Waste Vegetable Oil As A Diesel

Replacement Fuel
Phillip Calais* and AR (Tony) Clark**
* Environmental Science, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia, pcalais@ieee.org

** Western Australian Renewable Fuels Association Inc, ar.clark@bigpond.com

Abstract

In the past, waste edible oils and fats were often used in the production of animal
feeds. However due to links between BSE and this practice, the use of waste fats
for animal feed is not as common as it once was and this has resulted in surplus
quantities becoming available. This has led to significant disposal problems.
Waste oils and fats can be used as renewable fuel resources. Conversion of
waste oils and fats to biodiesel fuel is one possibility but poses some difficulties
such as in the use of toxic or caustic materials and by-product disposal.
Conversion to biodiesel may also decrease the economic attractiveness of using
waste oils as fuels.
An alternative to the use of biodiesel is the use of vegetable oils or rendered
animal fats as a fuel.
Using relatively unmodified oils or fats eliminates the problems associated with
toxic and caustic precursor chemicals and residual biodiesel alkalinity as the oil is
used without altering its chemical properties.
This paper discusses the use of waste vegetable and animal oils and fats as
unmodified fuels in compression ignition engines.

Introduction
Waste edible oils and fats pose significant disposal problems in many parts of the
world. In the past much of these waste products have been used in the
production of animal feeds. However due to possible links between BSE and this
practice, the use of waste edible animal fats for animal feed is not as common as
it once was, resulting in disposal problems. As it is often difficult to prevent the
contamination of waste vegetable oil with animal products during cooking, waste
vegetable oil often must be treated in a similar manner as is waste animal fats.
One possibility for the disposal of these products is as a fuel for transport or other
uses. Conversion of waste oils and fats to biodiesel fuel has many environmental
advantages over petroleum based diesel fuel. However it is not commercially
available in Australia and the ‘ back-yard’ production of biodiesel may present
serious risks as the process uses methanol, a toxic and flammable liquid, and
sodium or potassium hydroxide, both of which are caustic. By-product disposal
may present further difficulties and environmental considerations may preclude
production in sensitive areas.
An alternative to the use of biodiesel is the use of vegetable oil or rendered
animal fats as fuel.
Using unmodified oils not only eliminates problems such as residual biodiesel
alkalinity by-product disposal, but also increases the economic viability of using
the oil or fat.
While the use of vegetable or animal oils and fats as fuels may be somewhat
surprising at first, when examined in an historical context we can see that the
compression ignition engine, first developed to a usable level of functionality by
the French-born Rudolf Diesel near the end of the 19 century, was originally
th

designed to operate on vegetable oil.

In 1900, Rudolf Diesel demonstrated his new compression ignition engine at the
World Exhibition in Paris running on peanut oil. In 1911 he wrote "The engine can
be fed with vegetable oils and would help considerably in the development of
agriculture in the countries that use it." [1]
It was about this time that new drilling technology and exploration techniques
were developed and together these ushered in the age of cheap and plentiful
fossil fuels. Consequently, the use of vegetable and animal oils and fats as fuels
has only been used for a few special purposes such as in racing fuels or in
environmentally sensitive areas where petroleum spills tend to cause more
serious problems than do spills of animal and/or vegetable derived fuels.
After some one hundred years of using liquid petroleum fuels, we are now finding
that there are unforeseen side effects, the foremost perhaps being the so-called
Enhanced Greenhouse Effect.
In Australia, transport use contributes some 16% of Australia’ s greenhouse gas
emissions. Of this, diesel fuel contributed about 17% or 11,705,000 tonnes of
CO equivalent. An additional 1,622,000 tonnes is released from diesel fuel used
2

for electricity generation. [2] On top of greenhouse gas emissions is the vexing
question of how little – or much – is left.
However oils of vegetable and animal origin, unlike fossil fuels, have to potential
to be produced not only on a sustainable basis but also could be greenhouse gas
neutral, or at the very least, emit substantially less greenhouse gases per unit
energy than do any of the fossil fuels.

