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L> ) 4 (J> ; 4 > > ; 4 6G 0
L: 6 (G#97 (Bolyai) (: &) @ 0>
( > ( 97
> @ : > M Hyperbolic geometry >< :.(G#97
> @ :( >< >< # >< (neutral geometry) 0
# <#) (J: <#: (J>< @.:
L ) I# P 6
<#: (J> @ :: ; P XI! 6 l .I# 4
: .I#
&#> 0 eI >< 6 <>V# <#: . <>&##

&< >< [4 )9 eI & )V& <#:.
# ) ( `) <: 6# 4 =) <#: (J# )
@ 0:<V%

29
L .I# l .I# ! ; XI l .I#> P XI`) > .I# m :

G
) P 6 : . l
(J> [4 ; 6G .#IM )9 0)X# )V

# @ (J D> @ :@ ) .#I ; 6G 6G <&X4 .#I .I#@ )7
#4 # (J> @ (J .:> [4 ; 6G .) C)9
0)X# )V # # #< ) 0&: 6G @ ) .@ )7 (J 6G
> @.:
& (J Z,@ 0> : <!G: #< ` J Q ; :X Y @ `!Q
9 ,-
*)

> IX Z, :G > @ :< > [4 6G )X @ M # @
: > @ :( !: 6!: #)G9 > > [4 ( ( &)
& .@ !& J ) L D> &< (J, J# #
)%I GJ L@ 0>< , &( I9>< [4< % (J 4J#
)G J# 6:G Z& ` D .I# : 6
)#& (J (:Y< : < > :Y C& 6& e LG7:9 L 6@0
> C`) Q( ! !&) N :, @ ` 180 Q< ;J X
> 6 <,I &: 6 I 6 @ 0, ; : ), MJ )6
4< e9 > 6G ; 4< e9.

30
Z, (J D7&) ) .(.I# L 6 6G )#:e (J )#>6 &I

!7 6& DG9 6G M >< e9 -M N) :: (J
e9 Q>>( :e > ))4 0 < .< Y
e9 B :%:! 0 6 6> J ; N) : % :: J
<# I :% 04 : GJ (G#97 6> ) 6@G 6J e9! ;
L LI) &) @ 0>< ) 4(
LI@ 6N >< 4< 7!NJ 6:I :
HJ .&) O>G) 6 !=)< >.#
; :: > < ! O>< ) (J ( . <I4
)X :! 0)G
(J ... )V> # >< ( _! O#> ; I),< # L
>< [4< < : :, @ 0< L>= ) (J : %
>= I . : # L[ GM< ( <% [ <XI
6>< ) 6G 6G :G ( >< >.
> ( O#
(J 9#9I ) (conventionalism> .#I& 9 <9 #4 : .#I .
!: 6 L &I )< )4 (metric .#I) . :!0)G
!7 6&I N @ 0)< ( I.

31
* G )F
9

8
D9
, Saccheri quadrilateral
& ) )( Y >G 6 <#: [4 @ )( Y
:G : 6 6#! 6( .I# > < ; M 6):6
< :@ 0M 4
< `! :@ 0M >)9
< `` :@ 0M
> [4
[ ( >
& ) ) 6> (J 4 6)6
X ) 6> (J 4 `! 6G
X ) 6> (J 4< `` . G > (J 4< ``< & L@
)( N@ (J <!G> @ . 6G : 7) @ 0) <!G .
, W Lambert quadrilateral
( ;) )( ) 6G:G 6< 4 < .X ;) 6
@ )( ) 6 )`Ge4 6 >< @ BG 6G <:)
:: > 6G 4 ) 6 : : M< (J M# : >Z
6#< ` Q !%I #< `.Q
& ) `` )`` > @) (:( )
;):
c
b
(J( )sinh = cosh a sinh :
2
2
(J( ;)sinh c = cosh a sinh b :
a b : c Y

32

[

>%I & Z (J Defect> @ : :)9 2 6 :, M
` Q:
) Defect ( ABC ) = ( Ar + B r + C r
(J@ 0) XM Z#)

(J> @ :> O ` k O ` Q:Q
) S ABC = k 2 Defect ( ABC

! OM Z#
) k 2 Defect ( ABC
(J@ 0)X
ABC
180
= S ABC
S#< ` (J ABC Q> @.:
(J> @ : # %4< ` Q . k 2 :#< ` (J Q> @O# :
( (J> [4 )Y L %! (J 0I9 ! Z##< `Q
:!4 6 !%I #< D@ . 6G:I 6: ` Q # ) :4N( (J <IX
>< @.<:
!> K X#> V X ) 6#< ` Q :, 0 (:
K S ABC = Ar + B r + C r
! _># ; 6@ 0):<X

33

(J K > 0 :1@ 0< :, ` Q`) 180 6 (J@ 0< :I
` O 6G> > :e @ 0<.

\ (J K = 0 :@ 0< :, ` 180 Q :! : > >
[4 ! .)9%

\
\ (J K < 0 :@ 0< :, ` Q L4 180 6 :I Z6G
> > @ 0@ :<.
6I <#@ 0) < 6X``:
) S ABC = k 2 Defect ( ABC

K S ABC = Ar + B r + C r
1
k2
K = (J k = iR >Y)J@ 0) i = 1 X eN <9%@ <:
6) &7 ! )X4 % (.

#< ) (J 0>< @::
r
2k
S = 4 k 2 sinh

34

P !" L PQ L' $% )"%
+, QP L0 '"/ :
XPQ = QPY 8 76 , 52,

7 P .L
= < ;:5?@A7 5
d
=e k
tan
G?7 F06 GI 2, 2?0 ( PQ) "7 7 , ' 2'< P 2 .L
5% k0 2<P = 5% O+<"7 "O/ 5 N I
QN 8/ tan
6 2, T<U e GW, .",0" <V 8/6 5% 2, !'O X 2 0O 5%2!'O
[= 2, YZ< 8 YZW . 5% \0 2@N 2 0O XP YP
6, , .L
+7 k I 5% ,
5 , 5% 2!'O[= .2, 5%
5+! IN T<U) k T : Y @ ` QI k)V I

e9 c) 0 & 0)I 4.
)F^` Engel Theorem
: ` Q .IM C& L):< (J LG7 1 .4 IJ : (
Y ;) C& L):< (J LG72 .4
LG71 .4
LG72 .4
!@) @ 0 eI> ) 6G7 ) @ 0 (J eI% )! > IJ

@):: M > (IX> 6) @ 0>.

36

)F G
9

8
D9
6 @ 0eI >&) <9&!< <#: (J@ 0>< @[ <:
e4 @ 0><e4 ; 6G ; (J II>< [4< 6G 6 @0
<# 6G4< ) @ 0eI X& (Je9 @ .(:@ 0eI
(:
) :1 :` Q:, 0 L4 180 6
)9! : ; XI! p L .I#> <#: (J> @:

!) .I# : L 6>)! p XI m M n
QRP < xpy
QPR < QPx
____________
R Z >! :Q
: PR .I# LM QPx
QPR + QPx < xpy + QPx = 90

QPR + QPx < 90
:, 6` Q .IM PRQ L4 90 6 ( :,
` PRQ Q L4 180 6.
!_ @ 0 eI( : (J LX#> @) : LX#:, 0
360(

37
) (J :2> @ : 6 ! ; XI L .I# 6G) L4I#

: L .I#
:
6>)! P XI: . PQ L .I# @ D 6@ 0>)! XI .m .I#: PQ
!> Z> R XI L .I# > !) .: t .I# L - 6>)! P XI .&: : PS t
m .I# &: ) PS>IX : ! S O> (9J m IX@ 0 PSRQ

LX# 4)> : (J LX#> @) ::, 360 0
:, ` Q L4 180 6(
:I# PS m: O#) L .I#@ 0 eI) <# X: (J
> @ :@ ) [> ( ;) & :) <#
:(

38
) (J :3> @ : I# L L: `) > !XI

L> B99< L 6
:
!)9 > ! <XI` L( @ D> B99< 6
6
. L)( BBAA BBCC ACAC
( ) ) (J( ) M ,0I 0
4 Y I @ 0M #(
AAC = CC A
AA = BB
BBC = C CB BBC = BBA

BB = CC
AAB = BBA
@ 0M G @ C D ) (J@ LG7( X# ; :

6> B99< . L 6
(J LX#> @ : @ > 4 A B # C

39

8 & , )(Klein Beltrami Model

@ >: 6)) 0) 0 (IX)M O !)X4 % R <&4<9%
[4 . L@ 0) 0 : 6 <:,>I X: &4 L@ 0) 0X<OR :Q
(J@ >: >I L) 0( !I <9%@ :@ D @ 0) (J 0@
>: ( :X <9%@ (J .<:@ >: >XI A BM L) 0
> ) ) 6 6> (J .6XI@ >: >I : <&4 ) 0( !I
` ; `I! L <9%@.:
!: )( -6
9%@:
(J LG7I L:) 6> P <XI: :) L

6)) 0 Z,@) N V%& <#:
(J> @ :( : ; XI! 6 .I#&: 6G
) \ .I# ) 6@ 0> <XI ; CXI.I#
&:(

40

=! ># I (J@ >: : .I# <4M ) # !<4 O
L< # ) I# # : L .I## )( ; 6G
9 :X (J .I#@ >: : :! (J <9%[4< ; N@ L
L # ! )X4 %)[ 0 @ > J C:9 >( (J
) .I#( : & 6 4
@ >: Z,X :X 9< &) 9.
&) 9 (J@ >: LG7(:
!)9 AB( 9 [4 A 6 B 9 (J@ >: (:
1
APi BQ
log
2
BPi AQ
= )d ( AB
> !: ) N:! . :!G Poincar Model Z 6I )& .&X

! C 9%@ :7< ) (Isomorphs C& .e)V ) 6 !:
)( - 6 @) >: :!G <J)& :@ 0> >< ( 6G 6
# 0)G9 ( Z&%#, :% ;=> )c &
: > @ & > Z C# eI > 0)G9
@ 0> [ >4:# : 6> [4 4:! . #& X#
: C: C49 >4:# . : & Z&%:%
=: > XI`< (J@ >: <9 CJ <G:X 9 &J L`
9 A 6 > B :! B &# %;!.

41

=
2
_
1

42

43

h
8
, 9& A

> Y)J # !=)< > <# C 0@ (:>=)< . 6@0
> <#&< 6G .> #
> <# < >
Y)9
N) @ 0>=)< ! O@ 0# ) MJ< <#
: (J>< 4< .Y)9 ( &! O @ 0>=) (:

h: :4! 6M9 ( ! (J #9 <J) C&<X
)< :e (J)9 6 <I#)< % (:e

82: Cosmological Principle !8
88
@ ::G B!, : :.
I C >
:
!7 6 :, 6GJ ! O# @ 0GJ (:
oe9 (J ; : !M< :J 6 L.
L <G::
o <G& <X ( !:! <, 6 L9 6< @ 0@
(J:G.
o 7 (J . D!G :)< >.& <G <#
o (J .# ) )9( ; D < ><.
o ( ( & 6>< ; >< .
&
8:
(J> [4 : ; <XI! 6 .I# 6G . .I# : .I#)9.
(J> @ :: ; <XI! 6 .I# 6G .`) 6 .I#: .I#)9.
(J> :e : ; <XI! 6 ; .I# 6G . .I#: .I#)9.

44
*89
,- rF

)) Z4> )c )( (J> <# : 6 ; <:,>< 6#
L> <# ) >< . Z,< :%
:< (Je9 M> C& 6e
6[ 6X "I" "7" .
L> : (J X><# !&: . Ze4 6< <IX @ :X O
> <# L) (J Z4) .<X C&>( : L) <X Z4: ZeI::
(J)& Ze4 64 .: I : : ZeI @ :X # C (J
) .C@ D> <# #.

45

8
8+
: :! M( 6 ) 6 )&[ 6> @ 0) !:I
: x1) <I( > <# : x1 : x4 9% (J . x1@
: x2 x3 @ D) M( .O
x1 = x1 cos + x4 sin
x4 = x1 sin + x4 cos
x2 = x2
x = x
3
3
O
! 6&#)X Z# > (J (G#J:G@ 0)X#! &< . 6G< &; @ :LG7
x = x cos + ict sin
ict = x sin + ict cos
y = y
z = z
&)@ 0& 6 9> (J) S C C,I) t&< @ 0 9%(:

ax + by + cz + d = 0

46

&< @ 0 (J <9%) (J S C = L t 6@ :LG7

(a cos ) x + by + cz + d + icta sin = 0
@J a = b = d = 0 X <9[( O x y&< @ 0 (J 9%) S C(

z =0 9%@ : X xyO 9% X#J a = b = d = 0 Oxy <9%
& (J) S C(:
x = ict tan
@ 0( <9: xyO 9% I ict tan .! (J I : .xO
! _># 6@ &; :! M( < <
6 )! S C , 6!I )S C
(J : xO 9< (J ict tan L
=< .t
! O)< !I ) S C> # )C
S# u:
-ict tan
u = ic tan
6@ 0&< ! _># M < <Y)J ) <)#!I [( :

iu
c
6& :
1 + tan 2
1
= tan
= cos `` ! L%:
47

cos =
1
1
sin =
u2
c2
iu
c
u2
1 2
c
( &;J )0@ Ce!
x = x cos + ict sin
ict = x sin + ict cos
y = y
z = z
:( M!: : > ,>

x ut
x =
u2
1 2
c
y = y
z = z
ux
t 2
t =
c
u2
1 2
c
:)I &; 0@ %) V c < #> u <4 O!
x = x ut
y = y
z = z
t = t
)GG M9( J & # : ;: &; &) 6< :, 0@
D t = t X) )X 6 GG M9( J .69 6&) C4 :
.X( GG e9( J M <!

