................................................................................................................................... 12
Energy................................................................................................................................................ 13
'ra*itational 4orce............................................................................................................................. 16
Electrical 4orce................................................................................................................................... 18
Magnetism.......................................................................................................................................... 21
Electric 0urrent................................................................................................................................... 22
Motion < +a*es................................................................................................................................. 21
=eha*iors >f +a*es........................................................................................................................... 22
Mirrors and Reflection......................................................................................................................... 25
0olor................................................................................................................................................... 28
%mages................................................................................................................................................ /9
1
Speed
(peed is how fast an o7ect is mo*ing.
#ou can find the speed of something y di*iding the distance tra*eled y the
time it took to e tra*eled.
(PEE? @ ?istance A Time
>R
(PEE? @ dAt
(peed is gi*en in the unit mAs! or meters per second.
The foB is running at / mAs. (o! the foB mo*es
/ meters e*ery second.
%f you are mo*ing at a 0>&(TA&T (PEE? then you are mo*ing at a specific
nonCchanging speed.
The speed of something at any gi*en time is called %&(TA&TA&E>-( (PEE?.
%f you are on a car trip! your car of course will not go the
same speed the whole time. %f you wanted to know aout
how fast you went throughout the whole trip you would
want to find the A"ERA'E (PEE?. To find this you
would di*ide the total distance tra*eled y the time it took
to tra*el that distance.
A"ERA'E (PEE? @ Total ?istance 0o*ered A Time %nter*al
2
Velocity
"elocity is speed with a direction.
(PEE? %( &>T "E;>0%T#.
(peed is a description of how fast something mo*esD "elocity is how fast A&?
in what direction it mo*es.
The skydi*er falling at 22 mAs downward! has a specific speed! and has a
direction. Therefore she has a *elocity of 22mAs downward.
%f you are mo*ing at a constant speed! with a unchanging direction! then you
ha*e a 0>&(TA&T "E;>0%T#.
%f your speed >R your direction changes! your *elocity also changes.
&> M>T%>&! &> "E;>0%T#.
3
Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate at which something slows down or speeds up.
#ou can find the acceleration rate of something y di*iding the change in
*elocity y the time it takes to slow down or speed up.
A00E;ERAT%>& @ 0hange in "elocity A Time %nter*al
Acceleration: The rate at which something speeds up.
?eceleration: The rate at which something slows down.
Acceleration changes also when something changes direction.
This is ecause Acceleration has to do with a change in *elocity! which is a
change in speed and direction.
A car is accelerating when there is a change in its speed or motion.
Acceleration is written in the unit mAsE.
This is ecause Acceleration is how many meters per second can e completed
in a time inter*al.
5
Free Fall
4ree 4all is the mo*ement an o7ect goes under when no other force is acting
on it esides gra*ity.
4REE 4A;;%&' >=FE0T( ARE A44E0TE? >&;# =# 'RA"%T#
%n real life when something falls gra*ity causes
the o7ect to accelerate downward against air
that causes it to fall slower than if there were no
air.
A%R RE(%(TA&0E: The force pushing against
an o7ect when the o7ect is mo*ing through air
or any other gas.
4or eBample! the skydi*er to the left is not
falling under free fall. (he is not falling under free fall ecause more than 7ust
the force of gra*ity is acting on her. The second force acting on her is the force
of air resistance.
$owe*er! in free fall since only gra*ity is acting
on an o7ect there is no air resistance.
This changes one ig factor! acceleration.
%n free fall the acceleration of an o7ect is 19
mAsE.
This means that e*ery second that the all to
the right is falling it is gaining 19 mAs of speed.
(o at 1 sec it would ha*e the acceleration of 19
mAs. At 2 sec it would ha*e the acceleration of
29 mAs and so on.
6
Relative Motion
Relati*e Motion is the finding of something:s motion from the *iew of another
o7ect.
%magine you are standing in a train car that is
going 19 mAs.
%n your hand is a all! you toss is up and then
it falls ack into your hand.
%f a person was standing y the side of the
road watching you! they would see the all go
up and down. They would also see the all
mo*ing 7ust as fast as the car horiGontally.
The person saw the alls motion relati*e to himAher. To you! you only saw the
all go up and down! the motion was relati*e to you.
