.

1 : a > 0, n a 1
n

. 2 : n n 1
n

. 3 : xn > 0, xn x
n
np + a

xn

p1 + + a
. 4 : P (n) = a0
1n
p1 n + ap ,
Q(n) = b0 nq + b1 nq1 + + aq1 n + aq
P (n)
a0
p = q

Q(n) n b0
P (n)
0
p < q
Q(n) n

{yk }kN = {xnk }kN ,

n1 < n2 < n3 < {xn }nN


x1 ,


6x1


x2 ,

x3 ,

x2 ,

x3 ,

x4 , x5 ,

6x4

6x5

xn1 , xn2 ,
y1 ,

y2 ,

: k nk

x6 ,

x7 ,

x8 ,

x9 ,

x6 ,

x7 ,

xn3 , xn4 ,
y3 ,

y4 ,

6x8

x9 ,

...
...

x n5 , . . .

y5 ,

...

.1:
xn
x

: { n n 1}

yk = xnk
x
n
o
n2
n2 1

Bolzano Weierstrass

( ) A

. 2:
( )

{yk }kN = {xnk }kN ,

n1 < n2 < n3 < {xn }nN


x1 ,


6x1


x2 ,

x3 ,

x4 ,

x5 ,

x6 ,

x7 ,

x8 ,

x9 ,

x2 ,

x3 ,

6x4

6x5

xn1 , xn2 ,
y1 ,

y2 ,

: k nk

x6 ,

x7 ,

xn3 , xn4 ,
y3 ,

y4 ,

6x8

x9 ,

...
...

x n5 , . . .

y5 ,

k N
m N : {k m}
{nk m}
m N
k N : {m nk }
k m nk m

...







.1:
xn
x

: { n n 1}

yk = xnk
x
n
o
n2
n2 1

.1:
xn
x

: { n n 1}
 :
n
xn

yk = xnk
x
n
o
n2
n2 1


o
x

 > 0, N () > 0 :

k > N ()
|xk x| < 

nk k > N () |xnk x| < 



 > 0, N () > 0 :

nk > N ()
|xnk x| < 

 ( ) A

Bolzano
Weierstrass

. 2

( )

 :
I

I
x
n N, xkn : x
xkn x.
n

1
1
< xkn < x +
n
n



xn xn xn+1

xn xn xn+1

xn xn

. 1
xn xn sup{xk }kN
n

 : xn xn+1 K. ,
` n `
xn = L R,

L = lim xk = max{x1 , x2 , . . . , xm }
k

. R 3 M = sup{xk }kN
( R !) sup
 > 0, k N : m  < xk m

xn n > k

xk xn m < m + 

 > 0, k = N () : n > N ()

m  < xn < m + 

xn m
n

. 1
xn xn inf{xm }mN
n

. 2
xn
lim xnk = x xn xn x
n

.
xnk ( ) ,
x = sup {xnk }. x supremum
kN

xnk (. . 1). A = {xnk , k N}

B = {xn , n N}, z A
z B z sup B
x = sup A sup B. sup A < sup B
` : x` > x
m xnm x` > x .
sup A = sup B.


xn xn xn+1
xn xn xn+1
xn
. 1: xn
xn sup{xk }kN

. 1: xn
xn inf{xm }mN

. 2: xn lim xnk = x xn

k
xn
n



1 n
I . xn = 1 +
n


n  
X
n 1
1
n n(n 1) n(n 1)(n 2)
xn =
=
+
+
+

+
=
1
+
` n`
n
2!n2
3!n3
nn
`=0



 

n
n
X
n(n 1)(n 2) (n ` + 1) X 1
1
2
3
`1
=
=
1
1
1
1
`!
n
n
n
n
`! n`

1
1+
n

n

`=0

`=0

I xn+1 > xn
xn+1



`1
1
=
n+1
`=0



 

n
X
1
1
2
3
`1
=
1
1
1
1
+
`!
n+1
n+1
n+1
n+1
n+1
X

1
`!


