1

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- Enlightenment.

- Enlightenment politics.

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- Philosophi Naturalis Principia Mathematica, Latin for

"Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", often referred to
as simply the Principia, is a work in three books by Sir Isaac
Newton, in Latin, first published 5 July 1687.
4

)] - Jean-Antoine Houdon (French pronunciation: [ n twan ud

(25 March 1741 15 July 1828) was a French neoclassical sculptor.
Houdon is famous for his portrait busts and statues of
philosophers, inventors and political figures of the Enlightenment.
Houdon's subjects include Denis Diderot (1771), Benjamin Franklin
(1778-09), Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1778), Voltaire (1781), Molire
(1781), George Washington (178588), Thomas Jefferson (1789),
Louis XVI (1790), Robert Fulton, 180304, and Napolon Bonaparte
(1806).
- Maurice Quentin De La Tour.

- Denis Diderot.

- Giraudon/Art Resource.

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- Anthony Clifford "A. C." Grayling (born 3 April 1949) is a British

philosopher. In 2011 he founded and became the first Master of
New College of the Humanities, an independent undergraduate
college in London. Until June 2011, he was Professor of Philosophy
at Birkbeck, University of London, where he taught from 1991. He
is also a supernumerary fellow of St Anne's College, Oxford.
9

- Anti-clericalism refers to historical movements that opposes the

clergy for reasons including their actual or alleged power and
influence in all aspects of public and political life and their
involvement in the everyday life of the citizen, their privileges, or
their enforcement of orthodoxy. Not all anti-clericals are irreligious
or anti-religious, some anti-clericals have been religious and have
opposed clergy on the basis of institutional issues and/or
disagreements in religious interpretation, such as during the
Protestant Reformation.
Anti-clericalism in one form or another has existed through most of
Christian history. Some philosophers of the Enlightenment,
including Voltaire, attacked the Catholic Church, its leadership and
priests claiming moral corruption of many of its clergy.
10

- Secularism is the principle of the separation of government

institutions and persons mandated to represent the state from
religious institutions and religious dignitaries. One manifestation of
secularism is asserting the right to be free from religious rule and
teachings, or, in a state declared to be neutral on matters of belief,

6
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. 1789 12
from the imposition by government of religion or religious
practices upon its people. Another manifestation of secularism is
the view that public activities and decisions, especially political
ones, should be uninfluenced by religious beliefs and/or practices.
Secularism draws its intellectual roots from Greek and Roman
philosophers such as Marcus Aurelius and Epicurus; from
Enlightenment thinkers such as Denis Diderot, Voltaire, Baruch
Spinoza, James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, and Thomas Paine; and
from more recent freethinkers and atheists such as Robert
Ingersoll and Bertrand Russell.
The purposes and arguments in support of secularism vary widely.
In European laicism, it has been argued that secularism is a
movement toward modernization, and away from traditional
religious values (also known as secularization). This type of
secularism, on a social or philosophical level, has often occurred
while maintaining an official state church or other state support of
religion. In the United States, some argue that state secularism
has served to a greater extent to protect religion and the religious
from governmental interference, while secularism on a social level
is less prevalent. Within countries as well, differing political
movements support secularism for varying reasons.
The term "secularism" was first used by the British writer George
Jacob Holyoake in 1851. Although the term was new, the general
notions of free thought on which it was based had existed
throughout history.
Holyoake invented the term "secularism" to describe his views of
promoting a social order separate from religion, without actively
dismissing or criticizing religious belief. An agnostic himself,
Holyoake argued that "Secularism is not an argument against
Christianity, it is one independent of it. It does not question the
pretensions of Christianity; it advances others. Secularism does
not say there is no light or guidance elsewhere, but maintains that
there is light and guidance in secular truth, whose conditions and
sanctions exist independently, and act forever. Secular knowledge
is manifestly that kind of knowledge which is founded in this life,
which relates to the conduct of this life, conduces to the welfare of
this life, and is capable of being tested by the experience of this
life.
11

