jklk;fud vadxf.

kr 1
jlk;u vk/kkjHkwr :i ls ,d izk;ksfxd foKku gS
blds vUrxZr inkFkZ ds HkkSfrd vkSj jklk;fud
xq.k rFkk ekiu ls l!f/kr xq.kks dk v/;;u fd;k
"krk gS# ekiu ds ifj.kkeks dks ge nks inks
es $;%r dj ldrs gS&
'( vdxf.kr); l*;k 'b( +l ifj.kke dk ek,d ;k
bdkbZ
iz-;sd izk;ksfxd ekiu ,d nwljs ls dq. v/x
gksrs gS vkSj +ues ik;) "kus ok/)
,qf0;k1 vkSj vfuf23rrk,s ekiu ;, vkSj ekiu
djus ok/s $;f%r d) n4krk ij fuHkZj djr) gS# ,d
leku fd;s x;s ekiu ess izk5r ekuks ds leq63;
d) fud0rk ;FkkFkZrk dg/kr) gS# ;FkkFkZrk
ifj2kq(rk ls l!f/kr gksr) gS "ks ;FkkFkZ eku ds
fud0re eku dks iznf2kZr djr) gS#
lkFkZd vad (Significant figures)
fdl) l*;k ds +u vdks '7 ls 8 rd( dks
f"uds 9kjk fdl) HkkSfrd jkf2k dks iw.kZr&
+lds ;FkkFkZ eku rd $;%r djrs gS lkFkZd vd
dg/krs gS#:,d HkkSfrd jkf2k es lkFkZd
vdks d) l*;k ekiu es iz;q%r ;, ds U;wure
eku ij fuHkZj djr) gS#
';( lkFkZd vadksa ds fu/kkZj.k ds
dqN fu;e
fu;e ;. lHk) v2kwU; vd lkFkZd gksrs
gS#
+nkgj.k : ;<=> = x es 3kj lkFkZd vd
gS? vkSj ;@8 = x es r)u lkFkZd vd gS#
fu;e <. lHk) os AkwU; "ks nks v2kwU;
vdks ds !)3 +ifBFkr gksrs gS? lkFkZd vd
dg/krs gS#
+nkgj.k : ;77C = x es 3kj lkFkZd vd gS
"!fd 7@78 . ; = x es ik13 lkFkZd vd gS#
fu;e =. ;fn AkwU; fdl) vd o n2ke/o ds e/;
fBFkr gS rks og lkFkZd vd ug) gksrk#
+nkgj.k : 77@> . 7 = x es nks lkFkZd vd
gS# 77@> . ; = x es ik13 lkFkZd gS#
fu;e >. lHk) AkwU; "ks v2kwU; l*;k ds
nk;) vksj gksrs gS? lkFkZd vd dg/krs gS#
+nkgj.k: 77@77 . 7 = x es r)u lkFkZd vd
gS#
fu;e D. vAkwU; l*;k ds nk;) vksj ok/s
lHk) AkwU; lkFkZd !u "krs gS? "! os fdl) ekiu
ls vkrs gS#
+nkgj.k : ekuk fd nks B0s2kuks ds e/;
eki) xbZ nwj) =7D7 e)E gS# bles 3kj lkFkZd
vd gS# bl) nwj) dks =.7D7 fdEe)E ;k
D
;7 7D7 . =
lse) es Hk) $;%r fd;k "k ldrk gS#
bu lHk) vfHk$;f%r;ks es lkFkZd vdks d)
l*;k 3kj gS# n2ke/o dk BFkku ifjofrZr djus ls
Hk) ifj.kke es lkFkZd vdks d) l*;k ifjofrZr
ug) gksr)# ekiu ls izk5r lkFkZd vdks d)
l*;k f"ru) vf/kd gksx)? ekiu es +ru) g)
;FkkFkZrk gksx)#
'<( fudVu '-ounding oF( : "! ekiu ds ekuks
dk fud0u 'round oF( fd;k "krk gS rks ge fuGu
fu;eks dk ik/u djrs gS :
jklk;fud vadxf.kr
Chapter
1
2 jklk;fud vadxf.kr
fu;e ;. ;fn iw.kkZfdr d) "kus ok/) l*;k D
ls .ks0) gks rks +l vd dks g0k nsrs gS#
+nkgj.k : @< . C = x dks iw.kkZfdr djds C.@
f/*kk "k;sxk #
fu;e <. ;fn iw.kkZfdr d) "kus ok/) l*;k
D ls !HI) gS rks +lds ig/s ok/) l*;k es ,d
!JIk fn;k "krk gS#
+nkgj.k : x , K.@C dks iw.kkZfdr djds K.8
f/*kk "k;sxk#
fu;e =. ;fn iw.kkZfdr d) "kus ok/) l*;k
es D ds lkFk AkwU; ds vfrfj%r dksbZ Hk) l*;k gS
rks D ls ig/s ok/s vd es ,d !JIkdj f/*kk "k;sxk#
+nkgj.k : x , ;K.=D; dks iw.kkZfdr dj ;K.>
f/*kk "k;sxk#
fu;e >. iw.kkZfdr d) "kus ok/) l*;k es D
ds !kn AkwU; gS vkSj D ls ig/s ok/) l*;k le gS
rks l*;k vifjofrZr jgsx)#
+nkgj.k : x , =.<D7 dks iw.kkZfdr dj =.<
f/*kk "k;sxk#
fu;e D. iw.kkZfdr d) "kus ok/) l*;k es
D ds !kn AkwU; gS vkSj D ls ig/s ok/) l*;k foLke
gS rks ig/s ok/) l*;k es ,d "ksHI fn;k "k;sxk#
+nkgj.k : x , =.CD7 dks iw.kkZfdr djds =.@
f/*kk "k;sxk #
'=( x.kuk esa lkFkZd vad
'i( tksM+ vkSj ?kVko % "ksHIus vkSj M
k0kus es fuGu f!Unqvks dks /;ku es j*ks :
'( lHk) jkf2k;ks dks ,d leku ek,d es
!n/uk 3kfg,#
'b( ;fn ,d jkf2k dks ;7 d) Mkkr es $;%r fd;k
x;k gS rks vU; lHk) jkf2k;ks dks Hk) ;7 d) M
kkr ds :i es ifjofrZr djuk 3kfg,#
'!( "ksHI vkSj Mk0kus ds !kn izk5r ifj.kke
es n2ke/o ds !kn +rus g) BFkku rd vd
lkFkZd gksrs gS f"rus fdl) vo;o) l*;k es
U;wure gksrs gS#
'ii( xq.kk vkSj Hkkx
'( ;fn fdl) l*;k dks fBFkjkd ls xq.kk fd;k
"krk gS rks lkFkZd vdks d) l*;k og) jgr)
gS#
'b( xq.kk vFkok Hkkx d) x.kukvks es "ks
vfre l*;k vkr) gS? +les lkFkZd vdks d)
og) l*;k gksr) gS "ks ldkjd '$3er"or( es foN
eku U;wure lkFkZd vdks ok/) l*;k es
gksrs gS#
ekiu dh bdkbZ;k (Units for measurement)
fdl) jkf2k ds ekiu ds f/, 3quk x;k ekud
vko2;d :i ls +l jkf2k d) izoOfr dk gksrk gS +ls
+l jkf2k d) bdkbZ dgrs gS# bdkbZ eq*; :i ls
fuGu izdkj d) gksr) gS &
';( P.Q.S. izdkj : /!kbZ Rls0)e)0jS?
nz$;eku RfdExzkES? le; Rlsd.HS
'<( H.K.S. izdkj : /!kbZ Re)0jS? nz$;eku
RfdExzkES? le; Rlsd.HS
'=( F.6.S. izdkj : /!kbZ RTq0S? nz$;eku
Rik+.HS? le; Rlsd.HS
'>( S.5. izdkj : v%0w!j luU ;8K7 es Hkkj
,o ekiu d) vrjkZL0V); des0) us bdkbZ;ks
d) ,d vrjkZL0V); iz.kk/) izBrqr d)? f"ls l4ksi
es S5 bdkbZ;k1 dgrs gS # ;g eSf0Vd iz.kk/) dk
l2kksf/kr :i gS# bl iz.kk/) d) lkr ew/
bdkbZ;k1 gS rFkk AksLk lHk) bdkbZ;k1 bu
bdkbZ;ks ls $;q-iUu d) "k ldr) gS#
feh; f!"s#k.k '%i+ensionl nl/sis( $ lkr
ew/Hkwr bdkbZ;ks d) lgk;rk ls $;qf-ir djds
ge fdl) Hk) ek,k vFkok fBFkjkd dks iznf2kZr
dj ldrs gS# bl izdkj ls iznf2kZr d) x;)
ek,kvks d) bdkbZ;ks dks ge $;qf-ir bdkbZ
dgrs gS vkSj +uds izr)dks dks +u
ek,kvks ds ifjek.k vFkok ek,d vFkok foek
dgrs gS# fdl) ek,k dk bl izdkj $;qf-ir
bdkbZ;ks d) enn ls ifj.kke Kkr djus d) fof/k
dks foe); fo2/sLk.k dgrs gS#
+nkgj.k & 3k/ RosxS dks nwj)/le; ls $;%r
fd;k "krk gS vr& bld) bdkbZ e)0j/lsd.H ;k
;
lsd.H e)0j
gS# !/ 'nz$;eku -oj.k( d)
bdkbZ fdxzkWe)0j lsd.H
X<
gS#
lkj.kh 1.1 lkr e%" SI bdkbZ;k
yEckbZ nz$;eku le; rki foNqr /kkjk izdkAk
r)ozrk
inkFkZ d)
ek,k
e)0j 'm( fd/ksxzke
'kg(
lsd.H 's( dsfYou 'K( ,fGi;j 'A( ds.H/ 'Cd( eks/ 'mol(
lkj.kh 1.2 &;q'i(u bdkbZ;k
)kk*frd ek+k;sa bdkbZ i,rhd
4ks,T/ oxZ e)0j m
2
jklk;fud vadxf.kr -
vk;ru Mku e)0j m
3
osx e)0j Zfr lsd.H
ms
X;
-oj.k e)0j Zfr lsd.H oxZ ms
X<
Mku-o fd/ksxzke Zfr Mku e)0j
kg m
X=
eks/j [$;eku fd/ksxzke Zfr eks/ kg mol
X;
eks/j vk;ru Mku e)0j Zfr eks/
m
=
mol
X;
eks/j lkU[rk eks/ Zfr Mku e)0j mol m
X=
!/ U;w0u 'N(
kg m s
X<
nk! ikBd/ 'Pa( N m
X<
\"kZ dk;Z "w/ 'J(
kg m
2
s
X<
, Nm