Properties of Triglycerides as Fuels

A large amount of research has gone into examining Diesel’ s dream of using
raw vegetable oils as fuels and when one speaks of growing crops for liquid fuels
it is often assumed that the oil will be used after only basic extraction and
filtering. [3,4,5]
Work has been conducted to examine these oils as fuel replacements or
additives. For example in the late 1970’ s and early 1980’ s, research was
undertaken at Murdoch University (Perth, Australia) into the use of eucalyptus
and other plant oils as a fuel component. [6] In New Zealand, there are
considerable problems with the disposal of surplus tallow from the processed
meat industry and a large amount of work was conducted in the early 1980’ s on
the use of tallow as a fuel. [7]
Experience has shown that the use of unsaturated triglyceride oils as a fuel may
cause significant problems that can affect the viability of their fuel use. [8] But this
is not always the case and in many circumstances these problems can either be
dealt with or are acceptable to the user.
While power output and tailpipe emissions using plant or animal oils are in most
cases comparable with those when running on petroleum diesel fuel, the main
problem encountered has due to the higher viscosity of the triglyceride oils and
their chemical instability. These can cause difficult starting in cold conditions, the
gumming up of injectors and the coking-up of valves and exhaust. [3]
The viscosity of plant and animal fats and oils varies from hard crystalline solids
to light oils at room temperature. In most cases, these ‘ oils’ or ‘ fats’ are
actually a complex mixture of various fatty acids triglycerides, often with the
various components having widely varying melting points. This may give the oil
or fat a temperature range over which solidification occurs, with the oil gradually
thickening from a thin liquid, through to a thick liquid, then a semi-solid and finally
to a solid.
High melting points or solidification ranges can cause problems in fuel systems
such as partial or complete blockage as the triglyceride thickens and finally
solidifies when the ambient temperature falls. [3] While this also occurs with
petroleum based diesel, particularly as the temperature falls below about ~ -10 to
-5° C for ‘ summer’ formulations and ~ -20 to -10° C for ‘ winter’ diesels, it is
relatively easy to control during the refining process and is generally not a major
problem.
Many vegetable oils and some animal oils are ‘ drying’ or ‘ semi-drying’ and
it is this which makes many oils such as linseed, tung and some fish oils suitable
as the base of paints and other coatings. But it is also this property that further
restricts their use as fuels.
Drying results from the double bonds (and sometimes triple bonds) in the
unsaturated oil molecules being broken by atmospheric oxygen and being
converted to peroxides. Cross-linking at this site can then occur and the oil
irreversibly polymerises into a plastic-like solid. [9]
In the high temperatures commonly found in internal combustion engines, the
process is accelerated and the engine can quickly become gummed-up with the
polymerised oil. With some oils, engine failure can occur in as little as 20 hours.
[10]
The traditional measure of the degree of bonds available for this process is given
by the ‘ Iodine Value’ (IV) and can be determined by adding iodine to the fat or
oil. The amount of iodine in grams absorbed per 100 ml of oil is then the IV. The
higher the IV, the more unsaturated (the greater the number of double bonds) the
oil and the higher is the potential for the oil to polymerise.
While some oils have a low IV and are suitable without any further processing
other than extraction and filtering, the majority of vegetable and animal oils have
an IV which may cause problems if used as a neat fuel. Generally speaking, an
IV of less than about 25 is required if the neat oil is to be used for long term
applications in unmodified diesel engines and this limits the types of oil that can
be used as fuel. Table 1 lists various oils and some of their properties.
The IV can be easily reduced by hydrogenation of the oil (reacting the oil with
hydrogen), the hydrogen breaking the double bond and converting the fat or oil
into a more saturated oil which reduces the tendency of the oil to polymerise.
However this process also increases the melting point of the oil and turns the oil
into margarine.
As can be seen from Table 1, only coconut oil has an IV low enough to be used
without any potential problems in an unmodified diesel engine. However, with a
melting point of 25° C, the use of coconut oil in cooler areas would obviously lead
to problems. With IVs of 25 – 50, the effects on engine life are also generally
unaffected if a slightly more active maintenance schedule is maintained such as
more frequent lubricating oil changes and exhaust system decoking.
Triglycerides in the range of IV 50 – 100 may result in decreased engine life,
and in particular to decreased fuel pump and injector life. However these must be
balanced against greatly decreased fuel costs (if using cheap, surplus oil) and it
may be found that even with increased maintenance costs that this is
economically viable.
Table 1 Oils and their melting point and Iodine Values [11]