1

1
n+1


1

2
n+1


1

3
n+1

`=0

1
(n + 1)n+1

k
1
n+1

n
X
1
I . yn =
`!



k
> 1
n

`=0

I yn+1 > yn

xn+1 > xn

I x n yn
I yn

xn

1
1
1
=
`1
`!
2 3 4`
2
1
1
1
xn < yn = 1 + 1 + + + +
=
2
3!
n!


1
= 1 + 1 + 12 + + n1 <
2
1
< 1+
1 =3
1 2

I xn e yn e
e e
n
n






k
X
1
1
2
3
`1
I n,k =
1
1
1
1
`!
n
n
n
n
`=0
I n,k xn e
n,k yk
n

I yk e
lim yk = e e
k

I e = e !

lim

1
1+
n

n

X
1
=
k!
k=

I
I
I

n

n

1
1
1

n
1
1

2
2
2
n
n 
n
nn
1

n
1 2
1
n
n e1
1
= 
n
n
1
1+

nn
k
ek
kN
1+
n
n

n
k
1+
ek/`
n
`n


n
1+
= e = sup {eq , q Q, q }, > 0
n

I 1
I

I . xn =

1
1+
n

n

, xn+1 > xn

n
X
1
, yn+1 > yn
I . yn =
`!
`=0

I xn yn
I yn
xn
I xn e yn e
e e
n
n






k
X
1
1
2
3
`1
I n,k =
1
1
1
1
`!
n
n
n
n
`=0
I n,k xn e
n,k yk
n

I yk e
lim yk = e e
k

n
1
P
1

I e = e ! lim 1 +
=
n
n
k=0 k!

n

1
e1
n  n

k n
ek
I 1+
n  n

k n
ek/`
I 1+
n
`n


n
I 1+
e = sup {eq , q Q, q }, > 0
n
n
I

 CAUCHY

n
o
xn Cauchy

 > 0 N () :
n > m > N ()

|xn xm | < 

n
o
n
o
xn x xn Cauchy
n



n
o
n
o
xn Cauchy xnk x xn x
k

n
o
n
o
xn Cauchy xn x
n

n
o
n
o
xn Cauchy xn x
n

n
o
n
o
xn Cauchy xn x
n
n
o
n
o
xn xn Cauchy
.

,

N > 0 : n > m > N

|xn xm | > 

1 1
1
+ + +
2 3
n
1
1
1
xn = 1 + 2 + 2 + + 2
2
3
n
xn = 1 +

|xn+1 xn | < k|xn xn1 | k < 1 ! xn

xn Cauchy

 CAUCHY

n
o
xn Cauchy

 > 0 N () :
n > m > N ()

|xn xm | < 

n
o
n
o
xn x xn Cauchy
n


n
o
xn x
n

 > 0 N () > 0 :

m > N ()
|x xm | < 

n>m

n
xn

|xn x| < 

|xn xm | |xn x| + |x xm | < 2 = 0

 0

0 > 0 N 0 (0 ) = N 2 :

n > m > N 0 (0 )

o
Cauchy

|xn xm | < 0



n
o
xn Cauchy xnk x
k
n
o
xn x
n



xn Cauchy

xnk x
k

 > 0 N1 () :
n > m > N1 ()
|xn xm | < 

 > 0 N2 () :

k > N2 ()

|xnk x| < 

n
o
0 = 2 N 0 (0 ) = max N1 (), N2 () n > nk > N 0 (0 )
|xn x| |xn xnk | + |xnk x| < 2 = 0


n
o
0 > 0 N 0 (0 ) > 0 :

xn x
0
0
0
n
n > N ( )
|x xn | < 

n
o
n
o
xn Cauchy xn x
n

n
o
xn Cauchy

 = 1 n0 > N (1) : n > n0

|xn | |xn xn0 | + |xn0 | < 1 + |xn0 |

xn
.