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17

- The Indiscreet Jewels (French: Les bijoux indiscrets) is the first

novel by Denis Diderot, published anonymously in 1748. It is an
allegory that portrays Louis XV as the sultan Mangogul of the
Congo who owns a magic ring that makes women's genitals
("jewels") talk.
A comparable trope that Diderot must have known is found in the
ribald fabliau Le Chevalier Qui Fist parler les Cons.
18
- Hypothesis. (Noun). A supposition or proposed explanation
made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for
further investigation.
"professional astronomers attacked him for popularizing an
"unconfirmed hypothesis
Synonyms: theory, theorem, thesis, conjecture, supposition,
postulation, postulate, proposition, premise, assumption, notion,
concept, idea, possibility.
19
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21

- "Answering the Question: What Is Enlightenment?" (German:

Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklrung?) is a 1784 essay by
the philosopher Immanuel Kant. In the December 1784 publication
of the Berlinische Monatsschrift (Berlin Monthly), edited by
Friedrich Gedike and Johann Erich Biester, Kant replied to the
question posed a year earlier by the Reverend Johann Friedrich
Zllner, who was also an official in the Russian government.
Zllner's question was addressed to a broad intellectual public, in
reply to Biester's essay entitled: "Proposal, not to engage the
clergy any longer when marriages are conducted" (April 1783) and
a number of leading intellectuals replied with essays, of which
Kant's is the most famous and has had the most impact. Kant's
opening paragraph of the essay is a much-cited definition of a lack
of Enlightenment as people's inability to think for themselves due
not to their lack of intellect, but lack of courage.
Kant's essay also addressed the causes of a lack of enlightenment
and the preconditions necessary to make it possible for people to
enlighten themselves. He held it necessary that all church and
state paternalism be abolished and people be given the freedom
to use their own intellect. Kant praised Frederick II of Prussia for
creating these preconditions. Kant focused on religious issues,
saying that "our rulers" had less interest in telling citizens what to
think in regard to artistic and scientific issues.
22

- Enlightenment.

23

- Immaturity.

24

- Sapere aude (pronounced sap-er-reh ow-day) is a Latin phrase

meaning "dare to be wise", or more precisely "dare to know".
Originally used by the Roman poet Horace, it has become closely
associated with the Enlightenment after being cited by Immanuel
Kant in his seminal essay, What is Enlightenment?. Kant claimed it
was the motto for the entire period, and used it to explore his
theories of reason in the public sphere. Later, Michel Foucault took
up Kant's formulation in an attempt to find a place for the
individual in his post-structuralist philosophy and to come to terms
with the problematic legacy of the Enlightenment. In Epistm
baroque: le mot et la chose, Jean-Claude Vuillemin proposes to
make "Sapere aude" the motto of the Baroque episteme

11
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- Supplment au voyage de Bougainville, ou dialogue entre A et

B sur l'inconvnient d'attacher des ides morales certaines
actions physiques qui n'en comportent pas. ("Addendum to the
Journey of Bougainville, or dialogue between A and B on the
drawback to binding moral ideas to certain physical actions which
bear none") is a set of philosophical dialogues written by Denis
Diderot, inspired by Louis Antoine de Bougainville's Voyage autour
du monde. It was first published in 1772 in the journal
Correspondance littraire.
Bougainville, a contemporary of Diderot, was a French explorer
whose 1771 book Voyage autour du monde (A Voyage Around the
World) provided an account of an expedition that took him to
Argentina, Patagonia, Indonesia, and Tahiti. It was the utopian
descriptions of the latter that inspired Diderot to write his
Supplement.
The Supplement spans either four or five chapters, depending on
the edition.
Each takes the form of a dialogue between two people, but the
characters and setting varies. Chapter two features a Tahitian
Elder addressing a hypothetical Bougainville; chapters three and
four are between a villager named Orou and his European almoner
guest; in chapters one and five, speakers known only as "A" and
"B" speak in a literary space apart from Tahiti, commenting on and
drawing lessons from the noted differences between Tahitian and
European culture.
In each of the dialogues, Diderot aligns one character with
European culture and the other with Tahitian culture for the
purpose of contrasting the two. This kind of natureculture divide
was a common strategy to critique aspects of European culture