lkj.kh 1.- e%")k%r bdkbZ;ksa dks i,.f!kZr djus /srq ekud 0ilxZ
xq.kkad 0ilxZ i,rhd 0ixq.kkad 0ilxZ i,rhd
;7
<>
;ks0k
Y ;7
X;
Hsl)
d
;7
<;
"s0k Z ;7
X<
lsU0) !
;7
;@
,%lk
E ;7
X=
feE/)E
+
;7
;D
is0k P ;7
XK
ekb]ks
;7
;<
0sjk
T ;7
X8
usuks
n
;7
8
x)xk G ;7
X;<
^dks 3
;7
K
esxk
M ;7
X;D
TsG0ks
f
;7
=
fd/ks K ;7
X;@
,0ks
;7
<
gs%0k
H ;7
X<;
"s50ks
z
;7
;
Hsdk Da ;7
X<>
;ks%0ks /
lkj.kh 1.1 ifjrZuh; dkjd 2C.versi. fa3trs4
; e)E , =8.=C b3
; !l , >.;@> _ ; e.s.u. , =.==DK ;7
X;7
P
xSl dk ; eks/ , <<.> B " S`6
; b3 , <.D> ls e)
; e0 , ;.K7< ;7
X;8
_
; Hk;u , ;7
XD
. inkFkZ dk ; eks/ , .7 v.kq
; /)0j , ;777 +B ; e0/ ijek.kq ,8K.D k_
+ol
X;
; okE eE , ;7;=<D 6 ; g ijek.kq , .7 ijek.kq
; xs/u 'US( , =.C8 B
; +u , 8=;.D7;K He0
; !kj , ; ;7
D
. +
X<
" '
o
F( , 8/D " '
o
P( I =<
; lb , >D=.D8<=C g
; fd/ks ok0 Mk.0k ,
=K77 k_
; /)0j okE eE , ;7;.= _
; g !+
X=
, ;777 kg +
X=
; U;w0u ,; kg + s
X<
; vAoAkf%r , C>K ok0 ; oLkZ , =.;D=K ;7
C
s
;\ , ;7
X;7
+
; _ , ; .+ ,; kg +
<
s
X<
; "w/ , ;7
C
erg ; fH!k; '%( , ; ;7
X;@
esu !+
;n+ , ;7
X8
+
jklk;fud la;kstu ds fu;e
(Laws of chemical combination)
fofHkUu jklk;fud vfHkf];k,s dq. fu;eks ds
vrxZr gksr) gS# bUgs jklk;fud l;ksx ds
fu;e ds :i es "kuk "krk gS# ;s fuGu izdkj ls
gS#
';( .,&;eku ds laj5k.k dk fu;e 'Bw of
!onserv"ion of +ss( : loZizFke luU ;CDK es bl
fu;e dk izfriknu ,d :l) oSKkfud
/kseksukslksT 9kjk fd;k x;k? !kn es /Soksf"vj
vkSj /S.HksY0 9kjk bld) iqfL0 d) x;)#
'<( f6Fkj vuqikr dk fu;e 'Bw of !ons"n"
or de^ni"e 3ro3or"ion( $ bl fu;e dk izfriknu loZizFke
"kslsT /qbZ izk+B0 us luU ;C88 es fd;k Fkk#
bl fu;e ds vuqlkj? afdl) jklk;fud ;kSfxd es +lds
vo;o) r-oks dk ijBij Hkkjk-ed vuqikr lnSo
fBFkj jgrk gS# fTj 3kgs og fdl) Hk) fof/k ls
!uk;k x;k gks#:
'=( xqf.kr vuqikr dk fu;e 'Bw of +ul"i3le
3ro3or"ion( $ loZizFke ;g fu;e "ku HkbY0u 9kjk
luU ;@7= es fn;k x;k vkSj bld) iqfL0 !")Zf/;l 9
kjk d) x;) # bl fu;e ds vuqlkj a"! nks r-o ijBij
l;ksx djds nks vFkok nks ls vf/kd ;kSfxd !ukrs
gS rks ,d r-o d) fuf23r ek,k ds lkFk l;ksx
djus ok/) nwljs r-o d) fHkUuWfHkUu ek,k;s
ijBij ,d lj/ vuqikr es gksr) gS#:
1 jklk;fud vadxf.kr
'>( rq7; vuqikr dk fu;e ;k &;q'8e
vuqikr dk fu;e 'Bw of equivlen" 3ro3or"ion or
lw of re!i3ro!l 3ro3or"ion( : bl fu;e dks loZizFke
fj3j '-i"!)er( us luU ;8C< es izfrikfnr fd;k # blds
vuqlkj afdl) ,d r-o d) fuf23r ek,k ds lkFk
l;ksx djus ok/) nks fHkUu r-oks d)
ek,kvks dk vuqikr leku gksrk gS? f"ues ;s
ijBij l;ksx djrs gS vFkok +udk lj/ xq.kkd
gksrk gS#:
'D( x*"qlsd dk fu;e 'Q/EBuss!2s Bw( : bl
fu;e dk izfriknu loZizFke ,d ckfUll) oSKkfud
xS/qlsd us luU ;@7@ es fd;k# bl fu;e ds
vuqlkj? arki o nk! d) leku ifjfBFkfr;ks es "!
nks ;k nks vf/kd xSls f];k djr) gS? rks l;ksx
djus ok/) xSlks ds vk;ruks es ,d lj/ vuqikr
gksrk gS vkSj bu f];kvks es ;fn +-ikn Hk)
xSl); gks rks !uus ok/s +-ikn dk vk;ru Hk)
f];kdkj) xSlks ds lkFk ,d lj/ vuqikr es gksrk
gS#: xS/qlsd dk fu;e izk;ksfxd izs4k.kks ij
vk/kkfjr Fkk#
e/'i%.kZ ifjd7iuk9 (Important
hypothesis)
';( ijekf.d ifjd7iuk '#"o+i! )/3o")esis( :
jklk;fud l;ksx ds fu;eks dks /;ku es j*krs
gq,? bu fu;eks d) ekU;rk dks lS(kfUrd :i ls d(
djrs gq, HkbY0u d) ijekf.od ifjdYiuk oSKkfud
"kbu HkbY0u 9kjk n) xbZ#
blds eq*; vfHkxOg)r bl izdkj ls gSW
'i( iz-;sd r-o !gqr g) lw4e d.kks ls fe/dj
!urk gS f"Ugs ijek.kq dgrs gS "ks jklk;fud
l;ksx es Hkkx /srs gS#
'ii( ,d g) r-o ds lHk) ijek.kq leku gksrs
gS vFkkZr fdl) ,d fof2kL0 r-o ds lHk) ijek.kq
leku gksrs gS "!fd nwljs r-oks ds
ijek.kqvks ls fHkUu gksrs gS#
'iii( fHkUu r-oks ds ijek.kqvks ds xq.k
,o nz$;eku fHkUu gksrs gS#
'iv( ijek.kq vfouk2k) gksrk gS# ijek.kqvks
dks u rks !uk;k "k ldrk gS vkSj u g) uL0 fd;k "k
ldrk gS#
'v( r-oks ds ijek.kq v.kq !ukus es Hkkx
/srs gS vFkkZr "! ,d ls vf/kd izdkj ds ijek.kq
l;ksx djrs gS rks ;kSfxd dk fuekZ.k gksrk
gS#
'vi( fn;s x;s ;kSfxd es ijek.kqvks dk izdkj
vkSj +ud) vkisf4kd l*;k fBFkj gksr) gS#
'<( vk/kqfud ijekf.d ifjd7iuk 'Hodern
"o+i! )/3o")esis( : ijek.kq ls l!f/kr dq. u;s
vkfoLdkj gksus ds !kn HkbY0u d) ifjdYiuk
dk :ikrj.k fd;k x;k#
'i( ijek.kq vfoHkk`; ug) gS#
'ii( ,d g) r-o ds ijek.kqvks ds ijek.kq Hkkj
fHkUu gks ldrs gS "Sls & vkb%l)"u ds
leBFkkfud
;@ ;C ;K
, , O O O vkSj ds ijek.kq Hkkj #
A 'iii( fHkUuWfHkUu r-oks ds ijek.kqvks
ds ijek.kq Hkkj leku gks ldrs gS "Sls &
leHkkfjd
>7 >7
Ar Ca vkSj #
'iv( ijek.kq /!s le; rd vfouk2k) ug) gS#
dbZ ukfHkd); vfHkf];kvks es ukfHkd dk ,d
fuf23r nz$;eku , vkSj fdj.kks ds :i es
\"kZ es ifjofrZr gks "krk gS#
'v( ijek.kq ges2kk ,d lj/ iw.kkZd vuqikr
es g) l;ksx ug) djrs# "Sls & lq]ks"
( '
;; << ;<
O H C es dk!Zu gkbHVks"u vkSj
vkb%l)"u r-oks dk vuqikr ;< : << : ;; gS
vkSj ;g lj/ iw.kkZd vuqikr es ug) gS#
'=( 3thZf";l ifjd7iuk 'eerzelius
)/3o")esis( $ :leku rki vkSj nk! d) ifjfBFkfr;ks
es lHk) xSlks ds leku vk;ru es ijek.kqvks
d) l*;k leku gksr) gS#: vk;ru l;ks"u ds fu;e ij
bldk vuqiz;ksx djus ij ;g Kkr gksrk gS fd ijek.kq
foHkk`; gS "ks fd HkY0u d) ifjdYiuk dk fojks/k
gS#
'>( 9sksxs;<ks ifjd7iuk '#vogdro2s
)/3o")esis( $ :rki vkSj nk! d) leku ifjfBFkfr;ks
es lHk) xSlks ds leku vk;ru es v.kqvks d)
l*;k leku gksr) gS#: ,oksxsHVks ifjdYiuk dks
fuGu izdkj ls lefk;k x;k gS
'i( ;g xSl); r-oks ds ijekf.od Hkkjks ds
fu/kkZj.k dk rj)dk !rkrk gS#
'ii( ;g inkFkksZ ds vkf.od nz$;eku vkSj
okLi Mku-o (VD! ds e/; lG!U/k dks !rkrk gS#
'iii( ;g xSl ds fuf23r ek,k ds vk;ru ds
fu/kkZj.k es enn djrk gS#
; feE/)E xSl dk vk;ru , 0.%. 7.7777@8C
xzke
'iv( ;g NTP ij xSl ds eks/j vk;ru ds
fu/kkZj.k es Hk) enn djrk gS#
okLi Mku-o 7.7777@8C xzke xSl dk
vk;ru , ; feE/)E
< okLi Mku-o 'vFkkZr vkf.od nz$;eku(
xzke vk;ru
,
7777@8C . 7 . .
. . < ;