Bolzano

xn


n
o
n
o
xn Cauchy xn x
n

xn
,

n
o
xn Cauchy

N > 0 : n > m > N

|xn xm | > 

1 1
1
+ + +
2 3
n

xn = 1 +

.
x2n xn =

1
1
1
n
1
+
+ +
>
=
n+1 n+2
n+n
n+n
2

xn = 1 +

1
1
1
+
+ + 2
22 32
n

.
1
1
1
+
+ + 2
(m + 1)2 (m + 2)2
n
1
1
1
m(m+1)
+ (m+1)(m+2)
+ + n(n1)
=
1
1
1
1
1
= m m+1 + m+1 m+2 + + n1 n1
1 1
= m

+1 
1 + + n1
6 1 n1
m+1
m+1
m+2
1
1
= m
n1 < m

:
 > 0 N () =

n > m > N ()

|xn xm | <
<
m

xn xm =


Cauchy
I R
I Q

1
. x1 = 2, xn+1 = 2 xn +

2
xn

xn Q xn

2 6 Q

Q
Cauchy /
R.
R= Cauchy- Q

Constructive
Peano
m
N

Cauchy-

Axiomatic
, ,
m
R

1-hereditary

m
N

. (Stolz)
an
`
bn n
n
P

bk > 0

bk

k=1
n
P

xn

k=1
xn x
x
n
n
n

1 + 2 + 3 3 + n n
n
n
n
1 + 2 k + 3 k + nk
1
kN

n k + 1
nk+1



p
 xn+1 

 ` n |xn | `
 xn  n
n

..

lim

n5 3n3 + 8 = 1

n
P

k=1
n
P

k=1

ak
bk

 (Stolz):

an
`
bn n
n
P

bk > 0

k=1

 :

an
`
bn n

m
P

bk
n

ak

k=1
n
P

bk

k=1

 > 0 N1 () > 0 :

ak
k > m > N1 ()
`<
<`+
bk

(` ) bk < ak < (` + ) bk

n
P

(` )

n
P

n
P

bk <

k=m+1

n
P

ak < (` + )

k=m+1
n
P

bk

k=m+1
m
P

n
P

n
P
bk <
ak <
ak + (` + )
bk
k=1
k=m+1
k=1
k=m+1
o k=1
nP
n
n
m
m
P
P
P
bk + (` )
bk <
ak (` )
ak <
k=1
k=1
k=1
k=1 o
nP
m
m
n
P
P
<
ak (` + )
bk + (` + )
bk
k=1
k=1
nk=1
o
n
m
m

ak + (` )

k=1

<

m
P

ak (`)
n
P

bk

k=1

k=1

ak (`+)
n
P

bk

m
P

bk

k=1

bk

k=1

k=1
n
P

+ (` ) <

ak

<

bk

k=1

+ (` + )

k=1

 > 0, m = [N1 ()] + 1 > N1 (),

( ).

lim

nP
m

k=1

ak (` )
n
P

m
P

k=1

bk

k=1

lim

bk

nP
m

k=1

+ (` )

ak (` + )
n
P

bk

n
P

lim k=1
n
n P

m
P

k=1

bk

ak
bk

k=1

+ (` + )

k=1

n
n
P
bk = + 
lim

n k=1

n
P

k=1
n
n P

(` ) lim

ak
bk

(` + )

k=1

n
P

k=1
n
P

k=1

ak
bk

:


p
 xn+1 

 ` n |xn | `
 xn  n
n
 :

|xn+1 |
`
|xn | n

 > 0

m > N1 ()