RE;AT%"E: considered in relation to something else.
8
Projectile Motion
Pro7ectile motion is the motion of an o7ect thrown *ertically that then follows a
cur*ed path.
PR>FE0T%;E: any o7ect that mo*es through air or space acted on y gra*ity.
%f a pro7ectile! like the all to the left! is rolling along
a horiGontal surface its *elocity is constant ecause
no gra*ity acts horiGontally.
%f a pro7ectile! like the all to the right! is rolling
down a hill or straight downward its *elocity
increases! or it accelerated more each second
it is rolling or falling.
Therefore! it co*ers more distance per second.
$owe*er! if a all is lasted from a cannon! it follows a cur*ed path. This is
ecause gra*ity acts upon the cannon all. %f there were no gra*ity! the cannon
all would follow a straight line all the way out into space.
19
Vectors
A *ector is an arrow that shows the ,uantities of *elocity! momentum and other
things.
A *ector ,uantity is an arrow that uses magnitude and direction to show
,uantites.
The resultant of two perpendicular *ectors is the diagonal of a rectangle
constructed with the *ectors as sides.
The resultant of *ectors , < p is *ector r.
11
e!ton"s First #a!
&ewton:s 1
st
law! or The ;aw of %nertia states that e*ery o7ect continues in a
state of rest! unless acted on.
A& >=FE0T AT RE(T (TA#( AT RE(T -&;E(( A0TE? >& =# A 4>R0E.
A& >=FE0T %& M>T%>& (TA#( %& M>T%>& -&;E(( A0TE? >& =# A
4>R0E.
%&ERT%A: the resistance of an o7ects change in motion.
The all to the left is rolling! for it to stop it must ha*e
an outside force act upon it.
The soccer all to the right is not mo*ing! for it
to mo*e an outside force must act upon it.
The more mass an o7ect has! the greater its inertia is.
Therefore with greater inertia! it is hard to make the o7ect mo*e or stop
mo*ing.
12
e!ton"s Second #a!
To cause acceleration! you must ha*e a force.
4>R0E: Any influence that causes an o7ect to undergo change! or
simply! a push or a pull.
%f there is no force on an o7ect there is no acceleration or deceleration.
&> 4>R0E @ &> M>T%>& @ &> A00E;ERAT%>&
&ewtons 2
nd
law states that an acceleration is directly
proportional to the amount of force that acts on the o7ect
or person.
>R
4>R0E @ Mass B Acceleration
4orce is gi*en in the unit kgHmAsIE
This is ecause mass! in the unit kg! is multiplied y acceleration! in the unit
mAsE. +hich then gi*es us kgHmAsIE.
(ince this unit is rather long to write out it is also called the &ewton! or &.
%f the car to the left is accelerating at 2 mAsE! and
has a mass of 299 kg! what is its 4orce.
+ell! 4orce @ Mass B Acceleration
(o! 299 kg B 2 mAsE @ 1999 &ewton:s >R 1999&
1/
e!ton"s Third #a!
&ewton:s /
rd
;aw states that for e*ery action there must e and e,ual and
opposite reaction.
EJ-A; A&? >PP%(%TE: The forces of two o7ects acting on each other are
always of e,ual force and opposite direction.
(ince e*erything has an e,ual and opposite reaction this must mean that when
a all hits a wall! the wall hits ack.
%f the wall did not hit ack! then the all would go straight through the wall
instead of ouncing off of it.

The rocket pushes gas! the gas pushes the rocket.
The hammer pushes the nail! the nail pushes
the hammer.
11
Circ$lar Motion
0%R0-;AR M>T%>&: Any motion that takes place around an
aBis.
AK%(: (traight line around which rotation takes place.
+hen an ice skater! like the one to the left does a spin! the
center point which she is turning around is her aBis.
There are T+> types of circular motion! rotation and
re*olution.
R>TAT%>&: The motion taking place when an o7ect turns
on an aBis located within the ody of the o7ect.
>ur skater rotates)
RE">;-T%>&: The motion taking place when an o7ect turns on an aBis
eBternal from its ody.
People sitting in carts on a ferris wheel are re*ol*ing
around the center of the ferris wheel.
The earth undergoes oth types of rotational
motion. %t re*ol*es around the sun e*ery once
e*ery /32 days! and it rotates on an internal aBis
once e*ery 21 hours.
