Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use. You may use content in the JSTOR archives only for your personal, non-commercial use. JSTOR is a not-for-profit organization founded in 1995 to build trusted digital archives for scholarship.
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use. You may use content in the JSTOR archives only for your personal, non-commercial use. JSTOR is a not-for-profit organization founded in 1995 to build trusted digital archives for scholarship.
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use. You may use content in the JSTOR archives only for your personal, non-commercial use. JSTOR is a not-for-profit organization founded in 1995 to build trusted digital archives for scholarship.
The Engendered lyra: Music, Poetry and Manhood in Crete
Author(s): Kevin Dawe Source: British Journal of Ethnomusicology, Vol. 5 (1996), pp. 93-112 Published by: British Forum for Ethnomusicology Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3060868 Accessed: 06/01/2009 20:10 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=bfe. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit organization founded in 1995 to build trusted digital archives for scholarship. We work with the scholarly community to preserve their work and the materials they rely upon, and to build a common research platform that promotes the discovery and use of these resources. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org. British Forum for Ethnomusicology is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to British Journal of Ethnomusicology. http://www.jstor.org BRITISH JOURNAL OF ETHNOMUSICOLOGY Th e e nge nde re d l y ra : m u s i c , p o e t ry a nd m a nh o o d i n Cre t e Ke vi n Da we Th e l y ra -l a o u t o e ns e m bl e i s t h e m o s t p o p u l a r a nd e ndu ri ng m u s i c a l t ra di t i o n i n Cre t e . It i s a n a l m o s t e xc l u s i ve l y m a l e p ro fe s s i o n a nd p a s t i m e a nd a s s u c h e m bo di e s a c o m p l e x s y nt h e s i s o f e nge nde re d va l u e s . As p e c t s o f m u s i c a l p e rfo rm a nc e c o nt ra di c t t h e s e e m i ngl y m o no l i t h i c m a nh o o d i de a l s t h a t i nfo rm i t , re ve a l i ng i t s ro l e a s a s i t e o f i nt e ns e bo u nda ry ne go t i a t i o n. T HE FIRST MAJOR PUBLICATION t o a ddre s s t h e s u bje c t o f m u s i c a nd ge nde r wi t h i n a va ri e t y o f c u l t u re s fro m a n e t h no m u s i c o l o gi c a l p e rs p e c t i ve wa s Wo m e n a nd m u s i c i n c ro s s -c u l t u ra l p e rs p e c t i ve (Ko s ko ff 1987). Th a t e di t e d vo l u m e a ddre s s e s t wo qu e s t i o ns : 1) To wh a t de gre e do e s a s o c i e t y 's ge nde r i de o l o gy , a nd re s u l t i ng ge nde r-re l a t e d be h a vi o u rs , a ffe c t i t s m u s i c a l t h o u gh t a nd p ra c t i c e ? 2) Ho w do e s m u s i c fu nc t i o n i n s o c i e t y t o re fl e c t o r a ffe c t i nt e r-ge nde r re l a t i o ns ? Th e Int e rna t i o na l Co u nc i l fo r Tra di t i o na l Mu s i c s e t u p i t s o wn s t u dy gro u p t o e xp l o re s u c h qu e s t i o ns . In t h e i r e di t o ri a l p re fa c e t o t h e 1990 p u bl i c a t i o n Mu s i c , ge nde r, a nd c u l t u re , He m do n a nd Zi e gl e r wro t e : In re c e nt y e a rs a n u nde rs t a nda bl e i nt e re s t h a s a ri s e n i n p ro m o t i ng gre a t e r i ns i gh t a nd be t t e r u nde rs t a ndi ng o f ge nde r a s a c ri t i c a l fa c t o r i n c o nt ri bu t i ng ne w a nd m e a ni ngfu l t h e o re t i c a l di m e ns i o ns t o e t h no m u s i c o l o gi c a l re s e a rc h . Th e s e i nc l u de no t o nl y t h e ge nde r i s s u e s i nt i m a t e l y c o nne c t e d t o m u s i c a l p e rfo rm a nc e , bu t a l s o i s s u e s c re a t e d by t h e ge nde r o f t h e i nve s t i ga t o r.... Ge nde r i s a c u l t u re -s p e c i fi c , i nc o ns i s t e nt a nd va ri a bl e c o nc e p t t h a t h a s m o re t o do wi t h s o c i a l ro l e s , a ge a nd s t a t u s t h a n wi t h bi o l o gy . [1990: 7] Wi t h t h e a p p e a ra nc e o f t h e a bo ve t wo vo l u m e s h a s c o m e a m o ve t o wa rds t h e p u bl i c a t i o n o f m o re i n-de p t h s t u di e s o f t h e i nt e r-re l a t i o ns h i p o f m u s i c , da nc e a nd ge nde r by e t h no m u s i c o l o gi s t s .1 Ja ne Co wa n's bo o k, Da nc e a nd t h e bo dy p o l i t i c 1 Se e ge r 1987 a nd Ri c e 1994 a re e xe m p l a ry i n t h e i r i n-de p t h a na l y s i s o f bo t h m a l e a nd fe m a l e m u s i c a l p ra c t i c e s . Se e a l s o Su ga rm a n's wo rk o n t h e we ddi ng s o ngs o f Mu s l i m Al ba ni a n wo m e n (1989) a nd m e n (1987), a nd a l s o Se re m e t a ki s 's s t u dy o f t h e m i ro l 6y i a o f Gre e k-Ma ni o t wo m e n (1991). I no t e a 'c a t c h i ng u p ' p ro c e s s i n Me n's St u di e s wi t h i n t h e a nt h ro p o l o gi c a l l i t e ra t u re ; s e e , fo r e xa m p l e , He rzfe l d 1985, Gi l m o re 1990 a nd Co rnwa l l a nd Li ndi s fa m e 1994. 93 VOL 5 1996 94 Bri t i s h Jo u rna l f Et h no m u s i c o l o gy , vo l . 5 (1996) i n no rt h e rn Gre e c e (1990) i s o ne o f t h e fi rs t l e ngt h y vo l u m e s de vo t e d t o u nde rs t a ndi ng ge nde r i s s u e s i n re l a t i o ns h i p t o da nc e a nd m u s i c a l p e rfo rm a nc e , a nd t o m a l e a nd fe m a l e be h a vi o u r i n ge ne ra l . Co wa n's u s e o f t h e m e t a p h o r "bo dy p o l i t i c " re l a t e s t o h e r di s c u s s i o n o f t h e c u l t u ra l e m p h a s i s t h ro u gh o u t Gre e c e o n bo di l y p re s e nt a t i o n, a nd o n a s s o c i a t i o ns o f t h i s e m p h a s i s wi t h i s s u e s o f p re s t i ge , re p u t a t i o n a nd s e xu a l i t y . Sh e i nve s t i ga t e s t h e wa y s i n wh i c h Gre e k m e n a nd wo m e n p re s e nt t h e m s e l ve s a nd e va l u a t e e a c h o t h e r's a c t i o ns i n t h e c o nt e xt o f da nc e . He r t e xt , i n t u rn, dra ws h e a vi l y o n Bo u rdi e u (1977), wi t h h i s e m p h a s i s o n t h e fa c t t h a t s o c i a l "t h o u gh t " i s no t a bs t ra c t , c e re bra l a nd "di s e m bo di e d" i n t h e Ca rt e s i a n s e ns e , bu t ro o t e d i n t h e wa y we u s e o u r bo di e s . I h a ve fo u nd t h a t t h e s e e xt re m e l y s i gni fi c a nt o bs e rva t i o ns o n t h e e m bo di m e nt o f m e a ni ng u s e fu l i n m y o wn wo rk. Po s t u re s , ge s t u re s , c l o t h e s , h a i rs t y l e s , t h e wa y i n wh i c h m u s i c i a ns p l a y i ns t ru m e nt s , a re m o de s o f u s i ng o ne 's bo dy t h a t s e e m t o e xp re s s a wa y o f be i ng a "m a n" a nd a wa y o f be i ng a "m u s i c i a n" (s e e fi gs . 1-3).2 In t h i s a rt i c l e , I h o p e t o u nde rl i ne t h e i m p o rt a nc e o f t h e "ge nde r l i nk" i n a c o ns i de ra t i o n o f t h e l y ra -l a o u t o e ns e m bl e .3 Th e l y ra [l i ra ] (p l u ra l = l y re s [l i re s ]) i s a t h re e -s t ri nge d, u p ri gh t , bo we d l u t e ; t h e l a o u t o [l a u i t o ] (p l u ra l = l a o u t a [l a u i t a ]) i s a fo u r-c o u rs e , p l u c ke d, l o ng-ne c ke d l u t e (s e e p h o t o gra p h s ). Th e e ns e m bl e no w c o ns i s t s o f e i t h e r p ro fe s s i o na l m u s i c i a ns o r a m i xt u re o f p ro fe s s i o na l s a nd s e m i - p ro fe s s i o na l s . Pe rfo rm a nc e s t a ke p l a c e fo r da nc i ng a nd t h e re c i t a t i o n o f p o e t ry a t we ddi ngs , ba p t i s m s , c a l e nde r e ve nt s a nd fe s t i va l s . In t h e ne xt s e c t i o n I m o ve fro m a di s c u s s i o n o f s o m e o f t h e ba s i c qu e s t i o ns t h a t c o nc e rne d m e i n t h e e a rl y s t a ge s o f m y fi e l dwo rk t o a re vi e w o f t h e e t h no gra p h i c l i t e ra t u re o n m a nh o o d i n Cre t e a nd t h e Me di t e rra ne a n a re a . Ap p ro a c h i ng "t h e p o e t i c s o f m a nh o o d" t h ro u gh m u s i c Ma ny At h e ni a ns t a l k a bo u t Cre t a n m u s i c i n a wa y s i m i l a r t o h o w t h e y t a l k a bo u t re m be t i ka , m u s i c a s s o c i a t e d wi t h t h e bo u zo u ki [bu zu ki ], a nd i t s s e m i -e vo l u t i o n i n t h e Pi ra e u s u nde rwo rl d o f t h e 1920s a nd 1930s . Du ri ng m y fi rs t p e ri o d o f fi e l dwo rk, i n At h e ns (1990), I be ga n t o fo rm a n i m a ge o f e l u s i ve ba nds o f m u s i c a l re be l s t o u ri ng t h e wi l d m o u nt a i ns o f Cre t e p e rfo rm i ng a t vi l l a ge we ddi ngs t h a t we re t ru l y Di o ny s i a n i n c h a ra c t e r a nd o ri gi n, wh e re t h e l a w wa s fl o u t e d by l y ra p l a y e rs wh o we re ju s t a s s ki l l e d a t p l a y i ng m a c h i ne gu ns . Th e s e i m p re s s i o ns we re fu e l l e d by a re a di ng o f Mi c h a e l He rzfe l d's Po e t i c s o f m a nh o o d (1985), t h o u gh t e m p e re d by t h e a u t h o r's gro u ndi ng o f s u c h i m a ge ry (t h e c o ve r fe a t u re s gu n- 2 Sy nno t t a nd Ho we s (1992: 163-4) no t e t h a t "Th e c o rp o re a l i t y o f t h e s e l f i s no w be i ng e xp l o re d i n m a ny a re a s o f a nt h ro p o l o gy . Th e ne w di s c o u rs e re fl e c t s no t o nl y a dva nc e s i n s c i e nt i fi c m e t h o do l o gy a nd c h a nge d va l u e s , bu t a l s o a fre s h p a ra di gm o f t h e bo dy a s s o c i a l , a s we l l a s p h y s i c a l , a s s y m bo l i c , a nd a l s o a s h i gh l y p o l i t i c a l , a nd ve ry s e ns i t i ve ." Se e a l s o Fe a t h e rs t o ne 1991. 