Ultrasound Based Fluid Level Indicator Using Arduino

Contactless Fluid Level Indicator
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Abstract

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We are all familiar with sonars, reliable and time-tested technology. They have been used in
monitoring sea bottoms, as well as fish and underwater objects for quite a few decades now.
The Ultrasonic Level Sensors are the same type of technology, optimized for best operation
in air, used as liquid level indicators.
The ultrasonic level sensors consists of two essential parts, a transducer (also called sensor)
and an electronic control box. Transducer cannot work alone without the control box.The
control box can be conveniently placed in a control room or some other location and
connected to the transducers via coaxial cables. The transducers are mounted at the top of the
tanks, pointing downward to the liquids surface.
A strong ultrasonic signal burst is then generated by the transducer and propagates through
the air down to the liquids surface. The ultrasonic signal will not penetrate below the surface
of the liquid, it will be reflected back to the transducer. The echo round trip time is then
converted to level, which is defined as actual depth of the liquid in the tank. It is important to
mention that the measurement is not affected by specific gravity, viscosity or any other
characteristic of the liquid being monitored.


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Chapter 1
Introduction

Contactless fluid level measurement is an important aspect. It dependes upon an ultrasound
sensor which UV signal. The signal when falls on any surface ( including fluid) it bounces
back. Receiver receives the signal and measure the time duration for the traversal. This gives
us the distance from time.
Fluid level indicator can be used where contact sensors are difficult to implement for instance
in drinking water tank, engine fuel tank etc.
Contribution of the Project
Till now Ultrasound sensors were used for collision sensing, obstacle sensing. Even though
such signals are reflected from fluid surface, not significant work is carried out in this
direction. Therefore In this project we are using the Ultrasound concept for liquid level
measurement.

1.1 History of ultrasonic waves
Prior to World War II, sonar, the technique of sending sonic waves through water and
observing the returning echoes to characterize submerged objects, inspired early ultrasonic
investigators to explore ways to apply the concept to medical diagnosis. In 1929 and 1935,
Sokolov studied the use of ultrasonic waves in detecting metal objects. Mulhauser, in 1931,
obtained a patent for using ultrasonic waves, using two transducers to detect flaws in solids.

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Firestone (1940) and Simons (1945) developed pulsed ultrasonic testing using a pulse-echo
technique.
Shortly after the close of World War II, researchers in Japan began to explore the medical
diagnostic capabilities of ultrasonic. The first ultrasonic instruments used an A-mode
presentation with blips on an oscilloscope screen. That was followed by a B-mode
presentation with a two dimensional, gray scale image. Japan's work in ultrasonic was
relatively unknown in the United States and Europe until the 1950s. Researchers then
presented their findings on the use of ultrasonic to detect gallstones, breast masses, and
tumors to the international medical community. Japan was also the first country to apply
Doppler ultrasonic, an application of ultrasonic that detects internal moving objects such as
blood coursing through the heart for cardiovascular investigation. Ultrasonic pioneers
working in the United States contributed many innovations and important discoveries to the
field during the following decades. Researchers learned to use ultrasonic to detect potential
cancer and to visualize tumors in living subjects and in excised tissue. Real-time imaging,
another significant diagnostic tool for physicians, presented ultrasonic images directly on the
system's CRT screen at the time of scanning. The introduction of spectral Doppler and later
color Doppler depicted blood flow in various colors to indicate the speed and direction of the
flow. The United States also produced the earliest hand held "contact" scanner for clinical
use, the second generation of B-mode equipment, and the prototype for the first articulated-
arm hand held scanner, with 2-D images. The Non-Destructive Testing NDT has been
practiced for many decades, with initial rapid developments in instrumentation spurred by the
technological advances that occurred during World War II and the subsequent defense effort.
During the earlier days, the primary purpose was the detection of defects. As a part of "safe
life" design, it was intended that a structure should not develop macroscopic defects during
its life, with the detection of such defects being a cause for removal of the component from
service. In response to this need, increasingly sophisticated techniques using ultrasonic, eddy
currents, x-rays, dye penetrants, magnetic particles, and other forms of interrogating energy
emerged. In the early 1970's, two events occurred which caused a major change in the NDT
field. First, improvements in the technology led to the ability to detect small flaws, which
caused more parts to be rejected even though the probability of component failure had not
changed. However, the discipline of fracture mechanics emerged, which enabled one to
predict whether a crack of a given size will fail under a particular load when a material's
fracture toughness properties are known. Other laws were developed to predict the growth

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rate of cracks under cyclic loading (fatigue). With the advent of these tools, it became
possible to accept structures containing defects if the sizes of those defects were known. This
formed the basis for the new philosophy of damage tolerant design. Components having
known defects could continue in service as long as it could be established that those defects
would not grow to a critical, failure producing size.
A new challenge was thus presented to the nondestructive testing community. Detection was
not enough. One needed to also obtain quantitative information about flaw size to serve as an
input to fracture mechanics based predictions of remaining life. The need for quantitative
information was particularly strongly in the defense and nuclear power industries and led to
the emergence of quantitative nondestructive evaluation (QNDE) as a new
engineering/research discipline. A number of research programs around the world were
started, such as the Center for Nondestructive Evaluation at Iowa State University (growing
out of a major research effort at the Rockwell International Science Center); the Electric
Power Research Institute in Charlotte, North Carolina; the Fraunhofer Institute for
Nondestructive Testing in Saarbrucken, Germany; and the Nondestructive Testing Centre in
Harwell, England.[2]
1.2 History of ultrasonic applications
Ultrasonic sensing techniques have earned a pre-eminent position in a variety of fields including
medicine, nondestructive testing and process monitoring, geophysics, and sonar surveillance.
Ultrasonic flow sensors have been employed for a number of years for performing intraoperative or
extracorporeal blood flow measurements. Intraoperative flow measurements are typically
conducted to monitor blood flow in various vessels during vascular, cardiac, transplant, plastic and
reconstructive surgery. Transit-time ultrasonic flow sensors detect the acoustic propagation time
difference between the upstream and downstream ultrasonic transmissions in a moving fluid and
process this information to derive a fluid flow rate. Ultrasonic array transducers rely on wave
interference for their beam forming effects, and typically include a plurality of individual transducer
elements organized as either a one-dimensional (linear) array or a two-dimensional array. Ultrasonic
is used as a non-invasive technique for obtaining image information about the structure of an object
which is hidden from view, and is widely known as a medical diagnostic tool as well as a tool for non-
destructive testing and analysis in the technical arts. Ultrasonic diagnostic imaging systems are in
widespread use for performing ultrasonic imaging and measurements. Ultrasonic imaging sensors
act as both transmitters and receivers of ultrasonic energy. The sensor first acts as a transmitter;