D V
D V
feE/)E , <<>77 feE
/)E
jklk;fud vadxf.kr =
S.`.6. ij xSl dk vkf.od nz$;eku ;k
bldk ,d eks/ <<.> /)0j vk;ru j*krk gS
'v( ;g xSlks ds vkf.od lw,ks ds fu/kkZj.k
es enn djrk gS rFkk xSl ds fo2/sLk.k (A"al#s$s!
es !gqr +i;ksx) gS? fdl) f];k es
f];kdkjdks vkSj f];kT/ks ds vkf.od vk;ru d)
lgk;rk ls vkf.od lxeu dks vklku) ls fu/kkZfjr
fd;k "k ldrk gS#
ijekf.d> vkf.d vk*j rq7;kadh
.,&;eku
(Atomic, molecular and Eui!alent masses)
';( ijekf.d .,&;eku '#"o+i! Hss( : ;g
r-o ds ijek.kq dk vkisf4kd vkSlr nz$;eku gS
"ks fd dk!ZuX;< leBFkkfud ds ,d ijek.kq ds ;/;<
Hkkx ds !jk!j gksrk gS#
eku nz$; dk ijek.kq ds
eku nz$; vkSlr dk d ijek.kq ,
eku z$; ijekf.od n
;<
;/;< C
=
vk*lr ijek.kq .,&;eku '#verge "o+i!
+ss( : ;fn ,d r-o f"lds nks leBFkkfud "ks fd
vfBr-o es gS buds nz$;eku ]e2k& g2 vkSj gb2
gS f"udk vuqikr m : " gS r! vkSlr ijekf.od
nz$;eku ,
" m
% " a m
+
+ ( ' ( '
gksxk 3w1fd ;g
ijekf.od nz$;ekuks dk vuqikr gS vr& bld)
dksbZ bdkbZ ug) gS bls am& 9kjk iznf2kZr fd;k
"krk gS#
; am& ,
<>
;7 KK . ;