13
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during the Enlightenment.
Themes
Diderot touches upon many popular Enlightenment themes, for
example: slavery, colonization, the Catholic faith, the relationship
between morality and law, and ownership of private property.
31

System of Nature, translated by H.D. Robinson, New York: Burt

Franklin, 1970.
32

- Paul-Henri Thiry, Baron d'Holbach was a philosopher, translator,

and prominent social figure of the French Enlightenment. In his
philosophical writings Holbach developed a deterministic and
materialistic metaphysics which grounded his polemics against
organized religion and his utilitarian ethical and political theory. As
a translator, Holbach made significant contributions to the
European Enlightenment in science and religion. He translated
German works on chemistry and geology into French, summarizing
many of the German advances in these areas in his entries in
Diderot's Encyclopedia. Holbach also translated important English
works on religion and political philosophy into French. Holbach
remains best known, however, for his role in Parisian society. The
close circle of intellectuals that Holbach hosted and, in various
ways, sponsored produced the Encyclopedia and a number of
revisionary religious, ethical, and political works that contributed
to the ideological basis for the French Revolution. Despite the
radical views of many members of his coterie, however, Holbach's
broader visiting guest list included many of the most prominent
intellectual and political figures in Europe. His salon, then, was at
once a shelter for radical thought and a hub of mainstream
culture.

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34

- Heteronomy refers to action that is influenced by a force

outside the individual. Immanuel Kant, drawing on Jean-Jacques
Rousseau, considered such an action non moral.
It is the counter/opposite of autonomy.
Philosopher Cornelius Castoriadis contrasted heteronomy from
autonomy in noting that while all societies create their own
institutions (laws, traditions and behaviors), autonomous societies
are those in which their members are aware of this fact, and
explicitly self-institute (-). In contrast, the members
of heteronomous societies (hetero = others) attribute their
imaginaries to some extra-social authority (e.g., God, the state,
ancestors, historical necessity, etc.).

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""Preliminary Discourse.
37

- Paralysis is loss of muscle function for one or more muscles.

Paralysis can be accompanied by a loss of feeling (sensory loss) in
the affected area if there is sensory damage as well as motor.
About 1 in 50 people have been diagnosed with some form of
paralysis, transient or permanent. The word comes from the Greek
, "disabling of the nerves", itself from (para),
"beside, by" and (lysis), "loosing" and that from (lu),
"to loose".
38

- Muscular dystrophy (MD) is a group of muscle diseases that

weaken the musculoskeletal system and hamper locomotion.
Muscular dystrophies are characterized by progressive skeletal
muscle weakness, defects in muscle proteins, and the death of
muscle cells and tissue.

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- The Counter-Enlightenment was a term that some 20th century

commentators have used to describe multiple strains of thought
that arose in the late-18th and early-19th centuries in opposition
to the 18th century Enlightenment. The term is usually associated
with Isaiah Berlin, who is often credited with coining it, perhaps
taking up a passing remark of the German philosopher Friedrich
Nietzsche, who used the term Gegenaufklrung at the end of the
19th century. The first known use of the term 'counterenlightenment' in English was in 1949. Berlin published widely
about the Enlightenment and its enemies and did much to
popularize the concept of a Counter-Enlightenment movement that
he characterized as relativist, anti-rationalist, vitalist, and organic,
and which he associated most closely with German Romanticism.
Some recent scholarship has challenged this view for focusing too
narrowly on Germany and stopping abruptly in the early 19th
century, thereby ignoring the Enlightenment's many subsequent
critics, particularly in the 20th century. Some scholars reject the
use of the term 'the Counter-Enlightenment' on the grounds that
there was no single Enlightenment for its alleged enemies to
oppose.