Oil Approx. melting Iodine

point ° C Value
Coconut oil 25 10
Palm kernel oil 24 37
Mutton tallow 42 40
Beef tallow 50
Palm oil 35 54
Olive oil -6 81
Castor oil -18 85
Peanut oil 3 93
Rapeseed oil -10 98
Cotton seed oil -1 105
Sunflower oil -17 125
Soybean oil -16 130
Tung oil -2.5 168
Linseed oil -24 178
Sardine oil 185
All of these problems can be at least partially alleviated by dissolving the oil or
hydrogenated oil in petroleum diesel. ‘ Drying oils’ such as linseed oil for
example, could be mixed with petroleum diesel at a ratio of up to about 1:8 to
give an equivalent IV in the mid-twenties. Likewise coconut oil can be thinned
with diesel or kerosene to render it less viscous in cooler climates. Obviously the
solubility of the oil in petroleum also needs to be taken into account. [7]
Another method is to emulsify the oil or fat with ethanol. Goering [12] found that
eight parts of soybean oil, when emulsified with two part ethanol and five parts of
1-butanol as stabiliser, performed as well as diesel fuel and was able to start a
cold engine. The cost was calculated (in 1981) to be $0.40 a litre as compared to
$0.30 – 0.35 per litre for diesel.
Trans-esterifying triglyceride oils and fats with monohydric alcohols to form
biodiesel largely eliminates the tendency of the oils and fats to undergo
polymerisation and auto-oxidation and also reduces the viscosity of the oil to
about the same as petroleum diesel.
However as previously mentioned, the ‘ back-yard’ production of use of does
pose some risks, particularly to those who are not familiar with the handling of
toxic and highly flammable liquids.
In many cases, it is possible to use a variety of triglyceride fats and oils as a fuel.
While engine wear and maintenance may be increased, in some circumstances
these problems are not serious enough to prevent the use of the triglycerides as
a fuel.

Conversion of a vehicle to operate on Waste Cooking Oil

An alternative to the use of biodiesel is the use of vegetable oil or animal fats as
a fuel. The differences amongst fats and oils, whether of animal or vegetable
origin, relate mainly to the level of saturation in the carbon chain. Generally
speaking, the lower the number of double bonds, the higher the melting point of
the triglyceride and the greater the stability of the triglyceride to polymerisation
and spontaneous oxidation. From an engine use point of view, it is preferable to
use saturated fats as fuels as they are more stable and less resistant to
oxidation, particularly under the elevated temperatures and pressures as found in
an engine environment. However due to their higher melting points, difficulty may
be encountered in starting the engine without pre-heating of the fat.
In order to test the viability of using relatively unsaturated oils in engines, a 1990
Mazda with a 2.0 litre indirect injection OHC diesel was obtained with a view of
running it on various types of triglyceride oils and fats. At that time of purchase,
the vehicle had covered 222,000 km.
The previous owner stated that the engine head had been overhauled, but no
further details were provided. Since the purchase, and prior to the conversion to
operate on triglyceride oils, the injector pump was overhauled. Fuel consumption
of the vehicle on diesel was stable at about 6.9 L/100 km.
The vehicle is used as a family vehicle in a 2-car household. At the time of
conversion (October 2000), the vehicle had covered 231,000 km.
Waste palm oil (a solid fat) was used initially but the time delay in melting this oil
prevented use of the oil on short journeys. Consequently, waste canola oil was
tried and has been used exclusively for the last 7,500 km.
At about 80 cSt (at 20° C), the viscosity of used canola oil is significantly greater
than that of diesel which has a viscosity in the range of 2 to 4.5 cSt. [7, 13]
However, as canola oil is warmed, its viscosity falls quite significantly and at
about 70° C the viscosity is about 5 to 10 cSt. Thus the viscosity is sufficiently
low to allow its use as a replacement fuel for diesel with out too much difficulty.
Table 2 Comparison of properties of diesel, canola oil and commercial US
biodiesel. [7, 13, 14]
Diesel Canola Oil Biodiesel
Density kgL @ 15.5° C 0.84 0.92 0.88
-1