xzke, ,d ijekf.od
nz$;eku bdkbZ '+u( dk!Zu E;< leBFkkfud ds ,d
ijek.kq ds nz$;eku ds
;<
;
os Hkkx ds !jk!j
gksr) gS#
x,ke ijekf.d .,&;eku *Qr+ "o+i! +ss
'Q#H(? : ,d r-o ds nz$;eku dks xzke es xzke
ijekf.od nz$;eku ;k xzke ijek.kq ;k eks/ ijek.kq
dgrs gS#
'i( xzke ijek.kqvks ;k eks/ ijek.kqvks d)
l*;k
,
Q#H
eku nz$; dk d r-o ,
'ii( xzke es ,d r-o dk nz$;eku + xzke
ijek.kqvks d) l*;k Q#H
'iii( ; Q#H es ijek.kqvks d) l*;k , K.7<
<=
;7

fn;s x;s inkFkZ es ijek.kqvks d)

l*;k
, Q#H l*;k K.7<
<=
;7
,
Q#H
eku nz$;

K.7<
<=
;7
'iv( r-o ds ; xzke es ijek.kqvks d) l*;k ,
eku z$; ijekf.od n
<=
;7 7< . K
'v( r-o ds ,d ijek.kq dk nz$;eku Rxzke
esS ,
<=
;7 K.7<
Q#H

ijekf.d .,&;eku ds fu/kkZj.k dh

ff/k;k 'He")ods of de"er+in"ion of "o+i! +ss(
'i( Mqyksax vkSj isfV~V fof/k '%ulong
nd 6e""i"As +e")od( : Hq/ksx vkSj isf0U0 ds
fu;e ds vuqlkj
ijek.kq nz$;eku fof2kL0 \Lek , K.>
'/xHkx(
ijek.kq nz$;eku '/xHkx( ,
esS RdS/ksj) ek 0 \L kL fofA
> . K

;g fu;e '(, ', C vkSj )$ dks .ksHIdj lHk)
eksl r-oks ij /kxw gksrk gS %;ksfd bud)
fof2kL0 \Lek rki ds lkFk ifjofrZr gksr) gS#
ijekf.od nz$;eku , rqY;kd) nz$;eku
l;ks"drk
eku nz$; kd) rqY;
R/xHkxS eku z$; ijekf.od n
ks"drk l; =
'ii( ok"i ?kuRo fof/k '03our densi"/ +e")od(
: ;g +u r-oks ds f/, +i;ksx) gS f"uds
%/ksjkbH okLi2k)/ gksrs gS#
r-o d) l;ks"drk ,
eku nz$; kd) rqY; k %/ksjkbH d
eku $; vkf.od nz k %/ksjkbH d
,
=D.D
<
+

eku nz$; kd) rqY; dk /kkrq

Mku-o i okL k %/ksjkbH d
ijek.kqd nz$;eku , /kkrq dk rqY;kd)
nz$;eku l;ks"drk
'iii( fof'k"V "!k fof/k 'S3e!i^! )e"
+e")od( : ;g fof/k dso/ xSlks ds f/, +i;Zq%r
? jklk;fud vadxf.kr
gS? xSlks d) fof2kL0 \Lek;s nks izdkj d)
gksr) gS CP 'fBFkj nk! ij( vkSj
*
C
'fBFkj vk;ru
ij(, CP vkSj
*
C
ds vuqikr dks dgrs gS f"ldk
eku fBFkj jgrk gS (;.KK ,d ijekf.od v.kq ds f/,?
;.>7 f9ijekf.od v.kq ds f/, vkSj ;.== xSl ds
f,ijekf.od v.kq ds f/, gS!
ijekf.odrk
eku nz$; vkf.od
eku nz$; ijekf.od dk xSl); r-o

=
'iv( "!#i$k fof/k '5so+or3)is+ +e")od( $ ;g
le:irk ds fu;e ij vk/kkfjr gS blds vuqlkj ;kSfxd
f"ud) "k/d lj3uk leku gS +udk lMk0u vkSj
jklk;fud lw, Hk) leku g) gksxk#
+nkgj.k :
> < > <
, CrO K )O K
vkSj
> <
)(O K
'), Cr, )( d) l;ks"drk , K(,
O H +()O O H Mg)O O H Z")O
< > < > < >
C . , C . , C .
'Z", Mg, +( d) l;ks"drk, <(
'<( vkf.d .,&;eku : fdl) r-o ;k ;kSfxd
ds ,d v.kq dk nz$;eku bl izdkj ifjHkkfLkr fd;k "k
ldrk gS fd og dk!ZuW;< ds ,d ijek.kq ds
;<
;
os Hkkx ls fdruk xquk vf/kd gS 3w1fd vkf.od
nz$;eku ,d vuqikr gS vr& bld) dksbZ bdkbZ
ug) gS bls am&ls iznf2kZr fd;k "krk gS#
eku nz$; dk d ijek.kq , ds
eku nz$; dk d v.kq , inkFkZZ ds
eku ; vkf.od nz$
;< ;< ;
=
C ,
,d v.kq dk okBrfod nz$;eku,vkf.od nz$;eku
<>
;7 KK . ;

xzke
vkf.od nz$;eku inkFkZ dk ;kshkk-ed xq.k
gS f"ldk eku ,d v.kq es +ifBFkr lHk)
ijek.kqvks ds ijek.kq Hkkjks dk ;ksxdj Kkr
fd;k "k ldrk gS#
x,ke vkf.d .,&;eku 'QHH( vk*j x,ke
eks"j vk;ru : ,d r-o ;k ;kSfxd dk vkf.od
nz$;eku "! xzke es iznf2kZr fd;k "krk gS r! bls
bldk xzke vkf.od nz$;eku? xzke v.kq
nz$;eku ;k eks/ v.kq nz$;eku dgrs gS#
xzke v.kqvks ;k eks/ v.kqvks d) l*;k ,
QHH
ru vk; inkFkZ dk
B inkFkZ dk xzke es vk;ru , xzke v.kqvks
d) l*;k QHH
S`6 ij fdl) xSl ds ,d eks/ dk vk;ru x,ke
eks"j vk;ru dg/krk gS bldk eku <<.> /)0j
gksrk gS# )TP ij ,d eks/ dk vk;ru - <<.> /)0j
gksrk gS#
.,&;eku vk*j @ku' ds f"9 lA3(/k
fdl) xSl dk S`6 ij ;;.< /)0j dk nz$;eku?
, xSl dk okLi Mku-o xzke, feE/)E
C .`6 ij xSl dk Mku-o ,
E /) E fe
eku $; vkf.od nz es xzke
<<>77
e/'i%.kZ rF;
inkFkZ es ijek.kqvks d) l*;k
, QHH d) l*;k K.7< ;7
<=
ijekf.odrk
fn;s x;s inkFkksZ es b/s%0Vksuks d)
l*;k
, QHH d) l*;k K.7< ;7
<=

