Heat engines Carnot eciency = (T

h
T
c
)/T
c
Combined heat and power CHP eciency

CHP
=
net power output +heat recovered
energy input
U-value - the rate at which heat ows through
an area of 1m
2
when the temperature change
across it is 1
0
C. From the heat equation
J =
T
x
obtain U =
J
T
=

x
1
U
=
1
h
in
+

j
R
j
+
1
h
out
Fabric loss P = UA(T
in
T
air
)
Ventilation P = V (C
P
)(n/3600)(T
in
T
air
)
1
Noise L
P
= 10log

P
2
rms
P
2
ref

= 10log

I
rms
I
ref

Passive solar heat an absorbing wall

m
wall
C
wall
dT
room
dt
= taSAUA(T
room
T
surr
)
In steady state, taSA = UA(T
room
T
surr
).
Domestic heating - capture eciency
n = ta U
T
out
T
in
S
Photovoltaics sunlight creates electron-hole
pairs in semiconductor.
Solar concentrators towers & furnaces. Parabolic
troughs or paraboloid mirrors. Cannot use
diuse radiation.
2
Maximum power in uids:
1
2
u
3
per unit area.
Hydropower Power = Qgh where Q = uA is
the ow rate at the top
Impulse turbine Water passes through nozzles;
jets hits cups on wheel perimeter and deected
by 180

. u(Turbine) = u/2
Tidal power Maximum energy per tide (AR)g(
R
2
)
where R is the tidal range. Mean power

P = AR
2
g/2
Wave power Water column (and air above)
oscillates in cavity. Air forced past turbine
as waves come in and out.
3
Wind power
P =
1
2
C
P
A
1
u
3
0
where C
P
= 4a(1 a)
2
and a = 1 u
1
/u
0
(Betz limit). Greatest value about 59%
Arrays of turbines in wind farms.
Nuclear power In ssion reactors, U (or Th,
Pu) nuclei broken up by neutron bombardment
releasing energy and excess neutrons. In
fusion reactors hoped to use deuterium-
tritium reaction to get power.
4