48

s: 8
8:+
> , :2
'8
!G :X < (J)< .#,> & .#,&:< < ) I
.)V
!)9 Ze4 Z: x 6) C# S 6! 6@ x = x1 (J ZeI
: x = x 2 @ (J ZeI) S C::
L = x 2 x 1
> : :! 6J) t <= (J M@ (J ZeI) S C x = x1 (J

x = x2) <X 6 ) 6J ZeI 6@ 6)& 6(:
x1 ut
x1 ut
x
=
1
u2
u2
1 2
1 2
c
c
= x1
: (J ZeI) S C L = x 2 x 1 ::
u2
L = L 1 2
c
!G :X @ <,! B :)V MJ M, : (J[!I
[!# ) ! <,! : )V) <X: 6 ZeI < > ZeI #> : L
ZeII )X# ( O#>< >@ <# .ZeI@ D 4 . L 6 6>V# 4 LM# < M4 6 ) (J (J .ZeIM9 G G

49

@ I ! ,# Q :% N :X : <9< 6G .#, e

N :X &) )X <I( . 4.
> ,`! :

+
! O (J <#) C>< >) <# (J Z4 D) CM (J 6 D <#:
) ! O <# )< v>) <#NJ Z4 M 6 >@ <# )Z4
v2
><#
c2
. 1
> t1 6 t2 (J) S C 4 . <#>< > , S C) <#@6
M> 0@ 6 6I< (J <#) S C) v <)# t1 .t2 >
: :!:M
t1
v2
1 2
c
v2
c2
= t1
t2
2
v
1 2
c
= t2
t1 t2 = ( t1 t2 ) 1
v2
t = t 1 2
c

50

> ,`` u! :

! O)< X4 > # u )< )J# LXI )>XI #( u 6M9
G G)< )J#> # v(:
v =u +u
6: :!M
= ut
u
u +u
t
= x ut = u (t 2 x) x
uu
c
1+ 2
c
x ut
2
=x
u
c2
ux
t 2
c
= t
u2
1 2
c
1
> <,>< 6: :!M(:

u +u
t
uu
c2
=x
1+
! O)< )J#> # v 9 ( &XI@ )J#> <# (

x = vt:
u +u
uu
c2
=v
1+
> )< XI )< )J#>e )#J ( u = u = c ) :Y>@ #6

% 6 #9! I)< :e @ ; L )< :e )< ; <IX
C) Ce )< :e 6 <I#)< % :e.
51

h

v
:X< )#> D( >J <X .
m=
m
u2
1 2
c
(J #> G m S X& C)( J :G# < GG G mo X )0@( J

.u ( S C) #> m <G .#, )< S C)
6)< # :: < :4 LV :(>( :> D!G( J (kinetic energy) << )4X
: dx <J#) V F :I K << )4X O! .u ) 9%
u
u
u
u
du
dx
1
K = Fdx = m
dx = m du =m udu = m u 2
2
dt
dt
0
0
0
0
)V C< G) V< #> D!G( J > <)# C) V< ; G>( :> D!G( J
:(< < #>( J << )4X D@ .<)#
u
ud
u
u
dx u
K = Fdx = (mu )dx = d (mu ) = (mdu + udm)u = (mudu + u 2dm)
dt 0
0
0 dt
0
0
:( 6
>< X) )V u m <X( @ )J
m=
m
u2
1 2
c
: L%! <X )0@ 6
52

m=
m
m 2 c 2 m 2u 2 = m 2 c 2
u2
1 2
c
: L%! 2m #I <X )0@ LY9 6
2mc
dm 2m2udu 2mu 2dm = 0 mudu + u 2dm = c 2dm
: LG O #9! :< X )0@( J )#) X

u
K = c 2 dm =c 2 dm =mc 2 m c 2
:D@ < @G< 4X E = mc 2

E = m c2 + K
. K = 0 u = 0 <( J :G< 4 :G#< 4 ( m c 2
:D
K = mc 2 m c 2 K =
u
<< 1 <( J <#>>< :>< )< 4X #
c
m
c2 m c2 K = m c2 (
2
u
1
1
u
c
1)
:

53

3 u
1 u
1 u
1) = 1 + ( ) 2 + ( )4 + 1 ( )2
8 c
2 c
2 c
1
2
2
@:D
1
1 u
K = m c2 ( )2 K = m u 2
2 c
2
6@ 0&< 6G> @ 0> <,) <YN >=)< > <#( >=)< >:><
> &# :! <)#)< :e.

54
55

Galaxy
Universe
d Earth = Human Being
Atom

56

57
'8

# )=! .J< > <#&< ; 6 <&X:X# )!< #& #<
>:#< . <&X:X# )!< : LG! ZX# O4 ; G C# > ><#
&< 6G 6 ) Y: #< >:# B 6G& .><
:X# )!< Q! :X# >< >=< 6G:% #@ (J !#
& .:9 [!> :I ! I 6@ 0:X# >< <X# e9 )( &.
@ 0:X# <X#( :X# !< ( . Q>< <Y9 ( :X
< & eJ (J 4 . 6 9 . e4 >< <Y9 6G& 6 <
!> @ 0:X# I &; : <#>> : <&4@ 0:X# )@ D<
) I) >< :X ., #<( .&) [!> :, (# 6 .9 .
> <#&< Q :I e9 6 ; .:X <I# ! :X >>< Ce
@ ( e9 : G J )%4< 6XI! 6 6@ e9 O# .@ 0:X# !<
)
( >@) ( L:X# ! ! > 6 6:X# !< : (J L&;
: . 6 >>V:X# !< > :X# )V>=< >0)c
O!G&; : I )> 6 .Q> )c:: (J
&; (J #% # >:# .@ 0:X# ( < & 6G
(J>< <Y9 6G&!< [ >>< @ &.
; LI! 6G :% :X# !< ) L X( &( eJ (J ( & B
@ 0G )=! (J< > <# : > ; )7 #& 9 .Y
> <#&< D9 6&;.
58

.: : X# 6> 6 >_ X# : Surface of revolution (! X#

:( X,Y,Z ( :X# 6 :> @ @ .< ( )
x = f ( ) cos
y = f ( ) sin
z = h( )
D@ : : @ (x-x) : : .I# 6 ,! !:X 0@ L9 LG7( J
. @ 6 >_ X# )c> :
:! :X# 6!
Sphere 0)G
x = R cos cos
y = R cos sin
z = R sin
59

Catenoid LG7( # X
x = R cosh 2 cos
y = R cosh sin
2
z =
Pseudosphere 0)
x = R sin cos
y = R sin sin
z = R (cos + ln tan )
Helicoid (: X
x = cos
y = sin
2
z = R
60

8'

<#> Y< Y9 >< .9 C Y 9&):#> >& ) L%9( @ J
.( @ &)J )#( M9 :9 <&
i=1,2
ai bi = a1b1 + a2b 2
ai bik = a1b1k + a2b 2k

j=1,2
g ij g
jk
= g i1g + g i 2 g
1k
2k
ij
11
21
12
22
ij 2
aij b = aij b = a11b + a 21b + a12 b + a 22 b
i =1 j = 2
ijk 2 2 2
a b = aijk bijk =a111b111 + a112b112 + a121b121 + a122b122 + a211b 211 + a211b 211 + a221b 221 + a222b 222
ijk
i =1 j =1k =1
)L 6G
ai bi = a j b j = ak b k = a1b1 + a2b 2
zi <X )0@( J zi = xi yi ZG! N eJ (J P Q 6XI! yi xi ) 9!
O! )( ( J 6XI> 0@ yi xi O! QP <,

:(< , 0@ 6 [6 @6 X ) zi ,( @ [( J QP , 0@
zi = aij z j

61
<:, N&L ! O[ (J) Ai C (J) C) Ai:

Ai = aij Ai
&) Ai <, )%) .A

<:, )%> N2 ! Ai O Bi, & <,! Ai Bi:
( ) (:
Ai Bi = aik a jl Ak Bl
6G< @ 0) <X@ :LG7

Cij = aik a jl Ckl
@ 0) <X 6 >:# ) (rank!

<:, N3& L Dijk LG7>:# ` : )Y ,
Ai B j Ck <X: L(:
Dijk = ail a jm akn Dlmn
Z,@) N <, 6>:# <, 6< (JM9

>< &)) # >:# 6 .: (J L>< M9.

62
G
& 1
8
L Aij 6 Bij>:# ! _! @ 0) @ D>:# 6 !:
Aij + Bij Aij Bij
>:# : ! 6_ )Y , )Y >:# 6 6 ! 6

>:# & )Y >:# 6 ! (J>:# 6 ` 6>:#
# @G . !)Y <, >:# 6 6>:# ( :, @6
>:#.6
C )Y >:# 6 >4 6>:# ZG@ D@ 0:%:
k
C ikjlm = Aij Blm
C ijk = Aijk + Bijk
>:# Aijk> )c> <# i 6GJ j @ 0:%:

A jik
Aijk
! O L& L>:# (J) C#< &J )9 L@ >:# (J ) C) (

@ D# .)9>:# 6# )< ! O& >)c #< (J)C
&J L@ 6>:# 6( #< (J ) C).
@ 0@ D& ) #< >:#:
= aibi a j b j
) ( aibi
63

( aijbi ) c j = aijbi c j
n=1,2,3,,n :!( :! e9
aibi = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 + a4b 4 + a5b5 + + anbn

6 D@) V @ u1,u2)V< 4I < f(u1,u2) O!
: t)V 6 0)V
f
u 2u 2 =
f 22
u1u 2 =
f12
f11
u1u1=
i=1,2 ,3
df = fi du i
1
2
3
df = fi du i = f du + f du + f du
1
2
3
( <
x,y,z
)V 0@ O! ` 321 )V <#> I@ &>(

: f(x,y,z)
df =
f
x
dx +
f
y
dy +
dz
D@ )V <#> I &>( 0@
<V% 0@ I M ):#> #( J
, =
:@G ZG
64

2

:@G 9 &):#> 6 0 Kronecker Delta D! )
1
ij = = i =
0
ij
b k ki = bi
1
11
2
11
3
11
4
11
1
21
2
21
3
21
4
21
ijk =
1
31
2
31
3
31
4
31
1
41
2
41
341
4
41
ai ij = a j
112

2
12
3
12
4
12
113

2
13
3
13
4
13
122
222
3
22
4
22
123
2
23
3
23
4
23
132
2
32
3
32
4
32
133
2
33
3
33
4
33
142
2
42
3
42
4
42
143
2
43
3
43
4
43
if
if
i= j
i j
ij jk = ik
114

2
14
3
14
4
14
124
224
3
24
4
24
134
2
34
3
34
4
34
1
44
2
44
3
44
4
44
)G!& )
i j kj = ik
`-8 :
k = k
ij
ji
ijk =
1 km g jm g ki g ij
)
g ( i +
2
x
x j xk
2ijk =
g jk gki gij
+
u i u j u k
65

z'&
,` 2
<! :X# 6 L :Y:< : (J L;

:( !( & X#) 9!
x = f (u) cos v
y = f (u) sin v
z = h(u)
.:X# :& V% ( D@ ds 2 = g du i du j : X# ( LG7>
ij
g = g = 0 ! :X#( J .& C

12
21
X#( &< J u X )0@( J u 6 M Z,

ds 2 = g du1du1 + g du1du 2 + g du 2 du1 + g du 2 du 2
11
12
21
22
< 6G X )0@( J

du1 = du
du 2 = dv
. &> 2 1 > B >IJ >) V

:(! X#
( ) ()
g = f
11
'
+ h
'
g =g =0
12
22
21
()
= f
: ( LG7 M

g
g = 11
g 21
2
2 ' 2
g12
'
= f f
+ h
g 22
() ( ) ( )
66

:` & 0@
{2
x = R cos cos
y = R cos sin
z = R sin
ds 2 = R 2 d 2 + R 2 cos2 d 2
{2

x = R sin cos
y = R sin sin
2
ds 2 = R 2 cot 2 d 2 + R 2 sin 2 d 2
.<! :X#( 4 <X )0@ < 6G D@
z'&
,\
,` 2
!)6 : II = b du i du j :% 0@ : X# (!` ( LG7>

ij
.X#<
< 9% 6 X#
:( !( )! X# <&< &
x = f (u) cos v
y = f (u) sin v
z = h(u)
:X# (!` ( LG7 L&
67

b =
11
' '' ' ''

f h h f
f
12
'2
+h
'2
=b =0
21
f h
b =
22
f
'2
'
+h
'2
:(!` ( LG7 M
b
b
b = 11 12
b21 b22
:X# (!` ( LG7 `&
{2
x = R cos cos
y = R cos sin
z = R sin
II = Rd 2 + R cos2 d 2
{2

x = R sin cos
y = R sin sin
2
II = R cot d 2 + R sin cos d 2
68

}
M (!` ( LG7 M 6 #> # >>( [ J !>
: ( LG7
b b b ( b )
K = = 11 22 12 2
g g11 g 22 ( g12 )
2
b b b b b
K = = 11 22 12 21
g g11 g 22 g12 g 21
K=
s
s
12
1 11
r s
r
+ 11
r 2 12
rs1 g s 2
2
1
g u
u
.` L%J C
:{2
}
R 2 cos 2 1
K= 4
= 2
2
R cos R
:{2
}
R 2 cos 2
1
K= 4
=
R cos 2
R2
:+2
,- *[
ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2
II = 0
0
K = =0
1
:: !< :X# !>

x = f (u ) cos v
h2 f + f hh
y = f (u )sin v K =
f ( f 2 + h 2 ) 2
z = h(u )

69

! :,[!> V( ( :X# :e ) Z: ( :X# @:
) Z ! (4 X:# .)9
: I) :, (#:X !> Z:>( :X !>
; Z>(.
[!> )# ) k1 (principal curvature k2 <I&= )V% !>
> (J <XI! > (normal curvature) (c .X[!> V( (J@ 0> <XI# L
)Y @ [!> :
K = k1k2
> ! <XI X!> >> 6 CI9 & C@ (J X#
D> <XI k1 . k2
(J@ LG7:()#
k1 < 0
@(:
k2 > 0JG
!> @ X#
K<0
% @ 0:%http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_curvature :
70

`-8 :
2ijk =
g jk gki gij
+
u i u j u k
1 km g jm g ki g ij
)
g ( i +
2
x
x j xk
ijk =
111 =
1 g11 g11 g11