b/s%0Vkbuks d) l*;k
vkf.d .,&;eku ds fu/kkZj.k dh
ff/k;k $ vkf.od nz$;eku ds fu/kkZj.k ds f/,
fuGu fof/k;k1 +i;ksx es vkr) gS#
'i( fo"j.k fof/k '%iFusion +e")od( RxSlks ds
f/,S $ nks xSlks d) folj.k d) njks dk vuqikr
+uds vkf.od nz$;ekuks ds oxZew/ ds vuqikr
ds $;q-]ekuqikr) gksrk gS#
;
<
<
;
M
M
r
r
=
'ii( ok"i ?kuRo fof/k '03our densi"/ +e")od(
Rdso/ xSlks ds f/,S : okLi dk fuf23r ek,k dk
vk;ru leku ifjfBFkfr;ks es gkbHVks"u ds fuf23r
ek,k ds vk;ru ds rqY; gksrk gS buds
nz$;ekuks dk vuqikr k#i @ku' ;k
vkisf5kd @ku' dg/krk gS#
Mku-o i okL eku ; vkf.od nz$ = <
'iii( fo%Vj !s&j fof/k RokLiAk)/ nzoks
vkSj ekslks ds f/,S : ;g HkbY0u ds vkf2kd
nk! vkSj ,soksxsHVks ifjdYiuk Rxzke eks/j
vk;ruS ij vk/kkfjr gS#
inkFkZ d) okLi dk <<>77 feE/)E , inkFkZ dk
vkf.od nz$;eku
'iv( v.kq"a'&( xq.k ij vk/kkfj$ fof/k
RvokLi2k)/ ekslks ds f/,S : bles fo/;u ds
v.kql*;d xq.k/keksZ dk v/;;u djrs gS#
vk*lr ijekf.d .,&;eku vk*j vkf.d
.,&;eku
jklk;fud vadxf.kr B
A
'vkSlr ijekf.od nz$;eku( ,
.
. A
$ $

; M
'vkSlr vkf.od nz$;eku( ,
.
. M
$ $

"gk1
= , < , ; ,.... , ,
= < ;
A A A
vkfn Bi)Ak)" ds
ijekf.od [$;eku gS blds leku vkf.od [$;eku
Hk) gS#
'=( rq7;kadh .,&;eku 'Gquivlen" +ss( :
;g inkFkZ ds nz$;eku ds v2kks d) og l*;k gS
"ks ;.77@ v2k gkbHVks"u ds nz$;eku ;k @.7 v2k
vkb%l)"u ds nz$;eku ;k =D.D v2k %/ksj)u ds
nz$;eku dks foBFkk^r dj nsr) gS bls rqY;kd)
nz$;eku dgk "krk gS#
GEM d) l*;k ,
GEM inkFkZ dk
eku [$; inkFkZ dk es xzke
rq7;kadh .,&;eku 'GH( ds f"9 i,.f!kZr
l%+
'i( r-o dk GH
ks"drk l;
eku z$; ijekf.od n
=
'ii( vG/ dk GH
4kkjdrk k ; HkkfBedrk
eku ; vkf.od nz$
=

D 'vG/ d) HkkfBedrk vG/ ds ,d v.kq es
+ifBFkr foBFkkiuAk)/ gkbHVks"u ijek.kqvks
d) l*;k ds !jk!j gksr) gS(#
'iii( 4kkj dk GH
rk vG/);
eku ; vkf.od nz$
=

'4kkj d) vG/);rk 4kkj ds ,d v.kq es
+ifBFkr foBFkkiuAk)/ / OH lewg d) l*;k ds
!jk!j gksr) gS(
'iv( /o.k dk GH ,
k vkosA i.k k ; dq/ /ku
eku nz$; lwjk
'v( vi3k;d dk GH
,
Zu dq/ ifjor es k l*; vkb%l)dj.k
k ; k l*; d) kbuks V 4k; b/s%0 v.kq izfr
eku nz$; lwjk
rq7;kadh .,&;eku ds fu/kkZj.k dh
ff/k;k
'i( )kbM*kstu fo+,kkiu fof/k $ /kkrq dk
og nz$;eku "ks fd ;;<77 feE/)E ds gkbHVks"u
dks .`6 ij vG/? 4kkj ;k vYdksg/ ls foBFkk^r djk
ns? /kkrq dk rqY;kd) nz$;eku dg/krk gS#
'( /kkrq dk rqY;kd) nz$;eku
77@ . ;
<
=
eku nz$; dk foBFkk^r
eku nz$; dk /kkrq
H
77@ . ; =
M
0
xzke
'b( /kkrq dk rqY;kd) nz$;eku
;;<77
S`6
<
=
S E /) E Rfe ru vk; ij dk
eku nz$; dk /kkrq
H
, ;;<77
V
0
'ii( vk-%"kbM fu!kZ.k fof/k $ r-o d) og
ek,k "ks @ xzke vkb%l)"u ls l;ksx djr) gS +l
r-o dk rqY;kd) nz$;eku dg/kr) gS#
'( r-o dk rqY;kd) nz$;eku ,
@
eku nz$; dk vkb%l)"u
eku nz$; dk /kkrq
'b( r-o dk rqY;kd) nz$;eku
,
DK77
S.`.6.

esS E /) E Rfe ru vk; dk vkb%l)"u ij
eku nz$; dk /kkrq
'iii( %yksjkbM fu!kZ.k fof/k $ r-o dk og
nz$;eku "ks =D.D xzke %/ksj)u ls f];k djs? r-o
dk rqY;kd) nz$;eku dg/krk gS#
'( /kkrq dk rqY;kd) nz$;eku
D . =D =
eku nz$; dk %/ksj)u
eku nz$; dk /kkrq
'b( /kkrq dk rqY;kd) nz$;eku
C jklk;fud vadxf.kr
;;<77
S`6
=
ru vk; es E /) E fe dk %/ksj)u ij
eku nz$; dk /kkrq
'iv( ./k"0u0(j.k fof/k RvG/ks vkSj
4kkjks ds f/,S
vG/ ;k 4kkj dk rqY;kd) nz$;eku
N V
0

=

"gk1? 0 , xzke es vG/ ;k 4kkj dk nz$;eku
gS, V , vG/ ;k 4kkj dk +nkl)u)dj.k ds f/, /)0j
es vko2;d vk;ru gS? N , vG/ ;k 4kkj d)
ukbeZ/rk gS#
'v( /kk$q fo+,kkiu fof/k $ ;g bl rF; ij
vk/kkfjr gS fd ,d xzke? vf/kd foNqr /kuk-ed
/kkrq? ,d xzke de foNqr /kuk-ed /kkrq dks blds
/o.k fo/;u ls foBFkk^r dj nsr) gS#

eku nz$; kd) rqY; dk /kkrq foBFkk^r
eku nz$; kd) rqY; dk /kkrq ksf"r l;
eku nz$; dk /kkrq foBFkk^r
eku nz$; dk /kkrq ksf"r l;
=
;
<
;
<
;
E
E
0
0
=
'vi( fo1q$vi?kVu0 fof/k 'Gle!"rol/"i!
+e")od( : ; TSjkHs foNqr izokfgr djus ij inkFkZ
d) og ek,k "ks b/s%0VksHI ls f];k djr) gS
vFkok b/s%0VksHI ij izk5r gksr) gS og blds
xzke rqY;kd nz$;eku ds leku gksr) gS#
xzke rqY;kd nz$;eku , foNqr jklk;fud
rqY;kd 8KD77
leku foNqr izokfgr djus ij nks /kkrqvks ds
nz$;ekuks dk vuqikr "ks fd b/s%0VksHIks ij
"ek gksrs gS og +uds rqY;kd) nz$;ekuks
ds vuqikr es gksrk gS#
<
;
<
;
E
E
0
0
=
'vii( f23fo'k.Mu fof/k '%ouble de!o+3osi"ion
+e")od( : C' AD CD A' + +
eku nz$; kd) rqY; dk eku nz$; kd) rqY; dk
eku nz$; kd) rqY; dk eku nz$; kd) rqY; dk
eku nz$; kSfxd dk ;
eku nz$; kSfxd dk ;
D A
' A
AD
A'