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emitting ultrasonic energy in a train of high frequency pulses, typically in the range of 2 to 10 Mhz.
Then the transmitter is turned off and the sensor acts as a receiver, which listens for returned
echoes at the transmitted frequency. Ultrasonic sensors are used to make remote distance
measurements. One particular use of ultrasonic sensors is within a vehicle occupant protection
system within a vehicle. Ultrasonic range finders typically use ultrasonic frequencies which are
inaudible to the human ear. These high frequencies have inherently shorter wavelengths, which lead
to greater positional accuracy than audible frequencies. Parking aid systems of today usually consist
of an electronic control unit and several ultrasonic sensors. Each ultrasonic sensor possesses a
separate data line, since, in order to improve evaluation, echo information from several ultrasonic
sensors is required at a certain instant. Thus, the evaluation of several ULS on the basis of one
transmitted sonic wave permits more precise conclusions to be made about the position of and the
range of the obstacle. Ultrasonic sensors are equipped in robots and used for detecting objects
positioned along a robot travel path. Such ultrasonic sensors are adapted to convert a pulse signal
into an ultrasonic wave energy which is, in turn, radiated at a search area.
Ultrasonic testing UT has been practiced for many decades. Initial rapid developments in
instrumentation spurred by the technological advances from the 1950's continue today.
Through the 1980's and continuing through the present, computers have provided technicians
with smaller and more rugged instruments with greater capabilities.
Thickness gauging is an example application where instruments have been refined make data
collection easier and better. Built-in data logging capabilities allow thousands of
measurements to be recorded and eliminate the need for a "scribe." Some instruments have
the capability to capture waveforms as well as thickness readings. The waveform option
allows an operator to view or review the A-scan signal of thickness measurement long after
the completion of an inspection. Also, some instruments are capable of modifying the
measurement based on the surface conditions of the material. For example, the signal from a
pitted or eroded inner surface of a pipe would be treated differently than a smooth surface.
This has led to more accurate and repeatable field measurements.
Many ultrasonic flaw detectors have a trigonometric function that allows for fast and accurate
location determination of flaws when performing shear wave inspections. Cathode ray tubes,
for the most part, have been replaced with LED or LCD screens. These screens, in most
cases, are extremely easy to view in a wide range of ambient lighting. Bright or low light
working conditions encountered by technicians have little effect on the technician's ability to

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view the screen. Screens can be adjusted for brightness, contrast, and on some instruments
even the color of the screen and signal can be selected. Transducers can be programmed with
predetermined instrument settings. The operator only has to connect the transducer and the
instrument will set variables such as frequency and probe drive. Along with computers,
motion control and robotics have contributed to the advancement of ultrasonic inspections.
Early on, the advantage of a stationary platform was recognized and used in industry.
Computers can be programmed to inspect large, complex shaped components, with one or
multiple transducers collecting information. Automated systems typically consisted of an
immersion tank, scanning system, and recording system for a printout of the scan. The
immersion tank can be replaced with squirter systems, which allows the sonic to be
transmitted through a water column. The resultant C-scan provides a plan or top view of the
component. Scanning of components is considerably faster than contact hand scanning; the
coupling is much more consistent. The scan information is collected by a computer for
evaluation, transmission to a customer, and archiving.
Today, quantitative theories have been developed to describe the interaction of the
interrogating fields with flaws. Models incorporating the results have been integrated with
solid model descriptions of real-part geometries to simulate practical inspections. Related
tools allow the Nondestructive Evaluation NDE to be considered during the design process
on an equal footing with other failure-related engineering disciplines. Quantitative
descriptions of NDE performance, such as the probability of detection (POD), have become
an integral part of statistical risk assessment. Measurement procedures initially developed for
metals have been extended to engineered materials such as composites, where anisotropy and
inhomogeneity have become important issues. The rapid advances in digitization and
computing capabilities have totally changed the faces of many instruments and the type of
algorithms that are used in processing the resulting data. High-resolution imaging systems
and multiple measurement modalities for characterizing a flaw have emerged. Interest is
increasing not only in detecting, characterizing, and sizing defects, but also in characterizing
the materials. Goals range from the determination of fundamental microstructural
characteristics such as grain size, porosity, and texture (preferred grain orientation), to
material properties related to such failure mechanisms as fatigue, creep, and fracture
toughness. As technology continues to advance, applications of ultrasonic also advance. The
high-resolution imaging systems in the laboratory today will be tools of the technician
tomorrow.

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1.3 Future development of this technology
Looking to the future, those in the field of NDE see an exciting new set of opportunities. The
defense and nuclear power industries have played a major role in the emergence of NDE.
Increasing global competition has led to dramatic changes in product development and
business cycles. At the same time, aging infrastructure, from roads to buildings and aircraft,
present a new set of measurement and monitoring challenges for engineers as well as
technicians. Among the new applications of NDE spawned by these changes is the increased
emphasis on the use of NDE to improve the productivity of manufacturing processes.
Quantitative nondestructive evaluation (QNDE) both increases the amount of information
about failure modes and the speed with which information can be obtained and facilitates the
development of in-line measurements for process control. The phrase, "you cannot inspect in
quality, you must build it in," exemplifies the industry's focus on avoiding the formation of
flaws. Nevertheless, manufacturing flaws will never be completely eliminated and material
damage will continue to occurring in-service so continual development of flaw detection and
characterization techniques are necessary.
Advanced simulation tools that are designed for inspectability and their integration into
quantitative strategies for life management will contribute to increase the number and types
of engineering applications of NDE. With growth in engineering applications for NDE, there
will be a need to expand the knowledge base of technicians performing the evaluations.
Advanced simulation tools used in the design for inspectability may be used to provide
technical students with a greater understanding of sonic behavior in materials.
As globalization continues, companies will seek to develop, with ever increasing frequency,
uniform international practices. In the area of NDE, this trend will drive the emphasis on
standards, enhanced educational offerings, and simulations that can be communicated
electronically. The coming years will be exciting as NDE will continue to emerge as a full-
fledged engineering discipline.
Triangulation
Triangulation is the most commonly used method for distances of 10 meters or less. A laser or LED is
used to produce a collimated beam which then impinges on the surface of the target. The target
reflects light in many directions, some of the reflected light reaching the detector. The position of

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the reflected light focused onto the detector depends on the distance between the sensor and
target. Detectors such as position sensitive detectors (PSD), diode arrays or CCD arrays enable the
reflected light to be detected with high spatial resolution and at high sampling frequencies. The
sensor-object distance is calculated trigonometrically and accuracies of better than 0.5% are the
norm.
Measurement times of less than 10 ms are common, allowing real-time study of moving or vibrating
objects. The light source should be compact and should produce an intense, small spot of light with
minimal divergence. Amplitude modulation is used in order to eliminate the effects of stray
(background) light.

Figure: Hand-held laser range meter device.

This device works on the same concept of the laser gun device but the difference is that it uses a
large beam width of ultrasonic waves as shown in Figure 4.2. The time of flight and triangulation
techniques might be used to measure the distance using ultrasonic waves.


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Figure Hand-held ultrasonic range meter device.


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Chapter 2
Working Principle of Ultrasound Sensor

In this chapter we discuss the internal architecture and working principle of the ultrasound
sensor.
The overall system
The calculations are done by the following way. First of all, the device calculates the time
that the ultrasonic wave took to reach the targeted object and come back to the receiver. Thus,
if we need to calculate the time needed for the ultrasonic wave to reach the object from the
device, we divide the previous time we had by two. Second, the device multiplies the time by
the speed of sound (340 m/s) to get the distance between the device and the object. The time
from transmission of the pulse to reception of the echo is the time taken for the sound energy
to travel through the air to the object and back again. Since the speed of sound is constant
through air, measuring the echo reflection time lets you calculate the distance to the object
using this equation:

Distance = (s * t)/2 (in meters) (2.1)


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Where: s [m/s] is the speed of sound in air and t [s] is the round trip echo time.

Table 2.1: The delay times of boundary range
Round trip echo time Distance
t = 588 us 10 cm
t = 17.6 ms 3 m
.