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- Bureaucratic corporatism.

42

- Technocratic corporatism.

43

- Fiefdom.

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- The Reign of Terror (5 September 1793 28 July 1794), also

known simply as The Terror (French: la Terreur), was a period of
violence that occurred after the onset of the French Revolution,
incited by conflict between rival political factions, the Girondins
and the Jacobins, and marked by mass executions of "enemies of
the revolution". The death toll ranged in the tens of thousands,
with 16,594 executed by guillotine (2,639 in Paris), and another
25,000 in summary executions across France.

19
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46

- Edmund Burke PC (12 January [NS] 1729 9 July 1797) was an

Irish statesman born in Dublin; author, orator, political theorist and
philosopher, who, after moving to England, served for many years
in the House of Commons of Great Britain as a member of the
Whig party.
He is mainly remembered for his support of the cause of the
American Revolutionaries, and for his later opposition to the
French Revolution. The latter led to his becoming the leading
figure within the conservative faction of the Whig party, which he
dubbed the "Old Whigs", in opposition to the proFrench
Revolution "New Whigs", led by Charles James Fox.
Burke was praised by both conservatives and liberals in the 19th
century. Since the 20th century, he has generally been viewed as
the philosophical founder of modern conservatism
47

- Joseph-Marie, Comte de Maistre (French pronunciation: [d

mst] 1 April 1753 26 February 1821) was a Savoyard
philosopher, writer, lawyer, and diplomat. He defended
hierarchical societies and a monarchical State in the period
immediately following the French Revolution. Maistre was a subject
of the King of Piedmont-Sardinia, whom he served as member of
the Savoy Senate (17871792), ambassador to Russia (1803
1817), and minister of state to the court in Turin (18171821).
Maistre, a key figure of the Counter-Enlightenment, saw monarchy
both as a divinely sanctioned institution and as the only stable
form of government. He called for the restoration of the House of
Bourbon to the throne of France and argued that the Pope should
have ultimate authority in temporal matters. Maistre also claimed
that it was the rationalist rejection of Christianity which was
directly responsible for the disorder and bloodshed which followed
the French Revolution of 1789.
48

- Internationalism is a movement which advocates a greater

economic and political cooperation among nations for the
theoretical benefit of all. Partisans of this movement, such as
supporters of the World Federalist Movement, claim that nations

20
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should cooperate because their long-term mutual interests are of
greater value than their individual short term needs.
Internationalism is another reaction of the same general kind - and
to the very same general circumstances. Like 'nationalism', it is far
more ambiguous and complicated than the self-image in which it
lives. Capitalist internationality generated both nationalism and
internationalism, in fact, and since the rise and fall of Napoleon's
French Revolutionary Empire these political world-views have
existed in permanent, uneasy tension with one another.
Internationalism is by nature opposed to ultranationalism, jingoism
and national chauvinism.[3] Internationalism teaches that the
people of all nations have more in common than they do
differences, and thus that nations should treat each other as
equals. The term internationalism is often wrongly used as a
synonym for cosmopolitanism. 'Cosmopolitanist' is also sometimes
used as a term of abuse for internationalists. Internationalism is
not necessarily anti-nationalism, as in the People's Republic of
China and Stalinist countries. Wiki.
49

- Ochlocracy (Greek: , okhlokrata; Latin: ochlocratia)

or mob rule is the rule of government by mob or a mass of people,
or the intimidation of legitimate authorities. As a pejorative for
majoritarianism, it is akin to the Latin phrase mobile vulgus
meaning "the fickle crowd", from which the English term "mob"
was originally derived in the 1680s.
Ochlocracy ("rule of the general populace") is democracy ("rule of
the people") spoiled by demagoguery, "tyranny of the majority",
and the rule of passion over reason, just as oligarchy ("rule of a
few") is aristocracy ("rule of the best") spoiled by corruption, and
tyranny is monarchy spoiled by lack of virtue. Ochlocracy is
synonymous in meaning and usage to the modern, informal term
"mobocracy", which emerged from a much more recent colloquial
etymology.
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- Mechanistic. 1-of or relating to theories that explain

phenomena in purely physical or deterministic terms.