12
Wor% & Po!er
+>RL: +ork is done when a force acts on an o7ect and the o7ect mo*es in
the direction of the force.
+>RL @ &et 4orce B ?istance
&ET 4>R0E: The comined forces acting on an o7ect.
The unit of +ork is called the F>-;E.
>ne 7oule of work is done when a force of 1 & is eBerted o*er a distance of 1
meter.
(o the amount of work done on the oB to the
left is 19 & B 2 meters @ 29F.
P>+ER: The rate at which work is done.
#ou can find the power of your work y di*iding the amount of work y the time
it took to complete the work.
P>+ER @ +ork ?one A Time %nter*al
The unit of power is called the +ATT.
>ne watt of power is used when one 7oule of work is done in one second.
(o if the amount of work done on the oB
takes / seconds to do! then the power
eBerted on the oB is 29F A / sec @ 3.35
watts.
13
'ner(y
ME0$A&%0A; E&ER'#: The energy due to the position of something or the
mo*ement of something.
Mechanical Energy has T+> forms! L%&ET%0 and P>TE&T%A; energy.
P>TE&%T%A; E&ER'#: Energy that is stored and ready to do work.
PE @ Mass B 'ra*ity B $eight
L%&E0T%0 E&ER'#: Energy ecause of motion! doing work.
LE @ M Mass B (peedE
%n the picture to the left you can see when the weight is
suspended in the air it has potential energy! ut when the
string holding it up is cut the weight plummets downward
gi*ing it motion to e considered kinetic energy.
(o where did the potential energy go.
%t was con*erted to kinetic energy.
+e know this ecause of the ;A+ >4 T$E
0>&(ER"AT%>& >4 E&ER'# states that energy cannot
e created or destroyed. %t can only e transformed from one form into another!
ut the total amount of energy ne*er changes.
(ince the amount of energy ne*er changes!
we know that the amount of energy in the
eginning of a situation is the same as the
end of the situation.
15
Mo)ent$)
M>ME&T-M: %nertia in motion.
M>ME&T-M @ Mass B "elocity
An mo*ing o7ect can ha*e a large momentum if it has a large mass! high
speed! or oth.
The greater the force acting on an o7ect! the greater its change in *elocity!
therefore it has a greater change in its momentum too.
A change in momentum depends on the force that acts and the length of time it
does so.
%MP-;(E: A force acted for a certain amount of time >R a change in
momentum.
%MP-;(E @ 4orce B Time %nter*al
+hen this man pushes on this car for a half a
second he gets a certain amount of impulse. %f he
would push the car for a second then he would get
twice the impulse! gi*ing him twice the momentum.
16
*ravitational Force
Along with his three laws earlier discussed! &ewton also disco*ered that gra*ity
is uni*ersal.
&ewton:s ;A+ >4 -&%"ER(A; 'RA"%TAT%>& states that e*ery o7ect attracts
e*ery other o7ect with a force.
These forces are directly related to the mass of the o7ect putting off the force.
4>R0E N HMass of first o7ect B Mass of second o7ectI A ?istanceE
N @ precisely
This force against the earth! is the sensation that we interpret as weight.
%f you are standing on a scale the force etween you and
the earth pulls you against the floor and the scale.
%f you were in an ele*ator! your weight would *ary
depending on the motion of the ele*ator.
+hen the ele*ator isn:t mo*ing your
weight is normal.
+hen the ele*ator goes upwards! the floor
is pushed more against your feet causing
you to Ogain weightP.
+hen the ele*ator goes downwards! the floor eing the support force is
lessened and you seem to Olose weightP. %f the ele*ator were to reak then you
would ha*e Ono weightP ecause there is no support force.
18
'lectrical Force
Electricity is in e*erything around you in one way or another.
;ightning
-nder your feet when you drag them across carpet
$olding atoms together
+e all know aout the force of gra*ity Hpage 16I.
&ow imagine a force acting upon you as gra*ity does ut with a force that
is illions upon illions of times stronger than 'ra*itational 4orce. These
forces are called E;E0TR%0A; 4>R0E(.
0$AR'E: Electrical property of attraction or repulsion etween particles
in an atom.