1 g11
( 1 +
1 )=+
2 u
2 u1
u1 u
121 =
1 g 21 g11 g12
1 g11
( 1 +
1 )=+
2 u
2 u 2
u 2 u
g12 = g 21 = 0 <( J
1 g 21 g12 g 22
1 g 22
( 2 +
1 )=
2 u
2 u1
u 2 u
g
1 g
21 g11 ) = 1 g11
= ( 12
+
2 u1 u1 u 2
2 u 2
221 =
112
g
g
1 g
22
21 g11 ) = + 1
122 = ( 22
+
2 u1 u 2 u 2
2 u1
g
1 g
22 g 22 ) = + 1 g 22
222 = ( 22
+
2 u 2 u 2 u 2
2 u 2
:D@ g = g11 g 22 g12 g 21

g11 =
g 22
g
g 22 =
g11
g
g11
1
g11
12
g
21
g
g11 g 21
=
22
g
g
g 12 22
g 22
g12 = g 21 =
g12
g
g12 = g 21 = 0 g 0 g12 = g 21 = 0
71

g
g
g
1
ijk = ikj = g is ( sjk + skj jks )
2
u u u
111 =
1 g11
2 g11 x1
2
11
=
1 g11
2 g 22 x 2
112 =
1 g11
2 g11 x 2
2
12
=
1 g 22
2 g 22 x1
122 =
222 =
1 g 22
2 g11 x1
1 g 22
2 g 22 x 2
z'

A = gdu1du 2
0)G< # :\
A = gdu du
1
g = R 4 cos 2
A = R 2 cos d d = R 2 2 cos d d = 2 R 2
0
, 8F 8<
t=a , t=b 6XI! 6 >>( :4 :
s=
gij du i du j
:D@ ds 2 = gij du i du j ! e X )0@ 6
( )
ds 2 = g11 du1
+ 2 g12 du1du 2 + g 22 du 2
72

,8^

0,( J , 6 0 p XI> L` X#& 4< XI! (J (eJ X :I
.<XI> D( J 6> !>: , 0@ : .X# @ .I
( IJ< [!> , IJ : 6, X 6> < [!>,< M,
kg (#:,< [!> ,
j
i
d 2u k
k du du
k g = 2 + ij
rn
ds ds
ds
:# X 6>( #: !>
du1
kg = g 2 1 ds i j
d u
du du
+ 1ij
2
ds
ds ds
du 2
ds
2 2
i
j
d u
2 du du
+
ij
ds 2
ds ds

73
^8,
> 6I) & ) # :( : 6 )#J )%4< 6XI! 6
X (Je9 . &) ) :> 6) X (Je9( Q!>
:,@ (# >>( @ ) X# (Je9( # .)9:
j
i
d 2u k
k du du
+
=0
ij
ds ds
ds 2
(J@ 0& s )V> 6% (J@ 0):X

dxi dx j
gij
=1
ds ds
)X (J 6@ # :I O 4)! 0> .
>> I) 0 :, (J (# 9%( :X I# [ D: . L) (J LJ:# 9%# @ )9:
d 2u k
=0
ds 2
: @ 0& [ <4I 6:X .I#

->> I) 0 :, (# 0)G( ).
74

<M( ( J , XI! ( x + dx, y + dy, z + dz ) ( x, y, z ) O!
6 @6 : 6>( ( J 6XI> 0@( u + du, v + dv, w + dw) ( u, v, w)
:( 6[
z = z (u, v, w) y = y(u, v, w) x = x(u, v, w)
:
dx =
x
x
x
du + dv +
dw
u
v
w
dy =
y
y
y
du + dv +
dw
u
v
w
dz =
z
z
z
du + dv +
dw
u
v
w
: 6XI> 6 6< 9 ds 2 O!
ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2
: L%! <X )0@( J dz dy dx >&Y
ds 2 = Adu 2 + Bdv 2 + Cdw2 + 2 Fdvdw + 2Gdwdu + 2 Hdudv
::% 0@< X )0@ ZG! . (u, v, w) )V ) ( C B A L&
ds 2 = gij dxi dx j
< )<X )0@ 6 6) X &) . x j xi )V gij <X )0@( J D@
. eJ

75
!)9 xi ! (J P <XI) CeJ 6 ! (!: x i @ 0> (J <XI) C)

6@ e9 ) @ 6)& 6@ 0):<X
) x i = xi ( x1, x 2 ,..., x n
!)9 , @ 0> <XI> ! <XI) ( P @ 0> (J <XI@ 6)&6
) Z( xi + dxi x i + dx i:Q
i
dx i = x j dx j
x
&) : <,! <I% @ 0) <X( <, .(contra variant))V <9:
i
Ai = x j A j
x
L <, )V <9 6G&) <XI! (J 9 6e9HJ ) >J@ 0 (J <,
! <XI 6e9 Q
i
A
( : C (J xi 6@ 0< 6G:I :: LI (,
(J )V@ 0>< 6e9.

<G( ; 4 )V C )V) C( ; (invariant) )V & eJ (J !(!:
(:
A= A
; ) AN D@ )V 6G&) (J 9 ! <XI 6e9 ( ; LI.)V

> <,) &) <,: <IJ .(covariant) )V ! Bi O <,:)V <IJ
:
Bi = x j B j
x
i

76
(J< , : <IJ )V <9 Z, (J <4 CY (J (index) L
L9)@! .) N dxi 6 <, )V <9> xi)9 ( O#
ZG! D@ .<,[ :% . xi 6 Y: xi
!&)=! .< , L7>:# ! Ai O Bi, 9 (J )V<
N2& L) Ai Bi <X 6>:# )V & @ :LG7
i
j
Ai Bi = xk x l Ak Bl
x x
! Ai O <, )V <9 B j <,: (J )V <IJ< N2& L)Ai B j <X
( >:# & @ :LG7

i
l
Ai B j = xk x j Ak Bl
x x
>:# Aijk :>:# ` < : <IJ <9 )V) <X %

(J@ 0):<X
i
s
t
Aijk = xr x j xk Astr
x x x
\ : Ai <, : )V <IJ(:

Aj = Ai
ij
=g
Ai
6@ ` ! :_># 6 <,: <IJ .)V <9
77

0@J e9( J ( X ) 6, 6XI! 6 ds 2 = gij dxi dx j <X )O!

.e9< ( )< @ X)
:#> 6 gij D@ )c> :#> 6 dxi dx j D@ )V ; ds 2
:#> @ : g ij : :#> @ )V :#> .)c> D@) V J:
:N) 7
g = gij 0
M) !)V <IJ:< , ( gij A j : e9 6< XI! (J )V <9 < , A j )9!
: Ai
Ai = gij A j
.L&# C)< #> <, )V< 9 < IJ: L &6
Ai Ai
:L9 6 :J 6 L LI! <9 :\
g ij A j = g ij g Ak = ki Ak = Ai
jk
Aijk = g Akir
jr
g ri g sj gij = g ri is = g rs
A2 = gij Ai A j

78

8
I Ai = x i Ak> <# x j::
x
k
Ai = xk xl Ak + 2 xk A
x j x i x j xl x ix j k
: ) <X`!< L Aij( O#>:# . dxi( :J <,
x
Ai
x j
) @ D ZG@ 0& @ ( Ai, j LG7! O>:# O) dAi = Aij dx j <X
x
6 <, &< >:#< L .@ 0 6&#! <G:9 !I :.
!> LI Ai <, 6> P <XI ! <XI, ( P : )V < .<,
<,& !I ( O#H L4[!I @ 0 <,& [!I (
Ai + Ai LI (J (,> P <XI( . Ai + dAi @ 0<XI> 6,
(Je9 ! >%I@ 0 6, 6& <,>J e dAi Ai <,:
dAi Ai = Ai; j dx j
> Ai, j) Ai; j <X dx j <, @ D)X )# 6@ 0) <X<,
! _>#N Ai; j( >:#) Z, M , 6 ; ( .@ 0)X G 6&) [I
>:#.
! Ai O (J <,> P <XI O!I : > P <XI Bi LI(,
>: <# Y 6[( (J@ 0<:
y j
B
xi j
= Ai
x j
A
yi j
Bi
79

()9 # B )V ) B = 0 D@ Bi )V ; ) Ai <, : I![

: @6
Ai = (
y j
y j
B
)
A
=
(
)B
i
xi j
xi j
Ai =
2 y j
dx k B j
i
k
x x
:D@ Bi
Ai =
x j
A
yi j
2 y j xl
k
i Al dx
i
k
y
x x
:LG7< @ X )0@ ZG %
lik =
2 y j xl
xi x k yi
.LJ:# ).&< X )0@&)
Ai = ikl Al dx k
.)V< IJ:< , : I! ( &< < &0@
:() V< 9 < , : I! &< D@
B k = ijk Bi dx j

80
8 `-8

!)9 Ai <, <&4>>( eJ (J C 4 ) 4 > LI LG7:
< : @ >>( )V @ 0 <, 6) : > 6 ! O@0
)V ( HJ Ai ( ; # 6! .)9% < <4@ 0)V <
Ai <, > 6 C )V) 0M>.P <XI
!)9

><XI
(xi + i :
! V <XI, U
(xi + i + d i :
> !I Ai <, 6> U <XI

>J V <XI @ 0 <,)V
0@ I):<X
Ai = ijk A j d k
Z,& 6 L A j 6 (J ijk> .U <XI C& . 4 i <4.

)I ijk Z 6 < : (J# G L [I ::
II
ijk i
xi
ijk +
[!I : A j <, 6> P <XI > U <XI : :6
III
A j rlj Ar l
81

.P <XI>( J rlj Ar A j 6 L 6& Z,< X )0@( J

: L%! I <X( )J III II 6 L Ce!
A = ijk A j
k
ijk
j r l
i
+ (A
A
)
d
jk rl
xl
.C 6> :< X )0@ LG
i
Ai = ijk A j d k + (irk rjl jkl ) A j l d k
x
c
c
:ZX# C (>> : LG .6:I L( & J r j L L> 4
d k = 0
c
l d k = k d l
c
c
: @ &)6&#!
1
kl = ( l d k l d k )
2c
: L%!
= (irk rjl
ijk j kl
l )A
x
(9G! 6 )=> V! <e4 < >G 0@ L :#> O# 6:I L&
: l k L!< G< ( # 0@ :% ,>
= (irl rjk
ijl j lk
k )A
x
82

: L%! kl
A =
i
1
2
lk
<X )0@ # 6 )6X )C 6
(irk rjl irl rjk +
ijl ijk j lk
)A
xk xl
l k L; (skew-symmetric))c>< 9 6:I L & O

:<X)
(irk rjl irl rjk +
ijl ijk j
)A
xk xl
:Q A j Z >! .:#>(
Bijkl
= irk rjl irl rjk +
ijl ijk
xk xl
.LJ:# !> ):#> &) :#>< X )0@

: R jk (7 :#> L%! l i < #> Bijkl :#> I 6
R jk = Bijki
83

:

W G
:LG7< &< )< @ #> &; .
ds 2 = gij dxi dx j
gi j =
ij
:(
(#:, #
j
k
d 2 xi
i dx dx
+
=0
jk
ds ds
ds 2
gij
dxi dx j
= 1 :)7 C
ds ds
:#>
+ s s
R =
sj ik
ijk
ik , j
ij ,k
sk ij
ij
s
s
R = ik
j k + sj ik sk ij
ijk
x
x
(7 :#>
Rij = Rijkk
ij
R = g Ri j
67! :#>
1
2
Gij = Rij gij R

1
2
G ij = Rij g ij R
:# 6G 6 << &#> &=( >=)< LG ( `< :#> 0@
.< Y <) 4 0 > ):e !) .Z:G e< XI! I .) :! X M! .()J :! `L ) :G (Y :! >-

84
` < `
`: ,-

& 6)< e9 =! (J ( > Z[( )G (XIGM . LeJ :G @ 0)< > 0)c <:# D @ D)(Y
%>< M9< e9@ !) J Q)J 6G @ 0 L4 %
L&;
L )J & L )V !: I L X&

[ <4I ),< .
! O[ )< Z,& r 6 !O
& 6)V )< ` < & & 6& M t ! O[ M< Z,& 6)V x
[ )G < & @ 0:%:
y z t .@G `
x1 = r
x2 =
x3 =
x4 = t
& 6&) gij L< ds 2 = gij dxi dx j LeJ :G )< )X4< D <:#.
0
g
44
0
0
g
33
0
& . 6)k LJ:# ij .)9% <9
0
g
11
g
0
22
0
0
0
0

85
& 6&; :, 0@ (#)< .` L@ 0&; )#I) (J@ e9: >> >< ) >< (J .& > <!:G` L@ 0:, (#)#
)< :G Z ) #<.
< >:# (J R s& ) LeJ< @ LG7 6>:#ijk
R <:# D 6 @ >:#.
:
1212
< >:# Rij (7 6>:# 6G< >:# @ .(7 >:#< )=! (J <V< > <#&< ! D` L&; LI!7 .6 6# C
& L@ >:# C L%! )9% <:, 6&; [ .<4I & 6 & )
e9 6 @ 0&; .@ D 6@ 0&; 6G& 6& L)< (J
! O:% )V <:, : C)< :M.
< < R (7` L) <X <I( ! L% 6@ 0 <#:I !> e9 : Z Z: .)9@ D 6 @ 0 <# 6G<
>:# !7.6
< >:# !7 Gij 6 6G< @ >:# (Je9 @ : Je9 >_ 6)< ):# ).
86

8
1& ' 2

, 8
:! < 6! # 6 6G! (G <& < :#> 0@< #&
.)% < X )# )G LI ) % ( Y
::% 0@ : :>
:<V% 0@< #> eJ (J (#:, # &< ZG!
ds 2 = A( x, y, z , t )dx 2 + B ( x, y, z , t )dy 2 + C ( x, y, z , t )dz 2 + D( x, y, z , t )dt 2
1
2 A( x, y, z , t )
1
( x, y , z , t ) =
2 B ( x, y , z , t )
1
( x, y , z , t ) =
2C ( x, y, z , t )
1
( x, y , z , t ) =
2 D ( x, y , z , t )
( x, y , z , t ) =
:LG7 ) @ 0@ ZG! %

ds 2 = Adx 2 + Bdy 2 + Cdz 2 + Ddt 2
1
2A
1
=
2B
1
=
2C
1
=
2D
:X )0@ 6 LJ:# ). _>#
=
=
1
g ( g , + g , g , )
2