N1 () > 0 :

|xm+1 |
`<
<`+
|xm |

(` ) |xm | < |xm+1 | < (` + ) |xm |

(` )k |xm | < |xm+k | < (` + )k |xm |
|xm |
m+k
(` )m+k (`)
m < |xm+k | < (` + )

|xm |
(`+)m

n = m + k > m
|x

|x

n
m
m
(` )n (`)
m < |xn | < (` + )
m
(`+)
q
q
p
|xm |
|xm |
n
|xn | < (` + ) n (`+)
(` ) n (`)
m <
m
q
q
p
|xm |
|xm |
n
n
(` ) lim
lim
|xn | (` + ) lim n (`+)
m
m
(`)
n
n
n
p
(` ) lim n |xn | (` + )
n

p
n

|xn | `
n

n
o
xn
n

R > 0, N (R) > 0 :

n > N (R)

xn > R

xn +
n

xn n

n
o
xn
n

R > 0, N (R) > 0 :

n > N (R)

xn < R

xn xn Cauchy

xn 0 {xn }nN
n

C > 0 : n
3

|xn | < C

|a| < 1 an 0
n

() xn 6= 0, | xxn+1
| k < 1
n
n

xn 0
n

xn x xnk x
n

(Bolzano-Weierstrass): ( )

xn xn sup{xk }kN
n

xn
lim xnk = x xn
k

xn x
n

lim

10

11

(Stolz):

1+

x`
P
x n
= ex =
n
`=0 `!

an
`
bn n

bk > 0

n
P

k=1

bk



p
 xn+1 

 ` n |xn | `
 xn  n
n

n
P

k=1
n
P

k=1

ak
bk

Sn =

n
P

ak ,

k=1

Sn S S
n

SN Cauchy

n=1

k=1

ak




 P

 n
ak  < 
|Sn Sm | = 
k=m+1 

 > 0 N () : n > m > N ()

an an 0
n

:
P
an 0
an
n

P
1
. an =
0
n n
n=1

1
n

P
|ak |

k=1

(Comparison test)
|bn | an ,

n=1

an

bn

n=1

0 an bn ,

n=1

an =

n=1

bn =

 (Ratio test)

an

n=1



 an+1 
 <1
lim 

n
a
n


 an+1 
 >1
lim 
n
an 



 an+1 
 =1
lim 
n
an 

(Root test)

an

n=1

1
2

p
lim n |an | < 1
n
p
lim n |an | > 1
n

p
lim n |an | = 1
n


an
an bn . lim
= ` 6= 0
n bn

n=1

bn

an

n=1

an
an bn . lim
= 0
n bn

n=1

bn

n=1

an

 (Condensation test)
0 < an+1 < an :
o
n P
o
n P

2k a2k
an
n=1

k=1

P
1
p>1
np <
n=1

p>1

n=2

1
n(ln n)p

<

(Alternating Series
Test)
0 < an+1 < an an 0 :
n
n P
o

(1)n+1 an
n=1

(1, 2, . . . , k, . . .) (1 , 2 , . . . , k , . . .)

k nk N : max {1 , 2 , . . . k } < nk

bm = am
P

an
n
P
bn .
n


a11
a21
a31
a41






a12
a22
a32
a42






a13
a23
a33
a43






a14

a24

a34

a44

amn = `
m,n=0



P
P
amn = `

m=0

n=0

Sn =

n
P

ak ,

k=1

Sn S S
n

SN Cauchy

n=1

k=1

ak



 P

 n

|Sn Sm | = 
ak  < 
k=m+1 

 > 0 N () : n > m > N ()

an an 0
n

.

Cauchy
 > 0, N () : n > N ()

|Sn Sn1 | = |an | < 

an 0
n

:
P
an 0
an
n

. an =

1
0
n n

n=1

1
n

P
|ak |

k=1

.
{ }
(
 > 0,

 > 0,

N () : n > m > N ()



n
n
 X

X


ak 
|ak | < 



k=m+1

k=m+1

N () : n > m > N ()

n
X

k=m+1

|ak | < 



)
n
 X



ak  < 



k=m+1

 (Comparison test)
|bn | an ,

n=1

an

bn

n=1

 () :