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- Neoclassicism is a revival of the styles and spirit of classic

antiquity inspired directly from the classical period, which
coincided and reflected the developments in philosophy and other
areas of the Age of Enlightenment, and was initially a reaction
against the excesses of the preceding Rococo style. While the
movement is often described as the opposed counterpart of
Romanticism, this is a great over-simplification that tends not to be
sustainable when specific artists or works are considered, the case
of the supposed main champion of late Neoclassicism, Ingres,
demonstrating this especially well. The revival can be traced to the
establishment of formal archaeology. The writings of Johann
Joachim Winckelmann were important in shaping this movement in
both architecture and the visual arts. His books, Thoughts on the
Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture (1750) and
Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums ("History of Ancient Art",
1764) were the first to distinguish sharply between Ancient Greek
and Roman art, and define periods within Greek art, tracing a
trajectory from growth to maturity and then imitation or
decadence that continues to have influence to the present day.
Winckelmann believed that art should aim at "noble simplicity and
calm grandeur", and praised the idealism of Greek art, in which he
said we find: "not only nature at its most beautiful but also

31


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& . . .
1435 30 1393 5
2014 27
something beyond nature, namely certain ideal forms of its
beauty, which, as an ancient interpreter of Plato teaches us, come
from images created by the mind alone." The theory was very far
from new in Western art, but his emphasis on close copying of
Greek models was: "The only way for us to become great or, if this
be possible, inimitable, is to imitate the ancients".
With the advent of the Grand Tour, a fad of collecting antiquities
began that laid the foundations of many great collections
spreading a neoclassical revival throughout Europe.
"Neoclassicism" in each art implies a particular canon of a
"classical" model.
54

- Reductionism is a philosophical position which holds that a

complex system is nothing but the sum of its parts, and that an
account of it can be reduced to accounts of individual constituents.
This can be said of objects, phenomena, explanation, theories, and
meanings.
Reductionism strongly reflects a certain perspective on causality.
In a reductionist framework, the phenomena that can be explained
completely in terms of relations between other more fundamental
phenomena, are called epiphenomena. Often there is an
implication that the epiphenomenon exerts no causal agency on
the fundamental phenomena that explain it.
Reductionism does not preclude the existence of what might be
called emergent phenomena, but it does imply the ability to
understand those phenomena completely in terms of the
processes from which they are composed. This reductionist
understanding is very different from that usually implied by the
term 'emergence', which typically intends that what emerges is
more than the sum of the processes from which it emerges.
Religious reductionism generally attempts to explain religion by
boiling it down to certain nonreligious causes. A few examples of
reductionistic explanations for the presence of religion are: that
religion can be reduced to humanity's conceptions of right and
wrong, that religion is fundamentally a primitive attempt at
controlling our environments, that religion is a way to explain the
existence of a physical world, and that religion confers an
enhanced survivability for members of a group and so is reinforced
by natural selection. Anthropologists Edward Burnett Tylor and
James George Frazer employed some religious reductionist
arguments. Sigmund Freud held that religion is nothing more than

32

an illusion, or even a mental illness, and Marx claimed that religion

is "the sigh of the oppressed," and the opium of the people
providing only "the illusory happiness of the people," thus
providing two influential examples of reductionistic views against
the idea of religion.
55

- Relativism is the concept that points of view have no absolute

truth or validity, having only relative, subjective value according to
differences in perception and consideration. As moral relativism,
the term is often used in the context of moral principles, where
principles and ethics are regarded as applicable in only limited
context. There are many forms of relativism which vary in their
degree of controversy. The term often refers to truth relativism,
which is the doctrine that there are no absolute truths, i.e., that
truth is always relative to some particular frame of reference, such
as a language or a culture (cultural relativism) wiki
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativism
56