;%LE 0$AR'E( REPE; A&? >PP%(%TE 0$AR'E( ATTRA0T.
%>&: 0harged atom.
&ET 0$AR'E: Total charge in an atom.
&E'AT%"E %>&: &egati*e net charge!
one or more eBtra electrons.
P>(%T%"E %>&: Positi*e net charge! lost one or
more electrons.
A& AT>M T$AT $A( A& -& EJ-A; &-M=ER >4 PR>T>&( A&?
E;E0T>&( %( E;E0T%0A;;# 0$AR'E?.
29
0>&(ER"AT%>& >4 0$AR'E: Electrons are neither created or
destroyed ut simply transferred from one material to another.
0>;-M=( ;A+
4or charged particles or o7ects that are small compared to the distance
etween them! force etween the charges *aries directly as the product of
the charges and in*ersley as the s,uare of the distance etween them.
4 @ kHH,1B,2IAd2I
+here:
d Q distance etween charged particles or o7ects
,1 Q ,uantity of charge of the 1
st
particle
,2 Q ,uantity of charge of the 2
nd
particle
k Q proportionality constant
21
Ma(netis)
Magnets eBert forces on one another.
Magnets! much like electrical charges:
Attract A Repel without touching.
The strength of interaction depends on the distance of separation.
$owe*er! electric charges produce electrical forces while MA'&ET%0
P>;E( produce MA'&ET%0 4>R0E(.
All magnets ha*e a north and a south pole.
Also! like electric charges like poles repel
and opposite charges attract.
Another trait of magnets is that no matter how many
times you split a magnet in half! it is still a magnet.
MA'&ET%0 4%E;?: (pace
around a magnet in which a magnetic force is
eBerted.
A MA'&ET%0 4%E;? %(
PR>?-0E? =# T$E
M>T%>& >4 E;E0TR%0
0$AR'E.
22
'lectric C$rrent
E;E0TR%0 0-RRE&T: 4low of electric charge.
4or eBample:
A 0ar =attery
A +ire
An Electric >utlet
Electric current is measured in AMPERE( or A.
AMPERE: flow of one coulom per charge per second.
A wire that carries a current of 2 Amperes! has 2
couloms of charge passing through the wire at
any gi*en segment at any gi*en second.
A 0-RRE&T 0ARR#%&' +%RE $A( A &ET
E;E0TR%0 0$AR'E >4 RER>.
">;TA'E: Electrical potential difference.
"oltage pro*ides the Oelectric pressureP to mo*e electrons etween
terminals in the circuit.
The amount of charge that flows in a circuit depends on the *oltage
pro*ided y the "oltage (ource.
">;TA'E (>-R0E: (omething that pro*ides a potential difference.
This charge that flows HcurrentI also depends on Electric Resistance.
E;E0TR%0 RE(%(TA&0E: Resistance that the conductor offers to the
flow of charge.
2/
T$E RE(%(TA&0E >4 A +%RE ?EPE&?( >& T$E 0>&?-0T%"%T# >4
T$E +%RE A&? >& T$E T$%0L&E(( A&? ;E&'T$ >4 T$E +%RE.
Thick wires ha*e less resistance than thin wires.
;ong wires ha*e more resistance than short wires.
Electric Resistance is measured in units called >hms.
>ne >hm is the resistance etween two points on a conductor when a constant
potential difference of 1 *olt etween them produces a current of 1 ampere.
>$M( ;A+
>$M( ;A+: Relationship among *oltage! current! and resistance.
>$M( ;A+ (TATE( T$AT T$E 0-RRE&T %& A 0%R0-%T %( ?%RE0T;#
PR>P>RT%>&A; T> T$E ">;TA'E %MPRE((E? A0R>(( T$E 0%R0-%T
A&? %&"ER(;E# PR>P>RT%>&A; T> T$E RE(%(TA&0E >4 T$E
0%R0-%T.
0urrent @ "oltage A Resistance
1 Ampere @ 1 "olt A 1 >hm
21
Motion & Waves
Most of the information around us gets to us in some form of a wa*e.
(ound is energy that tra*els to our ears in a form of a wa*e.
;ight is energy that tra*els into our eyes in a form of a wa*e.
$eat is energy that tra*els to the surface of our skin in the form of a
wa*e.