+
+
=
;k
( '
( '
<
;
0
0
eku nz$; dk vo4ksi izk5r
eku nz$; dk /o.k s x; f/,
( '
( '
<
;
E
E
eku nz$; kd) rqY; dk /o.k es voBFkk vo4ks^r
eku nz$; kd) rqY; dk /o.k
=
'viii( ifjo$Zu0& fof/k 'Ponversion +e")od( :
"! /kkrq dk ,d ;kSfxd +l) /kkrq ds nwljs ;kSfxd
es !n/rk gS r!W
eku nz$; kd) rqY; ew/d dk
eku nz$; kd) rqY; ew/d dk
eku nz$; kSfxd dk ;
eku nz$; kSfxd dk ;
55
5
( ' 55
( ' 5
<
;
+
+
=
E
E
0
0
'E , /kkrq dk rqY;kd) nz$;eku(
'ix( ok"i'k0y %yksjkbM fof/k '0ol"ile
!)loride +e")od(
/kkrq d) l;ks"drk
eku nz$; kd) rqY; ksjkbH dk /kkf-od %/
Mku-o i okL k %/ksjkbH d
=
<
=D.D G
0.%. <
+

= E
D . =D
<

=
ks"drk l;
Mku-o i okL k %/ksjkbH d
'x( 45oj yo.k fof/k 6(kcZfu( vEyksa
(s fy78
vG/ dk rqY;kd) nz$;eku
,
;7C
;7@

eku nz$; dk /kkrq

eku nz$; dk /o.k dYoj
Ag

vG/ dk vkf.od nz$;eku , vG/ dk rqY;kd)
nz$;eku HkkfBedrk
eks" ifjd7iuk ("ole concept)
fdl) Hk) inkFkZ ds ,d eks/ es fdl) Hk)
izdkj ds d.kks d) 'ijek.kq ;k v.kq ;k vk;uks(
jklk;fud vadxf.kr D
d) ,d l)fer l*;k gksr) gS ( ;7 7<< . K '
<=
f"udk
nz$;eku xzke es ijekf.od ;k vkf.od Hkkj ds leku
gksrk gS# bl izdkj g)f/;e ds eks/?
b/s%0Vkbuks ds eks/ ,o
+
Na
vk;u ds eks/
dks nAkkZuk l-; gS vFkkZr ]eAk& ijek.kqvks?
b/s%0Vkbuks vkSj vk;uks d) ,oksxsHVks l*;k
gS#
eks/ks d) l*;k
( '
( '
eks/ xzke Hkkj d eks/ dk ,
es xzke Hkkj
k
=

Hkkj vf.od k ; ijekf.od
Hkkj
EfrFkr laxGu 9a v.kq l%+k
(#ercentage composition and molecular formula)
';( ;k*fxd dk i,frFkr la@kVu '6er!en"ge
!o+3osi"ion of !o+3ound( : ;kSfxd dk izfr2kr lM
k0u iz-;sd lMk0d r-o dk blds ;77 Hkkx es
nz$;eku gS ;fn ;kSfxd dk vkf.od nz$;eku M
vkSj ' bl v.kq es +ifBFkr r-o dk nz$;eku gS?
r!
;77 ;77 = =
M
.
eku ; vkf.od nz$
eku nz$; dk r-o
kr izfrA dk r-o
'<( e%"kuqikrh l%+ dh x.kuk
'%e"er+in"ion of e+3iri!l for+ul( % ,d v.kq dk
ew/kuqikr) lw, +les +ifBFkr r-oks ds & dk
+i;ksx djds Kkr djrs gS# blds f/;s fuGu fof/k
viuk;) "kr) gS#
r-o ijek.kqvks
d) & lkisf4kd
l*;k
lj/re
vuqikr
ew/ku
qikr)
lw,
& ijek.kq
Hkkj
ijek.kqvksa dh lkisf5kd laH;k % ;kSfxd
es +ifBFkr iz-;sd r-o ds izfrAkr dk +lds
ijek.kq Hkkj ls Hkkx nsrs gS# blls ges v.kq
es r-o ds ijek.kqvks d) lkisf4kd l*;k izk5r
gksr) gS#
lj"re vuqikr 'Si+3les" r"io( % r-oks ds
lj/re vuqikr ds vk1d/u ds f/;s ijek.kqvks d)
l*;k dk fuGure eku Kkr djds bl eku ls ijek.kqvks
d) lkisf4kd l*;k ds iz-;sd eku dk Hkkx nsrs
gS#
izk5r lj/re vuqikr iw.kZ iw.kkZd ug)
gksrk gS# lj/re vuqikr ds iw.kkZd eku dks
izk5r djus ds f/;s +udk ,d +Hk;fuLe xq.ku*k.H
ls xq.ku djrs gS#
e%"kuqikrh l%+ 'G+3iri!l for+ul( %
lj/re vuqikr es +nHkwr lHk) lMk0d
ijek.kqvks dks +uds ijek.kqvks d) lkisf4kd
l*;k ds lkFk f/*krs gS# blls ges ;kSfxd dk
ew/kuqikr) lw, izk5r gksrk gS#
vkf.d l%+ W
vkf.od lw, , "lew/kuqikr) lw,
"gk1 " ,d iw.kZ l*;k gS#
Hkkj lwjk ) ew/kuqikr kSfxd dk ;
j vf.od Hkk kSfxd dk ;
= "
jklk;fud jllehdj.kfefr ($hemical
stoichiometry)
jlle)dj.kfefr jklk;fud vfHkf];k es Akkfe/
vfHkdkjdks vkSj +-iknks d) ek,k d) x.kuk
gS# bldk vFkZ ;g gS fd jklk;fud l;ks"u ,o
vfHkf];k d) ek,k-ed x.kuk jlle)dj.kfer)
dg/kr) gS#
ew/r& bl v/;k; es nks izdkj d) x.kuk,s
lfGef/r gksr) gS#
'( lj/ x.kuk 'Hkkjk-ed foA/sLk.k( ,o
'b( fo/;uks ds vk;ru ,o lkUnzrk lfGef/r
vf/kd "f0/ x.kuk;s 'vk;ruk-ed foA/sLk.k(
;gk1 dksbZ l)ekjs*kk ug) gS "ks
Hkkjk-ed ,o vk;ruk-ed foA/sLk.k ds f/;s
vuqiz;ksfxr fu;eks ds leq63; dks fHkfUur dj
ldr) gS# ,d ds f/;s +i;ksx) lHk) fu;e nwljs ds
f/;s Hk) leku mi ls vuqiz;ksfxr gksrs gS#
vFkkZr eks/ ds lkFk lkFk rqY;kd) ldYiuk#
fdUrq? okBrfodrk es Hkkjk-ed foA/sLk.k ij
vk/kkfjr leB;kvks es lj/ vfHkf];k;s gksr)
gS# blf/;s eks/ ldYiuk lqfo/kk"ud gS# "!fd
vk;ruk-ed vfHkf];k;s "f0/ vkSj vKkr gksr)
gS# 'vKkr dk lj/ vFkZ ;g gS fd "ks vkidks Kkr
uk gks? lHk) lHkkfor vfHkf];k;ks dks ;kn
j*kuk vkids f/;s lGHko ug) gS( blf/;s rqY;kd)
ldYiuk iz;ksx djus es vklku) gksr) gS# bles
lrqf/r vfHkf];k d) "kudkj) d) vkoA;drk ug)
gksr) gS#
';( )kkjk'ed fF"s#k.k 'Qrvi+e"ri!
nl/sis( % Hkkjk-ed foA/sLk.k es ge nks
inkFkksZ dk Hkkj? ;k xSl ds vk;ru ds lkFk
inkFkZ dk Hkkj ;k nks ;k vf/kd xSlks ds Hkkj
dks l!f/kr djrs gS#
.,&;ekuI.,&;eku la3a/k ij vk/kkfjr
le6;k;sa
fuGuf/f*kr funsZAkks ds vk/kkj ij ;s
leB;k;s g/ d) "kr) gS#
'i( jklk;fud ifjorZu iznfAkZr djus ds f/;s
lrqf/r le)dj.k f/*ks#
'ii( vfHkdkjdks ,o +-iknks ds lw, ds
u)3s eks/ks d) l*;k f/*ks# lw, ds u)3s
vfHkdkjdks vkSj +-iknks ds lkisf4kd Hkkj
Hk) f/*ks '"ks vkf.od lw, d) x.kuk ls izk5r gq,
gS(#
1J jklk;fud vadxf.kr
'iii( vKkr x.kdks d) x.kuk ds f/;s ;wfu0j)
fof/k dk iz;ksx djs#
.,&;ekuIvk;ru la3a/k ij vk/kkfjr
le6;k;sa
fuGuf/f*kr funsZAkks ds vk/kkj ij nz$;eku
vk;ru l!/k ij vk/kkfjr leB;k;s g/ d) "k ldr)
gS#
'i( l!f/kr lrqf/r jklk;fud le)dj.kks dks
f/*ks#
'ii( fofHkUu eksl vfHkdkjdks vkSj
+-iknks ds Hkkjks dks f/*ks#
'iii(xSls lkekU;r& vk;ruks ds inks es
$;kf*;r gksr) gS# ;fn xSl dk vk;ru lkekU; rki
,o nk! ij ekik x;k gks ';k ..`.6. ds v/kok nwlj)
fBFkfr;ks es( rks bls xSl le)dj.k 9kjk ..`.6. es
ifjofrZr djs#
'iv(fdl) rki ,o nk! ij xSl dk vk;ru
1T
M
g
PV =
l!/k 9kjk blds Hkkj es ifjofrZr
fd;k "k ldrk gS ;k blds foij)r? "gk1 g xSl dk Hkkj
gS? M xSl dk vf.od Hkkj gS? 1 xSl fBFkjkd gS#
vKkr x.kd d) x.kuk ;wfu0j) fof/k 9kjk djs#
vk;ruIvk;ru la3a/k ij vk/kkfjr le6;k;sa
bl izdkj d) leB;k;s jklk;fud le)dj.k ds
vuqlkj g/ d) "k ldr) gS#
'i( l!f/kr lrqf/r jklk;fud le)dj.k f/*ks#
'ii( iz-;sd xSl); inkFkZ ds ; xzke v.kq ..`.6.
ij <<.> /)0j Mksjrs gS bl rF; d) lgk;rk ls
vfHkdkjd ,o +-ikn iz-;sd ds lw, ds u)3s
vfHkdkjdks ,o +-iknks ds vk;ru f/*ks#
'iii(;fn xSl dk vk;ru fu;r rki ij ekik "krk gS#
rks vkn2kZ xSl le)dj.k dk +i;ksx djds vk;ru dks
a.`6 es ifjofrZr djs# ,oksxsHVks d) ifjdYiuk
ds vuqlkj: fofHkUu xSlks ds leku vk;ru es rki
,o nk! d) leku fBFkfr;ks ij v.kqvks d) leku
l*;k gksr) gS#
'<( vk;ruk'ed fF"s#k.k '0olu+e"ri!
nl/sis( : fdl) inkFkZ d) ek,k "ks fo/;u es
+ifBFkr gS +lds Hkkjk-ed fu/kkZj.k ds f/, ;g
fof/k viuk;) "kr) gS blds f/, fo2/sfLkr o ekud
fo/;u vko2;d gksrk gS#
fdl) vKkr fo/;u d) lkUnzrk dks Kkr fo/;u
ds lkFk Kkr djuk vuqekiu dg/krk gS# fofHkUu
izdkj ds vuqekiu lGHko gS "ks u)3s fn;s x;s
gS?
'i( jsMk-%" vuq!kiu 2-edox "i"r"ions4 :
fdl) vkb%l)dkjd ;k vi3k;d inkFkZ d) Akf%r dks
fu/kkZfjr fd;k "krk gS blds f/, vi3k;d ;k
vk%l)dkjdks ds ekud fo/;u f/, "krs gS#
+nkgj.k :
O H M")O
)O K )O +( )O H KM"O +()O
O H )O +( O )O H +()O
O O H M")O )O K )O H KM"O
O H )O Cr
)O K )O +( )O H O Cr K +()O
O H )O +( O )O H +()O
O O H )O Cr )O K )O H O Cr K
< >
> < = > < > < > >
< = > < > < >
< > > < > < >
< = > <
> < = > > < C < < >
< = > < > < >
< = > < > < > < C < <
@ <
( ' D @ < ;7
D ? ( ' < *
? * D = < = <
C ( '
( ' = C K
= ? ( ' < *
? * = > ( ' >
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + +
+ + + +
e)d bl) izdkj
> < <
O C H
ds lkFk
> < > < < > < >
D = < )O K O C H )O H KM"O + +