3 Exc e p t i ng a fe w wo rds wh i c h h a ve a l re a dy ga i ne d s o m e c u rre nc y i n Engl i s h , a l l t ra ns l i t e ra t i o n fro m Gre e k fo l l o ws t h e s y s t e m a do p t e d by t h e Mo de m Gre e k St u di e s As s o c i a t i o n (USA) a nd p u bl i s h e d i n t h e s t y l e s h e e t o f t h e Jo u rna l o f Mo de rn Gre e k St u di e s 4.1 (1986), p p . 64-6. Wh e re e xc e p t i o ns a re m a de (e .g. l y ra , l a o u t o , m a nt i na da ), t h e MGSA ro m a ni s a t i o n i s s h o wn i n s qu a re bra c ke t s o n fi rs t o c c u rre nc e . Da we : Th e e nge nde re d l y ra 95 t o t i ng Cre t a n s h e p h e rds )-t h a t i s , a s u s e d rh e t o ri c a l l y by re a l p e o p l e i n re a l s i t u a t i o ns , "i n p e rfo rm a nc e ". Th e i de a o f i nve s t i ga t i ng a c o nne c t i o n be t we e n t h e m a nl y p e rfo rm a nc e s di s c u s s e d t h e re i n (i .e . a l l t h e di ffe re nt p e rfo rm a t i ve m o de s , ve rba l a nd no n-ve rba l ) a nd m u s i c a l p e rfo rm a nc e s e e m e d p l a u s i bl e bu t l i m i t e d a t t h e t i m e . Th e i ndi vi du a l s wh o m a ke u p t h e m u s i c a l c o m m u ni t y s e e m e d t o t ra ve l c o ns t a nt l y , i n l i m bo be t we e n vi l l a ge , t o wn a nd c i t y , o u t o f re a c h a nd di ffi c u l t t o c o nt a c t -a s i t u a t i o n qu i t e di ffe re nt fro m t h a t o f He rzfe l d's vi l l a ge -ba s e d s t u dy . Ne ve rt h e l e s s , I wa s e ve nt u a l l y a bl e t o s e e t h e c o nt e nt s o f He rzfe l d's p a t h fi ndi ng s t u dy be c o m i ng i m p o rt a nt t o m y o wn u nde rs t a ndi ng o f m u s i c a l p e rfo rm a nc e i n Cre t e . Gi ve n t h e fa c t t h a t t h e l y ra m u s i c t ra di t i o n i s vi rt u a l l y 100 p e r c e nt m a l e , a nd i n vi e w o f t h e i m p o rt a nc e p l a c e d u p o n Gre e k no t i o ns o f "m a l e ne s s " i n t h e e t h no gra p h i c l i t e ra t u re , m y ba s i c qu e s t i o n wa s : Ho w do e s t h i s ge nde r bi a s s h a p e m u s i c -m a ki ng a nd t h e be h a vi o u r o f m u s i c i a ns ? Wh a t do e s i t m e a n t o be a "m u s i c i a n" a nd a "m a n" i n Cre t e ? In h i s s e m i na l s t u dy o f a Cre t a n m o u nt a i n vi l l a ge , He rzfe l d s h o ws h o w s o c i a l a c t i o ns m u s t be do ne i n a c e rt a i n wa y t o s u s t a i n m a nl y i de a l s i n t h i s c o m m u ni t y .4 So c i a l ro l e s a re c re a t e d t h e re fo re a t e ve ry o p p o rt u ni t y , a nd t h e re i s a n e m p h a s i s o n fo re gro u ndi ng o ne 's m a nl i ne s s t h ro u gh o ne 's a c t i o ns : wh a t Gi l m o re (1990: 36) de s c ri be s a s t h e "a ge nt i a l m o da l i t y " o f be i ng "a m a n" i n c e rt a i n s o c i e t i e s , wh e re t h e i ndi vi du a l i s e xp e c t e d t o de m o ns t ra t e a "gre ga ri o u s e nga ge m e nt " i n t h e p u bl i c a re na o f a c t s a nd de e ds a nd vi s i bl e , c o nc re t e a c c o m p l i s h m e nt s . He s u m s u p m a nh o o d p e rfo rm a nc e s a s a "m a l e p ra xi s , e ndl e s s l y c o njo i ni ng o n t h e s t a ge o f c o m m u ni t y l i fe " (i bi d.). Indi vi du a l s e xp e ri e nc e l i fe a s e nge nde re d be i ngs . Th e y e xp re s s t h i s s t a t e o f be i ng i m a gi na t i ve l y a nd i n a wa y t h a t s h o ws a n a c u t e a wa re ne s s o f l i fe e xp e ri e nc e . In He rzfe l d's s t u dy , vi l l a ge rs ' e vo c a t i o ns o f t h e i r e xp e ri e nc e s a re s e e n a s c o ns t i t u t i ng a p o e t i c s , a dh e ri ng t o t h e p ri nc i p l e s o f p o e t ry (a n e xp re s s i ve ve h i c l e wi t h wh i c h p o e t s s e e m e a ni ng i n a nd de ri ve m e a ni ng fro m t h e i r e nvi ro nm e nt ). Inde e d, a l l a c t i o ns a re s e e n t o c o nt a i n "m e a ni ng" o r s i m a s i a . Me n a i m t o c a rry o u t t h e i r da i l y a c t i vi t i e s i n a re s o l u t e , u nh e s i t a t i ng a nd s p i ri t e d m a nne r; t h e y dra w a t t e nt i o n t o t h e i r a c t i o ns -t o a c t i o ns t h a t o ve rc o m e t h e p ro bl e m s o f e xi s t e nc e a nd s o c i a l i nt e rc o u rs e , a c t i o ns t h a t m e e t c h a l l e nge s h e a d- o n, i nve s t i ng t h e i r o ff-t h e -c u ff m a no e u vre s wi t h i m p o rt a nc e a nd t h u s m e a ni ng. Eve ry da y wo rk i s c a rri e d o u t wi t h fl a i r, e xp re s s i ve o f m a nl y vi rt u e s a nd t h e s ki l l s o f t h e i ndi vi du a l . He rzfe l d re m a rks , c o rre c t l y t o m y m i nd, t h a t Gl e ndi o t vi l l a ge rs i n Cre t e , i n m e e t i ng t h e de m a nds o f e ve ry da y l i fe , s e e m t o a dm i re wh a t Bo u rdi e u (1977: 8) h a s c a l l e d "t h e ne c e s s a ry i m p ro vi s a t i o n t h a t de fi ne s e xc e l l e nc e ". Info rm i ng i m p ro vi s a t i o n, i n t h i s dri ve t o wa rds e xc e l l e nc e (e xc e l l e nc e a t be i ng a m a n, t h a t i s ), i s a di s c o u rs e (a n e xp o s i t i o n o f i de a s , a n e xc h a nge o f i de a s , a p ro c e s s o f re a s o ni ng) a nd a rh e t o ri c (p e rs u a s i ve /e xa gge ra t e d t a l k o r a c t i o ns , 4 He rzfe l d i s a m o ng a nu m be r o f a nt h ro p o l o gi s t s wh o h a ve wo rke d i n Gre e k vi l l a ge c o m m u ni t i e s i n t h e wa ke o f Fri e dl (1962), Ca m p be l l (1964) a nd du Bo u l a y (1974). La t e r s t u di e s h a ve fo c u s s e d o n s p e c i fi c re l a t i o ns h i p s be t we e n p o we r a nd ge nde r, fo r e xa m p l e , He rzfe l d (1985), Gre ge r (1985), Du bi s c h (1986), Co wa n (1990), Lo i zo s a nd Pa p a t a xi a rc h i s (1991). Fi g. 1: Gro o m 's p ro c e s s i o n, Ano y i d vi l l a ge , Ju ne 1991 ^ Da we : Th e e nge nde re d l y ra 97 Fi g. 2 (l e ft ): Mu s i c i a ns a nd s i nge r a t a p ri va t e p a rt y i n m o u nt a i n vi l l a ge Ano y i d, Cre t e ; fro m t h e a l bu m c o ve r t o "Ano y i a ni Pa r6a " ("Ano y i d p a rt y "), Ae rdki s Re c o rds , 1990 Fi g. 3 (ri gh t ): Ni ki f6ro s Ae rdki s c a s s e t t e c o ve r, Ae rdki s Re c o rds , 1989 N I K H O P NIKHO6Pbd PAKHE : ITIXOI- MHTZOZ TAYPAKAKHZI ': API!TEIAH. XAIPETH.-MIXAAHZ ETAYPAKAKH.- MYPfIN MAYPOYAH: - BAMIAHE .YAOYPH!_ .Z . , Q/ C /o //, , ; , ge a re d t o i m p re s s ) t h a t c a n be e na bl i ng a nd e m p o we ri ng fo r m e n.5 Th i s i s t h e p e rfo rm a nc e o f m a s c u l i ni t y -fe a t s a nd de e ds do ne i n a m a nne r t h a t re i nfo rc e s m a nl y i de a l s . He rzfe l d (1985) no t e s h o w Cre t a n s h e p h e rds de m o ns t ra t e t h e i r m a nl y s e l fh o o d by s t e a l i ng s h e e p , p ro c re a t i ng l a rge r fa m i l i e s a nd be s t i ng o t h e r m e n i n ga m e s o f c h a nc e a nd s ki l l . Th e s e de e ds a re t o l d o f i n rh y m i ng c o u p l e t s kno wn a s m a nt i na de s , wh o s e re c i t a t i o n i s a n i m p o rt a nt fe a t u re o f m a nl y p o e t i c p e rfo rm a nc e .6 5 Two re c e nt wo rks e xe m p l i fy t h e t re nds a nd di vi s i o ns i n t h i nki ng a bo u t ge nde r i s s u e s i n Gre e k e t h no gra p h y . Th e no rm a t i ve s c h o o l s e e s t h e i ndi ge no u s i de o l o gi e s o f m a l e a nd fe m a l e e xi s t i ng i n a c o m m u na l l y a c c e p t e d, no n-ne go t i a bl e wo rl d, a s a "t ra di t i o na l di vi s i o n o f l a bo u r i n t h e h o u s e a nd fa m i l y " (du Bo u l a y 1991: 47). Th e n t h e re i s t h e m o de l o f do m i na t i ng m a l e s c o ns t a nt l y ne go t i a t i ng p o we r o ve r fe m a l e s , a s do c u m e nt e d i n t h e wo rk o f Arde ne r 1989, Cl a rk 1983, Ro s a l do a nd La m p h e re 1976, Ort ne r a nd Wh i t e h e a d 1981 a nd Ro s e n 1978. Pe rt i ne nt t o m y o wn s t u dy , t h i s l a t t e r m o de l i s u s e d by Ja ne Co wa n (1990), wh o s e a p p ro a c h t re a t s ge nde r a s a n i s s u e c o m bi ni ng t h re e t h e m e s : c o ns c i o u s ne s s , p o we r a nd p ra c t i c e s . Th e s e t h re e c o m p o ne nt s e s s e nt i a l l y de ri ve fro m t h e wa y i n wh i c h o ne gro u p ga i ns p o we r o ve r a no t h e r. 6 Si m i l a r p h e no m e na a re fo u nd e l s e wh e re i n t h e Me di t e rra ne a n a re a . Ma rc u s (1987: 50), wri t i ng o f e a s t e rn Mo ro c c o , re c o u nt s h o w m a nl y de e ds a re c o m m e m o ra t e d i n ve rs e s s u ng a t fe s t i va l s , 98 Bri t i s h Jo u rna l o f Et h no m u s i c o l o gy vo l . 