 P

n


a <


n > m > N ()

k=m+1 k 


n
n
 X

X


|bk | 
ak 



an

n=1

 > 0,

k=m+1

 > 0,

n > m > N ()

k=m+1

N () :
n
P

k=m+1

|bk | < 

bn

n=1

0 an bn ,

n=1

an =

n=1

bn =

n=1

an =

R > 0, N (R) > 0 : n > N (R)

n
X
k=1

bk

n
X
k=1

ak > R

n=1

bn =

n
P

k=1

ak > R

 (Ratio test)

an

n=1



 an+1 
 <1
(i) lim 

n
a
n


 an+1 
 >1
(ii) lim 
n
an 



 an+1 

 =1
(iii) lim 
n
an 
 (i)



 an+1 
 = c < 1  = 1c , n0 :



2
n
an
lim

n > n0



1c
an+1  < (c +
) |an |
2

|an | <

c+1
2

n





an0 

n
c+1
2

P
<1
( )
|an | .
c+1
2
n


 an+1 
f1
 = f > 1  =
 (ii)
lim 
, n0 :

2
n  a
n
n > n0



f1
an+1  > (f
) |an |
2

|an | >
f+1
>1
2

f+1
2

n





an0 
n

f+1
2

an

(Root test)

an

n=1

p
(i) lim n |an | < 1
p n
(ii) lim n |an | > 1
n

(iii) lim

p
n
|an | = 1

P
n

an

 (Condensation test)
0 < an+1 < an :
n P
o
n P
o

an
2k a2k
n=1

k=1

.
S2k+1 1 = a1 + (a2 + a3 ) + (a4 + a5 + a6 + a7 ) +
{z
}
| {z } |
2
4
+ (a8 + a9 + a10 + a11 + a12 + a13 + a14 + a15 )
|
{z
}
8
++


+ a2k + a2k +1 + a10 + a2k +2 + + a2k+1 1
{z
}
|
k
2
a1 + 2a2 + 4a4 + 8a8 + + 2k a2k = Tk
Tk S2k+1 1
Sn
Sn .
Tk
a1
=
+ a2 + 2a4 + 4a8 + + 2k1 a2k
2
2
a1 + a2 + (a3 + a4 ) + (a5 + a6 + a7 + a8 ) +
++


+ a2k1 +1 + a2k1 +2 + + a2k = S2k

Sn S2k
Tk .
P

1

n=2 n ln n
P
1

2
n=2 n(ln n)
P 1
r > 1,
r
n=1 n
r 1

 (Alternating Series
Test)
0 < an+1 < an an 0 :
n
n P
o

(1)n+1 an
n=1

.
Sn =

n
P

(1)k+1 ak

k=1

Sm+2 Sm = (1)m+3 am+2 (1)m+2 am+1 = (1)m+2 (am+1 am+2 )

|Sm+2 Sm | = am+1 am+2 0
|Sm+4 Sm+2 | = am+3 am+4
|Sm+6 Sm+4 | = am+5 am+6
.........
|Sm+2p Sm+2(p1) | = am+2p1 am+2p
|Sm+2p Sm |
|Sm+2p Sm+2p2 | + |Sm+2p2 Sm+2p4 | + + |Sm+2 Sm |
|Sm+2p Sm |
am+2p1 am+2p + am+2p3 am+2p2 + + am+3 am+4 + am+1 am+2
|Sm+2p Sm | am+1 am+2p < am+1
|Sm+2p+1 Sm | |Sm+2p+1 Sm+2p | + |Sm+2p Sm | am+2p+1 + am+1 am+2p < am+1
n>m
|Sn Sm | < am+1
lim an = 0

 > 0 N () : m > N ()

|Sn Sm | < 
P (1)n

n
n
P (1)n

ln n
n
P

(1)n sin
n
n

am+1 < am < 

Sn Cauchy

P

an
n
P
bn .
n

.
:

(1, 2, . . . , k, . . .) (1 , 2 , . . . , k , . . .)
k nk N : max {1 , 2 , . . . k } < nk
:
S` = |a1 | + |a2 | + + |a` | ,

Tk = |b1 | + |b2 | + + |bk |

bm = am Tk Snk . Snk
Cauchy
Tk
Cauchy, .
,
.
X
X
Tk Snk
lim Tk lim Snk
bn
an
k

an bn ,
X
X
an
bn
n