Figure 2.1: General block diagram.
2.2.1 Calculation of the distance to an object

The hand-held Ultrasonic Range meter device offers precise ranging information from
roughly 10cm to 3 meters. The ranger works by transmitting a pulse of sound outside the
range of human hearing. This pulse travels at the speed of sound away from the ranger in a
cone shape and the sound reflects back to the ranger from any object/target in the path of this
sonic wave. The ranger pauses for a brief interval after the sound is transmitted and then
awaits the reflected sound in the form of an echo. The controller driving the ranger then
requests a ping; the ranger creates the sound pulse, and waits for the return echo. If received,
the ranger reports this echo to the controller and the controller can then compute the distance
to the object based on the elapsed time.
The Pulse Trigger Input line should be held low and then brought high for a minimum of
100sec to initiate the sonic pulse. The pulse is generated on the falling edge of this input
trigger. The rangers receiver circuitry is held in a short blanking interval of 600 sec to
avoid noise from the initial ping and then it is enabled to listen for the echo. The echo line is
low until the receive circuitry is enabled. Once the receive circuitry is enabled, the falling
edge of the echo line signals an echo detection or nothing if there is no reflection.

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The long-range measurement is difficult a little. To measure the correct distance, the
following conditions are necessary.
The object must be perpendicular to the range meter.
The surface of the object must be flat.
There is not object which reflects the ultrasonic around.

Figure 2.2: Theoretical graph of the pulses and its echo-reflection pulse.

2.3 Ultrasonic system
It consists of a transmitter and receiver pair on the device and a microcontroller with a digital
display. There are two different transducers for transmitter and receiver. The transmitter

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transmits and the receiver waits for the reflected signals. The Figure 2.3 illustrates this
system.

Figure 2.3: The overall design of the ultrasonic system.
2.3.1 Ultrasonic Transmitter
The transmitter consists of an electronics circuitry and an electromechanical transducer.
The electronic circuitry generates the required frequency electrical signal and the
electromechanical transducer converts that electrical signal into the physical form and
activates the open medium surface. This oscillating physical surface creates the ultrasonic
Waves. The oscillating surface creates a pressure variation and ultimately a pressure wave
with a frequency equal to that of the surface oscillation. The Figure 2.4 shows the generation
of ultrasonic waves.

Figure 2.4: The transmitter circuit design.

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The transmitter was designed to oscillate at a resonant frequency of about 40 KHz. The 555
timer generates a 40 KHz sinusoidal ultrasonic wave. The frequency is calculated by using
the following formula:

F = 1.44 / 2 * R1 * C = 1.44 / 2 * 12.6 K * 1nF = 46 kHz. (2.1)

This design of the transmitter was done in way to get the closest value to 40 KHz by
adjusting the resistor and the capacitor to the values shown in the Figure 2.4.

2.3.1.1 The 555 timer datasheet
The 555 monolithic timing circuits is highly stable controller capable of producing accurate
time delays, or oscillation .In the delay time of operation, the time is precisely controlled by
one external resistor and capacitor .For a stable operation as an oscillator, the free running
frequency and the duty cycle are both accurately controlled with two external resistors and
one capacitor. As shown in Figure 2.5:

Figure: The 555 block diagram.

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The Table 2.2 shows the datasheet of the 555 timer, the parameter rating and the units
characterized by each component.

Table 2.2: The datasheet of the 555 timer
Symbol Parameter Rating Unit
V
CC
Supply Voltage +16 V
Pd
Maximum allowable
power dissipation
600 mW
TA
Operating ambient
temperature range
0 to 70 C
VTH (Vcc = 5v) Threshold voltage 3.33 V
VTRIG(Vcc =
5v)
Trigger Voltage 1.67 V
VRESET Reset Voltage 0.3 to 1.0 V

Ultrasonic Receiver
The receiver also has the same configuration except that it has a receiver electronic circuitry
and a transducer, which converts the ultrasonic sound waves into an electrical signal. The
sound waves travel into the medium and are reflected by an object in the path of the waves.
This reflected wave is then sensed by the receiver, which actually calculates the time of flight
of the signal to find the distance. The Figure 2.6 illustrates the receiver circuit.


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Figure 2.6: The receiver circuit design.

2.3.2.1 Basis of the operational amplifier
The operational amplifier is the amplifier with the very big voltage gain.
In case of TL082 to be using this time, at the specification, the voltage gain becomes
150V/mV. It is the 15 V output in 0.1 mV of the input. To say becomes 150,000 times of
gain. In case of the operational amplifier, the value of the voltage gain doesn't have the
relation too much. Anyway, the fact that the voltage gain is big is important.

The Difference Gain amplification
There are positive input and negative input in the operational amplifier.
The voltage gain can be calculated by the following formula.

G = Vo/Vi = -(Rf/Ri) (2.2)


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Figure: The difference gain amplification.

Using the voltage divider formula:

Vb = V1 * R2/(R1 + R2) (2.3)

The current passing through Ri is the same current passing through Rf because the current
entering the negative input is negligible in A (in the ideal operational amplifier, it is
considered zero) and this gives the following equation:

(Vi Va) / Ri = (Va Vo) / Rf (2.4)
Vo = (V1 * R2 * (Rf + Ri) / (R1 + R2) * Ri) Vi * Rf / Ri (2.5)

Signal amplification circuit
The signal amplification circuit is illustrated below in the Figure 2.8.

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Figure The circuit of the signal amplification.

The ultrasonic signal which was received with the reception sensor is amplified by 2500
times (68dB) of voltage with the operational amplifier with two stages.
The voltage gain G is 100 times at the first stage (40dB) and 25 times (28dB) at the next
stage. Generally, the positive and the negative power supply are used for the operational
amplifier. The circuit this time works with the single power supply of +5 V. Therefore, for
the positive input of the operational amplifiers, the half of the power supply voltage is applied
as the bias voltage and it is made 2.5 V in the central voltage of the amplified alternating
current signal.
When using the operational amplifier with the negative feedback, the voltage of the positive
input terminal and the voltage of the negative input terminal become equal approximately.
So, by this bias voltage, the side of the positive and the side of the negative of the alternating
current signal can be equally amplified. When not using this bias voltage, the distortion
causes the alternating current signal. When the alternating current signal is amplified, this
way is used when working the operational amplifier for the two power supply with the single
power supply.
Using the formula in 2.1:
Vi is the input voltage at the ultrasonic transducer.
Vo1 is the output voltage of the first amplification stage.
Vo2 is the output voltage of the second amplification stage.

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At minimum distance, d = 10 cm,
Vi max = 2.50004 V.
Vo1 = (5 * 47K * (100k + 1k) / (47k + 47k) * 1K) - 2.50004 * 100k / 1k = 2.496 V.
Vo2 = (5 * 47K * (100k + 3.9k) / (47k + 47k) * 3.9K) - 2.496 * 100k / 3.9k = 2.6 V.

At maximum distance, d = 3 m,
Vi max = 2.4999 V.
Vo1 = (5 * 47K * (100k + 1k) / (47k + 47k) * 1K) - 2.4999 * 100k / 1k = 2.46 V.
Vo2 = (5 * 47K * (100k + 3.9k) / (47k + 47k) * 3.9K) - 2.46 * 100k / 3.9k = 2.50156 V.

Vi = 2.50004 2.4999 = 0.04 mV.
A slight change in Vi formed a bigger change in Vo2.
Vo2 = Vi * Gain = 0.04 * 2500 = 100 mV.

Data of the TL082 operational amplifier
As for TL082, the two operational amplifiers are enclosed with the one package.

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Figure 2.9: Pin connections top view.