5 (1996) A m a n, a s re c o rde d i n t h e a fo re m e nt i o ne d s t u di e s , i s e xp e c t e d t o m a rry a nd p ro c re a t e , t o p ro vi s i o n h i s fa m i l y a nd t o p ro t e c t t h e m . Bu t t h e s e a c t i vi t i e s de p e nd u p o n de e p l y h e l d no t i o ns o f a "m o bi l i t y o f a c t i o n, a p e rs o na l a u t o no m y " (Gi l m o re 1990: 49), wh a t Cre t a ns c a l l e go i s m o s o r "s e l f-re ga rd". Th i s de s i re fo r fre e do m o f m o ve m e nt , t h i s s t ri vi ng fo r i nde p e nde nc e , a dds u p t o a de fe ns i ve p o s t u re a ga i ns t t h e p o s s i bl e l o s s o f p e rs o na l a u t o no m y (a nd t h e re fo re o f o ne 's re p u t a t i o n) t o a wo m a n o r o f be i ng be s t e d by a no t h e r m a n. Th i s s h o ws m a s c u l i ni t y a s a n i de a l i s e d fo rm o f "m a l e ne s s " u s e d by o ne gro u p o f p e o p l e t o ga i n do m i na nc e o ve r a no t h e r gro u p o f p e o p l e . Pe rfo rm a nc e s o f m a s c u l i ni t y a re no t s u p p o s e d t o be p re m e di t a t e d, bu t p ro du c e d o n t h e s p u r o f t h e m o m e nt , i m p ro m p t u , s o a s t o s u i t t h e s i t u a t i o n a t h a nd-a ny h i nt o f p re p a ra t i o n i s s a i d t o re du c e t h e e ffe c t . Th e s e i m p ro vi s a t i o ns , i f s u c c e s s fu l , e nl a rge t h e re p u t a t i o n o f t h e p e rfo rm e r. Th e y a re c a p i t a l (a m a i n fu nd o r s t o c k, c re di t s e a rni ng i nt e re s t ) bu i l t u p o ve r t i m e wi t h a n i ndi vi du a l 's re p e a t e d s u c c e s s a t p e rfo rm i ng a ge ne ra l l y a c c e p t e d ro l e , t h a t o f a "m a n" i n t h e c o m m u ni t y . Al o ngs i de t h i s c o ns i s t e nc y c o m e s a re p u t a t i o n fo r re l i a bi l i t y a nd t h u s , de p e ndi ng o n t h e i ndi vi du a l , c re di bi l i t y i n bu s i ne s s . One 's e c o no m i c c a p i t a l c a n t h u s be e nl a rge d a l o ng wi t h o ne 's s y m bo l i c c a c h e t . Th e re i s ro o m fo r e nt e rp ri s e , t a ki ng a s i t u a t i o n a nd t u rni ng i t t o o ne 's a dva nt a ge ; a nd i n a l l e nt e rp ri s e s c h e m e s t h e re i s ri s k, no t h i ng i s c e rt a i n, t h e re i s a c h a nc e o f p ro fi t a nd l o s s . Me n m u s t i nve s t t h e i r re s o u rc e s wi s e l y a nd ba l a nc e (o r be s e e n t o ba l a nc e ) t h e i r o wn i nt e re s t s (t h e i r "s e l f-re ga rd" o r e go i s m o s ) a ga i ns t t h o s e o f t h e c o m m u ni t y . To do t h i s t h e y e xh i bi t p o ni ri d o r "c u nni ng" (He rzfe l d 1985: 25) i n bu s i ne s s de a l i ngs , s i nc e be s t i ng o t h e rs i n fi na nc i a l e xc h a nge i s a no t h e r a t t ri bu t e o f m a nh o o d. Th e fo l l o wi ng s e c t i o ns p ro vi de e xa m p l e s o f h o w m u s i c a l p e rfo rm a nc e c o a l e s c e s wi t h t h e m a nl y i de a l s de s c ri be d a bo ve . Us i ng da t a c o l l e c t e d fro m a va ri e t y o f s e t t i ngs (m o u nt a i n vi l l a ge , t o wn, t h e m e di a ), I s h o w h o w m a nh o o d i de a l s a re e xp re s s e d t h ro u gh , o r a s , m u s i c a l a nd ve rba l p e rfo rm a nc e . Le t u s t u rn fi rs t t o t h e l o c a l c e l e bra t i o n, wh o s e m o s t i nt e ns e fo c u s i s vi l l a ge we ddi ngs . We ddi ngs a re o rga ni s e d a ro u nd di s t i nc t ge nde r i de o l o gi e s a nd p ra c t i c e s , a nd t h e m u s i c i a n m a ke s a l a rge c o nt ri bu t i o n t o t h e s h a p i ng o f t h e s e e ve nt s . Me n, m u s i c , a nd we ddi ng c e l e bra t i o ns In ge ne ra l , we ddi ngs e ns u re t h e bi o l o gi c a l a nd s o c i a l re p ro du c t i o n o f t h e gro u p , c o nt ri bu t i ng t o t h e e xp a ns i o n o f t h e s y m bo l i c c a p i t a l o f a fa m i l y , gro u p o r c o m m u ni t y . Th e y a re i m p o rt a nt a nd de l i c a t e m a t t e rs , t h e ri t u a l i s e d u ni o n o f t h e s a c re d a nd t h e c o s m i c wh i c h c a nno t s t ra y t o o fa r fro m a c c e p t e d no rm s . I a gre e wi t h Co wa n (1990: 89) wh e n s h e s a y s t h a t "As a ke y ri t e o f p a s s a ge t h ro u gh wh i c h a m a n a nd a wo m a n, e a c h i n di ffe re nt wa y s a c qu i re s fu l l a du l t h o o d i n t h e m a ki ng m a nh o o d a ki nd o f c o m m u na l c e l e bra t i o n. Abu -Lu gh o d i n Egy p t 's We s t e rn De s e rt no t e s h o w "re a l Be do u i n m e n" a re s a i d t o be a fra i d o f no t h i ng, a s s e rt t h e i r wi l l a t a ny c o s t a nd s t a nd u p t o a ny c h a l l e nge ; t h e i r m a i n a t t ri bu t e s a re "a s s e rt i ve ne s s a nd t h e qu a l i t y o f p o t e nc y " (1986: 88-9). Da we : Th e e nge nde re d l y ra 99 c o m m u ni t y , m a rri a ge i s l a rge l y a bo u t ge nde r a nd s e xu a l i t y a nd t h e wa y s t h e s e a re o rga ni s e d fo r t h e re p ro du c t i o n o f t h e fa m i l y , t h e c o m m u ni t y , a nd t h e s t a t e ." 7 Th e fo c u s h e re i s u p o n t h e a c t i vi t i e s o f m e n a t c e l e bra t i o ns , t h e p ri nc i p a l ro l e o f l y ra m u s i c a t t h e m , a nd t h e o rga ni s a t i o na l a bi l i t i e s o f m u s i c i a ns . Wo m e n's c e l e bra t i o ns a re p a rt o f t h e we ddi ng, o f c o u rs e , a l t h o u gh t h e y t a ke p l a c e i n a di ffe re nt s e t t i ng a nd i n l e s s p u bl i c fo ra . In t h e p u bl i c a re na (t h e p ro c e s s i o ns t h ro u gh t h e vi l l a ge , t h e ga t h e ri ngs o u t s i de t h e fa m i l i a l h o u s e s , t h e m e a l , t h e c a ke - c u t t i ng, t h e da nc i ng) m e n a re i n c o nt ro l : e ve n t h o u gh wo m e n t a ke u p t h e da nc e , i t i s t o t h e t u ne o f a l y ra -p l a y i ng m a l e . Th e l y ra p l a y e r c o m e s t o e p i t o m i s e t h e c o nt ro l m e n h a ve i n t h e s e c o nt e xt s . Ine xt ri c a bl y l i nke d t o t h e i ns t ru m e nt a l i m p ro vi s a t i o ns a re t h e ve rba l i m p ro vi s a t i o ns o f t h e l y ra p l a y e r a nd m a l e gu e s t s . In t h i s s e c t i o n I s h a l l p ro vi de e xa m p l e s o f t h e e s s e nt i a l i nt e rp l a y be t we e n t h e s e e l e m e nt s i n t h e c re a t i o n o f a c o m m u ni t y o f m a c h i s m o a t t h e c e l e bra t i o n. Th e p ri m e l o c u s fo r ve rba l i m p ro vi s a t i o n i s i n t h e rh y m i ng c o u p l e t s kno wn a s m a nt i na de s ([m a ndi na de s ]; s i ngu l a r m a nt i na da [m a ndi na da ]). Fo rm a l l y , a m a nt i na da i s de fi ne d a s a c o u p l e t o f t wo rh y m i ng l i ne s , a l m o s t a l wa y s o f 15 s y l l a bl e s e a c h ; i n p e rfo rm a nc e , e a c h m a nt i na da i s e l a bo ra t e d be y o nd i t s m e t ri c a l "c o re " by re p e t i t i o n o f p a rt s o f t h e l i ne a nd by t h e a ddi t i o n o f no n-m e t ri c a l wo rds a nd i nt e rje c t i o ns s u c h a s "a m a .n", wh i c h h a ve l i t t l e o r no m e a ni ng i n c o nt e xt (Ro de ri c k Be a t o n, p e rs . c o m m .). Th o s e u s u a l l y s u ng a t we ddi ngs a re c a l l e d t ra gt i di a t u gdm u ("s o ngs o f t h e we ddi ng"), a l t h o u gh t h e s e s a m e m a nt i na de s m a y be m e m o ri s e d a nd s u ng a t p a ni y i ri a o r "fe s t i ve ga t h e ri ngs " a nd "fe a s t s " a nd o n na m e da y s . In i t s ge ne ra l de s c ri p t i ve m e a ni ng o f "rh y m i ng c o u p l e t s ", t h e t e rm m a nt i na de s i s a l s o a p p l i e d t o t h ri ni (fro m a nc i e nt t h re no s ; "l a m e nt s ", i nc l u di ng wo m e n's m i ro l 6y i a ) a nd t o di m o t i kd t ra gu di a ("fo l ks o ngs "). Ma nt i na da re l a t e s m o re s p e c i fi c a l l y h o we ve r t o t h e c o u p l e t s i nt o ne d by m e n i n a va ri e t y o f c o nt e xt s , wh e t h e r a t we ddi ngs , o t h e r fe s t i ve o c c a s i o ns , o r i n t h e c o ffe e h o u s e . Fi gs 4 t o 6 re l a t e t o a p e rfo rm a nc e o f a s i ngl e m a nt i na da by t h e l y ra p l a y e r Di m i t ri s Pa s p a ri ki s a t a we ddi ng i n t h e vi l l a ge o f Ano y i a i n Ju ne 1991, a c c o m p a ni e d by Va nge l i s Al e ks i ki s a nd Va s i l i s Si gl e t o s o n l a o u t a . Th i s m a nt i na da (fi g. 4) i s a s t a nda rd l y ri c s u i t a bl e fo r we ddi ngs . Th o u gh s u ng by t h e l y ra p l a y e r, i t i s a de di c a t i o n fro m t h e h u s ba nd t o h i s wi fe wh i c h be gi ns t o s p e l l o u t t h e o bl i ga t i o ns t h a t s h e wi l l be e xp e c t e d t o c a rry o u t i n h e r m a rri a ge . Sh e i s p u t u nde r a n o bl i ga t i o n t o e ngra ve h e r na m e o n h e r h u s ba nd's c ro s s a ft e r h i s de a t h . Wh e n h e di e s i t i s a s i f s h e wi l l di e wi t h h i m . Gi ve n t h e fa c t t h a t a l l t h e m u s i c i a ns a re m e n, t h i s l y ri c m a y c o nt ri bu t e t o t h e c o nfi rm a t i o n o f a ki nd o f 7 De s p i t e t h e i m p o rt a nc e o f we ddi ngs a nd t h e p o s s i bi l i t y o f e xp l o ri ng h o w ge nde r i de nt i t i e s a nd re l a t i o ns a re c o l l e c t i ve l y e l a bo ra t e d a t t h e m , t h e e t h no gra p h i c l i t e ra t u re o n Gre e c e c o nt a i ns l i t t l e i nfo rm a t i o n o n m u s i c a l p e rfo rm a nc e a t t h e s e e ve nt s . Fo r p a s s i ng re fe re nc e s o nl y s e e Fri e dl 62: 57, Ca m p be l l 1964, Gre ge r 1985: 62-4, He rzfe l d 1985: 63-5 a nd Ll e we l l y n-Sm i t h 1973: 6. Bu t Co wa n (1990) h a s wri t t e n e xt e ns i ve l y o n t h e ro l e o f t h e da nc e e ve nt i n a Ma c e do ni a n c o m m u ni t y (m e nt i o ni ng t h e ro l e o f gy p s y m u s i c i a ns ), a nd Ca ra ve l i (1985) h a s wri t t e n a bo u t c e l e bra t i o ns i n a c o m m u ni t y o n Ka i p a t h o s . Se e Ka l o y a ni de s 1975 fo r a n e xt e ns i ve m u s i c o l o gi c a l a na l y s i s o f t h e m u s i c o f t h e Cre t a n da nc e s (a s m e t ri c a l fo rm s ). 100 Bri t i s h Jo u rna l o fEt h no m u s i c o l o gy , vo l . 5 (1996) p h a l l i c , m a s c u l i ne a u t h o ri t y , t h a t wi l l i de a l l y be re fl e c t e d i n t h e re l a t i o ns h i p o f t h e m a rri e d c o u p l e i n wh o s e h o no u r t h e y a re l e a di ng t h e c e l e bra t i o n. Th i s m a nt i na da i s u s u a l l y s u ng u p o n Cre t e 's m o s t p o p u l a r da nc e fo rm , t h e s y rt o s [s i rt 6s ], wh i c h i s de s c ri be d by Ka l o y a ni de s (1975: 98) a s t h e "s h u ffl i ng" da nc e o f Cre t e , i n a 2/4 p u l s e wh i c h va ri e s i n s p e e d fro m m o de ra t e t o fa s t . A s h o rt l y ra p re l u de ba s e d u p o n ko ndi l i e s (m e l o di c c o u p l e t s o f l i m i t e d ra nge ; ri ffs o r t h e m e s ) m a de p o p u l a r by Andr6a s Ro di no s (1912-34) (fi g. 5) p ro vi de s t h e ba s i c m e l o di c m a t e ri a l fo r t h e m a nt i na da , wh i c h i s i nt e rs p e rs e d wi t h s h o rt l y ra s o l o s i n p e rfo rm a nc e (fi g. 6). Th e l y ra p l a y e r do e s no t u s u a l l y s i ng a nd p l a y s i m u l - t a ne o u s l y i n l i ve p e rfo rm a nc e . Fi g. 4: Tra ns l a t i o n o f t h e m a nt i na da s u ng o n t h e Ro di no s s y rt o s 8 Ai de s a n a p o t h i no a m rn a p o t h a no , a m a n a p o t h , no 6na ke ri n, a m dn a p o t h i no e na ke ri ki m i a l a ba da a ndp s i s , a de s a m a n ki m i a l a bi da a na p s i s . Ai de s ke t ' o no m a s u s t o s t a vr6 a de s t ' o no m a s u s t o s t a vr6 t u t a fu m u na gri p s i s , a i de s a m dn t u t a fu m u na gra i p s i s . Wh e n I di e , I di e , I di e , a c a ndl e wh e n I di e a c a ndl e a nd a bi g c a ndl e y o u s h o u l d l i gh t a nd a bi g c a ndl e y o u s h o u l d l i gh t . And y o u r na m e o n m y gra ve -c ro s s , y o u r na m e o n t h e gra ve -c ro s s o f m y gra ve y o u s h o u l d wri t e , o f m y gra ve y o u s h o u l d wri t e . Fi g. 5: Op e ni ng t h e m e o f t h e Ro di no s s y rt o s , p l a y e d o n t h e l y ra . J =12s 5 L f f, t frji j n I J 8 I i nc l u de p h o ne t i c a nd Engl i s h ve rs i o ns h e re . Th e u nde rl y i ng m e t ri c a l , rh y m i ng c o u p l e t i s u nde rl i ne d. Ai de s , dde s a nd a m dn a re i nt e rje c t i o ns wi t h o u t p re c i s e m e a ni ng, wh i c h I h a ve no t a t t e m p t e d t o t ra ns l a t e , a l t h o u gh a m a n i m p l i e s gri e f. In t h e Cre t a n di a l e c t ke ("a nd") i s p ro no u nc e d "c h e " (a s i n "c h e s s "). Da we : Th e e nge nde re d l y ra 101 Fi g. 6: Ma nt i na da s u ng o n t h e Ro di no s s y rt o s e =125 I=~=~-?a 4I I "A f l e - , R , I P. -.4 ~~i - ~ i ~ Ai -de s - a _.._ - na " -p o -t VA-Do a - L~ r " l I I JT'-I I.t , i dH n ^ ' II l y ra s o l o i rn ()Po -t h i - no e na ke - n ."'--, n--r t a I1 ~.r ^ -'j ! : ~, l J, ..m -i a -i n)(a )p o -t h A-ro 6 - a - ke - ri ki m i a (l a )b&'-da J j4J j Iy rv s o l o (&)a )p _ - 3i s , _ IJ ~~~~~~~ Il y L ^ ^ 1 l -j| J" !Ji > I Jrjd] Ij U6" & - de s a - m a nki . m i a l a - ba - de (a )np - s i s . h L I j Ii n n - T fl TJ I^ -K-+ '7L A - de s At t o 0 - no -DA 3 U I 0 1 I 0I ' t 06-no -m i 3Su 3 3t A - VXo ke I - no -r Su SID a -?rr6 A t u i -fu m u na . gri p -s i s - - - I j .- I 4 I --I - 4 , IJ J I J II a &-de s a -m a n t u t -fu m u na gra - p - s i 3. s o l o A fu rt h e r e xc e rp t fro m t h e s a m e we ddi ng, a nd by t h e s a m e p e rfo rm e rs , i s s h o wn i n fi gu re s 7 t o 16. Unl i ke t h e s t a nda rd, re l a t i ve l y fi xe d m a t i na da t e xt a bo ve , t h e c o u p l e t s i n fi g. 9 a re i m p ro vi s e d. He re , ve rba l i m p ro vi s a t i o ns t a ke p l a c e u p o n t h e Ano y i a ne s ko ndi l i e s ("m e l o di c c o u p l e t s fro m Ano y i a vi l l a ge ") wi t h a n e i gh t -be a t , fo u r-ba r c y c l e , i n t h e s l o w s i ga no s da nc e i n 2/4.9 A t e ns e a nd e xc i t i ng dy na m i c i s c re a t e d be t we e n t h e ve rba l c o nt e s t s o f l y ra p l a y e r (D. Pa s p a ri dki s ) a nd gu e s t s , gu e s t a nd gu e s t , a nd, h e re , t h e s u p p o rt i ng ro l e o f t h e l y ra a nd l a o u t a t h e m e s - ke p t a s s i m p l e re p e t i t i o n a nd fi l l -i ns be t we e n ve rba l c o u p l e t s . Th e m e 1 o f Ano y i a ne s ko ndi l i e s be gi ns (fi g. 7). Th e l y ra p l a y e r t h e n s t o p s p l a y i ng a nd i nt o ne s 9 Th e s i ga n6s u s u a l l y l e a ds i nt o t h e fa s t e r p e nt o zdl i s o r m a l e vi zi 6t i s da nc e s . l y ra s o l o ke s o l o Z9 - I m g m g ke 102 Bri t i s h Jo u rna l o f Et h no m u s i c o l o gy , vo l . 5 (1996) a m a nt i na da , p l a y i ng s h o rt l y ra s o l o s be t we e n l i ne s (fi gs . 8-10). Th e n t h e c o u p l e t s i n fi gu re s 11-12 a re i nt o ne d. Fi g. 7: Th e m e 1 o f Ano y i a ne s ko ndi l i e s J =80 _11 J L i - ^ Ir 6- ^ -*? Fi g. 8: Ma nt i na de s s u ng o n Ano y i a nds ko ndi l i ds (e xa m p l e ) D . _ w~~~~~~~~ w F | s r= E fl J , ^ IrIf J I Fi g. 8: Ma nt i na de s s u ng o n Ano y i a ne 's ko ndi l i e 's (e xa m p l e ) t i II- , -- - I J .18 -6- _ _ _-W 1 1 x I 4-* Zu - bu -l i m u p o -l i -h m o - i 6 Zu - bu -l i m u p o -l i -h ro -m o - y a p e s m u p 6s o 5 ki -n's , " p u vri s -ko -de i o -m o r-fi e s m l *, a ~a ra ~~ I_________I I 1 (? I N _ _ _ JJ J J I J . I Ike i m i -i o -di e s p u vga -ni s ? Fi g. 9: Tra ns l a t i o n o f t h e m a nt i na de s i n fi g. 8 (e xt e nde d) Zu bu l i m u p o l i h ro m o zu bu l i m u p o h h ro m o y a p e s m u p 6s t o ka ni s . My m u l t i c o l o u re d fl o we r (h y a c i nt h ) m y m u l t i c o l o u re d h y a c i nt h c o m e , t e l l m e h o w y o u do i t , l y ra s o l o Co m e , t e l l m e h o w y o u do i t t ) Ya p e s m u p 6s t o ka 'm 's t o , Da we : Th e e nge nde re d l y ra 103 p '1 vrfs ko de i o m o rfl e 's ke i m i ro di s p u vg'1ni s ? wh e re c a n be fo u nd t h e be a u t i e s a nd t h e s c e nt s y o u a re p ro du c i ng? l y ra s o l o Zu bi l l i m u p o l i h ro m o zu bi l l i m u p o l i l h ro m o t o p i o ka l 6 s u a p ' o l a ': My m u l t i c o l o u re d h y a c i nt h m y m u l t i c o l o u re d h y a c i nt h t h e be s t a bo u t y o u i s : l y ra s o l o To p i o ka l o 6 s u a p ' o l a : p i o s t h a s e di ke de n t h a p i . "h a r6-t i ne t i n vi 6l a "? l y ra s o l o a nd l i nk t o t h e ne w t h e m e : Fi g. 10: Ne w t h e m e Pl a y e d s i x t i m e s . A i 79) i : Th e be s t a bo u t y o u i s : wh o wi l l s e e y o u a nd no t s a y ".