- Cynicism is an attitude or state of mind characterized by a

general distrust of others' motives believing that humans are
selfish by nature, ruled by emotion, and heavily influenced by the
same primitive, barbaric instincts that helped humans survive in
the wild before agriculture and civilization became established. A
cynic may have a general lack of faith or hope in the human
species or people motivated by ambition, desire, greed,
gratification, materialism, goals, and opinions that a cynic
perceives as vain, unobtainable, or ultimately meaningless and
therefore deserving of ridicule or admonishment. It is a form of
jaded prudence, and other times, realistic criticism or skepticism.
The term originally derives from the ancient Greek philosophers,
the Cynics, who rejected all conventions, whether of religion,
manners, housing, dress, or decency, instead advocating the
pursuit of virtue in accordance with a simple and idealistic way of
life.
By the 19th century, emphasis on the ascetic ideals and the
critique of current civilization based on how it might fall short of an
ideal civilization or negativistic aspects of Cynic philosophy led the
modern understanding of cynicism to mean a disposition of
disbelief in the sincerity or goodness of human motives and
actions.[citation needed] Modern cynicism is a distrust toward
professed ethical and social values, especially when there are high
expectations concerning society, institutions, and authorities that
are unfulfilled. It can manifest itself as a result of frustration,

33

disillusionment, and distrust perceived as owing to organizations,

authorities, and other aspects of society.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynicism_(contemporary)
57

- Candide, ou l'Optimisme (/kndid/; French: [k did]) is a

French satire first published in 1759 by Voltaire, a philosopher of
the Age of Enlightenment. The novella has been widely translated,
with English versions titled Candide: or, All for the Best (1759);
Candide: or, The Optimist (1762); and Candide: or, Optimism
(1947). It begins with a young man, Candide, who is living a
sheltered life in an Edenic paradise and being indoctrinated with
Leibnizian optimism (or simply Optimism) by his mentor, Pangloss.
The work describes the abrupt cessation of this lifestyle, followed
by Candide's slow, painful disillusionment as he witnesses and
experiences great hardships in the world. Voltaire concludes with
Candide, if not rejecting optimism outright, advocating a deeply
practical precept, "we must cultivate our garden", in lieu of the
Leibnizian mantra of Pangloss, "all is for the best" in the "best of
all possible worlds".
Candide is characterized by its sarcastic tone, as well as by its
erratic, fantastical and fast-moving plot. A picaresque novel with a
story similar to that of a more serious bildungsroman, it parodies
many adventure and romance clichs, the struggles of which are
caricatured in a tone that is mordantly matter-of-fact. Still, the
events discussed are often based on historical happenings, such as
the Seven Years' War and the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. As
philosophers of Voltaire's day contended with the problem of evil,
so too does Candide in this short novel, albeit more directly and
humorously. Voltaire ridicules religion, theologians, governments,
armies, philosophies, and philosophers through allegory; most
conspicuously, he assaults Leibniz and his optimism.
As expected by Voltaire, Candide has enjoyed both great success
and great scandal. Immediately after its secretive publication, the
book was widely banned because it contained religious blasphemy,
political sedition and intellectual hostility hidden under a thin veil
of navet. However, with its sharp wit and insightful portrayal of
the human condition, the novel has since inspired many later
authors and artists to mimic and adapt it. Today, Candide is
recognized as Voltaire's magnum opus and is often listed as part of
the Western canon; it is arguably taught more than any other work
of French literature. In his book of intellectual history Martin
Seymour-Smith listed Candide as one of The 100 Most Influential

34

Books Ever Written.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candide
58