Table 2.3: The datasheet of the TL082 operational amplifier.
Symbol Symbol Value Unit
Supply Voltage
V
CC

V
EE

+18
-18
V
Differential Input Voltage V
ID
30 V
Input Voltage Range V
IDR
15 V
Output Short Circuit
Duration
t
SC
Continuous
Power Dissipation
(Plastic Package)
PD
1/8
JA

680
10
mW
mW/C
Operating Ambient
Temperature Rage
T
A
0 - +70 C
Storage Temperature Range T
stg
-65 - +150 C
Slew rate SR 16 V/s
Gain bandwidth product GBW 4 MHz


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The magnitude of the input voltage must not exceed the magnitude of the supply voltage or
15V, whichever is less. The output may be shorted to ground or either supply. Temperature
and/or supply voltages must be limited to ensure that power dissipation ratings are not
exceeded.
For the 741 operational amplifier, GBW = 1 MHz, SR = 0.5 V/s.
For the TL082 operational amplifier, GBW = 4 MHz, SR = 16 V/s.
Vi(t) = 0.04 cos ( 40000 * 2 * * t) mV.
Vo(t) = 100 cos ( 40000 * 2 * * t) mV.
(Vo(t)) = 2 * * 40000 * 0.1 = 0.025 V/s.
0.025 V/s < 0.5 V/s the 741 operational amplifier could be used.
0.025 V/s < 16 V/s the TL082 operational amplifier could be used.
The TL082 operational amplifier has a better slew rate.
For a 10% error in the frequency, F = 40000 * 0.9 = 36000 Hz.
The required gain bandwidth product for a gain = 2500 is,
GBW = 36000 * 2500 = 90 MHz > 4 MHz.
The signal amplification is split into two stages because of this gain bandwidth product.
The maximum gain G max = 4 MHz / 36000 Hz = 111.11.
The maximum gain is greater than the gain for the first stage 100 and the second stage 22.

Detection circuit
The detection is done to detect the received ultrasonic signal. It is the half-wave rectification
circuit which used the 1N4148 diodes.


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Figure The detection circuit.

The DC voltage according to the level of the detection signal is gotten by the capacitor
behind the diode. The 1N4148 diode is used because it is a fast switching diode.


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Chapter 3
Overall Concept of the Project

1. First Display keeps displaying Temperature and keeps waiting for the pump to activate
2. When user presses the switch, MC senses the data and triggers the relay. Relay starts the
pump.
3. Ultrasound sensor keeps monitoring the water level and when level is filled, gives and
alarm and switches off the Relay unit.
4. It in turns switches off the pump.
5. User now needs to switch off the hardware switch to trigger the system back to initial
stage.


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The above diagram is the schematic of the project.


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Chapter 4
Arduino Microcontroller Board

We use Arduino Dueminolova with ATMEG328 Microcontroller in our project. For entire
model to drive smoothly, the ground of power supply is made common with arduino
ground. Note that digital pins of Arduino produces about 4.2 v which is sufficient to drive
LEDs. However it does not produce enough current. Hence without external current, the
project runs a risk at draining microcontroller. Therefore alternative supply is used with it.

Arduino is a popular open-source single-board microcontroller, descendant of the open-
source Wiring platform, designed to make the process of using electronics in
multidisciplinary projects more accessible. The hardware consists of a simple open hardware
design for the Arduino board with an Atmel AVR processor and on-board input/output
support. The software consists of a standard programming language compiler and the boot
loader that runs on the board.

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Arduino hardware is programmed using a Wiring-based language (syntax and libraries),
similar to C++ with some simplifications and modifications, and a Processing-based
integrated development environment.
Current versions can be purchased pre-assembled; hardware design information is available
for those who would like to assemble an Arduino by hand. Additionally, variations of the
Italian-made Arduinowith varying levels of compatibilityhave been released by third
parties; some of them are programmed using the Arduino software.
The Arduino project received an honorary mention in the Digital Communities category at
the 2006 Prix Ars Electronica.[

Hardware
An Arduino board consists of an 8-bit Atmel AVR microcontroller with complementary
components to facilitate programming and incorporation into other circuits. An important
aspect of the Arduino is the standard way that connectors are exposed, allowing the CPU
board to be connected to a variety of interchangeable add-on modules (known as shields).
Official Arduinos have used the megaAVR series of chips, specifically the ATmega8,
ATmega168, ATmega328, ATmega1280, and ATmega2560. A handful of other processors
have been used by Arduino compatibles. Most boards include a 5 volt linear regulator and a
16 MHz crystal oscillator (or ceramic resonator in some variants), although some designs
such as the LilyPad run at 8 MHz and dispense with the onboard voltage regulator due to
specific form-factor restrictions. An Arduino's microcontroller is also pre-programmed with a
boot loader that simplifies uploading of programs to the on-chip flash memory, compared
with other devices that typically need an external programmer.
At a conceptual level, when using the Arduino software stack, all boards are programmed
over an RS-232 serial connection, but the way this is implemented varies by hardware
version. Serial Arduino boards contain a simple inverter circuit to convert between RS-232-
level and TTL-level signals. Current Arduino boards are programmed via USB, implemented
using USB-to-serial adapter chips such as the FTDI FT232. Some variants, such as the
Arduino Mini and the unofficial Boarduino, use a detachable USB-to-serial adapter board or
cable, Bluetooth or other methods. (When used with traditional microcontroller tools instead
of the Arduino IDE, standard AVR ISP programming is used.)

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The Arduino board exposes most of the microcontroller's I/O pins for use by other circuits.
The Diecimila, now superseded by the Duemilanove, for example, provides 14 digital I/O
pins, six of which can produce pulse-width modulated signals, and six analog inputs. These
pins are on the top of the board, via female 0.1 inch headers. Several plug-in application
"shields" are also commercially available.
The Arduino Nano, and Arduino-compatible Bare Bones Board and Boarduino boards
provide male header pins on the underside of the board to be plugged into solderless
breadboards.

Arduino Board Models
Arduin
o
Processor
Volt
age
Fla
sh
kB
EEPR
OM
kB
SR
AM
kB
Digi
tal
I/O
pins
...w
ith
PW
M
Ana
log
inp
ut
pins
USB
Interfa
ce
type
Dimen
sions
inches
Dimen
sions
mm
Diecimi
la
ATmega168 5 V 16 0.5 1 14 6 6 FTDI
2.7 in

2.1 in
68.6 m
m
53.3 m
m
Due
[11]

ATMEL
SAM3U

25
6
0
[12]
50 54 16 16

Duemil
anove
ATmega168/328
P
5 V
16/
32
0.5/1 1/2 14 6 6 FTDI
2.7 in

2.1 in
68.6 m
m
53.3 m
m

[Type text] Page 28

Uno ATmega328P 5 V 32 1 2 14 6 6
ATmeg
a8U2
2.7 in

2.1 in
68.6 m
m
53.3 m
m
Leonard
o
Atmega32u4 5 V 32 1 2 14 6 12
Atmega
32u4
2.7 in

2.1 in
68.6 m
m
53.3 m
m
Mega ATmega1280 5 V
12
8
4 8 54 14 16 FTDI
4 in
2.1 in
101.6
mm
53.3 m
m
Mega25
60
ATmega2560 5 V
25
6
4 8 54 14 16
ATmeg
a8U2
4 in
2.1 in
101.6
mm
53.3 m
m
Fio ATmega328P
3.3
V
32 1 2 14 6 8 None
1.6 in

1.1 in
40.6 m
m
27.9 m
m
Nano
ATmega168 or
ATmega328
5 V
16/
32
0.5/1 1/2 14 6 8 FTDI
1.70 in

0.73 in
43 mm

18 mm

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LilyPad
ATmega168V or
ATmega328V
2.7-
5.5
V
16 0.5 1 14 6 6 None 2 in
50 mm

The board with marked color is used for this project.