-Lwe l c o m e fl o we r"? W 4. Fi g. 11: Ma nt i na de s (a )'0 Ya s e rm m u , e 'ba s t o p e ri v6l i m u ki 6t i t h 6l i s k6p s e . My ja s m i ne : e nt e r m y ga rde n a nd p i c k wh a t e ve r y o u wa nt , . l y ra s o l o Ki 6't i t h dl i s k6p s e , 6t i ki a n dh i o ki p o s m u i ne di ka d s u a p o 6p s e . l y ra s o l o fr-t h a ne ki i 'p a ne m u na [...I na t i n e vdl l o ki p u r6 s t e s vi 6l e s t u ba ks e ' m u . And p i c k wh a t e ve r y o u wa nt , wh a t e ve r m y ga rde n h a s i s y o u rs t o ni gh t . Th e y c a m e a nd t o l d m e [...] t o p u t h e r [u ns p e c i fi e d] a s a ga rde ne r fo r t h e fl o we rs i n m y ga rde n. l y ra s o l o 10 Ro de ri c k Be a t o n no t e s t h a t "Th s e xa m p l e c o ns i s t s o f t wo m a nt i na de s (c o u p l e t s ) o f wh i c h t h e s e c o nd, c o nt a i ne d i n t h e l a s t t h re e l i ne s a s wri t t e n, i s i m p e rfe c t l y fo rm e d, p ro ba bl y a s a re s u l t o f i m p ro vi s a t i o n." He go e s o n t o s a y t h a t , i n t h e l a s t t h re e l i ne s , "Th e i de a i s t h a t t h e ga rde ne r p ro t e c t s t h e fl o we rs a ga i ns t be i ng p i c ke d." (Be a t o n, p e rs . c o m m . 1997) 104 Bri t i s h Jo u rna l o f Et h no m u s i c o l o gy , vo l . S (1996) Fi g. 12: Ma nt i na da (b)'1 IGu e s t One : El a , Ebi ka ni 6s a s t o ba ks e '. ke de n bo r6 na di a l &ks o . 91u e s t Two : Op a ! ke de n bo r6 na di a l 6ks o ! Gu e s t One : Ke de n bo r6 na di a l 6ks o , t i vi 6l a t i ka l ft e ri . nk6s e na m a z6p s o . c o m e ! I've e nt e re d m y ga rde n a nd I c a n't c h o o s e Hu rra h ! And I c a n't c h o o s e ! And I c a n't c h o o s e t h e be s t fl o we r t o p i c k a nd c u t . To c h a nge t o a no t h e r t h e m e , Pa s p a ri ki s c l o s e s t h e s e c t i o n wi t h a s h o rt l i nki ng p h ra s e o n t h e l y ra (fi g. 13). Th e l a c u t o c h o rds (fi g. 13, l a s t ba r) no w p ro vi de t h e ba c kgro u nd a ga i ns t wh i c h Pa s p a ri ki s i nt ro du c e s ne w t h e m a t i c m a t e ri a l , ba s e d u p o n t h e m e 7 o f t h e Ano y i a ne 's ko ndi l i e 's (fi g. 14). Fi g. 13: Cl o s i ng p h ra s e o f s e c t i o n A i . Fi g. 14, - Ano y i a rds ko ndi l i i s t h e m e 7 A 1- MH w - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - -Z L . . . MR . . . I I I I I I I . I I n I I WWWW' - - .A I - I -j -A , %: J-r - ki I I I Il i i 9) - I , W.4" w - w ww w Two m a l e gu e s t s s t a rt s i ngi ng a ga i n (fi g. 15). He re , t h e y je s t wi t h t h e i de a o f h e l p i ng t h e ne wl y -m a rri e d m a n c o m m i t a du l t e ry -"-~s h e wi l l no t s e e y o u , s h e wi l l no t be je a l o u s o f y o u ". Fi na l l y , t h e m a nt i na de s c l o s e wi t h t h e t h e m e i n fi g. 16. II "Th i s i s o ne m a t i na da (c o u p l e t ) o f wh i c h t h e s e c o nd h a l f o f t h e fi rs t l i ne (kc e de n bo r6 di a l dks o ) i s u rnm e t ri c a l " (R. Be a t o n, p e rs . c o m m ., 1997). o ff I LF' 9% I - - .... l l l [ rm n I - t r El I i d i d El A7[jjt 7 IA'UZf.If Da we : Th e e nge nde re d l y ra 105 Fi g. 15: Ma nt i na da (c )12 Gu e s t Two : El a s t i s h a r6s ki 61a t i s t a p l u t i , Gu e s t One : Ki 61a t i s t a p l u t i ki 61a t i s t a p l u t i , Gu e s t Two : Op a ! Ki 61a t i s t a p l u t i , ki 61a t i s t a p l u t i , Gu e s t One : El a p u i l i m u i s t a , y i a l 6- y i a l 6 m u ke a n de n s e di , ke de n s e ka vga ds i Gu e s t Two : Op a ! s e ka ga di 's i , Gu e s t One : Ke de n s e ka vga dfs i , ke de n s e ka vga di s i , ne f6ro a p 6 t o n p l i t a no ne ro na s e p o t i s i . "Co m e t o h e r jo y s a nd a l l o f h e r ri c h e s "13 And a l l o f h e r ri c h e s And a l l o f h e r ri c h e s , Hu rra h ! And a l l o f h e r ri c h e s a nd a l l o f h e r ri c h e s , Co m e m y bi rd l e a ve t h e m o n t h e s h o re s h e wi l l no t s e e y o u , a nd s h e wi l l no t be je a l o u s o f y o u Hu rra h ! Je a l o u s o f y o u , And i f s h e do e s 'nt m a ke a je a l o u s qu a rre l wi t h y o u , a nd i f s h e do e s 'nt m a ke a je a l o u s qu a rre l wi t h y o u , I'l l bri ng wa t e r fro m t h e p l a ne -t re e t o wa t e r y o u . 14 Fi g. 16: Cl o s i ng p h ra s e LYRA ri t .................... In t h e p e rfo rm a nc e de s c ri be d h e re , o ne no t i c e s fi rs t l y h o w t h e m a nt i na de s , wi t h c o nt ri bu t i o ns fro m t h e m a l e gu e s t s , c o ns t ru c t a "c o m m u ni t y o f m a s c u l i ni t y " ba s e d o n m a c h o t h e m e s , a nd s e c o ndl y h o w t h e l y ra p l a y e r c o nt ro l s t h e e ve nt - m o vi ng p e o p l e fro m t h e m e t o t h e m e . 12"Onl y o ne m a nt i na da , p re c e de d by fo rm nnu l a i c p h ra s e s " (Be a t o n, p e rs . c o m m . 1997). 13 A we l l kno wn Cre t a n e xp re s s i o n a bo u t a wo m a n's (a ny wo m a n's ) c h a ra c t e r. 14 Ac c o rdi ng t o Ro de ri c k Be a t o n (p e rs . c o m m . 1997), t h e l a s t e i gh t l i ne s c a n be p a ra p h ra s e d t o : "i f y o u r wi fe do e s n't c a t c h y o u ru nni ng l o o s e , a nd s o do e s n't gi ve y o u a h a rd t i m e , I'l l bri ng wa t e r fro m t h e l o c a l / vi l l a ge s p ri ng (t ra di t i o na l l y u nde r t h e p l a ne -t re e ) t o m a ke y o u fe e l be t t e r." He go e s o n t o s u gge s t a fu rt h e r i nt e rp re t a t i o n: "i f y o u do n't ge t l a i d i n a l l t h e l e ngt h o f t h e s e a s h o re , m a y be we c a n fi nd y o u a l i t t l e bi t ri gh t h e re i n t h e vi l l a ge " (p l a y i ng o n t h e t ra di t i o na l s y m bo l i s m o f wa t e r a s t h e a nt i do t e t o t h e "fi re s " o f s e xu a l p a s s i o n). 106 Bri t i s h Jo u rna l o f Et h no m u s i c o l o gy , vo l . 5 (1996) Mu s i c a l s ki l l s a re p u s h e d t o t h e l i m i t s wi t h i nc re a s i ng i nt e ns i t y a s t h e s p e e d a nd rh y t h m s o f t h e da nc e s a re a l t e rna t e d i n ra p i d s u c c e s s i o n; t h e vi rt u o s o i m p ro vi s a t i o ns o f t h e l y ra p l a y e r fe e d o ff t h e a c ro ba t i c s o f t h e da nc e rs (e s p e c i a l l y t h e l e a d da nc e r). Th e re i s a m o ve m e nt a wa y fro m kno wn m e l o di c m a t e ri a l a c c o m p a ni e d by a n i nt e ns i fi c a t i o n o f m e l o di c a nd rh y t h m i c i nve nt i o n wh o s e "h i gh s " a re p u nc t u a t e d wi t h c ri e s o f "Op a !" (a c ry o f e nc o u ra ge m e nt ). Th e s e p ro c e s s e s c o ns t i t u t e t h e m a i n m e a ns by wh i c h ke fi ("h i gh s p i ri t s ") i s o rga ni s e d a nd o rc h e s t ra t e d by t h e l y ra p l a y e r. Th e m u s i c a l s t ra t e gi e s o f m u s i c i a ns , t h e i r m a ni p u l a t i o n o f m u s i c a l t h e m e s , t e m p o s a nd i m p ro vi s a t i o ns -a s e l s e wh e re - o c c u r i n a wa y wh i c h t a ke s i nt o a c c o u nt a nd m a na ge s t h e m o o ds a nd s o u nds o f t h e t o t a l e nvi ro nm e nt (i nc l u di ng t h e p u nc t u a t i o ns o f gu nfi re a t vi l l a ge c e l e bra t i o ns ) i n t h e i r a t t e m p t s t o o rc h e s t ra t e a s u c c e s s fu l p e rfo rm a nc e -o ne t h a t i s c o nvi vi a l fo r p a rt i c i p a nt s a nd p ro fi t a bl e fo r m u s i c i a ns (s e e fi g. 17). Fi g. 17: Im p ro vi s a t i o n o n t h e Pro t o s s y rt o s t h e m e s (Ano y i a vi l l a ge , 29.vi .91; D. Pa s p a rAki s , l y ra ; X = s i ngl e ro u nd o f gu nfi re ) J=12s Jj { | | Y t L: | - l zs T e gu nfi re : X X X X X X X X e xp re s s i o no fjo y a dw t h I o n o f m c i i e l (s e Ne go M M w , 19 67: 61 4, *'^ 1r HrJ 1 ) Th o e p n i t a t h g t 1 7 wr ^ T., 44 -x , . n .I, _ "Op a l Op a l " . /_a Th e re a re t wo p o i nt s t