87

@) !)GN:
A
x
2 B
B12 = 1 2
x x
= A
(J@ 0) 6G :G x1 = x @) x 2 = y D > O#&> (.
:`-8
(J <9%# >Y) I L) ( 6G 6 # . .4)LG LJ:#
; .&!< : 6 )!_ #` MATLAB L MATCAD
MAPLE 6 ) <,N )_ 6G# @ 0& .L@ D> : <X#
& & L@ 0>:# 6G & 4 6 < 4 6 @ 0)_.
#>! ; Z, (J&< :,(#
21 = 0
= 12
.g
123 = 0 11 = A 444 = D4 223 = C2
88
:=

d
d
d
A A A
dy
dz
dt
d
A
dx
d
A
dy
d
A
dz
d
A
dt
A
dy

d
B
dx
0
d
B
dz
d
B
dt
0
d
B
dz
d
D
dx
0
d
d
B B
dz
dt
d
C
dy
0
d
D
dy
d
C
dx
C
dy
d
C
dz
d
C
dt
d
D
dx
d
B
dt
d
D
dy
d
A
dt
d
C
dx
d
B
dy
d
d
C
C
dx
dy
d
B
dx
d
A
dz
0
d
B
dx
d
C
dt
d
d
d
D
D D
dx
dy
dz
d
C
dt
d
D
dz
d
D
dz

d
D
dt
1
11
2
11
3
11
4
11
1
12
2
1 2
3
1 2
4
1 2
1
13
2
1 3
3
13
4
1 3
1
14
2
1 4
3
1 4
4
1 4
1
21
2
21
3
21
4
21
1
22
2
22
3
22
4
22
1
23
2
23
3
23
4
23
1
24
2
24
3
24
4
24
1
31
2
31
3
31
4
31
1
32
2
3 2
3
32
4
3 2
1
33
2
33
3
33
4
33
1
34
2
3 4
3
34
4
3 4
1
41
2
41
3
41
4
41
1
42
2
42
3
42
4
42
1
43
2
43
3
43
4
43
1
44
2
44
3
44
4
44
89

:, 8
Ri j = Rikjk
R = g i j Ri j
R = R
:(7 :#> L &
d2
d2
d2
A +
A + ( x , y , z , t)
A
d y2
dz2
d t2
w11 :=
d2
d2
d2
B +
C +
D
dx2
dx2
dx2
w12 :=
d d d
w13 := B + C + D
dx dx dx
d d
d
d
A B + C + D
dx dx
dx
dx
w14 :=
d d
d
d
d
A A + B C D
dy dy
dy
dy
dy
w15 :=
d d
d
d
d
A A B + C D
dz dz
dz
dz
dz
w16 :=
d d
d
d
d
w17 := A A B C + D
dt dt
dt
dt
dt
R11 := w11 + w12 w13 w14 w15 w16 w17
90

:(7 :#>) L&
d d
d d
d d
d d
R12 := C + D C C D D
dxd y
dxd y
dx d y
dx d y
d d
d d
d d
d d
A C A D B C B D
d y dx
d y dx
dx d y
dx d y
<#>( !=)< J LI :!4 : L &10 (( 7 :#>( J <I# L &

67! ) Y)J @ )9 # L) &7& 0@ 6 L
:G< X&< )
e I ) ) :e( !> J << 4 !_ :!I @ X .1915
.Z:G
: 8
Rijk
= ik , j ij,k + sj iks sk ijs
R = g R
R = R = R = R
R + R + R
= 0
R1234 = 0
R1213 :=
1
2
d d
d d
d d
d d
A + A A + A B + A C
d y dz
d y dz
d y dz
dz d y
d2 d2
d d d 2
d d d 2
d d
d d
A
B + A B + A + A B + B A B A A
dx dx d y
d y d y dx
dz dz
dt dt
d y2 dx2
R1212 :=
91

:,&
:(7 :#> <# :I 6& 6G
R = g i j Ri j
2
2
d2 d2
d
d
d d
d d d d
d d
w1:= A + B A B A B A B + A B + A B
2
2
d y
d y
dx dx
dy d y dz dz
dt dt
d y dx
2
2
d2 d2
d
d
d d
d d d d
d d
w2:= A + C A C A C + A C A C + A C
dz
dx
dx dx
dy d y dz dz
dt dt
dz2 dx2
2
2
d2 d2
d
d
d d
d d d d
d d
w3:= B + C B C + B C B C B C B C
2
2
dz
dy
dx dx
d y dy dz dz
dt dt
dz dy
d2 d2
d
d
d d
d d d d
d d
w4:= A + D A D A D + A D + A D A D
2
2
dt
dx
dx dx
dy d y dz dz
dt dt
dt dx
2
d2 d2
d
d
d d
d d d d
d d
w5:= B + D B D + B D B D + B D B D
dt
d y
dx dx
d y dy dz dz
dt dt
dt2 d y2
2
d2 d2 d 2 d 2 d d
d d d d
d d
w6:= C + D C D + C D + C D C D C D
2
2
dz
dx dx
dy d y dz dz
dt dt
dt dz dt
Ricci Scalar
R := 4 ( w1) + 4 ( w2) + 4 ( w3) + 4 ( w4) + 4 ( w5) + 4 ( w6)
92

: 8
1
G = R Rg
2
:( :#> @ L &
d2 d2 d 2 d 2 d d d d d d d d
C + B + C B C + B C + B C B C
g1:= B
dz2 d y2 dz
d y
dx dx d y d y dz dz dt dt

D + B + D B D + B D B D + B D
g2:= B
dt2 d y2 dt
d y

g3:= C D + C + D C D C D + C D + C D
dt2 dz2 dt
dz

g1 +
g2 +
g3

G11 :=
# 6 > ) . 6 :#> @ L &L 6& Z, 67! < &;

.( 6 : e9 LG7 > @ :#>)) @ 9% C ) 0@

93

82The Cosmological Principle !8
88
@ < ) )=! (J< > <#&< 6G:I N < @ (J> <#&<
N< (J> <# < .)7 @ 6 Q:9 C& 9 . ;
)J <Y Ce )`G 6=9 B :J 9 <4X ; C,7
<G9).
@ ::G B!, : :.
I C >
>: (!:G@ 6G> : !)9 :G 6 ; <:,>< 6
6 L) 6G ! _># 6@ >:
), >)7 (J:G > <##< &
N C), ! <##< :G .> J@ >: )GJ C .>( eJ (J
; >( (J .@ >: ; : ) <X C>)7 : ) C& (J <X>:
>:>( >)7 J ; ! . B!, : <!:G:: >: ;L
@ 6G 6 Z&% (J >!NG `( 6:G.
) ( B!,:G B
> ! < #< 6@ L O&Y 1948>
Z#J eJ ! @ D> &> : c) :G (J L # B .>
< !< :G! > : C:G e9 >_ Z, : <J@ e9
9 .& @ 0& :!4 9 B 6G <4XI C ! 6
(J 0 60 L :) Z&G 6e9 (J O! .<>#@ 0>=) ) &< >G
G9 OGG% 4 ) &J ( >.
:G: :: VG )J ) 7:> <#> 6:G D@ 6G
L
:I N L&) <J <!:& @ 0 ( !=)< ! .<# 6G&) > <# !N
!=) MJ C <:, 6: ( ; :4 )V! 6@ 0>=)< . L`

94
D!G>:>( <#! : : <:,> <# < ( ! <#:, :! 0)G <:,
:! M> <#&< ( ! <# <:,: &: <!:G) (
! <#>)c :G 9 C . >=) ( % eJ (J 4 X) <X
:G De9 <#! (J B!, <:, 6 !;I.
&) ( (J B!,@ : <:, :G <!:G 6) Z4( !#9
( ) Z4) . ( !:I ! 6 )` L: C:G ` <J:G(
@ 0 ! #9:I ) (J 64), ) (J 6 .<JG >4:#@ :9
) :M 6.(!:G
!_ @ B!, :: = :G <IX ! O> )V (J@ :G
<XI! LGJ B!,& L LM Z >! .6 M <# 6) (J C 6# JL
L),.
(J @ 0< !_ @ 0 ( M 6 (!:G@ M 6 (!:G (J :
. (J O 6G>= .# Z#M 6.(!:G

95

*
,-

.: & )< MG :< )#& <:e@ )# 6
I) : <#@ 0)< .@ D 6 )< 6G&:! 6 e9 :I <
LI . .@ 0 6 >:# (7 .&; LI!76
: (J (J< : (J LI, .> (J Q@ L%9& .!:
) ( ))=! (J O< > <#&<.
:% &< )< eJ (J (:
ds 2 = Adt 2 + Bdx1dt + Edx12 + Hdx2 dx3 +
& A L B ) ( : C t 6 x1 x2 ) (J 6G . LI 6< < @0

)< (:
ds 2 = Adt 2 d 2
(J@ 0) d 2 <X(
d 2 = dxi2

1 =i 2 `J 3
:X J &< @ 0)< (:

ds 2 = Adt 2
( LI
2
e c2
A = c:
d 2
(J &Y LI& L@ 0)< #<.
2
e c2 dt 2
ds = c
2
dx1 = dx2 = dx3 = 0
96

2
2
2 < 0.5 105 B7 LI < 0@( J e c2 1 + 2 Z)I &> @
c
c
< Y < : GM @ &> #) I c 2 dt 2 < [L &% @ 6

:( G#J:G>) I B7 L`
ds 2 = c 2 dt 2 dx12 dx22 dx32
eJ ( G#J:G> eJ 6 CX> M:( )< G#J:G> )< 6

:: 0@ 6 D M:
x = X cosh T
y =Y
z=Z
t = X sinh T
t
= tanh T
x
x2 t 2 = X 2
:
:D@
cosh 2 T cosh 2 T = 1
A = F ( x, y ) dA =
F
F
dx +
dy
x
y
dx = cosh TdX + X sinh Tdt dx 2 = dX 2 cosh 2 T + 2 X cosh T sinh TdXdT + X 2 sinh 2 TdT 2
dt = sinh TdX + X cosh Tdt dt 2 = dX 2 sinh 2 T + 2 X cosh T sinh TdXdT + X 2 cosh 2 TdT 2
:
dt 2 dx 2 = X 2 dT 2 dX 2
ds 2 = dt 2 dx 2 dy 2 dz 2 ds 2 = X 2 dT 2 dX 2 dY 2 dZ 2
ds 2 = X 2 dT 2 dX 2 dY 2 dZ 2
. ( ( &X , Y , Z , T ) eJ (J (G#J:G> )< 0@
97

:( M:)<
ds =
2
dr
2m
+ r 2 d 2 + sin 2 d 2 c 2 (1
2m
)dt 2
:LG7 @ G! #
m=
1
)9! T R [0@ t r #! D@ c = G = 1
4
: L%!
ds 2 = (1
1
2R
)dT 2 (1
1
2R
)1 dR 2 R 2 d 2 + sin 2 d 2
< )0@( J e XI! ( R =
1
XI>
2
:< 0@( J 2 R 1 = x 2 t 2 = X 2 >Y)J
2 R 1 = X 2 2dR = 2 XdX dX 2 =
1
dR 2
X2
: L%!
ds 2 = X 2 dT 2 dX 2 dY 2 dZ 2 ds 2 = (2 R 1)dT 2 (2 R 1) 1 dR 2 dY 2 dZ 2
R>
1
:G Z, )< 0@( J
2
( G#J:G> eJ ( G#J:G> )< 6 ;=> 4 ( G#J:G>< ) )< V 0@

M: eJ M:)<
G )e9 :! LG7) @ J 6G
.Kruskal

98

< )G (:
1 2
(dt dx 2 ) R 2 d 2 + sin 2 d 2
ds 2 =
2R
2 Re
(J@ 0)< R C x 2 t 2 6% J@ 0):X

e 2 R (2 R 1) = x 2 t 2
% @ 0)< (J&; !7 6@ 0)< (J> R = 0 <XI e !t <4 O

<= L 0@J)< > )c) (J .@ 0)< :X 45( (
(J
)G.
! ZG@ 0)< Z# T R:
2e 2 R
= e (2 R 1) = x t dX
dR 2
2R 1
2
2R
dt 2 dx 2 = X 2 dT 2 + dX 2
2R 1
2 R 1 1 2
( )dT 2
) dR R 2 d 2 + sin 2 d 2
2R
2R
( = ds 2
@ 0)< JG C)< :M ) > XIV e( J (J@ 0)< (
1
><XI
2
= . R% @ 0)< (J&; !7.6
99

0@( J LI( @ J > J ) LI R = 0 ( 67! &;

(J &;0@ Q> R = g LG7 @ 67! &; % R 0 <
.I L%9
:( J ) LI 67!( &; J %)< (
ds 2 = e A dt 2 e B dr 2 r 2 d 2 + sin 2 d 2
R11 =
1
1
1
B
A AB + A2
2
4
4
r
R22 = e B 1 + r ( A B ) 1
2
R33 = R22 sin 2

1
1
A
1
R44 = e A B A AB + A2
4
4
r
2
R = 0
=
R = g <( J
A = B
A = B
e A (1 + rA) = 1 r 2
= eA
)9!
+ r = ( r ) = 1 r 2
= 1
2m 1 2
r
r 3
L%! . LG O m <X )0@( J R = g 67!( &; J % :,@

:< )0@ L

100

2m 1 2 2 2m 1 2
r dt 1
r dr 2 r 2 d 2 + sin 2 d 2
ds = 1
r 3
r 3
m 1 2
)< eJ (J @ 0)< )I !: (J 6)M r
r 6
(J< &( :! m )9% m 0 %)< @ e9 @ :LG7
ds = 1 r 2 dt 2 1 r 2 dr 2 r 2 d 2 + sin 2 d 2
3
&) @ 0)< )< ) ) (J (de sitter:I! 6 <!:G 97 1917 e9

1
>_ 6@ 0)< eJ : ) .` L@ 0)< eJ ) :I 4
3
@ 0 )< :M 6G><XI
= r( J (J@ 0)< (J .< m 0
% [< )!<XI e( J )< ).