Calorific value MJL 38.3 36.9 33 – 40

-1

Viscosity mm s @ 20° C 4 - 5 70 4 – 6
2 -1

Viscosity mm s @ 40° C 4 - 5 37 4 – 6
2 -1

Viscosity mm s @ 70° C 10
2 -1

Cetane number 45 ~ 40 - 50 45 – 65
The vehicle was fitted with an additional 17 litre fuel tank under the bonnet
together with the necessary fuel lines, additional filter and a solenoid valve to
control the fuel source. Electrical connections to a thermostat, glow plug, run-on
timer, switches and the solenoid valve were also installed.
 The oil tank was fitted with a heat exchanger comprising one metre of 12 mm
copper tube. This was connected to the engine coolant system and pre-heats the
oil in the tank. The tank was located in the engine bay to maximise heat transfer
to the tank and to keep the coolant lines short. The finished tank had a useable
capacity of seventeen litres. This gave a range of up to 240 km between
refuelling.
Additional filtering was installed with an internal preheater. The pre-heater, a 24
V diesel glow plug, together with a relay and thermostat was installed so that if a
solid fat was used for fuel, any solidified fat in the filter chamber could be quickly
melted. The filter used (Ryco Z30) provides filtration to 30 micron.
A vacuum gauge was fitted after the fuel filter and it was found that at start-up
with cold canola oil, fuel flow was insufficient causing a vacuum in the fuel line
and filter. An extra in-line fuel pump was added before the filter and this
alleviated this problem and has increased fuel filter life.
The heated oil fuel line was one metre of 5/16" semi rigid nylon tube encased in a
5/8" rubber coolant pipe. Brass fittings were used to ensure minimal corrosion
and leakages of coolant.
The three port, 12 Vdc solenoid valve was mounted in close proximity to the fuel
pump to minimise changeover lag. The fuel return line to the diesel tank was
redirected to the fuel pump suction side between the solenoid valve and fuel
pump. This was done to prevent the oil in the return line going to the diesel tank.
A disadvantage of this is that the fuel system became rather intolerant of air in
the system.
A run-on timer was installed using a modified ‘ turbo timer’ . After the solenoid
valve is switched back to diesel, the timer keeps the engine running for a period
of time, even if the vehicle is parked and the key removed from the ignition.
During this period, the oil in the injector pump is gradually replaced by diesel and
after several minutes, only diesel remains in the fuel pump, filter, fuel lines and
injectors. The correct time was found by a trial and error. A manual override
switch was also installed to allow emergency, or short duration stopping of the
engine.
The supplier of the used oil (a fast food outlet) filters the oil and puts it into
containers for collection. To ensure that the oil is clean, the oil is heated and
additionally filtered through a 5 micron bag filter. It was found that the used oil
usually becomes cloudy and this was found to be a combination of the oil starting
to solidify due to partial de-unsaturation of the oil from use and minor water
content. If water content is suspected of being excessive, the oil is heated above
100’ C to evaporate the moisture.