+hen energy is transferred y a wa*e! there is no transfer of matter
etween the eginning and end of the wa*e.
Think of a horiGontally lightly stretched string that is shaken up and
down.
After the end of the string is shook!
a rhythmic disturance tra*els along
the string.
R$#T$M%0 ?%(T-R=A&0E: A
mo*ement in steady time inter*als.
%t is the disturance that tra*els along the length of the string! not a
the string itself.
T$E E&ER'# TRA&(4ERRE? =# A +A"E 4R>M A "%=RAT%&'
(>-R0E %( 0ARR%E? =# A ?%(T-R=A&0E.
22
+ehaviors ,f Waves
T$E (>-R0E >4 A;; +A"E( %( (>MET$%&' T$AT "%=RATE(.
To the left! a weight attached to a
spring makes a *iration that
creates a wa*e. Attached to the
weight is a pen that draws the wa*e
on a piece of paper tra*eling
horiGontally at a fiBed speed.
$igh points on wa*es are called 0RE(T(. ;ow points on wa*es are called
TR>-'$(. The AMP;%T-?E of a wa*e refers to the distance etween the
midpoint the wa*e to the crest or trough of the wa*e. The +A"E;E&'T$ of a
wa*e is the distance from the top of one crest to the neBt crest.
4REJ-E&0#: The numer of *irations an o7ect makes in a unit of time.
The unit of fre,uency is the $ertG! are*iated $G.
A fre,uency of one cycle per second is one $ertG.
The speed of a wa*e depends upon the medium through which the wa*e
mo*es.
+a*es can mo*e through many different mediums. 4or eBample! water!
material! air! and e*en walls.
#>- 0A& 0A;0-;ATE T$E (PEE? >4 A +A"E =# M-;T%P;#%&' T$E
+A"E;E&'T$ >4 (A%? +A"E =# T$E 4RE+-E&0# >4 T$E (A%? +A"E.
4or eBample. %f the wa*elength of a wa*e is three meters and if two crests of
the wa*e past a stationary point each second! thenS
/ meters B 2 wa*esAsec @ 3 metersAsec
" @ f
23
+here! " is speed. The 'reek letter lamda! ! is wa*elength! and f is
fre,uency.
TRA&("ER(E +A"E: A wa*e made from *ertical mo*ement.
;>&'%T-?%&A; +A"E: A wa*e
made from horiGontal mo*ement.
+$E& A +A"E REA0$E( A
=>-&?AR# HA +A;;I -(-A;;#
(>ME >R A;; >4 T$E +A"E =>-&0E( =A0L.
RE4;E0T%>&: Return of a wa*e.
SOUND WAVES
A;; (>-&?( >R%'%&ATE %& T$E "%=RAT%>&( >4 MATER%A; >=FE0T(.
Musical %nstruments use *iration strings or *irating reeds. #our *oice comes
from the *iration of your *ocal cords.
P%T0$: The fre,uency of sound.
A high pitched sound has a high *iration fre,uency.
A low pitched sound has a low *iration fre,uency.
(>-&? TRA"E;( %& (>;%?(! ;%J-%?(! A&? 'A(E(.
The speed of sound in a gas depends on the temperature of the gas and
the mass of the particles in the gas.
The speed of sound in material depends on the materials elasticity.
25

Mirrors and Reflection
&>RMA;: The line perpendicular to the surface of
the mirror.
A&';E >4 %&0%?E&0E: The angle etween
incidence ray and the normal line.
A&';E >4 RE4;E0T%>&: The angle etween the
reflected ray and the normal.
A&';E >4 %&0%?E&0E @ A&';E >4 RE4;E0T%>&
P;A&E M%RR>R: A flat mirror.
Plane mirrors only produce *irtual images. Plane mirrors
reflect o7ects in e,ual proportions to the original o7ect.
"%RT-A; %MA'E: An image that appears to e in a place
where light cannot reach.
4or eBample! the parrot to the right is looking at a *irtual image of himself in a
plane mirror. The mirror he is holding is a plane mirror ecause it is flat! and the
image of himself is a *irtual image ecause light cannot reach inside the mirror
itself.
#our eye cannot tell the difference etween an o7ect! and what you would see
if it were reflected in a mirror as a reflected image! ecause the light eing
reflected from the mirror enters your eye the same way it would ha*e if there
was no mirror there.