! O&; R = g ( < eJ J (J@ 0< eJ ) :
e9 L >.(G#J:G
)< ) ( >` ( )< > <,:! 6 Milen 6@ ) .1932
>#@ >: :G:) :::G eJ B!, >( eJ (J J
>=) 6, ; <:,>< @ < :
> (G#J:G( & C
L e9 .> )7@ 0@ 6 [( (J O)C
., )< > (J )7
L 6)< :e .)J 6G @ 0@ >)7 )G ;
) S ( x, y, z, t <)# 4

)< :& # )< :e .% :!4 (J L@ 0)G @ >
> Z <)# 9< . (J@ >: % .wavefront <:
101

M4 (J (G#J:G> )< 6 )< ! 0@>
ds 2 = c 2 dt 2 dr 2 r 2 d 2 + sin 2 d 2
)
:Y)9
u=
= sinh
r
<( J`G O# ) < (!:G 6M
t
t = cosh
r = c sinh
= t 1
c = u
u2
c2
1
u2
c2
: ) )< 0@ 6 L%!
d2
+ 2 (d 2 + sin 2 d 2 )
2
1 +
ds 2 = c 2 d 2 c 2 2
: d = 0 (>& O!( :G 6M> Y)J

d2
d 2 = c 2 2
+ 2 (d 2 + sin 2 d 2 )
2
1 +
:I eJ d 2 L` O4: B9! (J K = 1 O :I eJ L` } { L&
1
2 2
%I! A <#> )< 0@ L &L

A L` O L( J ) )< Y)
(
1
2
<#> )< 0@ eJ :I
102

K =
1
O Z :I ( & eJ 6 6 :!
c2 2
Robertson-Walker metric ) :#) )< !> ` ( )< )

Z)Y k ( & 4 eJ (J 0)) X4 %! R
dl 2 = dx12 + dx22 + dx32 + dx42

1
x12 + x22 + x32 + x42 = R 2 k
k = 1 k 0
dl 2 = dx12 + dx22 + dx32 + dx42

1
x12 + x22 + x32 + x42 = R 2 k x42 = R 2 k x12 x22 x32
x4 dx4 = ( x1dx1 + x2 dx2 + x3 dx3 ) x42 dx42 = ( x1dx1 + x2 dx2 + x3 dx3 ) 2
2
4
dx =
( x1dx1 + x2 dx2 + x3 dx3 ) 2

1
R 2 k x12 x22 x32

:
2
1
2
2
2
3
dl = dx + dx + dx +
( x1dx1 + x2 dx2 + x3 dx3 ) 2

1
R 2 k x12 x22 x32
I
:: 0@ 6&#!
x1 = Rr cos sin
x2 = Rr sin sin
x3 = Rr cos
103

dx1 = R cos sin dr Rr cos cos d + Rr sin sin d

dx2 = R sin sin dr Rr sin cos d Rr cos sin d
dx3 = R cos dr + Rr sin d
: L%! I ( &J )0@ Ce!

dr 2
dl = R (
+ r 2 d 2 + r 2 sin 2 d 2 )
2
1 kr
2
6M 6 I# dl 2 X )0@( J
:
(homogenous) B!, :G N ::::G>
C C: @ :# :G N) 9! ds 2 = c 2 dt 2 dl 2 :< 0@( J (isotropic)

: R R(t ) : 6M
dr 2
+ r 2 d 2 + r 2 sin 2 d 2 )
ds = c dt R (t )(
2
1 kr
2
) -:# )< )< )0@&)

104
8F
^
:!I I !: (J 6, LI,< :: (J ! <XI 6e9 &> <G
) : C :: (J (J De9 D@ 6G& 6>:# :I ) LI
; Z, 6 Q>:# ) : C H MG . D>:#
,< .
>:#:, .<#>:# @ N @ 0 c: :>:# 4X>: > ><#
< > JG 6 <4X D@ <G 6G:I N C:I N) LI,<
J 4X)G.#>V
> :I!:! 6 6 ! O` <J :: eJ (J HJ LI,< (J De9
6G&> 6 < ,( % (J@ 0):X
2 = 4 G
2 2 2
+
+
= 4 G
x 2 y 2 z 2
(J G@ 0) <X( O, & >:6

:!I , , @ ! (J 6 0 Z, :G 2 = 4 G ( ! ,
@ :!I .eI 6< `! @ D LI,< J> Z C` <J @ DZ,
6 Q>:# . e@ 0 .%>:# !7 6 C D@ 0 % ! G@
:LG7
1
g ij R = Tij
2
Rij
(J@ 0))Y X Z> Z C O, & >: 6 :>:# 4X>:.

> _! X@ :!I !_ ), <G9.
V%@ <# :!I (:

R = T
@:D
1
) Rij = ( g ijT T ij
2
@:D
6@ 0) X 6G>:
1 2
c2
= R44
LI ,:> (# (J 6 LI &Y (J 6@ 0<:

2
c2
g 44 = 1 +
105

106

` 8 +&
! 6@ 0)< )<
ds 2 = adr 2 + r 2 (d 2 + sin 2 d 2 ) bc 2 dt 2
@ 0) X) M[(.
@ .#,>:# 4X>: )9 >:# Rij = 0 (7 @ ZX# %
L& L@ >:# #< .)9%
g11 = a
g 22 = r 2
g33 = r 2 sin 2
g 44 = bc 2
g = abc 2 r 2 sin 2
1
= g11
a
1
2
= g 22
r
s in
1
2
bc
= g 33
r
g 44 =
107

LJ:# ).
j i #>! I ( :#> O# LJ:# ).

:() ( 9% 9 .& # L%9( J 0: ) @6 .& 0@< 4 Z#!
a
1 =
11
2a
1
2 = 2 =
12
21
r
1
3 = 3 =
13
31
r
b
4 = 4 =
14
41
2b
r
1 =
22
a
3 = 3 = cot
23
32
r
1 = sin 2
33
a
2 = sin cos
33
2
c b
1
=
44
2a
r )V #> I
b a
<( @ )7 :#>
R = Rijkk
ij
: (( 7 :#>( J )9% <9 L&
108

:
b b2 ab a
R =
11 2b
4b 2 4ab ar
rb ra 1
R =
+ 1
22 2ab
2a 2 a
R = R sin 2
33
22
b b2 ab b
2
R = c (
+
+
)
44
2a 4ab 4a 2 ar
:: )< 0@ e9 :X! eJ :I
R = g i j Ri j
R=
b b2
ab 2b 2a 2
2
+
2 + 2 2
2
2
ab 2ab 2a b abr a r ar r
: )9 #( 7 :#> L &C 67! , :!4 (J
b b2 ab a
=0
2b 4b 2 4ab ar
rb ra 1
+ 1 = 0
2ab 2a 2 a
b b2 ab b
+
+
=0
2a 4ab 4a 2 ar
:X )0@< ; `` X )6>_ #!
ab + ab = 0
@
( 4 ) a .b = O

109

lim a 1
r
lim b 1
r
ab = 1
rb ra 1
!@ b 6& + 1 = 0
2ab 2a 2 a
! L%
) ra = a (1 a
6G L@ 0) L%! <X

1
1 2m r
=a
(J@ 0) m X OG L L%! .

r
b = 1 2m
%)< @ e9 @ :LG7

I
dr
2m
= ds
+ r 2 d 2 + sin 2 d 2 c 2 (1 )dt 2
2m
r
1
r
2
@ 0) X) M@ ..#, @ [( ( ) (r , ,@ 0)< &Y
:M .>`; O I m>< C< ..#,

GM
c2
)9! -

=m
(J G@ 0) X : O, & >:6 MG c)< :e (J > ,> (:
ds 2 = adr 2 + r 2 (d 2 + sin 2 d 2 ) bc2dt 2
II
6# & L< M G 6) I 6 : L%! II

) bc 2 = c 2 (1 2m
r
GM
6@ 0)X
c2
= : L%! m
2GM
2
c r
2GM
! b = 0 O
c2
= r = 2m
! r <I, LI< :

< kg
24
= 5.9742 10
m3
O,
kgs 2
m
)< :e
s
G = 6.67428 1011
c = 299 792 458
b = 1
110

111
(J 9( ) D@ Z, :G & @ .#,)G ) 9 6 ) ( %

<4[ )& & M )9% 9 @ D 4.
GM
c2
: >&Y@ 0I
= (J m< (7
2
R = b b 2 ab2 + 2b 2a2 + 2 2 22
ab 2ab 2a b abr a r ar r
:G >,
4m
3
R=+
& 6378000) = D@ r:I e9 >_ 6 LI< <

m2
6.8 10 23 1
6 _! 6)< :M !=)< `:I :# )X4 %! J Q:M

2GM
c2
=r

112

82r
:4 < :G Z B7 & L, B7>[ <#( 6 >Y)J
[( ) C B7 <JY LI< B7 :G Z> LI >_ 6
& (J L,@ [( . >Y)J ) M[( )G > X) M B7
I) : <#:M ( ( & 6 @ [( C:G ZG
>=) > C >> (J@ e9 (
.G :I &Y 6G
: <# G.
! CeI) a b 6@ 0) . Z#! .).LJ:#
1
1 2m r
r
=a
b = 1 2m
m
)r ( r 2 m
111 =
1
r
1
3
13
=
r
2
12
=
m
) r ( r 2m
4
14
=
)122 = (r 2m
323 = cot
133 = (r 2m)sin 2
2
33
= sin cos
mc 2
) = 3 ( r 2m
r
1
44
! Ce@ 0) (J& &: :,#
113

j
k
d 2 xi
i dx dx = 0
+
jk ds ds
ds 2
:LG7 @ C ,>
d 2r
d 2
m
dr 2
d 2 mc 2 dt 2
2
( ) (r 2m) ( ) + sin ( ) 3 ( ) = 0
2
r (r 2m) ds
ds
r ds
ds
ds
d 2 2 dr d
d
+
sin cos ( ) 2 = 0
2
ds
r ds ds
ds
d 2 2 dr d
d d
+
+ 2 cot
=0
2
ds
r ds ds
ds ds
d 2t
2m
dr dt
+
=0
2
ds
r (r 2m) ds ds
M: )< D@
ds =
2
dr
1
2m
+ r 2 d 2 + r 2 sin 2 d 2 c 2 (1
2m 2
)dt
r
r
<( J =
<9%( J )Z:G N) V @ .) G! [(

:LG7 &; @ 0@ % D@
d 2 2 dr d
+
=0
ds 2 r ds ds
d 2t
2m
dr dt
+
=0
2
ds
r (r 2m) ds ds
r
dr
d
c2
dt
( ) 2 + r 2 ( ) 2 (r 2m)( )2 = 1
r 2m ds
ds
r
ds
d
= 0 :G)
ds
114

()V) V( &; ; `! )J &e! w =
d
d
w=
6Y)9 6) @9!
ds
ds
dw 2
+ w=0
dr r
dv
2m
+
=0
dr r (r 2m)
:,> 0@ ) 0@ LG( X&

d
=
ds r 2
dt
r
=
v=
ds r 2m
w=
:,>
r
dr
d
c2
dt
dt
( ) 2 + r 2 ( ) 2 (r 2m)( )2 = 1 ( &J
r 2m ds
ds
r
ds
ds
(
d
Ce!
ds
dr 2 2
2m
) + 3 ( r 2 m) = 1 + c 2 2
ds
r
r
:Z:G &< ,> w =

(
d
=
ds r 2
& &0@ 6 sd !@
dr 2 2
2m 2m 2
2 2
)
+
=
1
+
c
+ 3
r 2 d
r2
r
r
:LG7 & @ 0@ % u =
1
Ce!
r
du 2
1 + c 2 2 2m
2
( ) +u =
2 u + 2mu 3
2
d
: #> & 0@ 6 I
d 2u
m
+ u = 2 + 3mu 2
2
d
:(( GG D!G( J # Z:G&<

115

d 2u
GM
+u = 2
2
d
h
(J@ 0& M
< .#,, ) , &( h)< M # 0><#
: , :
d
=h
dt
r2
d
=
& ( 7 @ 0&< (J> <#&< ( &<
ds r 2
d
=
:M NJ D@ ds = icdt&
ds r 2
= w > )<
= w( 7 @ 0&:
d
= ic
dt
r2
d 2u
m
@ h = ic %& + u = 2 + 3mu 2
2
d
@ :LG7
d 2u
mc 2
+ u = 2 + 3mu 2
2
d
h
)> 6&#@ 0&< (J L%9I < !> :e(

>e>=) 3mu 2 6 %@ 0& #< &< G G)7 :G
GM
c2
= .m
mc 2
! 3mu 2 <#
h2
#:
3h 2u 2 3 2 2
= 2r
c2
c
r( & L)< # X > Z%) 6 6 >=: #7
48 :) (J`! @ 0> 4 #( 4 7.7 108 0)V .
d 2u
GM
: & G+ u = 2 G
2
d
h
::
116

u=
h2
{1 + e cos( )}
:X )0@( J
longitude of ) e : ( eccentricity) M )6 )e = GM = mc 2

(perihelion
6G NX C
d 2u
mc 2
+
u
=
+ 3mu 2 << &#> 6< , &< >:, :,@
2
2
d
h
: : >=) >

3mu 2 =
3m 2
2
{1 + e cos( )}
4
h
:>&
d 2u
3m 2
2
+
=
+ 4 {1 + e cos( )}
u
2
2
d
h
h
: &0@ :
u=
3m e
1 + e cos( ) + 2 sin( )
h
h
)J 2 () V 6 )=>

& ) `` 6
: &0@ L%! =
u=
I ( M! : u =
h2
h2
3m
h2
{1 + e cos( )}
{1 + e cos( )} GG & C & 0@> #4 :
O< &< ( #> ( !_ M 0@ # e< XI!
X 6( GG D!G M, Q X e< XI! I :%< G9;
. (Y)
117