Use of the oil and preliminary results

To date, the vehicle has been driven over 7500 km using canola oil. In the
morning, the oil in the tank is cold and quite viscous and a particular start-up
routine must be used. In addition, if, at the end of the trip, the vehicle will not be
restarted again for several hours, then a shutdown sequence must be followed in
order to allow easy restarting.
Glow plugs are used for all starts. When starting cold, the engine is started on
diesel and the journey commenced. When the engine temperature has reached
‘ normal’ as shown on the engine temperature gauge, the fuel solenoid is
operated, and the journey continues using vegetable oil. For hot or warm starts,
the engine is started using the vegetable oil.
Shutdown: In the cooler months, at about 5 km from the end of each journey, the
fuel solenoid is released. At the end of the journey, the ignition switch is turned
off. If the time delay has not expired, the engine continues to idle, until the end of
the delay. During warmer periods, the shutdown delay override switch is used to
stop the engine for all stops, except for the last journey of the day.
Comparison of performance and economy
Using records of fuel consumption and distance travelled, there has been no
noticeable difference in fuel consumption or engine power when operating on
diesel, palm or canola oil. The fuel consumption has been found to be
approximately 6.9 L/100 km, regardless of what fuel is being used. It is planned
that full testing of performance will be carried out in the near future, taking into
account different driving conditions and different fuels.
Problems
Cold starting with canola oil: If the engine has been allowed to cool completely
(eg overnight) and the shutdown routine not followed, then the engine may be
very difficult to restart. It has been found that heating the injectors by, for
example, pouring hot water over them or using a hair dryer, will allow the engine
to restart with no difficulty.
Saturated oils: The use of saturated (solid) fats in cooler months would require
significant improvements to the heat exchanger in the oil tank. Palm oil tended to
solidify in the filter (prior to a glow plug heater being installed) and in the front half
of the tank while travelling, reducing useable capacity. This may be less of a
problem if a 6 port solenoid valve were to be used, circulating heated oil back to
the tank, and improving the heating of the oil in the tank.
Carbon build up causing wear: Reports have been made of accelerated engine
wear due to increased carbon deposits in combustion chambers. [3, 4, 7] As the
engine condition at the start of the test was not accurately measured, no proper
evaluation of the wear can be made. However, at the end of the vehicle life, the
engine will be dismantled and evaluated for any abnormal evidence of wear or
damage.
Galvanised Fuel tank: The oil tank was made from scrap galvanised steel sheet
metal. It was found that the oil reacted with the zinc plating and this resulted in
globules of reacted oil blocking the fuel filter on many occasions. The oil tank
was consequently removed, cleaned and acid etched to remove the zinc coating.
No reacted fuel globules have been observed since.
Costs:
The tank was made using scrap materials and consequently was of negligible
cost. It was estimated that if professionally made using new materials, it would
have cost approximately $400. Other expenses were: filter - $30, filter elements -
$5, heated fuel line - $120, solenoid valve - $95, sundry items - $100. The total
cost was $250. Operating costs are $5 per 10,000 km for new filter elements
Exhaust emissions:
At this stage no exhaust emission tests have been done. The level of particulates
as gauged by simple visibility checks appears about the same whether running
on diesel or canola oil. However, as the oil contains no sulphur, SO emissions
2

are not present when running on triglyceride oils. Furthermore, the pungent smell
typical of diesel exhaust is not present. Rather the smell is similar to that of a
BBQ.
Life-cycle CO emissions are substantially reduced. Studies done by Sheehan et
2

al, Beer et al etc indicate that reductions by as much as 80 to 90% compared to

fossil diesel fuel can be expected, given the renewable nature of the oil, and that
this is a re-use of a spent product. [14, 15, 16, 17]
Nitrogen oxides (NO ) emissions would most likely be similar or slightly elevated
x