Arduino Software

The Arduino IDE is a cross-platform application written in Java, and is derived from the IDE
for the Processing programming language and the Wiring project. It is designed to introduce
programming to artists and other newcomers unfamiliar with software development. It
includes a code editor with features such as syntax highlighting, brace matching, and
automatic indentation, and is also capable of compiling and uploading programs to the board
with a single click. There is typically no need to edit makefiles or run programs on a
command-line interface. Although building on command-line is possible if required with
some third-party tools such as Ino.
The Arduino IDE comes with a C/C++ library called "Wiring" (from the project of the same
name), which makes many common input/output operations much easier. Arduino programs
are written in C/C++, although users only need define two functions to make a runnable
program:
setup() a function run once at the start of a program that can initialize settings

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loop() a function called repeatedly until the board powers off
A typical first program for a microcontroller simply blinks a LED on and off. In the Arduino
environment, the user might write a program like this:[14]
#define LED_PIN 13

void setup () {
pinMode (LED_PIN, OUTPUT); // enable pin 13 for digital output
}

void loop () {
digitalWrite (LED_PIN, HIGH); // turn on the LED
delay (1000); // wait one second (1000 milliseconds)
digitalWrite (LED_PIN, LOW); // turn off the LED
delay (1000); // wait one second
}
For the above code to work correctly, the positive side of the LED must be connected to pin
13 and the negative side of the LED must be connected to ground. The above code would not
be seen by a standard C++ compiler as a valid program, so when the user clicks the "Upload
to I/O board" button in the IDE, a copy of the code is written to a temporary file with an extra
include header at the top and a very simple main() function at the bottom, to make it a valid
C++ program.
The Arduino IDE uses the GNU toolchain and AVR Libc to compile programs, and uses
avrdude to upload programs to the board.
For educational purposes there is third party graphical development environment called
Minibloq available under a different open source license.

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Arduino Duemilanove

Overvi ew
The Arduino Duemilanove ("2009") is a microcontroller board based on
the ATmega168 or ATmega328. It has 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as
PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz crystal oscillator, a USB connection, a power jack,

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an ICSP header, and a reset button. It contains everything needed to support the
microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer with a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-
DC adapter or battery to get started.
"Duemilanove" means 2009 in Italian and is named after the year of its release. The
Duemilanove is the latest in a series of USB Arduino boards; for a comparison with previous
versions.
Summary
Microcontroller ATmega168
Operating Voltage 5V
Input Voltage
(recommended)
7-12V
Input Voltage (limits) 6-20V
Digital I/O Pins 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)
Analog Input Pins 6
DC Current per I/O Pin 40 mA
DC Current for 3.3V Pin 50 mA
Flash Memory
16 KB (ATmega168) or 32 KB (ATmega328) of which 2 KB
used by bootloader
SRAM 1 KB (ATmega168) or 2 KB (ATmega328)
EEPROM 512 bytes (ATmega168) or 1 KB (ATmega328)
Clock Speed 16 MHz
Power
The Arduino Duemilanove can be powered via the USB connection or with an external power
supply. The power source is selected automatically.

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External (non-USB) power can come either from an AC-to-DC adapter (wall-wart) or battery.
The adapter can be connected by plugging a 2.1mm center-positive plug into the board's
power jack. Leads from a battery can be inserted in the Gnd and Vin pin headers of the
POWER connector.
The board can operate on an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with less than 7V,
however, the 5V pin may supply less than five volts and the board may be unstable. If using
more than 12V, the voltage regulator may overheat and damage the board. The recommended
range is 7 to 12 volts.
The power pins are as follows:
VIN. The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external power source (as
opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power source). You can
supply voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the power jack, access it through
this pin.
5V. The regulated power supply used to power the microcontroller and other components on
the board. This can come either from VIN via an on-board regulator, or be supplied by USB
or another regulated 5V supply.
3V3. A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board FTDI chip. Maximum current draw is 50
mA.
GND. Ground pins.
Memory
The ATmega168 has 16 KB of flash memory for storing code (of which 2 KB is used for the
bootloader); the ATmega328has 32 KB, (also with 2 KB used for the bootloader).
The ATmega168 has 1 KB of SRAM and 512 bytes of EEPROM (which can be read and
written with the EEPROM library); the ATmega328 has 2 KB of SRAM and 1 KB of
EEPROM.
Input and Output
Each of the 14 digital pins on the Duemilanove can be used as an input or output,
using pinMode(), digitalWrite(), anddigitalRead() functions. They operate at 5 volts. Each pin
can provide or receive a maximum of 40 mA and has an internal pull-up resistor
(disconnected by default) of 20-50 kOhms. In addition, some pins have specialized functions:

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Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial data. These
pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the FTDI USB-to-TTL Serial chip.
External Interrupts: 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on a low
value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value. See the attachInterrupt() function for
details.
PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analogWrite() function.
SPI: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK). These pins support SPI communication
using the SPI library.
LED: 13. There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is HIGH value,
the LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.
The Duemilanove has 6 analog inputs, each of which provide 10 bits of resolution (i.e. 1024
different values). By default they measure from ground to 5 volts, though is it possible to
change the upper end of their range using the AREF pin and the analogReference() function.
Additionally, some pins have specialized functionality:
I
2
C: analog input pins A4 (SDA) and A5 (SCL). Support I
2
C (TWI) communication using
the Wire library.
There are a couple of other pins on the board:
AREF. Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with analogReference().
Reset. Bring this line LOW to reset the microcontroller. Typically used to add a reset button
to shields which block the one on the board.
See also the mapping between Arduino pins and ATmega168 ports.
Communi cati on
The Arduino Duemilanove has a number of facilities for communicating with a computer,
another Arduino, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega168 and ATmega328 provide UART
TTL (5V) serial communication, which is available on digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). An
FTDI FT232RL on the board channels this serial communication over USB and the FTDI
drivers (included with the Arduino software) provide a virtual com port to software on the
computer. The Arduino software includes a serial monitor which allows simple textual data to
be sent to and from the Arduino board. The RX and TX LEDs on the board will flash when

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data is being transmitted via the FTDI chip and USB connection to the computer (but not for
serial communication on pins 0 and 1).
A SoftwareSerial library allows for serial communication on any of the Duemilanove's digital
pins.
The ATmega168 and ATmega328 also support I2C (TWI) and SPI communication. The
Arduino software includes a Wire library to simplify use of the I2C bus; see
the documentation for details. For SPI communication, use the SPI library.
Programmi ng
The Arduino Duemilanove can be programmed with the Arduino software (download). Select
"Arduino Diecimila or Duemilanove w/ ATmega168" or "Arduino Duemilanove
w/ ATmega328" from the Tools > Board menu (according to the microcontroller on your
board).
The ATmega168 or ATmega328 on the Arduino Duemilanove comes preburned with
a bootloader that allows you to upload new code to it without the use of an external hardware
programmer. It communicates using the original STK500protocol (reference, C header files).
You can also bypass the bootloader and program the microcontroller through the ICSP (In-
Circuit Serial Programming) header; see these instructions for details.
Automati c (Sof tware) Reset
Rather then requiring a physical press of the reset button before an upload, the Arduino
Duemilanove is designed in a way that allows it to be reset by software running on a
connected computer. One of the hardware flow control lines (DTR) of the FT232RL is
connected to the reset line of the ATmega168 or ATmega328 via a 100 nanofarad capacitor.
When this line is asserted (taken low), the reset line drops long enough to reset the chip. The
Arduino software uses this capability to allow you to upload code by simply pressing the
upload button in the Arduino environment. This means that the bootloader can have a shorter
timeout, as the lowering of DTR can be well-coordinated with the start of the upload.
This setup has other implications. When the Duemilanove is connected to either a computer
running Mac OS X or Linux, it resets each time a connection is made to it from software (via
USB). For the following half-second or so, the bootloader is running on the Duemilanove.