:X )0@ I e : <JY Z, & 0@>

=
3m
3 2
3
=
= 2
2
2 2
h
ch
cl
:X )0@( J
= GM sun
l=
3
3
11 m
30
20 m
= 6.67 10
(1.99 10 kg ) = 1.327 10
kgs 2
s2
h2
h=
(1 e ) a
2
= 2
=
3GM
6 GM
= 2
2
h
c (1 e2 ) a
c2
6 GM
c 2 (1 e2 ) a
:X Z:G
(:) XI )B7 : X ) X4 %!
a = 5.79 1010 m
X M )6 )
e = 0.206
c = 299 792 458
m
s
:e)<
= 5.019775 10 7 radian :
6!
360
( 2.0626 10
60 60 =
2
)
radian
#
( 2.0626 10 )
5
= 5.019775 10 7 radian
radian
= 0.10354

>#&X 88: >#Y
118

365.25 I ! <XIX e (J>#
Y#:
365.25
0.10354 = 0.4297
88
(J< > Y:G I ! <XIX e 43! .@ 0 _! .> <#&<

G9< @ 0>.<,
I ! <XI (J e)I @ 0)
X 43.0
M)8.3 0
3.8

119

)8
eJ (J .G)< : M
2m 2
)dt
r
+ r 2 d 2 + r 2 sin 2 d 2 c 2 (1
dr
2m
= ds
2
r
CXI:e 9 (J 6XI! 6@ e9 )#I) : <# ds = 0@D
:> @ 0& (J L%9#:
d 2u
mc 2
+
u
=
+ 3mu 2
d 2
h2
= h ) ds = 0 C&; L%9# ( ds = 0 CY %& @ 0:%:0

d 2u
+ u = 3mu 2
2
d
>e :>=) 6)X & 6 : % @ 0& (J( (X4 .I#

@ :LG7
1
) cos( +
R
=u
R : OG L LI, )#J &Y)< :e 6:X .I#

(J >Y)J L%9# >%)< :M (J <9: = 0@)9! D
)#)< :e : :X
= @ Ce! . = 0 ZX#@ :, C@
)9 ) (J)X & 6 :%

d 2u
3m
+ u = 2 cos 2
2
d
R
m
: @ 0& [) 4I C& .N : @ 0& ) 2 cos 2
( 2
R
( ::

120

1
m
) cos + 2 ( 2 cos 2
R
R
=u
(J< !< @ &7 :D@ u = 0 (:e

m
2m
cos 2 cos
=0
R
R
L::
@ 0& ! : 6:, I 4
@ (J D! @ &7 (:e:G
2m
R
cos =
2m
+
2 R
@ D!) )#:e !: <, 0 6 LI :4 #:

4m
R
GM
(J@ 0)X
c2
= m:
4GM
c2 R
I!) & (:Y X# 6 B7 0)# (IJ#:
< B7
)< :e (J
O, & >:6
! )X4 %B7
M = 1.99 1030 kg
m
c = 299 792 458
s
3
11 m
G = 6.67 10
kgs 2
R = 6.95 108 m

121

= 8.5 106 radian = 1.75
m3
1.99 1030 kg
kgs 2
4 6.67 10 11
8
299 792 458 6.95 10 m
s
:!) )#:e > : 0 6 X B7# 1.75! 6 .@0

> ,>=) > 6 ,@ 0 ! O# > ,& 6 :e
C# 6:)4 Z )4 > B7:# .B7 L #@ 0=) 0&< ,.

122

+, : *'( )( '& !"# $ %
*'("*. /01' 2 ') % :9 (*. 567"*. % ') +, !"# $
& < ) <."6 < 0 . + %@ "*0 7*
. ) %++9D )*G7 @ " $ :"*0 I ,L.
" "." M).
" P 0 7& " M" + % N0" " .S
" )" G .". S9. " )" ) 00 :T N)* :M" "
<"+ ) <!"V6M (<'$0X N0"V "D7 00 , " @S90
$ ) N0 !"VL0 ".M) N0"V G, <S7 .". " /
L0 ".M . *'S0
"6 7
"6 S7
: *)" ^,L. ".M) ' *)"
^,L. ".M ) )0*` M <6S N) $)* L0 ".

M) '. ^,L. 0$ d , N )* %M 67 ,b, "6 )'.N
( %". ,T. 'S^,L. ".M) 7 + %"*0 '7 / '0
:T ` ' d / 5G*< '. / `G$ :T ^,L.
".M) *< ) (Gravitational redshift " )*. 5G "s +,
!"# t s !"V *. (*0 5G " L0
5 5G* <
". %6 *'S0) t % !"V s (*0
@S90,b, : S9. /,L. " t ". !"VM).

123

< ) C( I M 6 6G :G ) > >= ) .0M

! A O B , < ) C B O&4& (J A@ 0
< M 6 B) 6< M 6 .A
!)9 A B< !< @ C D D (J) C) .) X> (J
MG A 6 B# ) X> C 6 G D 6 6 6: 4 .
M J (J # 6:, ds #:
ds
2
) ds 2 = gii ( dx i
xi (J) CG [ x1 x2 MJ x3 eJ [(
x4
) C
ic
6 0M .6 ! O <#( I 6 @ 0: >
> (9J C) #@ 0< dx1 = dx2 = dx3 = 0
@:D
ds 2 = g 44 ( dx 2 ) = c 2 g 44 dt 2
2
(J@ 0) x4 tci X )9 X s( t< M (J 6> x1 ) XI x2 (x3
(:
s = ic g 44 dt
(J@ 0) s X D dsJ 6 6> 6 6 6G_ #)C
s
Q
ic
= T %) <X 6M (J T 6 #) C < M t 6@ 0:%:0
T = g 44 dt
LI, &Y (J 6@ 0 g44 Z# ,:> (# 6(:

2
c2
124
g 44 = 1 +
@:D
2
dt
c2
dT = 1 +
!7 X% 6 &) <#& 9 M> ( > )c> !7
:X X% 6 67 6> (J 6 6!G9 6#< . ! O@0
9 M> dT 1 2 , (J (# LI 6@ 6 dt1 dt 20
2
> Z#< M .6 6)dt <X
c2
: L%! dT = 1 +
21
2
dt1 = 1 + 2 2 dt2
2
c
c
dT = 1 +
: L%! .
22
dt1
c2
=
dt2
2
1 + 21
c
1+
!)9 @ (J< ) C7&7 e <XI! (J (:Y 6 LI t a

> , 6& @ 0@ t > <I: ! ta t
b
b
M 6@ )V# <= 6 @ 0:e & D :> <XI 6LI
,< @ 6)& 6>9J 6 M> <= 6 <4: :
@ 0> XI :

125

ta ta = t t ta t = ta t
b b
b
b
6@ 0) X e @@ @ 0@ (J@ 0> <XI 6 LI#G @ 0> <XI#
9 M> @@ L 6 6@ 6 Z# <#:: (JG : @ ! #9
1 2@@ :X @ 0@ (J 6@ 0> <XI:
2
1 + 21
1
c
=
2
2
1+ 22
c
6& ), @ 0) L%! X:
2
2 2
V
1 + 2 1 1 + 2 1 1 + 21
c
c
c
22
c 2 1 + 1 2
1
c2 c2
1
22 2
2
21
1+ 2 1 2
1+ 2
22
c
c
c
1+ 2
1+
(J@ 0) >e 4>=) 6& )V% &

:
1

= 1+ 1 2 2
2
c
21
c4
126

:< 0@( J X< 7 ) B7 X&< 4 @

`
c = 299 792 458
G = 6.67 1011
m
s
( J :e)<
m3
kgs 2
6:> &, O

B7<
M s = 1.99 1030 kg
B7) X4 %!
R s = 6.95 108 m
<
M e = 5.97 1024 kg
) X4 %!
R e = 6356000m
@LV7: ,( LI ),( J XI! > Gravitational Potential ,
GM
)0 &. ; !XI> 0@ 6 G LI>
R
GM e
= 6.27 107
Re

e
= 1 + e 2 s 1 1.00000212
GM s
s
2
c
=
= 1.907 1011
Rs
e =
s
)6 ,>J <!&) 7 B7 > : 6G 4 6G) ;V I 0@

.G9 !_ X> ,> (J Q@ L%9 (J LI< : J _>#! .&; LI!7 .6&; LI
!7 R = 0 6 &; ; < ,>:>( eJ (J J 6G 2 = 0

! > &; LI N) <G:: ) J 6G :G @ 0 `
<G:: L V :: (J:G( (J@ 0< ! 6<
>=)< > <#&< <JG C&; :: ) (J) 2 = 4 G (poisson@ 0& G
O, :> (!:G 6 .(<J`G
Z, :G >:# (7# >:# )9%
:% &; LI
>:# > Z :>:# ; T <4X )V 6G# 6>:# ; T )V
C>:# R )V
! ZG>:# R ; <V% )V@ 0:%:

g g R
R = kT
(J@ 0) k <X O &< L# #& & # BN) MJ( .
> ( 6G> 6@ 0) X( M
=0
(J T MG .X#
>=)
e9 :I M) : (J k <4 D@ J@ 0) <X)V 6G
> (JMG .X#
(J> )! > X <I!(G
1
R Rg = 0
2
128

X LY9 6 X )X LY9 ( 6:I & X )0@( J

:() V LY9
D
dx
A = A
ds
ds
R; = R , Z:#( G!< IX R; = 0 @M# T; = 0
:
1
R Rg = kT
2
g (J &0@ 6J) >)Y .1915 ( ) 67! LI ( &; 0@

::#> # 6 ) 0@ 6&#! D@
T = g T
R = g R
:V% 0@ 9 &) ij )G! )
=
g g
if
if
= 11 + 22 + 33 + 44 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 4
: &;0@ L%!
1
g R Rg g = kg T
2
R (1 + 1 + 1 + 1) R = kT R = kT
2

129

R = kT
1
@ D 6G< R g R = kT @ 0:%:0

2
) R = k (T 1 g T
2
_! 6@ 0&;:
(J -1 T = 0 %@ 0&; :% R = 0 @ 0> , <JGC
R = 0
-2&; @ LI( g Z# I7 ) (J ; D@ <X _! C 6G@0

&; L` LI)G B ::, 6I L> %! :)(G .0
!7 6>=) 6@ 0< <X D<JYN
&: (X< `) &; LI
O 0@ (!:&; :@ ` O 6G :G Z Z: .)9:e @
` O (!:G %&; LI@ 0:%:0
1
R Rg + g = kT
2
` O (!:G7 R:I e9
1
m2
! <4 ONJ <:) 0e
, . 6G9 6@ `:! (J O (!:> # C& .L, Z# > =) 6
(J < 1050 !: 6G
@ `.O
)Y> @ 0): L%! g (J <X
R = kT + 4
6@ 0): L%! <X

130

) R = g k (T 1 g T
2
(JMG X# (J @ 0) <X:%:

R = g
eJ L % J@ 0) XeJ : !7 6 eJ L :I OeJ : !76

; 6GeJ L :I ) O: eJ ( &( eJ : !7.6
(J@ 0) &; k : O, & !7 6 #:
2
8 G
43 s
k
=
2.073
10
kg.m
c4
=k
G O, :> (!:G 6 c)< :e .) @ ` (J O >=: L4 #7

>=) >.
6G
! O (J <Ge9 6 (J@ 0< 6G& <4 6 <4X 6@ 0)<X
(J T = c 2 @ 0) c X)< :e .<J`G

131

2
82
& 1

8
L4 > G)=> !:G< > #& LeJ ! >=) :! 7> >
& !: 6G!M ; I)=! 6< > <#&<.
! 6&< :: (J 2 = 4 G@ 0& J`G ( < J)VM 6
) )9! . (t M @ ) Z4: (J 4> <XIeJ : > )c)
; 6G :G (J @ 0> <XI ; ! : (J = a + b + c 2 + d 3 + ... :@
# 9 (Je9 [4 6> <XI ) ) )M > . <XI :<
(:
2
3
= G 2
d
&; !:) 6 ! (
d
4
3
= G D@ = >Y)J e9 :

4
3
> <XI :))X4 %! 0 <G:: (J@ 0)G ( @ M M = 3:

GM
>Y)J :9 (J L ), 9 6), Q > P <XI# (J r@0

< <G:: (J@ 09< 6e9 ; )V CM 6 (J< !#
e9 NJ ; L ; ) 6@ 0)G @ > :!4 !: (J 69 .
>Y)J 9 6), Q ), P
6< ) R(t@ 0< )V M 6:
= GM
R
R2
132

)X4 %! 0)( J ::< G M ( GJ O h > M =
M
d 2R
R = 2 <X )0@( J
h
dt
R (t )
> : = a + b + c 2 + d 3 + ... :% 9 Z# : > Y)J I

O ) `O C ) : )J 6G D@ O :
2
G
3
2
3
= G 2 :,
1
6
>& Z )C,< 49N &> = c 2 2 : ) : L%>

: L%> 6:, 6@
d 4
1
= G c 2
3
d 3
: R = R = @R(t ) 6 0 P Q 6), 6< 9> Y)J I
2
= 4 GR + 1 c 2 R R
= GM + c R
R
3
3
R2
3
GM c 2 R
.& C( LG 6 0) e )@ 2 R (J R = 2 +
&6J) )e!
R
: L%!
2 R 2
= R 2
= 2 RR = ( R ) 2 RR
R R
( )
2GM c 2 R 2 2
R 2 =
+
kc
R
3
2 X )0@( J
: &0@ L%! C = 2GM > Y)J LG O kc
C c2 2 2
R 2 = +
R kc
R
3
( & & 0@ 6 J: D O: 6 09 &; 0@( J !&

:<< &#> D!G 6 ,>#>
133

1&
) :# )< )Q! @
k = 0 k = 1 < )0@( J
ds 2 = c 2 dt 2
R 2 (t ) 2
dr R 2 (t )r 2 d 2 R 2 (t )r 2 sin 2 d 2
2
1 kr
:< )0@ 67! LI&;
G = R Rg + g = kT
2
1 kr 2
2 R 2 (t )
B = g 22 = R 2 (t )r 2
1
2 R (t )r 2
C = g 33 = R 2 (t )r 2 sin 2
1
2 R (t )r 2 sin 2
A = g11 =
R 2 (t )
1 kr 2
D = g 44 = c 2
1
2c 2
134