26
$owe*er! if a mirror is cur*ed! the siGed of the o7ect and the mirrored o7ect
are different.
0>&"EK M%RR>R: A mirror that cur*es outward.
The image formed y a con*eB mirror is smaller than the o7ect is and
flipped upside down.
0>&0A"E M%RR>R: A mirror that cur*es inward.
The image formed y a conca*e mirror is larger than the o7ects.
Take this spoon for eBample. >n the left! the
side of the spoon shown is cur*ed inward. The
image on this side is smaller than the girls face
and flipped upside down. >n the right! the side
of the spoon shown is cur*ed outward. The
image on this side is larger.
REFLECTION OF
SOUND
+hen a sound hits a surface it is reflected.
An E0$> is a reflected sound.
(ound reflects from all surfaces.
+alls! 0eilings! 4loors! 4urniture! People.
28
Color
=# PA((%&' A &ARR>+ =EAM >4 (-&;%'$T T$R>-'$ A TR%A&'-;AR
($APE? ';A(( PR%(M! &E+T>& ($>+E? T$AT (-&;%'$T %(
0>MP>(E? >4 A M%KT-RE >4 A;; T$E 0>;>R( >4 T$E RA%&=>+.
The said prism cast the sunlight into an elongated patch of colors on a sheet of
white paper.
&ewton called the spread of colors to
the left! a (PE0TR-M.
(unlight is an eBample of what is called
+$%TE ;%'$T.
+$%TE ;%'$T: The comination of all
colors.
-nder +hite ;ight white o7ects appear white! and colored o7ects appear in
their colors.
+$%TE %( &>T A 0>;>R! =-T A 0>M=%&AT%>& >4 A;; 0>;>R(.
=;A0L %( &>T A 0>;>R! =-T T$E A=(E&0E >4 ;%'$T.
>7ects appear lack when they asor light of all *isile fre,uencies.
The colors of most o7ects around you are due to the way the said o7ect
reflects light.
T$E 0>;>R >4 A TRA&(PARE&T >=FE0T %( T$E 0>;>R >4 ;%'$T %T
TRA&(M%T(.
(o a red piece of glass appears red ecause it asors
all the color that compose white light! eBcept red! which
it transmits. (ame for all other colors of glass! too.
P%'ME&T: Material in glass that selecti*ely asors
colored light.
/9
I)a(es
A ;E&( 4>RM( A& %MA'E =# =E&?%&' RA#( >4 ;%'$T T$AT PA((
T$R>-'$ %T.
;E&(: A piece of transparent material! such as glass! that refracts light.
?epending on the shape of the lens! the light will
refract accordingly.
A 0>&"ER'%&' ;E&(! also known as a
0>&"EK ;E&(! is thicker in the middle! causing
rays of light that are originally parallel to meet at
a single point called
the 4>0A; P>%&T.
A ?%"ER'%&' ;E&(! also called a 0>&0A"E
;E&(! is thinner in the middle! causing the rays of
light to appear to originate from a single point.
4>0A; P>%&T: The point at which a eam of light
parallel to the principle aBis con*erges.
4>0A; P;A&E: A plane perpendicular to the
principle aBis that passes through either focal point of the lens.
4>0A; ;E&'T$: The distance etween the center of the lens and its focal
point.
T$E T#PE >4 %MA'E 4>RME? =# A ;E&( ?EPE&?( >& T$E ($APE >4
T$E ;E&( A&? T$E P>(%T%>& >4 T$E >=FE0T.
An image formed y con*erging light Ha con*erging lensI is called a REA;
%MA'E.
A real image formed y a single con*erging lens is upside down.
+hen a di*erging lens is used alone! the image is always *irtual! right side up!
and smaller than the original o7ect.
/1
Ther)odyna)ics
$eat normally flows from hot to cold.
T$E 4%R(T ;A+ >4 T$ERM>?#&AM%0( (TATE( T$AT +$E&E"ER $EAT
%( A??E? T> A (#(TEM! %T TRA&(4>RM( T> A& EJ-A; AM>-&T >4
(>ME>T$ER 4>RM >4 E&ER'#.
(#(TEM: Any group of atoms! molecules!
particles! or o7ects.