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While it is programmed to ignore malformed data (i.e. anything besides an upload of new
code), it will intercept the first few bytes of data sent to the board after a connection is
opened. If a sketch running on the board receives one-time configuration or other data when
it first starts, make sure that the software with which it communicates waits a second after
opening the connection and before sending this data.
The Duemilanove contains a trace that can be cut to disable the auto-reset. The pads on either
side of the trace can be soldered together to re-enable it. It's labeled "RESET-EN". You may
also be able to disable the auto-reset by connecting a 110 ohm resistor from 5V to the reset
line; see this forum thread for details.
USB Overcurrent Protecti on
The Arduino Duemilanove has a resettable polyfuse that protects your computer's USB ports
from shorts and overcurrent. Although most computers provide their own internal protection,
the fuse provides an extra layer of protection. If more than 500 mA is applied to the USB
port, the fuse will automatically break the connection until the short or overload is removed.
Physi cal Characteri sti cs
The maximum length and width of the Duemilanove PCB are 2.7 and 2.1 inches respectively,
with the USB connector and power jack extending beyond the former dimension. Three
screw holes allow the board to be attached to a surface or case. Note that the distance
between digital pins 7 and 8 is 160 mil (0.16"), not an even multiple of the 100 mil spacing of
the other pins.

Pin Configuration

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Chapter 5
Power Supply

Powe Supply Board

+12v -12v Regulated Power Supply

Transformer
This Dual Power Supply design uses a full wave bridge rectifier coupled with a centre-tapped
transformer. A transformer with a power output rated at at least 7VA should be used. The 7VA
rating means that the maximum current which can be delivered without overheating will be around
390mA for the 9V+9V tap; 290mA for the 12V+12V and 230mA for the 15V+15V. If the transformer is
rated by output RMS-current then the value should be divided by 1.2 to get the current which can be
supplied. For example, in this case a 1A RMS can deliver 1/(1.2) or 830mA.

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Rectifier
We use an epoxy-packaged 4 amp bridge rectifier with at least a peak reverse voltage of 200V. (Note
the part numbers of bridge rectifiers are not standardised so the number are different from different
manufacturers.) For safety the diodevoltage rating should be at least three to four times that of the
transformers secondary voltage. The current rating of the diodes should be twice the maximum load
current that will be drawn.
Filter Capacitor
The purpose of the filter capacitor is to smooth out the ripple in the rectified AC voltage. Theresidual
amount of ripple is determined by the value of the filer capacitor: the larger the value the smaller
the ripple.The 2,200uF is a suitable value for all the voltages generated using this project. The other
consideration inchoosing the correct capacitor is its voltage rating. The working voltage of the
capacitor has to be greater than thepeak output voltage of the rectifier. For an 18V supply the peak
output voltage is 1.4 x 18V, or 25V. So we havechosen a 35V rated capacitor.

Regulators
The unregulated input voltage must always be higher than the regulators output voltage by at least
3V inorder for it to work. If the input/output voltage difference is greater than 3V then the excess
potential must bedissipated as heat. Without a heatsink 3 terminal regulators candissipate about 2
watts. A simple calculation of the voltage differential times the current drawn will give the watts
tobe dissipated. Over 2 watts a heatsink must be provided. If not then the regulator will
automatically turn off if theinternal temperature reaches 150oC. For safety it is always best to use a
small heatsink even if you do not think youwill need one.

Stability
C4 & C5 improve the regulators ability to react to sudden changes in load current and to
preventuncontrolled oscillations.
Decoupling

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The monoblok capacitor C2 & C6 across the output provides high frequency decoupling which
keepsthe impedence low at high frequencies.
LED
Two LED's are provided to show when the output regulated power is on-line. You do not have to use
theLED's if you do not want to. However, the LED on the negative side of the circuit does provide a
minimum load tothe 79xx regulator which we found necessary during testing. The negative 3-pin
regulators did not like a zeroloadsituation. We have provided a 470R/0.5W resistors as the current
limiting resistors for the LED's.
Diode Protection
These protect mainly against any back emf which may come back into the power supply when
itsupplies power to inductive loads. They also provide additional short circuit protection in the case
that thepositive output is connected by accident to the negative output. If this happened the usual
current limiting shutdownin each regulator may not work as intended. The diodes will short circuit in
this case and protect the 2 regulators.

Dual Power Supply Parts List


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MC7812 Pinouts

MC7912 Pinouts

PARTS
o IC1 = 7812 (1)
o IC2 = 7912 (1)
o C1, C2 = 2200F/25V elect. (1 each)
o C3, C4 = 0.33F mylar (1 each)
o C5, C6 = 100F/25V elect. (1 each)
o D1-D4 = 1N4001 (4) or W04M bridge diode (1)
o T1 = 110/220V Input 13.5V - 0V - 13.5V 1.5A output Transformer (1)
o S1 = ON/OFF Toggle Switch (1)


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Chapter 6
Control Unit Relay Board
Pump runs on 9v supply. MC can't control this. Therefore it needs to control the pump
through a relay board. Relays operates at 12v. In order to control it with 5v MC output, it is
coupled with MC using an Optocoupler.
Relay's one input is given from 9v battery and the other input is grounded. When MC triggers
relay, pump is activated

Main Relay unit With Optocoupler

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1) Microcontroller Selects a stage of OC of DPDT line selection
2) It selects HIGH for the pin that is connected with the OC of the Relay driver
3) When OC pin is high, relay is on, it carries the voltage which is at the output stage of
DPDT. The same is supplied to motor. Accordingly the motor moves in forward or
reverse direction for the period that the OC is high through MCU pin.


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Chapter 7
Arduino with LCD

With LCD Circuit


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LCDs Pin 1 (VSS) is grounded with Digital Ground. Pin 12 or vdd is given from pin 12. Pin
3 of LCD which is intensity control of the display is given from 10k pot output which is
connected between +vcc and ground. Lesser the voltage, better the display. So pot needs to be
set to high value. Pin 15 and 16 of the LCD is connected with +vcc and ground respectively.
These pins control the backlight. If pin 15 of the LCD is disconnected, the LCD will produce
display but without back green light.

Pin 11,12,13,14 or the data pins of LCD is connected with Pin 7,6,5 and 4 of the Arduino
respectively.