< < >
;7 @ < CO O H M")O + + +
vkfn #
'ii( vEy 9kkj vuq!kiu 2A2$d3%as( 4$4ra4$o"s4 :
vG/ d) Akf%r ;k 4kkj d) Akf%r dks 4kkj ;k vG/
ds ekud fo/;u 9kjk Kkr fd;k "krk gS#
+nkgj.k :
O H NaCl HCl NaOH
<
+ +
o
O H COONa CH COOH CH NaOH
< = =
+ +
vkfn
'iii( vk&ksM0f!f$ vuq!kiu (5od$m(4r$2
4$4ra4$o"! % ;g lj/ vuqekiu gS# f"les eq%r
vk;ksH)u lfGef/r gksr) gS# bles Kkr lksfH;e
Fkk;kslYTs0 fo/;u ds lkFk f"ld) ukbeZ/rk N
gS? vk;ksH)u fo/;u dk vuqekiu gksrk gS#
ekuk fd lksfH;e Fkk;kslYTs0 dk vk;ru V feE/)E
gS#
K > < = < < <
< < O ) Na Na5 O ) Na 5 + +
; , < = = " "
<
5
d) rqY;kdrk
= < <
O ) Na =
d) rqY;kdrk

<
5
d) rqY;kdrk
=
;7

= V N
<
5
ds eks/
<
;7
=

=
V N
fo/;u es eq%r
<
5
dk nz$;eku
g
V N

<D>
<
;7
=
'iv( vk&Mksf!f$ vuq!kiu (5odom(4r$2
4$4ra4$o"! % ;g vk;ksH)u ds vk1d/u d) viz4ks5;
fof/k gS# eksl K5 d) vf/kdrk ds lkFk ,d
vkb%l)dkjd vfHkf];k djrk gS# vkb%l)dkjd

5
dks
<
5
es vkb%l)dOr djrk gS# ;g
vk;ksH)u fTj
= < <
O ) Na
fo/;u ds lkFk vfHkf];k
djr) gS#
vkb%l)dkjd W
jklk;fud vadxf.kr 11
K > <
<
<
< ( '
= < <
O ) Na Na5 5 K5 A
O ) Na
+ +
ekuk fd
= < <
O ) Na
fo/;u d) ukbeZ/rk N
gS ,o Fkk;kslYTs0 dk V feE/)E vk;ru +i;ksx
gks "krk gS#
A d) rqY;kdrk
<
5 =
d) rqY;kdrk
= < <
O ) Na =
d) rqY;kdrk
K5 ls +-lf"Zr
<
5
d) rqY;kdrk
=
;7