+hen energy is added to a system this energy
does one or oth of the following things:
1. %ncrease the internal energy of the system if the energy remains in the
system.
2. ?oes eBternal work if the energy lea*es the system.
$eat Added @ %ncrease in %nternal Energy T EBternal +ork ?one
y the (ystem
T$E (E0>&? ;A+ >4 T$ERM>?#&AM%0( (TATE(
T$AT $EAT +%;; &E"ER >4 %T(E;4 4;>+ 4R>M A
0>;? >=FE0T T> A $>T >=FE0T.
T$E T$%R? ;A+ >4 T$ERM>?#&AM%0( (TATE(
T$AT &> (#(TEM 0A& E"ER REA0$ A=(>;-TE
RER>.
A=(>;-TE RER>: The temperature at which no more energy can e eBtracted
from a sustance and no further lowering of its temperature is possile.
/2
Photoelectric 'ffect
P$>T>E;E0TR%0 E44E0T: The e7ection of electrons from certain metals
when light falls upon them.
Metals that e7ect electrons when light falls upon
them are said to e photosensiti*e.
P$>T>(E&(%T%"E: (ensiti*e to light.
The photoelectric effect depends on the
fre,uency of light that shines on the metal.
;ow fre,uency light does not e7ect electrons.
$igh fre,uency light does e7ect electrons.
+hen high fre,uency light shines on a metal! the light shining onto the metal
gi*es electrons ound in the metal enough energy to reak free and escape.
//
The Ato)
&-0;E>&(: The particles a nucleus is composed of.
&ucleons are called PR>T>&( when electrically charged! and then
called &E-TR>&( when they are electrically
neutral.
%n a electrically neutral atom! there are as
many protons as there are E;E0TR>&(!
which are negati*ely charged particles that
tra*el around the outside of the nucleus.
T$E PR%&0%P;E R>;E >4 T$E
&E-TR>&( %& A AT>M%0 &-0;E-( %( T>
A0T A( A &-0;EAR 0EME&T T> $>;? T$E &-0;E-( T>'ET$ER.
(TR>&' 4>R0E: The attracti*e nuclear force holding a nucleus
together.
/1
$clear Fission
&-0;EAR 4%((%>&: The splitting of
atomic nuclei
&uclear fission in*ol*es the delicate
alance etween the attraction of
nuclear strong forces and the
repulsion of electrical forces within the
nucleus.
&-0;EAR 4%((%>& >00-R( +$E& T$E REPE;;%&' >4
E;E0TR%0A; 4>R0E( +%T$%& A &-0;E-( >"ERP>+ER T$E
ATTRA0T%&' &-0;EAR (TR>&' 4>R0E(.
0$A%& REA0T%>&: A selfCsustaining action that stimulates another
reaction to occur.
0R%T%0A; MA((: The amount of mass for
which each fission e*ent produces on
additional fission e*ent.
A (-=0R%T%0A; MA(( is one in which the
chain reaction dies out.
A (-PER0R%T0%A; MA(( is one in which
the chain reaction uilds up eBplosi*ely.
+hen fission happens! it takes a lot of work to pull a nucleon from an
atomic nucleus. This work goes into mass energy.
UE @ M0E
0hange in energy @ mass B speed of lightE
/2
?-R%&' 4%((%>&! T$E T>TA; MA(( >4 T$E 4%((%>& 4RA'ME&T(
%( ;E(( T$A& T$E MA(( >4 T$E 4%((%>&%&' &-0;E-(.
$clear F$sion
&-0;EAR 4-(%>&: The process in which atoms
fuse.
%n &uclear 4ission energy is released when
hea*y nuclei split! in &uclear 4usion energy is
released when nuclei fuse together.
A4TER 4-(%>& T$E T>TA; MA(( >4 T$E
&-0;E% 4>RME? %& T$E 4-(%>& PR>0E((
%( ;E(( T$AT T$E T>TA; MA(( >4 &-0;E%
T$AT 4-(E?.
Atomic nuclei are positi*ely charged! for fusion to
occur they must hit each other at *ery high speeds in order to o*ercome
electrical repulsion since positi*ely charged things repulse each other.
T$ERM>&-0;EAR 4-(%>&: 4usion caused y high temperatures.