Details of LCD
LCD Connections
Mostly an LCD has a 14 pin connection which are D0-D7 (Data Bits), E (Enable), R/W
(Read/Write), RS (Register Select), Vee or Vo (Contrast), Vdd or Vcc (+5V supply), Vss
(Ground/Earth connection) so there are 8 data, 3 power and 3 control lines for a standard non-
backlight LCD. If an LCD has a backlight it has additional two lines for that which are 15th
(VB+) and 16th(VB- or Ground) lines. Below there is a table of the pin matches and pictures
of myLCD's backsides:
Standard LCD Pin Matches (Character number <80)
Pin
Symbol/Alternate
Symbol
Possibility Function
1 Vss -
Power supply
(GND)

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2 Vdd/Vcc -
Power supply
(+5V)
3 Vee/Vo - Contrast adjust
4 RS 0/1
0 = Instruction
input / 1 = Data
input
5 R/W 0/1
0 = Write
to LCD module /
1 = Read
from LCD module
6 E 1, 1-->0 Enable signal
7 DB0 0/1 Data pin 0
If your LCD has more than 80 characters (like 4x40)
15 E2 1, 1->0 Enable signal row 2 & 3

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16 Not used mostly
HY1602B (Hyper 1602B) with KS0065 controller (compatible with HD44780) and
backlight. Click for a bigger picture

1602-04 with KS0066U controller (compatible with HD44780) and backlight Click for a
bigger picture

These are 2 different 2x16 LCDs as in the pictures the 15th and 16th pins are for backlight as
I mentioned above.
Pinout Descriptions
Pin 1,2,3
According to the table, I call Pin 1(Vss),2(Vdd/Vcc),3(Vee/Vo) power pins because they are
the gates to power. Pin 1 is for ground so you have to connect to ground/earth and Pin 2 is for
the +5V power supply. 6V or 4,5V is mostly acceptable in few amperes and also 3V is
acceptable on some of the LCD modules (You can also power these modules with a battery
in a very economical way). In my application I get the voltage from the molex cable of the pc
which is inside the case. And pin 3 is for the LCD's contrast adjustment. I did not but you

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could use a potentiometer(10K pot will be ok) for changing the contrast of your LCD. See
the schematics below
Pin 4,5,6
I call Pin4(RS),5(R/W),6(E) the control buddies because these pins are the arms of your
controller inside your LCDmodule. Pin 4(RS) is registration select if this pin is low the data
perceived by the data pins taken as commands by the LCD and if this pin is high
the LCD can receive/send 8 or 4 bit character data. I call Pin 5(R/W) clerk because when this
pin is low you can write character to the LCD, if the pin is high you can read character data
or the status information from the LCD. I didn't make any read operations in my app so I
solder this pin to the ground (with soldering this to the ground I made this pin low - "0" see
the below circuits). Pin 6(E) which I call the guardian, is used to initiate the actual transfer of
commands or character data between the LCD module and the data pins.
Pin 7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14
The eight pins which are DB0-DB7 are the data pins which I call them the workers. The data
can be transferred or fetched from the LCD by 8 or 4 bits. Which one is better? This is up to
you, by the way if you are using a microcontroller and you have few pins you can use your
module in 4 bit mode(by using DB4-DB7). I used 8 bit mode in my LCD because I used the
parallel port which already have 8 bit data lines.
Pin 15,16
These two pins are for the backlight of the LCD module. 15th pin goes to the power
supply(VB+) and 16th pin goes to the ground(VB-). Backlight is very useful in dim
environments but some LCD modules don't have backlights. There are multicolored LCDs
around as well.
If your soldering goes well you get a typical test screen of a character based LCD as its
shown below:

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LCD Operations
Instruction
Code
Description
Executio
n time**
R
S
R/
W
DB
7
DB
6
DB
5
DB
4
DB
3
DB
2
DB
1
DB
0
Clear display 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Clears display
and returns
cursor to the
home position
(address 0).
1.64mS
Cursor home 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 *
Returns cursor
to home position
(address 0). Also
returns display
being shifted to
the original
position.
DDRAM
contents remains
unchanged.
1.64mS

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Entry mode
set
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 I/D S
Sets cursor
move direction
(I/D), specifies
to shift the
display (S).
These operations
are performed
during data
read/write. I/D =
0 --> cursor is in
decrement
position. I/D = 1
--> cursor is in
increment
position. S = 0 --
> Shift is
invisible. S = 1 -
-> Shift is
visible
40uS
Display
On/Off
control
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 D C B
Sets On/Off of
all display (D),
cursor On/Off
(C) and blink of
cursor position
character (B). D
= 0 --> Display
off. D = 1 -->
Displan on. C =
0 --> Cursor off.
C = 1 --> Cursor
on. B = 0 -->
Cursor blink off.
40uS

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B = 1 --> Cursor
blink on.
Cursor/displa
y shift
0 0 0 0 0 1 S/C R/L * *
Sets cursor-
move or display-
shift (S/C), shift
direction (R/L).
DDRAM
contents remains
unchanged. S/C
= 0 --> Move
cursor. S/C = 1 -
-> Shift display.
R/L = 0 --> Shift
left. R/L = 1 -->
Shift right
40uS
Function set 0 0 0 0 1 DL N F * *
Sets interface
data length
(DL), number of
display line (N)
and character
font(F). DL = 0 -
-> 4 bit
interface. DL =
1 --> 8 bit
interface. N = 0
--> 1/8 or 1/11
Duty (1 line). N
= 1 --> 1/16
Duty (2 lines). F
= 0 --> 5x7 dots.
F = 1 --> 5x10
40uS

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dots.
Set CGRAM
address
0 0 0 1 CGRAM address
Sets the
CGRAM
address.
CGRAM data is
sent and
received after
this setting.
40uS
Set DDRAM
address
0 0 1 DDRAM address
Sets the
DDRAM
address.
DDRAM data is
sent and
received after
this setting.
40uS
Read busy-
flag and
address
counter
0 1 BF CGRAM / DDRAM address
Reads Busy-flag
(BF) indicating
internal
operation is
being performed
and reads
CGRAM or
DDRAM
address counter
contents
(depending on
previous
instruction). I
used some delay
functions in my
code which are
0uS

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ThreadSleep if
you don't want
to use these you
can check the
Busy Flag and
make
your LCD speed
y. BF = 0 -->
Can accept
instruction. BF =
1 --> Internal
operation in
progress no
additional
operation can be
accepted.
Write to
CGRAM or
DDRAM
1 0 write data
Writes data to
CGRAM or
DDRAM.
40uS
Read from
CGRAM or
DDRAM
1 1 read data
Reads data from
CGRAM or
DDRAM.
40uS
* = Not important, Can be "1" or "0"


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Chapter 8
Arduino with LM 35

Temperature Sensor LM 35 With Arduino


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The LM35 is a common TO-92 temperature sensor. It is often used with the equation
temp = (5.0 * analogRead(tempPin) * 100.0) / 1024;
However, this does not yield high resolution. This can easily be avoided, however.
The LM35 only produces voltages from 0 to +1V. The ADC uses 5V as the highest possible
value. This is wasting 80% of the possible range. If you change aRef to 1.1V, you will get
almost the highest resolution possible.
The original equation came from taking the reading, finding what percentage of the range
(1024) it is, multiplying that by the range itself(aRef, or 5000 mV), and dividing by ten (10
mV per degree Celcius, according to the

datasheet:
However, if you use 1.1V as aRef, the equation changes entirely. If you divide 1.1V over
1024, each step up in the analog reading is equal to approximately 0.001074V = 1.0742 mV.
If 10mV is equal to 1 degree Celcius, 10 / 1.0742 = ~9.31. So, for every change of 9.31 in the
analog reading, there is one degree of temperature change.
To change aRef to 1.1V, you use the command "analogReference(INTERNAL);"
Here's an example sketch using 1.1 as aRef:

float tempC;
int reading;
int tempPin = 0;

void setup()
{
analogReference(INTERNAL);
}

void loop()