G11 G22 G33

2R
R 2
k
=
=
=
2 +
11
22
33
2
2 2
g
g
g
Rc
Rc
R
G44
3R 2 3k
=
+
g 44
R 2c 2 R 2
.6 )&< ` `6G D@

c < 4X T <X )0@( J) T = c 2
0@( J
D@ G = 0
O!
67! LI :!4 (J 0 6 &X )0@&> Y<( J`G :e)<
G =
8 G
T
c4
:6)7 6 @L%>
2R
R 2
k
+
+ 2 =0
2
2 2
Rc
Rc
R
)9 P Ve< 4 8 GP
: &< 0@( J 6) X
4
c
R 2
k 8 G
+ 2 =
2 2
Rc
R
3
3c 2
: L%! & 6> & `! %I!

c 2 4 G
R
=
R
3
3
: L%! R 3 (J
R 2
k 8 G
+ 2 =
&6J) )e!
2 2
Rc
R
3
3c 2
c R
8 G 3
R 2 R + kc 2 R
=
R
3
3

135
+ R 3 + kc 2 R c 2 RR
I )X )## 2
2 RRR
2
!)e ) 6J& 2 (J 2 R + R + k = 0
L%! RR
2
2 2
2
Rc
Rc
2R
R 2
k
+ R 3 + kc 2 R c 2 RR
2 =0
+
+ 2 = 0 2 RRR
2
2 2
Rc
Rc
R
8 G 3
6G ! _># LY9)R X
3
# )9 G L@ 0) X#
O` C L:
8 G 3
8 G 3
R =0
R =C
3
3
>&Y@ 0> ,
R 2
k 8 G
8 G 3
= + 2
(J&
R =C
2 2
2
Rc
R
3
3c
3
!: L%
C c 2 R 2
R 2 = +
kc 2
R
3
@ 0( &< [)9 <4I 4 >G 6> 6>=)< :! 7>< )=! 6<
> <#&< .` L@ 0& > <#&< (J>: " V" )):# )
L@ 0&< ,! (J Q 6G)&< % &) @0
>#> %
&< ::! (J . )J > !_ :G 6@ 0&<
L C>: :! 7>(.
@ D 6GI! <#_ @

136
(J> <#&< O:I k : L` O>:>( (J "<4X" k&< )JC (J .

> >:>< )9 e9 X# @ k = 0 :>J > (#& : @ >
7 >: >:>( :>: @ ! . k = 0 J > <#&< ( k = 1 J7
!=) >:>< ( k = 1 J@ 7 :7 (&Y: < ) G R 2 (t@
>: #< eJ > <#:I . 6I <#@ >: ! O <4X>G<G
:IJ L e9
< ) <4 6) (J > <#&< :I e9 Z ! O 4
.Z:> O <4 L) >< C <J`G! D@ !:G_ <J`G&< :
: V !_ <J`G <I: :9.

137

138
139

1
\
::X# 0@ 6 L
)< :X
Hyperbolic Paraboloid
(:@ JG .#,
Paraboloid
JG .#,
z=
(x
2
+ y2 )
z=
1
2
(x
y2 )
:-2
^
:( )< 0@ L:
x = r cos
y = r sin
:
x = r cos dx = cos dr + r sin d
y = r sin dy = sin dr r cos d
2
2
a
ar 2
z = ( r cos ) + ( r sin ) =
dz = ardr
2
2
ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 ds 2 = (1 + a 2 r 2 ) dr 2 + r 2 d 2
140

:,
8
D9
-2
^
<! :X# )< 6 I& ( `) X# ) !( )< @ X : .#,@

0@ 6&#! LG7 [> )< @ .(saddle-shaped) ()# LG7 D@ .#,&) @
::
x=r +
y=r
x=r + dx=dr +d
y=r dy =dr d
z=
a
2
2
( r + ) + ( r ) z = 2ar dz = 2a dr + 2ard
2
ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 ds 2 = ( 2 + 4a 2 2 ) dr 2 + 8ar drd + ( 2 + 4a 2 r 2 ) d 2
g11= grr =2+4a2 2

ds 2 = g rr dr 2 + g r drd + g d 2
g21= g r =8ar
g22 = g =2+4a 2r 2
:: 0@ [&!< 6G D@
x=r cosh
y=r sinh
141

2
\
:LG7 @ JG .#,&<
z = a ( x2 + y 2 )
1
.)9% 6 ) O I a <X )0@( J ..#,( !> @ 7 !> :X

:#> 6 6G< Y9( >< J <# 0@ :L
:( : (XI( [( J JG .#, &< @ ZG!
x = r cos
y = r sin
ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 = (1 + a 2 r 2 ) dr 2 + r 2 d 2
g11 =
2 2
g11 = 1 + a r
g 22 = r
g 21 = g12 = 0
111 =
1 g11
a2r
1
11
=
2 g11 r
1 + a 2r 2
112 =
1 g11
1
12
= 121 = 0
2 g11
1 g 22
r
122 =
2 g11 r
1 + a 2r 2
1 g11
2
2
11
=
11
=0
2 g 22
122 =
2
12
=
1 g 22
1
2
2
12
= 21
=
2 g 22 r
r
222 =
1 g 22
222 = 0
2 g 22
g 22 =
1 + a 2r 2
1
r2
g 21 = g12 = 0
142

( @7 :#> :#> 6 # 6G !( X#( @ 7<

::%
2 2
11
12 +2 1 +2 2 2 1 2 2
21
11
22
11
11
12
21
12
R1212 = g 22
R1212 = g 22
R1212 = g 22
12
1 2 2
+22111
21 12
r
2 2
2
12
a2 1 = a r
2 1
2 R
=
r
+
+22111122112
1212
2
r
1+a 2r 2 r 2 1 + a 2 r 2
r
1 a2r 2
a2
=
2
2 2
2 2
r 1+ a r 1+ a r
R11 = g 22 R1212 =
2 2
a2r 2
a r
=
2 2
2 2
1 + a r 1 + a r 1 + a 2r 2
R22 = g11R1212 =
ij
11
22
R = g Ri j = g R11 + g R22
2
1 a 2r 2
1
a
=
+
2 2
2 2 2
1 + a r 1 + a r r 1 + a 2 r 2
R=
2a 2
=
2
1 + a 2r 2
2a 2
(1 + a2r 2 )
::!I @ Z# .#,!> @

s
s
12
1 11
r s
r
K=
+ 11
r 2 12
rs1 g s 2
g
r
:D@ g 21 = g12 = 0 s = 1,2 r = 1, 2 :!I( @ J
143

2
2
12
1 11
2
1
2
2 2
2 2
K=
+ 11112
12
11
+ 11
22 12
21 g 22
g
r
::
K=
2
12
2
1
1
a2
1
1 2
2 2
=
+
2 r2
r
K
11 12
12 21
2
2 2
2
2 2 2
2 2
r (1 + a r ) r
r (1 + a r ) r 1 + a r r
K=
a2
(1 + a2r 2 )
144

3
\
:LG7 @ G)<
ds 2 = dx 2 dy 2 dz 2 + e2ax dt 2
::X .O I a
.< )0@ )9% <9 LJ:# ). L Z# . :#> L &6 (# [!> .e9< @ 4X :#> L &67! LI &< 6 .e9 @ x(t ) (#:, &< -
x 4 = t x3 = z x 2 = y x1 = x :)9!
:() 9% <9 LJ:# ).
g11 = 1
g 22 = 1
g33 = 1
g 44
1 g 44
144 =
144 = ae2 ax
1
2 g11 x
1 g 44
4
4
14
=
14
= a
1
2 ax
2
g
x
44
=e
:(7 :#> L&

4
R11 = R141
=
4
14
4
14
s
s
+ 4s 411
4s114
4
s
4 4
2
R11 = R141
= 4s114
= 4114 = a
4
R11 = R141
= a 2
1
R44 = R414
=
144
1
141
x
s
s
1
+ 1s1 44
1s 4 41
R44 = R414 =
1
R44 = R414
=
144
1
s
1s 4 41
=
( ae2 ax ) ( ae2ax )( a ) = a 2 e2 ax
x
1
R44 = R414
= a 2e2ax
144
1
4
144 41
145

:(#[!>
ij
R = g Ri j R = g11R11 + g 44 R44 = (1)( a 2 ) + (
1
2 2 ax
2
)( a e
) = 2a
2
ax
e
R = 2a 2
:e9< @ 4X :#> L&
Rij 12 gij R = kTij kT44 = R44 12 g 44 R = a 2e2ax 12 (e2 ax )(2a 2 ) = 0

kT = 0
44
Rij 12 gij R = kTij kT11 = R11 12 g11R = a 2 12 (1)(2a 2 ) = 0

kT = 0
11
.e9( @ J <4X :#>< J:9% <)X4 L &0@

:e9( @ #:,&<
j
i
d 2 xk
k dx dx
+ ij
=0
ds ds
ds 2
gij
dxi dx j
=C
ds ds
d 2t
dt dx
2a
=0
2
ds ds
ds
2
d 2x
2 ax dt
( ae ) = 0
ds 2
ds
2
dxi dx j
dt dx
gij
= 1 (ae2 ax ) = 1
ds ds
ds ds
: =
2 a ( x x0 )
d
= a (1 + 2 ) ln(1 + 2 ) = 2a ( x x0 ) 1 + 2 = e
ds
1 + 2 = e
2 a ( x x0 )
dx
) 9!
ds
146

4
\
:LG7 @ G)<
ds 2 = a 2 (t )(dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 ) + dt 2
::X
)9% <9 LJ:# ).
)9% <9 ( 7 :#> L&
e9( @ #[!>
:LJ:# ).
x 4 = t x3 = z x 2 = y x1 = x :)9!
g11 = a 2 (t )
g 22 = a 2 (t )
4
4
11
= 422 = 33
=
1 g11
1
4
4
4
(a 2 (t ))
11
= 22
= 33
=
4
2 g 44 x
2 t
g33 = a 2 (t )
g 44 = 1
2
3
= 34
=
114 = 24
1 g11
1
1
2
3
14
= 24
= 34
=
( a 2 (t ))
4
2
2 g11 x
a (t ) t
4
4
11
= 422 = 33
= aa
a
114 = 224 = 334 =
a
:(7 :#> L&

R1414
141
x
141141
4
1
R414
a a
a
= =
t a a
a
2
3
R1414 = R424
= R434
=
a
a
147
4
R141

4
11
x 4
4 1
11
14
R1414 =
a
( aa ) ( aa ) = aa + 2a 2
t
a
4
4
4
+ 2a 2
R141
= R242
= R343
= aa
2
3
R44 = R1414 + R424
+ R434
= 3
a
a
4
+ 2a 2
R11 = R141
= aa
2
+ 2a 2
R22 = R424
= aa
4
+ 2a 2
R33 = R343
= aa
:(#[!>
a 2
a
a
+ 2a ) 3 = 6 6
R = g R11 + g R22 + g R33 + g R44 = 2 ( aa
f
a
a a
11
22
33
44
a 2
a
R = 6 + 2
a a
:e9( @ #:,&<
j
i
d 2 xk
k dx dx
+ ij
=0
ds ds
ds 2
d 2t dx 2
+ aa( ) = 0
ds
ds 2
2
d t dy 2
+ aa( ) = 0
ds
ds 2
2
d t dz 2
+ aa( ) = 0
ds
ds 2
d 2 x a dt dx
+ (
)=0
ds 2 a ds ds
d 2 y a dt dy
+ (
)=0
ds 2 a ds ds
d 2 z a dt dz
+ (
)=0
ds 2 a ds ds
148
: t0 <= (J

dx dy dz
=
=
= 0 )7 @ O ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) <XI>( J e9( @ J
ds ds ds
:)#) X &; 6
d 2t
= 0 t = t0 + bs
ds 2
:6) X &; 6
x = x0
d 2x d 2 y d 2z
=
=
= 0 y = y0
ds 2 ds 2 ds 2
z = z0
.!G( J I e9( @ J @0@
149

5
\
:)
ds 2 = r 2 (d 2 + sin 2 d 2 )
:( e9 @ LJ:# ). 6&) )< )
x = x =
2
111 =
1 g11
111 = 0
2 g11 x1
112 =
1 g11
1
12
= 121 = 0
2
2 g11 x
122 =
1 g 22
122 = cos sin
1
2 g11 x
2
11
=
1 g11
2
11
=0
2
2 g 22 x
2
12
=
1 g 22
cos
2
12
= 221 =
= cot
1
2 g 22 x
sin
222 =
1 g 22
2
22
=0
2 g 22 x 2
g11 = r 2
2
2
g 22 = r sin
< )0@( J
:e9 @ R1212 :#> L< &

lij
l
l
s
R = ikj
+ lsj s l ij
ijk
ik
sk
x
x k
l
2
R1212 = gl 2 R121
= g 22 R121
150

2 2
11
12 +2 1 +2 2 2 1 2 2
21
11
22
11
11
12
21
12
2
x1
x
R1212 = g 22
cos
1
cos2
2
2
2
=
sin
(
) 22112
r
2
2
sin
sin sin
R1212 = r 2 sin 2
R1212 = r 2 sin 2
R11 = g 22 R1212 =
1
2
r sin
2
r 2 sin 2 = 1
R12 = R21 = 0
R22 = g11R1212 =
r 2 sin 2 = sin 2
e9 !> @ D@ ( e9 @ 7<
ij
R = g Ri j = g11R11 + g 22 R22 =
R=
1 +
r sin
2
sin 2 =
r2
r2
6 !> )6 ( 6( &manifold) :> )< ( 0@ (7<

.)c> 6 %4( J <:>
:<X )0@( J %)c>( < J eJ !> &6
Rijkl =
1
( g g gil g jk )
r 2 ik jl
.< @ `X )0@ < I 6G( O 6 r <X )0@( J )
151

6
\
: 6 )l k j i L
G
Rl + Rl + Rl = 0
ijk
kij
jki
:
l
lij
s
Rl = ikj
+ lsj s l ij
ijk
ik
sk
k
x
x
:
R l + R l + Rl =
ijk
kij
jki
lij
l
l s
l s
ik
=
j k + sj ik sk ij
x
x
l
l
kj ki
+
+ lsi s lsj s
i
j
kj
ki
x
x
l
lji jk
+
+ l sji lsi s
i
sk
jk
x
x k
=0
@L9( J L C4:

.#( < J Z)
152

7
\
:(( t , r , , ) ( ( )J (G#J :G> eJ <)
ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 dt 2 ds 2 = dr 2 + r 2 d 2 + r 2 sin 2 d 2 dt 2
:LG7 @ e9 )< @ O!

ds 2 = e2 ( r ) dr 2 + r 2 d 2 + r 2 sin 2 d 2 e2 ( r ) dt 2
:( )< 0@ LJ:# ).