- Dialectic of Enlightenment (German: Dialektik der Aufklrung)

is a work of philosophy and social criticism written by Frankfurt
School philosophers Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno and
first published in 1944.
One of the core texts of Critical Theory, it explains the sociopsychological status quo that had been responsible for what the
Frankfurt School considered the failure of the Age of
Enlightenment. Together with The Authoritarian Personality (1950;
also co-authored by Adorno) and Frankfurt School member Herbert
Marcuse's One-Dimensional Man (1964), it has had a major effect
on 20th century philosophy, sociology, culture, and politics,
inspiring especially the New Left of the 1960s and 1970s.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectic_of_Enlightenment
59

- Scientism is belief in the universal applicability of the scientific

method and approach, and the view that empirical science
constitutes the most authoritative worldview or most valuable part
of human learning to the exclusion of other viewpoints. It has been
defined as "the view that the characteristic inductive methods of
the natural sciences are the only source of genuine factual
knowledge and, in particular, that they alone can yield true
knowledge about man and society." The term scientism frequently
implies a critique of the more extreme expressions of logical
positivism and has been used by social scientists such as Friedrich
Hayek,[5] philosophers of science such as Karl Popper, and
philosophers such as Hilary Putnam and Tzvetan Todorov to
describe the dogmatic endorsement of scientific methodology and
the reduction of all knowledge to only that which is measurable.
"Scientism" has also been taken over as a name for the view that
science is the only reliable source of knowledge by philosophers
such as Alexander Rosenberg.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism
- ( ) Paul Michel Foucault : ) - 60
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35

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Levinas's philosophy has been called ethics. If ethics means
rationalist self-legislation and freedom (deontology), the
calculation of happiness (utilitarianism), or the cultivation of
virtues (virtue ethics), then Levinas's philosophy is not an ethics.
Levinas claimed, in 1961, that he was developing a first
philosophy. This first philosophy is neither traditional logic nor
metaphysics, however. It is an interpretive, phenomenological
description of the rise and repetition of the face-to-face encounter,
or the intersubjective relation at its precognitive core; viz., being
called by another and responding to that other. If precognitive
experience, that is, human sensibility, can be characterized
conceptually, then it must be described in what is most
characteristic to it: a continuum of sensibility and affectivity, in
other words, sentience and emotion in their interconnection.

36

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary_theory :
64

- Psychology (Greek: ) is the academic and applied

study of behavior, mind, and their underlying mechanisms. It
primarily applies to humans but can also be applied to nonhumans such as animals or artificial systems. Psychology also
refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of
activity, including problems of human beings' daily lives and the
treatment of mental illness. The field contains a range of sub-areas
(for instance, the studies of development, personality, and
language), as well as many different theoretical orientations (such
as behaviorism, evolutionary psychology, and psychoanalysis).
Psychology draws from a number of other fields of study, including
biology, sociology, anthropology, and philosophy.
- 65
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37

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http://www.bashgah.net/fa/content/print_version/39413 (Tue Aug
)26 15:59:45 2014
66

- Managerialism. Marginalism is a theory of economics that

attempts to explain the discrepancy in the value of goods and
services by reference to their secondary, or marginal, utility. The
reason why the price of diamonds is higher than that of water, for
example, owes to the greater additional satisfaction of the
diamonds over the water. Thus, while the water has greater total

38

utility, the diamond has greater marginal utility. The theory has
been used in order to explain the difference in wages among
essential and non-essential services, such as why the wages of an
air-conditioner repairman exceed those of a childcare worker.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marginalism

67

- Popular culture is the entirety of ideas, perspectives, attitudes,

memes,[1] images, and other phenomena that are within the
mainstream of a given culture, especially Western culture of the
early to mid-20th century and the emerging global mainstream of
the late 20th and early 21st century. Heavily influenced by mass
media, this collection of ideas permeates the everyday lives of the
society, its purpose being to create a product that can be
consumed as widely as possible - and thus maximize profits for the
producers.
Popular culture is often viewed as being trivial and "dumbed down"
in order to find consensual acceptance throughout the
mainstream. As a result, it comes under heavy criticism from
various non-mainstream sources (most notably religious groups
and countercultural groups) which deem it superficial,
consumerist, sensationalist, and corrupted.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_culture