o m a ke a bo u t t h e ro l e o f gu nfi re i n t h e fl o w o f m u s i c a l e ve nt s . One i s t h a t i t i s a m o m e nt o f h i gh -s p i ri t e d p e rfo rm a nc e by o ne o r m o re o f t h e m a l e gu e s t s m a rki ng a de c i s i ve c o nt ri bu t i o n t o a c o m m u na l m a c h i s m o . Th e s o u nd o f gu nfi re h a s m a ny a s s o c i a t i o ns , a nd i n Cre t e i t i s a s s o c i a t e d wi t h t h e e xp re s s i o n o f jo y a nd wi t h t h e p ro je c t i o n o f m a s c u l i ne i de a l s (s e e Ne e dh a m 1967: 614, He rzfe l d 1985: 68). Th e o t h e r p o i nt i s t h a t t h e gu ns h o t s i n fi g. 17 we re de l i be ra t e l y "a i m e d" t o c o i nc i de wi t h t h e re t u rn o f t h e m e 1. Th i s i s c o m m o n p ra c t i c e . Da we : Th e e nge nde re d l y ra 107 We s t e rn m u s i c o l o gi c a l t e c h ni qu e s o f a na l y s i s re ve a l m u s i c i a ns ' s ki l l a t l i nki ng t o ge t h e r h i gh l y o rna m e nt e d t h e m e s . Indi ge no u s t h e o ry t o o a c kno wl e dge s t h e s i gni fi c a nc e o f t h i s a s p e c t o f l y ra i m p ro vi s a t i o n. Cre t a n m u s i c i a ns a nd a u di e nc e s c o m m e nt e d o n h o w vi rt u o s o p l a y e rs m o ve fro m o ne t h e m e t o a no t h e r, no t i ng t h e "m a nl y " s ki l l (i .e . c o nt ro l , fl u e nc y ) wi t h wh i c h t h e y l i nk t h e m t o ge t h e r. An e xa m p l e i s s h o wn i n fi g. 18. Fi g. 18: Fu rt h e r t h e m e s a nd l i nka ge m a t e ri a l fro m t h e Ano y i a ne s ko ndi l i e s s u i t e a s p e rfo rm e d by D. Pa s p a rdki s (Ano y i d vi l l a ge , 29.vi .91) J =100 Tm ^ gx 9 x LINK xl x , , , - L ~ X 0 I "s -' j_ D'_j _ '1 THEMEX , I-i -=_- I _ Th i s s e c t i o n h a s l o o ke d bri e fl y a t h o w t h e m u s i c i a n c o nt ro l s t h e s o ni c t e xt u re o f t h e e ve nt , u t i l i s i ng m u s i c a l a nd "no n-m u s i c a l " s o u nds , we a vi ng t h e no n-ve rba l a nd ve rba l c o m p o ne nt s o f p e rfo rm a nc e a s t h e m a t i c m a t e ri a l s . In t h e ne xt s e c t i o n we l o o k a t h o w t h e "m a nl y " a nd "no t -s o -m a nl y " e l e m e nt s o f m u s i c a l p e rfo rm a nc e a re wo ve n t o ge t h e r. Ge nde r ne go t i a t i o n a nd m u s i c a l p e rfo rm a nc e Wh a t h a s be e n s a i d s o fa r s e e m s t o s u p p o rt t h e no t i o n o f a m a l e -do m i na t e d s o c i e t y wi t h no c o m p u nc t i o n a bo u t ke e p i ng wo m e n a nd o t h e r m e n u nde r c o nt ro l . Th e be h a vi o u r, i m a ge ry a nd rh e t o ri c s u rro u ndi ng m u s i c a l p e rfo rm a nc e wo u l d h a ve u s be l i e ve t h a t t h e re i s no ro o m fo r s u c h t h i ngs a s s e ns i t i vi t y , s we e t ne s s , e m o t i o n a nd p l a y . Bu t t h e re a re a p p a re nt l o o p h o l e s i n t h e m a nl y t ro p e (t h e i de a l t h a t m e n a re a l wa y s "i n c o nt ro l ") t h a t a l l o w m e n t o s t e p o ve r t h e l i ne a l i t t l e , t o p u s h a t t h e bo u nda ri e s o f m a nh o o d a nd m a nl y be h a vi o u r, e ve n t h o u gh t h i s i s u l t i m a t e l y c o ve re d u p u nde r t h e bl a nke t o f a m a n's de m a nd t o be t a ke n s e ri o u s l y -a nd e ve n i n a dru nke n s t u p o r a m a n be c o m e s t h e fo c u s o f a t t e nt i o n a t 108 Bri t i s h Jo u rna l o f Et h no m u s i c o l o gy , vo l . 5 (1996) l e a s t fo r a s h o rt t i m e .15 Inde e d, "a c e l e bra t i o n o f u nru l y s e l fh o o d" (e p i t o m i s e d by a ni m a l t h e ft ) i s c e nt ra l t o t h e "p o e t i c s o f m a nh o o d" de s c ri be d by He rzfe l d (1985: 272). At c e l e bra t i o ns o t h e r m e n re l y o n t h e vi rt u o s i c i m p ro vi s a t i o ns o f t h e l y ra p l a y e r t o h o l d t h e c o m m u ni t y o f m a c h i s m o t o ge t h e r, wh i l s t t h e y p l a y , fl o u t t h e l a w a nd t a ke m i no r ri s ks i n p u bl i c . Th e p e rfo rm a nc e o f m a c h i s m o by m u s i c i a ns i nvo l ve s i nt e ns e ne go t i a t i o n a nd de l i c a t e h a ndl i ng. Si nc e m u s i c a l p e rfo rm a nc e h a s t o a p p e a r m a nl y i n a c o nt e xt wh e re c e rt a i n m a nl y be a ri ngs a re t a ke n fo r gra nt e d, t h e p e rfo rm e r h a s t o o ve rs t a t e , a nd t o o ve rs t a t e wi t h c a re a nd p re c i s i o n. A c o nt ra di c t i o n e m e rge s wh e n t h e i de o l o gy o f m a c h o s p o nt a ne i t y , ro u gh ne s s e t c . i s c o nfro nt e d by t h e p ra c t i c a l de m a nds o f p e rfo rm a nc e , re qu i ri ng c a re fu l s t a ge -m a na ge m e nt o f i m p re s s i o ns a nd a p p e a ra nc e s . I o bs e rve d h o w c o nc e rne d m u s i c i a ns we re a bo u t t h e i r a p p e a ra nc e , s e e n fo r e xa m p l e i n t h e u s e o f h a i rs p ra y (s o m e l y ra p l a y e rs wo u l d s i t i n t h e c a r a ft e r a we ddi ng p ro c e s s i o n a nd be fo re p l a y i ng a t t h e we ddi ng p a rt y a nd s p ra y a nd c o m b t h e i r h a i r a nd m o u s t a c h e ) a nd t h e we a ri ng o f je we l l e ry (o rna t e ne c kl a c e s , ri ngs a nd e xp e ns i ve de s i gne r wa t c h e s ). Ly ra p l a y e rs a l s o h a ve t o t a ke gre a t c a re o f t h e i r na i l s ! (Th e p l a y i ng t e c h ni qu e o f t h e l y ra de m a nds l o ng na i l s .) Mo re t h a n va ni t y , i m p l i c i t m e a ni ngs a re i nvo l ve d t h a t c o u nt e r t h i s s l i de i nt o "t h e e ffe m i na t e ". Ta ki ng c a re o f h i s a p p e a ra nc e s h o ws t h e p e rfo rm e r i s i n c o nt ro l , no t o nl y o f h i s m u s i c bu t a l s o o f h i s bo dy : h e i s s i gna l l i ng t h a t h e wi l l be i n c o nt ro l o f t h e c e l e bra t i o n t o o . A p ro fe s s i o na l jo b wi l l be do ne . He i s wo rt h t h e m o ne y , p e o p l e h a ve i nve s t e d i n h i m be fo re (a s t h e je we l l e ry p ro ve s ). Ma nt i na de s o ft e n go be y o nd t h e i m a ge ry o f m a c h i s m o i nt o da i l y e ve nt s , p o l i t i c s a nd h i s t o ry . Ac c o rdi ng t o Ari s t i di s He ri t i s , a p o e t fro m Ano y i a vi l l a ge , m a nt i na de s di s p l a y t h e s e ns i t i vi t y a nd s t ro ng h e a rt o f t h e p e rfo rm e r/wri t e r. A gi ft e d o bs e rve r o f l i fe , t o rt u re d i ns i de , h e i s s t ro ng e no u gh t o be a bl e t o c o nt ro l h i s e m o t i o ns a nd t o s h a re h i s re ve l a t i o ns -t o c o p e wi t h a l l l i fe c a n t h ro w a t h i m . Ari s t i di s ' m a nt i na de s go be y o nd c o m p e t i t i ve m a nl y jo u s t s a t c e l e bra t i o ns o r i n t h e c o ffe e h o u s e s t o de s c ri be a t t a c h m e nt t o p l a c e (vi l l a ge , t o wn, c i t y , a re gi o n) a nd t o a n e nvi ro nm e nt h e h a d t o l e a rn t o wo rk wi t h i n a s a s h e p h e rd. Ari s t i di s s u m m a ri s e s t h e i r s u bje c t m a t t e r a s "l o ve , p a s s i o n, a nd t h e e nvi ro nm e nt ". Th e re a s o n t o wri t e i s i i di a i zo i -"l i fe i t s e l f'. Th e s u bje c t i s l i fe . Th e m o o n, a wo m a n's e y e s , o bs e rva t i o ns o f na t u re , "t h i ngs t h a t p e o p l e m i s s ", a re i m p o rt a nt t o Ari s t i di s . Ma nt i na de s re ve a l a ga i n t h e l a t i t u de wh i c h e na bl e s s o m e m e n t o e xp re s s t h e i r fe e l i ngs i n bo t h h a rs h a nd s we e t e r t o ne s o f vo i c e . Ho we ve r, i n t h e fa c e o f t h e fo rc e fu l m a nh o o d i de a l s e ndo rs e d by t h e c o m m u ni t y , t h i s "s e ns i t i ve m a nl i ne s s " i s a ga i n c o nt a i ne d, e xp l a i ne d, ne go t i a t e d a nd m o bi l i s e d i n rh e t o ri c a s e m bl e m a t i c o f 15 Co wa n (1990: 227) re m a rks : "At t ri bu t e d t o o ve r-dri nki ng, qu a rre l s a nd o t h e r di s ru p t i ve a c t s a re s e e n a s e vi de nc e o f a m a n's ...'l i ve l i ne s s ', h i s de m a nd t o be t a ke n s e ri o u s l y 'a s a m a n'. " Th i s i s i n l i ne wi t h m y o wn e xp e ri e nc e : a t a l l bu t t wo o f t h e gl e ndi (c e l e bra t i o ns ) I a t t e nde d, s h e p h e rds wo u l d be c a rri e d o ff, c u rs i ng, wo rs e fo r t h e we a r o f dri nk; o t h e r m e n wo u l d l a u gh a nd s h o u t "go o d p e rs o n!" (ka l 6s dnt h ro p o s ). In a ny c a s e a l l m e n a re i ndi vi du a l s wh o wi l l s o o ne r o r l a t e r h a ve t o re t u rn t o l i vi ng u p t o t h e m o re h o no u ra bl e wa y s o f