441 =
2
12
=
1
r
133 = re2 sin 2
144 = e2( )
122 = re2
2
33
= sin cos
111 =
3
13
=
1
r
323 = cot
: )< )< 0@ % (r ) = (r ) = 0 :

ds 2 = dr 2 + r 2 d 2 + r 2 sin 2 d 2 dt 2
:LG7 @ LJ:# ). % .

441 = 0
2
12
=
1
r
133 = r sin 2
144 = 0
122 = r
2
33
= sin cos
111 = 0
3
13
=
1
r
323 = cot
153

8
\
) :#)< )
dr
ds 2 = a 2 (t )
+ r 2 d 2 + r 2 sin 2 d 2 dt 2
2
1 kr
:< )0@( J
a 2 (t )
1 kr 2
g 22 = a 2 (t )r 2
x1 = r
g11 =
x2 =
x3 =
g 33 = a 2 (t )r 2 sin 2
x4 = t
g 44 = 1
:(
aa
1 kr 2
2
422 = aar
4
11
=
4
2 sin 2
33
= aar
2
3
141 = 114 = 242 = 24
= 343 = 34
=
122 = r (1 kr 2 )
133 = r (1 kr 2 ) sin 2
2
2
3
3
12
= 21
= 13
= 31
=
1
r
2
33
= sin cos
3
323 = 32
=
cos
= cot
sin
a
a
da
= a )< 0@ LJ:# ).
dt
154

:() 9% <9 ( 7 :#> L&

R11 =
aa + 2a 2 + 2k
1 kr 2
R22 = r 2 (aa + 2a 2 + 2k )
R33 = r 2 (aa + 2a 2 + 2k ) sin 2
R44 = 3
a
a
:( e9( @ 7<
ij
R = g Ri j = g11R11 + g 22 R22 + g 33 R33 + g 44 R44 =

R=
6
(aa + a 2 + k )
a2
6
(aa + a 2 + k )
a2
67! :#>
1
2
Gij = Rij gij R
1
aa + 2a 2 + 2k 1 a 2 6
( aa + a 2 + k )
11
2 11
1 kr 2
2 1 kr 2 a 2
2aa + a 2 + k
G11 =
1 kr 2
G = R11 g R =
1
2
= r 2 ( 2aa + a 2 + k )
G22 = R22 g 22 R = r 2 ( aa + 2a 2 + 2k )
G22
1
33
2 33
2
G = r ( 2aa + a 2 + k ) sin 2
1 2 2 6
( a r ) a 2 ( aa + a 2 + k )
2
G = R33 g R = r 2 ( aa + 2a 2 + 2k ) sin 2
33
1 2 2 2
6
a r sin ) 2 ( aa + a 2 + k )
(
2
a
155

1
2
G44 = R44 g 44 R =
G
44

3a 1
6
( 1) 2 ( aa + a 2 + k )
a 2
a
3a 2 3k
= 2 + 2
a
a
G11 G22 G33

2a a 2 k
=
=
= + 2 + 2
a
g11 g 22 g33
a a
156

9
\
:LG7 @ eJ <)
ds 2 = e2 ( x ) dx 2 e2 ( x ) dt 2
.X# eJ : e9@ J ( x) = ( x) <( J 6)

g11 = e2 ( x )
d
( x) =
dx
g 22 = e2 ( x )
111 =
1 g11
111 =
2 g11 x
112 =
1 g11
112 = 121 = 0
2 g11 t
122 =
1 g 22
122 = e2( )
2 g11 x
2
11
=
1 g11
2
11
=0
2 g 22 t
2
12
=
1 g 22
2
2
12
= 21
=
2 g 22 x
222 =
1 g 22
222 = 0
2 g 22 t
d
( x) =
dx
2 2
11
12 +2 1 +2 2 2 1 2 2
21
11
22
11
11
12
21
12
x
t
R1212 = g 22
R1212 = e2 ( + 2 )
157

R11 = g 22 R1212 =

( e2 ( + 2 ) ) = + 2
R12 = R21 = 0
R22 = g11R1212 =
( e2 ( + 2 ) ) = e2( ) ( + 2 )
1
ij
R = g Ri j = g11R11 + g 22 R22 =
( + 2 ) e12 ( e2( ) ( + 2 ) )
R=0
158

10
\
:<( )#:, &< LJ:# ). 6 L

6
ds 2 =
1 2 1 2
dx + 2 dy
y2
y
<:@< 9%( G#97: <9% )< 0@&)
:L
g11 = g 22 =
1
y2
g12 = g12 = 0
x2 = y
111 =
1 g11
1
11
=0
2 g11 x1
2
11
=
1 g11
1
2
11
=
2
2 g 22 x
y
112 =
1 g11
1
1
12
=
2
2 g11 x
y
2
12
=
1 g 22
2
12
=0
1
2 g 22 x
122 =
222 =
x1 = x :)9!
1 g 22
122 = 0
1
2 g11 x
1 g 22
1
2
22
=
2
2 g 22 x
y
:( )< 0@ (#:,&<

j
i
d 2u k
k du du
+
=0
ij
ds ds
ds 2
du i du j
gij
=C
ds ds
.O I< X )0@( J C
:(#:, &; ZG! LJ:# ). Z#
159

: x 2 = y
x1 = x
d 2 x 2 dx dy
=0
dt 2 y dt dt
d 2 x 2 dx dy
=0
dt 2 y dt dt
2
d 2 y 1 dx 1 dy
+
=0
dt 2 y dt y dt
dx 2 dy 2
+
= a2
2
( y(t ) ) dt dt
1
C >Y)J O I a2
::< 4I &< [:
:
dx
= F )9! t J)V < 6 y
dt
dx
dF 2 dy
dF
dy
=F
=(
)F
=2
ln F = ln y 2 + ln b ln F = ln by 2
dt
dt
y dt
F
y
F = by 2
dx
= by 2
dt
:<,>( &< ``< J :, @ Ce!
dy
2 4
2 2
dt + b y (t ) = a y (t )
::< 4I &< [0@ :

y (t ) =
ay0
a cosh at a 2 ( b 2 y 20 ) sinh at
< &0@ :, << 4 ( y0
160

dx
= by 2
dt
( by ) sinh at
+
a cosh at a ( b y ) sinh at
2
x(t ) = x0
.<< 4 x0
: L%! x(t ) y (t ) 6
sinh at =
cosh at =
a x x0
by0 y
by 2 0 ( x x0 ) a 2 b 2 y 2 0
by0 y
:( >< ,> ) 0@ 6 s @6G cosh 2 at sinh 2 at = 1
a2
( x x0 ) 2( x x0 ) 2 y 2 0 + y 2 = y 2 0
b
2
a2
a2
x x0 2 y 2 0 + y 2 = 2
b
b
.M)
x0 +
0
a2
a
y 20
2
M )
)X4 %! 0) 6 0@
b
b
): <IV ( ) e9< @ #: ) I .x : X> M@ )

<e> 0@ C)) ) ( ) # HJ e9( @ J OIX!< :Y <e! )(
.4X!< XI! e9( @ J (< ) ):e

161
\ 11
)- }8
(J ) 1949 : : ) (Kurt Godel L &; LI!7:G 6
@ :G 0.01!< (J)I (J .@ >: (!:G: >>
MG <IV >>( &: 6 ! (J <XI@ e9 @ ( ) # Z4)9#
.(Y
) >Y@ >: (J (!:G@ ` )X#! 6 >! D N) )< !< (J
> <# : Q (J> <# < &< Q9 . :4! 6> <#
.
! (J Q@ ` & )@ (Y >: > II &< ) O@ >:
:9 )9# 6 6G (YN@ @ >: (!:G (J <!GM9 .D9

<!G( @ !: )J .> (9G& ( C9 .> <#(
`> (J@ .Q
)< : eJ (J ( & @ LG7
e2 x 2
)dy dz 2 + 2e x dtdy
2
ds 2 = a 2 (dt 2 dx 2 +
(J@ 0)< a > 0 :
ds 2 = g ij dxi dx j
g 13 dx1dx3 + g 31 dx3dx1 2 g 13 dx1dx3
@:D
162

2 g 13 = 2e x g 13 = e x
:
g11
g
gij = 12
g13
g14
g 21
g 22
g 23
g 24
g 41
1
0
g 42
gij = a 2
x
g 43
e
g 44
0
g31
g32
g33
g34
0
1
ex
0
e2 x
2
0
0
0
:D@
g=
a2
a 2e x
a2
a 2e x
0
2
a e2 x
2
0
a 8e 2 x
2
a2
g ij =
11
g
g12
13
g
g14
g 21
g 31
g 22
g 32
g 23
g 33
g 24
g 34
g 41
g 42
g 43
g 44
g11
g
= 12
g13
g14
g 21
g 22
g 23
g 24
g31
g32
g33
g34
g 41 1
g 42
1
g ij = 2 0 x
g 43
a 2e
0
g 44
0
1
0
0
2e x
0
2e2 x
0
0
0
:< )0@ LJ:# ).

:() 9% <9 .&
112 = 1
ex
= =
2
1
23
2
13
e2 x
=
2
2
33
3
12
= e x
163

:D@ i = 1
Rij =

= 0 LJ:# ). LG

xi
2
ij + 1ij tsi tjs
x
:() 9% <9 ( 7 :#> L &

R11 = 1
R13 = R31 = e x
R33 = e 2 x
:( e9( @ 7<

R = g ij Rij R = g11R11 + g13 R13 + g 31R31 + g 33 R33
1
2e x x 2e x x 2e2 x 2 x 1
R = 2 1 + 2 e + 2 e 2 e = 2
a
a
a
a
a
R=
1
a2
164

: LG7 @ ZG ! 0@ ds 2 = a 2 (dt 2 dx 2 +
e2 x 2
dy dz 2 + 2e x dtdy) : <)
2
ds 2 = dt 2 dx 2 +
e2
2 x
dy 2 dz 2 + 2e
2 x
dtdy
<M )< 6 )& )9% O

:LG7!< @ :X( [ J < )0@
ds 2 = 4a 2 (dt 2 dr 2 dy 2 + (sinh 4 r sinh 2 r )d 2 + 2 2 sinh 2 rd dt )
:< )0@( J
r0
0 2
T ij = u iu j : .&( @ J <4X :#> << J` 6 : . (J
< &, O G =
1
D@ . <)# u i u j < J`G :#>( @ J
2
8 Ga
. =
1
2a 2
: .&( @ J (!:G O ` 6:>

165

:
)< .!7 6@ :LG7
dr
r 2 d 2 r 2 sin 2 d 2 + c 2 dt 2
2
1 kr
ds 2 =
&; #: (#@ e9 .):6
(J<9%
= % >> # :, (J (#@ 0&<:
dr
2
2
2
) = r (1 r )( r 1
d
(J@ 0&< .O

(J CY@ 0&<
<9%
= r 2 .>_ 6G L&< < )#& :e (J
= 6 (,& (:
x 2 + y 2 = 1
(J@ 0&< x y GM<.
2
O M :J: (J )#@ [ (,(
c
) c <X)< :e(.
!< ) (J@

166
167

,- *&*

:+*
' G

General Relativity Glossary
(M,! - ())
Dilation of time
Summation convention
Doppler effect
Compton effect
Parallel displacement
Fundamentalist
Even horizon
Agree posteriori
Agree priori
Aether
Coordinate
Coordinate surface
Gravitational red shift
Parallel transpotr
Big Bang
Torsion
Space warp
First fundamental form
Second fundamental form
Curvature
Geodesic curvature
Ricci curvature
Scalar curvature
Fitzgerald contraction
Contraction
Elliptic
Dimension
Bolyai
Evidence
6M #
C,< 49
))
:)
:
(:
J
),( & N 9
), L4 # 9
)
[
X#[
,[< )
: I![
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e9 :X! e9 :
( LG7
(!` ( LG7
:I!>
(#: !>
(7!>
( :I !> ( I!>
)MJ I!
-I G!
(,
&
(:
<>
168
Affinity
Affine
Divergence
Lorentz transformation
Skew- symmetric
skew-symmetric
Gradient
Connection
Superposition
Quadratic
simultaneity
Synchronization
Synchronization of clocks
Gravitational acceleration
Rectification
Apriori cincept
Congruence
Mapping
Acceleration
Differential
Contradiction
Equivalence
Equivalence of mass
Mass Energy equivalence
Homology
Representation
Spherically symmetric
Contradiction
Consistency
Curvature tensor
Einsteins tensor
tensor
Levi-Civita tensor
Metric tensor
Gravitational constant
Cosmical constant
Black hole

(9

M>:
)c>< 9
)c>< 9

X)
Z)
&)
6M
6M
# 6M
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%
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X
X
L,&
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[!>:#>
67! :#>
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):#>
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169
Wormhole
Gravity
Scalar product
Gravitational potential
Potential
Geodesic
Event
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1973 "! #$ -
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1999 C.-
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Essential Relativity:special, General and Cosmological, Wolfang

Rindler, 1977
Introduction to Special Relativity, Wiley Fastern, Private Limited. 1972
Lecture Notes on General Relativity, Sean M. Carrroll, Institute for
Theoretical Physics University of California, 1997
Introduction to General Relativity, G. t Hooft, Institute for Theoretical
Physics University Utrech University, version 8/4/2002
Euclidean and Non-Euclidean Geometries, Second edition, Marvin Jay
Greenberg, W. H. Freeman & Co. , 1979.
An Introduction to Tensor Calculus, Relativity and Cosomology, Derek
F. Lawden, 1982.
Non-Euclidian Geometry, Harold E. Wolfe.

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