= V N
K5 ls +-lf"Zr
<
5
ds eks/
<
;7
=

=
V N
K5 ls +-lf"Zr
<
5
dk nz$;eku
g
V N

<D>
<
;7
=
'v( vo9ksi.k vuq!kiu (Pr(2$6$4a4$o"
4$4ra4$o"s! %

. PO A)O CN , , ,
=
>
=
=
i.kk;uks
ds fu/kkZj.k es
=
AgNO
ds lkFk vo4ksi.k
vuqekiu djrs gS#
= =
HaNO AgCl AgNO NaCl + +
= =
KNO Ag)CN AgNO K)CN + +
vf(re f3(.q rq7;kad f3(.q 'Gnd 3oin"
nd equivlen!e 3oin"( $ og f!Unq f"l ij vuqekiu :d
"krk gS +ls vfUre f!Unq dgrs gS "!fd og
f!Unq f"l ij vG/ o 4kkjks d) rqY;kd ek,k;s
vkil es fef_r d) "kr) gS ;g rqY;kd f!Unq
dg/krk gS bl) +nUns2; ds f/;s l%pd vuqekiu
es iz;q%r fd;s "krs gS lw3d !rkrk gS fd
inkFkZ rqY;kd ek,k es fe/ 3qds gS? ;g
eg-oiw.kZ gS fd vfUre f!Unq vkSj rqY;kd
f!Unq ds eku v-;Ur fud0 ds Hk) gks ldrs gS
#
ukKeZ" f";u '.or+l solu"ion( : ,d /)0j
fo/;u es fo/s; dk ,d xzke rqY;kd fo/s; gksus
ij +l fo/;u dks ukbeZ/ fo/;u dgrs gS "Sls >7
xzke NaOH ,d /)0j NaOH fo/;u es +ifBFkr
gksus ij fo/;u ukbeZ/ gksxk? "!fd fo/;u dk
izHkk" ,d /)0j es fo/s; gksus ij +ls l!
ukbeZ/ fo/;u dgrs gS "Sls & N/< ;k 7.D N fo/;u
vk;ruk'ed f!"s#k.k vkafdd le6;kvksa
ij vk/kkfjr l%+
';( fo/;u d) Akf%r , fdl) inkFkZ d) xzke /
/)0j es ek,k
'<( fo/;u d) Akf%r , xzke eks/ izfr /)0j es
ek,k
'=( fo/;u d) Akf%r , ukbeZ/rk rqY;kd)
Hkkj
v.kqHkkj fo/s; dk eks/jrk =
'>(
ru vk; es /)0j dk u fo/;
k l*; d) eks/ks fo/s; ds
eks/jrk =
'D(
v.kqHkkj
eku nz$; es xzkeks
k l*; d) eks/ks =
> . <<
( '
ru vk; es /)0j
=
l $"
V M .`6 ij 'xSlks ds
f/,(
'K( feE/)E es eks/ks d) l*;k
ru vk; es E /) E fe eks/jrk
eku nz$; kd) rqY;
eku nz$; es xzke
=

=
;777
'C( rqY;kdks d) l*;k
Hkkj kd) rqY;
eku nz$; es xzke
=
ru vk; es /)0j ukbeZ/rk k l*; d) eks/ks = x
'@( feE/)E rqY;kdks d) l*;k
Hkkj kd) rqY;
eku nz$; es xzke ;777
=
ru vk; es E /) E fe ukbeZ/rk =
'8( ukbeZ/rk

Hkkj kd) rqY;
kf%r A ess /)0j izfr xzke
eks/jrk = = x
;gk1
Hkkj kd) rqY;
Hkkj v.kq
= x
, x , l;ks"drk ;k
vkos2k
';7( ukbeZ/rk lw,,
< < ; ;
V N V N =
';;( Hkkjkuqlkj izfr2kr
;77 =
eku nz$; dk u fo/;
eku nz$; d dk fo/k;
';<( vk;rkuqlkj izfr2kr
;77 =
ru vk; dk u fo/;
eku nz$; d dk fo/k;
';=( Akf%r ds vuqlkj izfr2krrk
;77 =
ru vk; dk u fo/;
eku nz$; d dk fo/k;
';>( fof2kL0 xq:-o
ru vk; dk u fo/;
eku nz$; dk u fo/;
=
eku nz$; dk u fo/; E /) E d fe , =
';D( TkbeZ/rk
ru vk; lwjkHkkj fo/s; dk
eku nz$; dk fud fo/s; vk;

=
';K( v.kqHkkj , okLi Mku-o < Rdso/
xSlks ds f/,(
lhek(r vf)kdeZd (Limiting %eagent)
12 jklk;fud vadxf.kr
jklk;fud vfHkf];k es "! ,d ;k vf/kd inkFkZ
vf/kd ek,k es Hkkx /srs gS r! vf/kd ek,k
ok/s ;s inkFkZ vfHkf];k iw.kZ gksus ij okil izk5r
gks "krs gS # "! bues ls dksbZ ,d vfHkdkjd
iw.kZ :i ls *k3Z gks "krk gS r! jklk;fud vfHkf];k
:d "kr) gS os inkFkZ "ks vfHkf];k es de ek,k
es +ifBFkr gksrs gS l)ekUr vfHkdeZd
dg/krs gS "!fd os inkFkZ "ks vf/kdre ek,k
es +ifBFkr gksrs gS os vkf/k%; vfHkdeZd
dg/krs gS#
fdl) jklk;fud vfHkf];k es ;7 eks/ H< o C
eks/ O< gS

( ' < ( ' ( ' <
< < <
* O H g O g H +

vfHkf];k ds ig/s ;7 C
7
vfHkf];k ds !kn 7 <
;7
D eks/ O< ds *k3Z gksus ij vfHkf];k :d "kr)
gS rFkk vfHkf];k ds iA3krU H< ug) !3r) gS bl
izdkj gkbHVks"u bl f];k es l)ek vfHkdeZd
gS#
ukfHkd); vfHkf];kvks ds f/;s nz$;eku
ds lj4k.k dk fu;e v6.k !/ku ug) gksrk
gS#
fuf23r vuqikr dk fu;e vjlle)dj.k ;kSfxdks
"Sls d) P;wd0kb0 ds f/;s v6.k !/ku ug)
gksrk gS#
fuf23r vuqikr dk fu;e? xq.ku vuqikr dk fu;e
,o $;q-]e vuqikr dk fu;e v6.k !/ku
ug) j*krk gS# "! leku ;kSfxd leku r-o ds
fofHkUu leBFkkfud ds +i;ksx 9kjk izk5r
gksrs gS# +nkgj.k &
O H
<
,o
O D
<
#
AkPn ijek.kq vkbB0okYH 9kjk izBrkfor fd;k
x;k ,o v.kq AkPn ,oksxsHVks 9kjk izBrkfor
fd;k x;k#
r-o d) ifjdYiuk jkb!0Z !kb;/ 9kjk
izBrkfor d) xbZ#
xSl); r-o ds v.kq es +ifBFkr ijek.kqvks
d) l*;k ijekf.odrk dg/kr) gS#
ijek.kq nz$;eku ,o vkf.od nz$;eku
nksuks dso/ vuqikr gS vkSj blf/;s bud)
dksbZ bdkbZ ug) gksr) gS#

O H
<
dk ; eks/ m
O H
<
ds <<>77 22
'%;ksfd ;g ,d nz$; gS( blds v/kok
O H
<
dk ; eks/
O H
<
=
ds ;@ 22
'%;ksfd
O H
<
dk Mku-o
22 g/ ; =
(

> < > <

< ; )O NH )O MH =
E
oOgn v.kq inkFkkZs ds fuGure v.kq Hkkj
dks ,d .ks0s Mk0d ds f/;s fo2/sLk.k 9kjk
ifjdf/r fd;k "k ldrk gS# "! ;g ekuk "krk gS
fd oOgn v.kq ds ,d v.kq es dso/ ,d
ijek.kq gS ;k .ks0s lMk0d dk ,d v.kq gS
r! fuGure v.kq Hkkj izk5r gksrk gS#
fuGure v.kq Hkkj?
eku nz$; Mk0d dk .ks0s ds v.kq !Ogn xzke Zfr
j ekf.od Hkk vkf.odkij Mk0d dk .ks0s
=