be i ng a m a n i n t h e c o m m u ni t y , i .e . di s p l a y i ng "c o nt ro l " a nd c u nni ng i n t h e i r a c t i o ns (s e e a l s o He rzfe l d 1985). Da we : Th e e nge nde re d l y ra 109 a m o re re s i l i e nt , "t o u gh e r" m a s c u l i ni t y -wh i c h re m a i ns a t t h e c o re o f p a s t o ra l i s t i de o l o gy . Al o ngs i de t h e bro a de r ra nge o f s u bje c t s a nd t o ne o f vo i c e t h ro u gh wh i c h s o m e p o e t s e xp re s s t h e m s e l ve s i s t h e ra nge o f t i m bre s fo u nd o n t h e l y ra . So m e t i m e s t h e l y ra i t s e l f i s s a i d t o h a ve a "s we e t vo i c e " (gl i ki fo ni O. A c o m bi na t i o n o f gl i ko s ("s we e t ") a nd s kl i ro s ("h a rs h ") t o ne s (t e rm s p ro vi de d by m y m a l e i nfo rm a nt s ) do e s no t s e e m t o u nde rm i ne t h e "m a nl i ne s s " o f p e rfo rm a nc e . Th e "s we e t " t o ne i s s a i d t o re fl e c t t h e e fp dt h i a ("s e ns i t i vi t y ") o f m e n de m a ndi ng t o be "t a ke n s e ri o u s l y a s m e n" (Co wa n 1990: 227). Th e no t i o n o f "s we e t ne s s " i n t h i s c o nt e xt m i gh t be s u rp ri s i ng, bu t i t i s m e nt i o ne d a s s o m e t h i ng e xp e ri e nc e d by a "vi ri l e " m a n. I wa s t o l d t h a t h e a rt fe l t e m o t i o ns a re e xp re s s e d wi t h a "s t ro ng h e a rt " (di na t i ka rdi d).16 I c a n be s t de s c ri be m e n's t h o u gh t s o n t h e m a l e qu a l i t i e s o f vo c a l a nd i ns t ru - m e nt a l t o ne p ro du c t i o n by di s c u s s i ng t h e i r vi e ws o n t h e o nl y s e m i -p ro fe s s i o na l wo m a n l y ra p l a y e r o n t h e i s l a nd, As p a s i a Pa p a da ki s fro m t h e c i t y o f Ha ni a . Me n wo u l d s a y h o w m u c h t h e y re s p e c t e d h e r p l a y i ng s ki l l , bu t wo u l d t h e n go o n t o c o m m e nt a bo u t h e r s o u nd by s a y i ng "Bu t s h e i s no t a m a n, i s s h e ?" (Al l d de n i ne dndra s , e t s i de n i ne ), fo l l o we d by "Sh e i m i t a t e s m e n" (Mi m i t a i t u s a ndre s ). Th e fe w Cre t a n m e n i nt e re s t e d e no u gh t o c o m m e nt o n h e r a bi l i t i e s de s c ri be d h e r s i ngi ng a s gl i k6 o r "s we e t " a nd s a i d t h a t t h e y e njo y e d i t , e ve n t h o u gh t h e y di d no t l i s t e n t o h e r m u c h . Th e m e n's vo i c e s , Cre t a n m e n wo u l d s a y , a re p o l l di na t e s ("ve ry s t ro ng", "l o u d") o r s kl i re s ("h a rd a nd t o u gh "). To m y e a rs , t h i s wo m a n l y ra p l a y e r h a s a l i gh t s o u nd s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e vi o l i n i n t h e Cy c l a di c Is l a nds . Sh e s t i c ks t o t h e m e s wi t h o u t m u c h e l a bo ra t i o n o r i m p ro vi s a t i o n. Th e l y ra p l a y s s i m u l t a ne o u s l y wi t h t h e vo i c e o n h e r re c o rds (t h i s i s no t a l wa y s t h e c a s e o n m e n's re c o rds a nd c e rt a i nl y no t t h e c a s e a t c e l e bra t i o ns ), s o i t s s o no ri t i e s h e l p t o c o u nt e rba l a nc e h e r s o ft e r vo i c e , a l t h o u gh i t i s p l a y e d i n t h e h i gh e r re gi s t e r a s m u c h a s t h e l o we r. He r vo c a l e xc l a m a t i o ns a re no t a s fo rc e fu l , i nc l u di ng "Op a !" a nd "Am a (n)" bu t e xc l u di ng "E!" wh i c h c o m e s be fo re a c u rs e . Me n we re re l u c t a nt t o e l a bo ra t e a bo u t t h e wo rk o f As p a s i a Pa p a di ki s , bu t i m p l i c i t m e a ni ngs we re o bvi o u s . Th e m e n we re u nqu e s t i o ni ng be c a u s e t h e y s a i d t h a t t h e y h a d ne ve r t h o u gh t a bo u t i t -s h e i s a wo m a n! Wh a t e ve r t h e s o u nd, i t c a nno t be a s go o d a s t h a t o f a m a n! Th e l y ra i s a m a n's i ns t ru m e nt ! As p a s i a Pa p a di ki s a do p t s a s u bm i s s i ve a t t i t u de o n h e r re c o rd. Sh e t re a ds c a re fu l l y i n a m a l e do m a i n (a nd s h e do e s no t p l a y a t we ddi ngs ). Ti t l e d Ta Mo no p dt i a t u Po nu (Th e Pa t h s o f Pa i n), t h e re c o rd i s a c e l e bra t i o n o f h e r de vo t i o n t o a m a n. Th e "p a t h s o f p a i n" a re t h e t ri a l s a nd t ri bu l a t i o ns t h a t t h e y we nt t h ro u gh i n t h e i r re l a t i o ns h i p be fo re h e we nt a wa y t o s e a . Sh e i s wa i t i ng fo r h i m t o re t u rn, a nd a l l t h e s o ngs o n t h e a l bu m a re a bo u t h e r l o ngi ng t o s e e h i m a ga i n. On t h e c o ve r o f h e r re c o rd (fi g. 19), Pa p a da ki s we a rs a re d s c a rf, di s gu i s i ng t h e fa c t t h a t s h e i s a n o l de r wo m a n-gi rl s we a r re d, i t i s t h e c o l o u r o f p a s s i o n (p a t h o s ). Sh e i s l e s s t h re a t e ni ng i n t h e gu i s e o f a gi rl . Th e c o i ns a ro u nd h e r ne c k 16 Di na t 6s (s t ro ng, l o u d) c a n a l s o m e a n "vi ri l e " (c f. a ndri k6s ). 110 Bri t i s h Jo u rna l o fEt h no m u s i c o l o gy , vo l . 5 (1996) Fi g. 19: As p a s i a Pa p a ddki s re c o rd c o ve r, Cre t a p h o n, 1990 fl r ; : ~ .r i ' : 1 a re a s i gn o f fe rt i l i t y , a s i gn o f h e r "i nt e rna l " a s s e t -a nd c a n m e a n t h a t s h e i s e i t h e r m a rri e d o r a t l e a s t de vo t e d t o o ne m a n. He r p o s t u re i s o ne o f p ri de , no t a rro ga nc e , wi t h o ne h a nd o n h e r h i p (no t h e r wa i s t l i ke t h e m e n) a nd s h e h o l ds t h e l y ra -a s y m bo l o f t h e m a n s h e wa i t s fo r a nd h i s p o we r o ve r h e r-a s c o ns o l a t i o n. Th e s e e xa m p l e s h a ve s h o wn h o w a we l l -re h e a rs e d rh e t o ri c gu a ra nt e e s t h a t t h e m a nl y i de a l s o f p e rfo rm a nc e h a ng t o ge t h e r. Th e s y m bo l i s m o f l y ra m u s i c a nd t h e p ra c t i c e s o f m u s i c i a ns a re i ne xt ri c a bl y l i nke d t o Cre t a n i de a l s o f m a nh o o d. I h a ve u s e d He rzfe l d's s t u dy o f a Cre t a n m o u nt a i n vi l l a ge a s a t o u c h s t o ne fo r m y di s c u s s i o n o f m a nh o o d i n Cre t e . Bu t , a l t h o u gh t h e m a nh o o d de s c ri be d by h i m re s o na t e s t h ro u gh o u t m y o bs e rva t i o ns o f m u s i c a l p e rfo rm a nc e -a s o ne m i gh t e xp e c t , be c a u s e l y ra m u s i c i s s e e n a s e s s e nt i a l l y l i nke d t o vi l l a ge l i fe a nd e m bl e m a t i c o f Cre t e 's h e a rt l a nd by m o s t Cre t a ns -i t ve ry m u c h de p e nds o n c o nt e xt a s t o wh e n a t ru l y m a c h o e ve nt wi l l o c c u r (by a l l t h e c ri t e ri a m e nt i o ne d a bo ve ); a nd a t vi l l a ge s l i ke Ano y i a a nd t h e o ne de s c ri be d by He rzfe l d, t h i s i s l a rge l y c o nfi ne d t o c e l e bra t i o ns . Th e Cre t a n "h e a rt l a nd" a nd t h e i s l a nd's m u s i c i ndu s t ry a re be i ng p u l l e d e ve r m o re i nt o na t i o na l a nd i nt e rna t i o na l ne t wo rks wh e re t h e s y m bo l i c a l l y c ru c i a l no t i o n o f "c o nt ro l " l i e s "s o m e wh e re e l s e ". Ye t dra m a t i c s o c i a l c h a nge i n Cre t e , wi t h re fo rm u l a t i o ns o f s o c i a l l i fe , l e a ve l y ra Da we : Th e e nge nde re d l y ra 111 m u s i c a s a u ni qu e ve h i c l e fo r t h e wo rki ng o u t o f o l de r no t i o ns o f i de nt i t y wi t h ne we r o ne s -i n fa c t , fo r t h e wo rki ng o u t o f c o m p e t i ng di s c o u rs e s o f i de nt i t y . Pe t e r Lo i zo s no t e s t h a t a gri c u l t u ra l i s t s , wh o a re de p i c t e d a s e ffe m i na t e i n t h e rh e t o ri c o f Cre t a n s h e p h e rds , m a y "h a ve a di s c o u rs e i n wh i c h o t h e r c o nc e p t s a re fo re gro u nde d" (1994: 78), c o nc e p t s l i ke a nt h ro p i d o r "fe e l i ng fo r o ne 's fe l l o w h u m a ns " a s o p p o s e d t o e go i s m o s o r t h e m a nl y "s e l f-re ga rd" o f s h e p h e rds (He rzfe l d 1985: 11). It i s be c o m i ng i nc re a s i ngl y o bvi o u s t h a t m a nh o o d i s a c o m p l e x a nd nu a nc e d i s s u e , a nd t h a t di ffe ri ng no t i o ns o f m a nh o o d i nt e ra c t wi t h m u s i c a l p e rfo rm a nc e p ra c t i c e s .17 Ly ra m u s i c i a ns m u s t c o nt i nu e t o m a na ge t h e ga p be t we e n l o c a l a nd l o c a l , a nd l o c a l a nd no n-l o c a l wo rl ds , i f t h e y a re no t t o fi nd t h e i r s e ns e o f i de nt i t y i rre vo c a bl y t o rn a p a rt . Th i s "ga p " i s p e rh a p s p a rt i a l l y re c o nc i l e d by t h e fa c t t h a t t h e "l o c a l " c o nt i nu e s t o be t ra ns fo rm e d by gl o ba l p a t t e rns a nd t h a t t h e gl o ba l c o nt i nu e s t o be a p p re h e nde d i n Cre t a n t e rm s -t e rm s wh i c h a re c o nt i nu a l l y ne go t i a t e d t h ro u gh t h e dy na m i c i nt e rp l a y o f m u s i c , p o e t ry a nd i de a l s o f m a nh o o d. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I a m e xt re m e l y gra t e fu l t o Da vi d Hu gh e s a nd Ro de ri c k Be a t o n fo r t h e i r c o ns i de ra bl e h e l p wi t h t h e p re p a ra t i o n o f t h i s a rt i c l e . I p re s e nt e d s o m e o f t h e s e i de a s i n a p a p e r a t a Mu s i c a nd Ge nde r St u dy Da y , Mu s i c De p a rt m e nt , Uni ve rs i t y o f Yo rk, 17.v.96, a nd i n a s e m i na r a t Th e Qu e e n's Uni ve rs i t y o f Be l fa s t , De p a rt m e nt o f So c i a l Ant h ro p o l o gy , 28.i i .96. I wi s h t o t h a nk a l l c o l l e a gu e s p re s e nt fo r h e l p fu l c o m m e nt s a nd di s c u s s i o n. REFERENCES Abu -Lu gh o d, Li l a (1986) Ve i l e d s e nt i m e nt s : h o no u r a nd p o e t ry i n a Be do u i n s o c i e t y . Uni ve rs i t y o f Ca l i fo rni a Pre s s . Arde ne r, Edwi n (1989) Th e vo i c e o f p ro p h e c y . Oxfo rd: Ba s i l Bl a c kwe l l . Bo u rdi e u , Pi e rre (1977) Ou t l i ne o f a t h e o ry o f p ra c t i c e . Ca m bri dge Uni ve rs i t y Pre s s . Ca m p be l l , Jo h n (1964) Ho no u r, fa m i l y , a nd p a t ro na ge . Oxfo rd Uni ve rs i t y Pre s s . Ca ra ve l i , A. (1985) "Th e s y m bo l i c vi l l a ge . Co m m u ni t y bo m i n p e rfo rm a nc e ."Jo u rna l o f Am e ri c a n Fo l kl o re 98/389: 255-85. Cl a rk, Ma n (1983) "Va ri a t i o ns o n t h e m e s o f m a l e a nd fe m a l e : Re fl e c t i o ns o n ge nde r bi a s i n fi e l dwo rk i n ru ra l Gre e c e ." Wo m e n's St u di e s 102: 117-33. Co m wa l l , Andre a a nd Na nc y Li ndi s fa m e , e d. (1994) Di s l o c a t i ng m a s c u l i ni t y : c o m p a ra t i ve e t h no gra p h i e s . Lo ndo n: Ro u t l e dge . Co wa n, Ja ne (1990) Da nc e a nd t h e bo dy p o l i t i c i n No rt h e rn Gre e c e . Pri nc e t o n Uni ve rs i t y Pre s s . Da we , Ke vi n (1994) "Pe rfo rm a nc e a nd e nt re p re ne u ri a l i s m : t h e wo rk o f p ro fe s s i o na l m u s i c i a ns i n Cre t e ." Unp u bl i s h e d Ph D t h e s i s , Qu e e n's Uni ve rs i t y o f Be l fa s t . (m s s ) "Mi no t a u rs o r m u s o na u t s ? Cre t a n m u s i c , Cre t a n m u s i c i a ns , a nd 'wo rl d m u s i c '." Du bi s c h , Ji l l (e d.) (1986) Po we r a nd ge nde r i n ru ra l Gre e c e . Pri nc e t o n Uni ve rs i t y Pre s s . du Bo u l a y , Ju l i e t (1974) Po rt ra i t o f a Gre e k m o u nt a i n vi l l a ge . Oxfo rd Uni ve rs i t y Pre s s . 17 Fo r de c a di e s l y ra m u s i c h a s be e n a p ro fe s s i o na l e nt e rp ri s e wi t h m u s i c i a ns h o l di ng m o de rni s t - c a p i t a l i s t a s p i ra t i o ns t h a t be l o ng t o wo rl ds be y o nd t h e m o u nt a i n vi l l a ge . Ly ra do y e n a nd 'p ro t o m a s t e r' Th a nAs i s Sko rda l 6s do ns a bu s i ne s s s u i t a nd t i e . Th e 't e a c h e r o f Cre t a n m u s i c ', Di m ft ri s Pa s p a r"ki s , i nve s t s i n a l u xu ri o u s h o m e a nd c a r. Ma ny m u s i c i a ns wa nt a h o u s e "a s bi g a s Va s fl i s Sko u l s 's " (t h e Cre t a n m u s i c s u p e rs t a r). 112 Bri t i s h Jo u rna l f Et h no m u s i c o l o gy , vo l . 5 (1996) (1991) "Co s m o s a nd ge nde r i n vi l l a ge Gre e c e ." In P. Lo i zo s a nd E. Pa p a t a xi a rc h i s (e d.) Co nt e s t e d i de nt i t i e s : ge nde r a nd ki ns h i p i n m o de rn Gre e c e , p p . 54-72. Pri nc e t o n Uni ve rs i t y Pre s s . Fe a t h e rs t o ne , Mi ke (1991) Th e bo dy : s o c i a l p ro c e s s a nd c u l t u re t h e o ry . Lo ndo n: Sa ge . Fri e dl , Erne s t i ne (1962) Va s i l i ka : a vi l l a ge i n m o de rn Gre e c e . Ne w Yo rk: Ho l t , Ri ne h a rt a nd Wi ns t o n. Gi l m o re , Da vi d, e d. (1987) Ho no u r a nd s h a m e a nd t h e u ni t y o f t h e Me di t e rra ne a n. Sp e c i a l Pu bl i c a t i o n 2. Wa s h i ngt o n, DC: Am e ri c a n Ant h ro p o l o gi c a l As s o c i a t i o n. (1990) Ma nh o o d i n t h e m a ki ng: c u l t u ra l c o nc e p t s o f m a s c u l i ni t y . Ya l e Uni ve rs i t y Pre s s . Gre ge r, So ni a (1985) Vi l l a ge o n t h e p l a t e a u . Wa rwi c k, Engl a nd: Bre wi n. He m do n, Ma rc i a a nd Su za nne Zi e gl e r (1990) Pre fa c e t o He m do n a nd Zi e gl e r (e d.) Mu s i c , ge nde r, a nd c u l t u re . Wi l h e l m s h a ve n: Fl o ri a n No e t ze l . He rzfe l d, Mi c h a e l (1985) Th e p o e t i c s o f m a nh o o d: c o nt e s t a nd i de nt i t y i n a Cre t a n m o u nt a i n vi l l a ge . Pri nc e t o n Uni ve rs i t y Pre s s . Ka l o y a ni de s , Mi c h a e l Ge o rge (1975) "Th e m u s i c o f Cre t a n da nc e s : a s t u dy o f t h e m u s i c a l s t ru c t u re s o f Cre t a n da nc e fo rm s a s p e rfo rm e d i n t h e He ra kl i o n Pro vi nc e o f Cre t e ." Ph D t h e s i s , We s l e y a n Uni ve rs i t y . Ko s ko ff, El l e n, e d. (1987) Wo m e n a nd m u s i c i n c ro s s -c u l t u ra l p e rs p e c t i ve . We s t p o rt , CT: Gre e nwo o d Pre s s . Lo i zo s , Pe t e r (1994) "A bro ke n m i rro r: m a s c u l i ne s e xu a l i t y i n Gre e k e t h no gra p h y ." In Andre a Co rnwa l l a nd Na nc y Li ndi s fa m e (e d.) Di s l o c a t i ng m a s c u l i ni t y : c o m p a ra t i ve e t h no gra p h i e s , p p . 66-81. Lo ndo n: Ro u t l e dge . a nd E. Pa p a t a xi a rc h i s , e d. (1991) Co nt e s t e d i de nt i t i e s : ge nde r a nd ki ns h i p i n m o de rn Gre e c e . Pri nc e t o n Uni ve rs i t y Pre s s . Ma rc u s , Mi c h a e l (1987) "Ho rs e m e n a re t h e fe nc e o f t h e l a nd." In Da vi d Gi l m o re (e d.) Ho no u r a nd s h a m e a nd t h e u ni t y o f t h e Me di t e rra ne a n, p p . 49-60. Wa s h i ngt o n, DC: Am e ri c a n Ant h ro p o l o gi c a l As s o c i a t i o n, Sp e c i a l Pu bl i c a t i o n 2. Ne e dh a m , Ro dne y (1967) "Pe rc u s s i o n a nd t ra ns i t i o n." Ma n 2 (NS): 606-14. Ll e we l l y n Sm i t h , Mi c h a e l (1973) Th e Gre a t Is l a nd. Al l e n La ne . Ort ne r, Sh e rry B. a nd Ha rri e t Wh i t e h e a d (1981) Se xu a l m e a ni ngs . Th e c u l t u ra l c o ns t ru c t i o n o f ge nde r a nd s e xu a l i t y . Ca m bri dge Uni ve rs i t y Pre s s . Ri c e , Ti m o t h y (1994) Ma y i t fi l l y o u r s o u l : e xp e ri e nc i ng Bu l ga ri a n m u s i c . Th e Uni ve rs i t y o f Ch i c a go Pre s s . Ro s a l do , Mi c h e l l e Z. a nd Lo u i s e La m p h e re (1974) Wo m a n, c u l t u re , a nd s o c i e t y . St a nfo rd Uni ve rs i t y Pre s s . Ro s e n, La wre nc e (1978) "Th e ne go t i a t i o n o f re a l i t y : m a l e -fe m a l e re l a t i o ns i n Se fro u , Mo ro c c o ." In A. Be c k a nd J.R. Ke ddi e (e d.) Wo m e n a nd t h e Mu s l i m wo rl d, p p . 35-54. Ha rva rd Uni ve rs i t y Pre s s . Se e ge r, Ant h o ny (1987) Wh y Su y d s i ng: a m u s i c a l a nt h ro p o l o gy o f a n Am a zo ni a n p e o p l e . Ca m bri dge Uni ve rs i t y Pre s s . Se re m e t a ki s , C. Na di a (1991) Th e l a s t wo rd: wo m e n, de a t h , a nd di vi na t i o n i n i nne r Ma ni . Uni ve rs i t y o f Ch i c a go Pre s s . Su ga rm a n, Ja ne C. (1987) "Ma ki ng m u a be t : t h e s o c i a l ba s i s o f s i ngi ng a m o ng Pre s p a Al ba ni a n m e n." Se l e c t e d Re p o rt s i n Et h no m u s i c o l o gy 7: 1-42. Uni ve rs i t y o f Ca l i fo rni a Pre s s . (1989) "Th e ni gh t i nga l e a nd t h e p a rt ri dge : Si ngi ng a nd ge nde r a m o ng Pre s p a Al ba ni a ns ." Et h no m u s i c o l o gy 33.2: 291-315. Sy nno t t , Ant h o ny a nd Da vi d Ho we s (1992) "Fro m m e a s u re m e nt t o m e a ni ng: a nt h ro p o l o gi e s o f t h e bo dy ." Ant h ro p o s 87: 147-66. Ke vi n Da we i s a l e c t u re r wi t h t h e Op e n Uni ve rs i t y . He re c e i ve d a n MSc i n bi o l o gi c a l a nt h ro p o l o gy fro m t h e Uni ve rs i t y o f Lo ndo n a nd a do c t o ra l de gre e i n s o c i a l a nt h ro - p o l o gy (e t h no m u s i c o l o gy ) fro m t h e Qu e e n's Uni ve rs i t y o f Be l fa s t (1994). Addre s s : Th e Op e n Uni ve rs i t y (Ire l a nd), 40 Uni ve rs i t y Ro a d, Be l fa s t BT7 1SU. E-m a i l : <K.N.Da we @o p e n.a c .u k>