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{
reading = analogRead(tempPin);
tempC = reading / 9.31;
}
With this sketch, approximately a tenth of a degree resolution is possible. Of course, such
small numbers are going to be somewhat inaccurate because aRef will not be exactly 1.1V.
Also, the LM35 is only guaranteed to be within 0.5 degrees of the actual temperature.
However, it does yield higher resolution, if only for appearances' sake.
A side note: with aRef at 1.1V, the temperature range of the LM35 is limited to 0 to 110
degrees Celcius.
CODE

void setup()
{
pinMode(13,OUTPUT);

Serial.begin(19200);
}

void loop()
{
int reading = analogRead(5);

// converting that reading to voltage, for 3.3v arduino use 3.3
float voltage = (float)reading * 5.0;

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voltage /= 1024.0;

// print out the voltage
//Serial.write(voltage);

// now print out the temperature
float temperatureC = (voltage ) * 100 +5.0; //converting from 10 mv per degree wit 500 mV
offset
//to degrees ((volatge - 500mV) times 100)

Serial.println((int)temperatureC);
delay(1000);

// now convert to Fahrenheight
float temperatureF = (temperatureC * 9.0 / 5.0) + 32.0;


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Serial.println(temperatureF);
delay(1000);

if(temperatureC>45)

digitalWrite(13,HIGH);
else
digitalWrite(13,LOW);

int wind=analogRead(4);
Serial.println("WIND=");
Serial.println(wind);
}


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Chapter 9
Arduino with Ultrasound Sensor

The above diagram depicts how sensor is connected near the pump pipe to effectively
measure the water level.
The following diagram explains the schematic and code of distance sensing.
Ping Ultrasonic Range Finder
The Ping))) is an ultrasonic range finder from Parallax. It detects the distance of the closest
object in front of the sensor (from 2 cm up to 3m). It works by sending out a burst of
ultrasound and listening for the echo when it bounces off of an object. The Arduino board
sends a short pulse to trigger the detection, then listens for a pulse on the same pin using
thepulseIn() function. The duration of this second pulse is equal to the time taken by the
ultrasound to travel to the object and back to the sensor. Using the speed of sound, this time
can be converted to distance.
Hardware Required
Arduino Board
(1) Ping Ultrasonic Range Finder

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hook-up wire
Circuit
The 5V pin of the PING))) is connected to the 5V pin on the Arduino, the GND pin is
connected to the GND pin, and the SIG (signal) pin is connected to digital pin 7 on the
Arduino.

image developed using Fritzing. For more circuit examples, see the Fritzing
project page
Schematic:
click the image to enlarge

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Code
/* Ping))) Sensor

This sketch reads a PING))) ultrasonic rangefinder and returns
the
distance to the closest object in range. To do this, it sends a
pulse
to the sensor to initiate a reading, then listens for a pulse
to return. The length of the returning pulse is proportional to
the distance of the object from the sensor.

The circuit:
* +V connection of the PING))) attached to +5V
* GND connection of the PING))) attached to ground
* SIG connection of the PING))) attached to digital pin 7


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http://www.arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/Ping

created 3 Nov 2008
by David A. Mellis
modified 30 Aug 2011
by Tom Igoe

This example code is in the public domain.

*/

// this constant won't change. It's the pin number
// of the sensor's output:
const int pingPin = 7;

void setup() {
// initialize serial communication:
Serial.begin(9600);
}

void loop()
{
// establish variables for duration of the ping,
// and the distance result in inches and centimeters:
long duration, inches, cm;

// The PING))) is triggered by a HIGH pulse of 2 or more
microseconds.
// Give a short LOW pulse beforehand to ensure a clean HIGH pulse:
pinMode(pingPin, OUTPUT);
digitalWrite(pingPin, LOW);
delayMicroseconds(2);
digitalWrite(pingPin, HIGH);
delayMicroseconds(5);
digitalWrite(pingPin, LOW);

// The same pin is used to read the signal from the PING))): a
HIGH
// pulse whose duration is the time (in microseconds) from the
sending
// of the ping to the reception of its echo off of an object.
pinMode(pingPin, INPUT);
duration = pulseIn(pingPin, HIGH);

// convert the time into a distance
inches = microsecondsToInches(duration);
cm = microsecondsToCentimeters(duration);


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Serial.print(inches);
Serial.print("in, ");
Serial.print(cm);
Serial.print("cm");
Serial.println();

delay(100);
}

long microsecondsToInches(long microseconds)
{
// According to Parallax's datasheet for the PING))), there are
// 73.746 microseconds per inch (i.e. sound travels at 1130 feet
per
// second). This gives the distance travelled by the ping,
outbound
// and return, so we divide by 2 to get the distance of the
obstacle.
// See: http://www.parallax.com/dl/docs/prod/acc/28015-PING-
v1.3.pdf
return microseconds / 74 / 2;
}

long microsecondsToCentimeters(long microseconds)
{
// The speed of sound is 340 m/s or 29 microseconds per
centimeter.
// The ping travels out and back, so to find the distance of the
// object we take half of the distance travelled.
return microseconds / 29 / 2;
}


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The Connection wrt to a bread board is shown bellow.


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Chapter 10
Advantages and Limitations

Advantages
There are no moving parts, nothing to wear out.

There is no maintenance, nothing to clean or lubricate. No gaskets or seals to replace.

There is no calibration, once the ultrasonic level sensor is installed properly, it will
keep on working for some 20+ years (depending on quality of installation), requiring
no attention.

Transducers are not affected by vapor condensation, or fumes inside the tank. In the
past there used to be claims that fumes absorb ultrasonic signal. That is a myth. The
problem was caused by insufficient product quality or an improper
installation. Measurement is not affected by liquid density, specific gravity, viscosity, etc.

Transducers are available in variety of housings to suit the corrosive environments in
tanks, typically PVC, Teflon, stainless steel and explosion-proof for hazardous,
flammable liquids. We have had a case where a barge transportation firm requested
that our stainless steel transducers were plated with 24 karat gold, to offer best
corrosion resistance for the fluids they transport.

Transducers are hermetically sealed, waterproof, splashing of liquids or immersing in
liquid will not cause damage.

Ultrasonic level sensors allow multiplexing, where several tanks can be monitored by
one control box. This results in significant cost reduction. Another significant
advantage and cost saving of multiplexing is that all transducer cables can be placed
in the same conduit. Automated Sonix Corporation has two models of this kind.
Sonix-1000 can monitor up to seven (7) tanks, UC-4000 monitors up to nine (9). Both
control boxes can be placed several hundred feet from the monitored tanks. Level and
volume of each monitored tank are shown on one control panel in sequence. Both
models have a computer connectible output to save the data in computer. The protocol
is RS232C, uses only 2 wires and can transmit up to 2000 feet distance.
Disadvantages
The poor aiming on the targeted object causes a bad reflection of the laser and that would
display a false detection of the objects distance that has been targeted.
The atmospheric conditions may affect the ranging capabilities of the hand-held laser range
meter device. The rain and snow reflect the laser beam and that may display a false detection
of the objects distance. In other term the purity of the water will have a bearing on the
accuracy of measurement.

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Chapter 11
Results


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Chapter 12
Conclusion
In order to design and build a portable device, the weight of the device is a primary problem.
The technology of using ultrasonic to measure distances is in continuous progress, features
have been added to this technology to make it easy to use and more accurate by assigning
more challenging constraints. After discussing and choosing the constraints, the solutions for
these sets of challenging problems are to be discussed and solved physically and
mathematically. Each solution has its advantages and disadvantages depending on the
situation where the device is used; the hand-held laser range meter device is a fast growing
technology because of its efficiency and its accuracy
In this project we successfully implemented an Ultrasound based contactless fluid level
indicator. The project is incorporated in a closed loop control for controlling water pump.

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