by ~10% as compared to fossil diesel. In addition to atmospheric nitrogen, most

vegetable and animal oils contain small quantities of nitrogen containing proteins,
which upon combustion, release various nitrogen oxides. [14, 15, 16, 17]
Unburnt hydrocarbon emissions may or may not be increased. Previous research
has shown that this is very dependent of the vehicle’ s state of tune, age and
the specific properties of the oil. [7, 14, 16, 17]
Cost efficiency:
Using free waste canola oil, fuel costs have been only for the diesel fuel used in
the start-up and shutdown periods. Fuel purchase records for 10,000 km show
the vehicle has used 240 litres of diesel. Driving this distance on diesel only
would normally require approximately 690 litres of fuel. This represents a fuel
cost saving of 65%. The conversion has paid for itself with savings in diesel
purchases in excess of $400.
Different usage patterns would give obviously give different results. Usage
patterns for this vehicle show mainly short trips, with one or two longer (>20 km)
journeys per week.
As vehicle use increases, the diesel fuel savings would also be expected to
increase. The only requirement for diesel, is that the motor must be allowed to
reach operating temperature before operating on triglyceride oils, and that the oil
must be diluted or purged from the fuel pump before shutdown.
Due to higher fuel usage larger vehicles would be able to have greater fuel cost
savings which would more than offset the increased costs of a remotely located
oil tank.
Obviously, if there were to be a greater demand for used and waste cooking oil,
the oil may not be available free and the cost of purchasing waste oil must then
be taken into account. While this would extend the pay-back period, as long as
there was a reasonable difference between the cost of the waste oil and diesel
fuel and any extra maintenance costs were not too excessive, it would probably
still be economically viable to undertake the modifications and operate on used
oil.
Possible improvements
Solenoid Valve: The use of a six port solenoid valve and an alterative fuel line
set-up would reduce the shutdown delay requirement, as the return line would
not be fed back into the fuel pump.
Fuel filter: The provision of a heated fuel filter, using filter elements giving 5
micron filtration would protect the fuel pump from the possible 5 – 30 micron
particles not removed by the Ryco Z30 filter. Filter heating would be most
effective if heated by engine coolant.
Biodiesel: Starting the vehicle on biodiesel would further enhance the
environmental benefits obtainable.

Conclusion

Many vegetable and animal oils can be used as diesel replacement fuels. The
two ways of doing this are to either use the oil as a straight fuel or to convert the
oil to a methyl or ethyl ester (biodiesel). Both of these ways have various
advantages and disadvantages. One of the authors (Clark) converted a Mazda
626 to operate on straight vegetable oil and has done over 7500 km using this
method. The other author (Calais) has been using biodiesel in an unmodified
Toyota Corolla for over 20,000 km.
In converting the Mazda 626 to operate on straight oil, a small tank was fitted
under the bonnet of the vehicle. In order to minimise fuel ‘ cold-plugging’
problems due to high fuel viscosity, both the tank, filter and fuel lines are heated.
The vehicle is first started on diesel and then when the engine has reached
normal operating temperature and the oil has been heated, a solenoid valve is
operated which switched the fuel system over to the oil.
To date there has been no evidence of increased engine wear, lubricating oil
dilution or other problems. However the experience of others has shown that
increased engine wear may occur but as yet it is still too early to determine
whether or not this will occur in this example. Even so, the economic benefits
obtained by using waste canola oil may more than offset any extra engine
maintenance costs.
It is hoped that continuing research on this project may provide more information
about this in the future.

References

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2. Australian Greenhouse Office Australia’s State and Territory Greenhouse Gas Inventory –
Western Australia, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra, 1999

3. Pullan, C. et al Research Priorities for Transport Fuels from Biomass and Other Sources for
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4. Parker, A.J. et al Transport Fuels from Biomass. Research Opportunities Symposium

Proceedings, March 1980, Perth.

5. Australian Greenhouse Office Alternative Fuels Program – Issues Paper, Commonwealth of

Australia, Canberra, 1999

6. Barton, Alan (Prof) Personal communication, Murdoch University, 1999

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No LF2021 for the Liquid Fuels Trust Board, Wellington (NZ) 1982
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17. Sheehan, J., Camobreco, V., Duffield, J., Graboski, M., Shapouri, H. (1998). An Overview of
Biodiesel and Petroleum Diesel Life Cycles. NREL, Golden, Colorado.

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