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8%3%9(%3!g(3#.&-!%&.!0</9!%39!-3<g>!(3!
@.3.&%/+! g1.3! 0<2;%&.9! #<! 2%3>! %&.%-! <=! #1.!
@/<h.7! C1<-.! =<$39! (3! #1.! ;&%(&(.! ;&<B(30.-! <=!
6/h.&#%+! "%-k%#01.g%3+! %39! 5%3(#<h%! %&.! #1.!
0</9.-#! %39! /<3@.-#! <=! #1.! ;<;$/<$-! %&.%-! <=!
8%3%9%! "3IGILI>M! ,INOFGIJ! 3JOPINK! $QRSOTKM(!
9::9<'! ! 6-! -$01+! %3>! h$(/9(3@! .3B./<;.! (3-#%//.9!
(3! #1.-.! %&.%-! 2$-#! 1%B.! .)0.//.3#! 0<3#&</! <B.&!
1.%#!#&%3-2(--(<37!
!
,%22.9! .%&#1! @.3.&%//>! 1%-! %! /<g!
&.-(-#%30.! #<! 1.%#! #&%3-=.&+! g(#1! %! 9&>!
0<39$0#(B(#>!(3!#1.!&%3@.!<=![7e`*7[!YX2d!"#IJJ!
&'! $'(! $MMKMMOGU! NSK! KVVKRNM! FV! MFOJ! UQILOGU! FG! NSK!
PFOMNWQK!RFGNKGN2LKXKGLKGN!NSKQPIJ!RFGLWRNOTONY!
FV!MNIZOJOMKL!QIPPKL!KIQNS!PINKQOIJM(!9::;<'!C1(-!
B%/$.! (-! 9.;.39.3#! <3! #1.! -;.0(=(0! 9.3-(#>! %39!
2<(-#$&.!0<3#.3#!<=!%!&%22.9!.%&#1!2()#$&.7!I3!
@.3.&%/+!#1.!#1.&2%/!0<39$0#%30.!(30&.%-.-!g(#1!
9.3-(#>+! %-! 9<.-! 0<2;&.--(B.! -#&.3@#1! "#IJJ! &'!
$'(! $MMKMMOGU! NSK! PFOMNWQK2RFGNKGN2LKXKGLKN!
XIQIPKNKQM!FV!MNIZOJOMKL!KIQNS!PINKQOIJM!WMOGU!NSK!
RYRJOR2QKMXFGMK! ILPONNIGRK! PKNSFL(! 9::;<'! C1$-!
%! h%/%30.! 0%3! h.! -#&$0k! h.#g..3! #1.&2%/!
;.&=<&2%30.! %39! -#&$0#$&%/! -#&.3@#17! 6-!
2<(-#$&.! 0<3#.3#! (30&.%-.-+! -<! 9<.-! #1.&2%/!
0<39$0#(B(#>+! 1.%#! 0%;%0(#>+! %39! #1$-! #1.&2%/!
2%--7! '<&! .)%2;/.+! %! g%//! %#! T[m! g%#.&!
-%#$&%#(<3! 1%-! %! 0<39$0#(B(#>! <=! *7S! YX2d+! %!
S[m!(30&.%-.!<B.&!#1.!-%2.!g%//!g1.3!9&>!"#IJJ!
&'! $'(! $MMKMMOGU! NSK! PFOMNWQK2RFGNKGN2LKXKGLKN!
XIQIPKNKQM!FV!MNIZOJOMKL!KIQNS!PINKQOIJM!WMOGU!NSK!
RYRJOR2QKMXFGMK!ILPONNIGRK!PKNSFL(!9::;<'!!

!
<#'(==>(?@@A(

=(

M. Hall, D. Allinson / Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 20442051

!"#$"%"&'()*(+#,,-.(/#0&1(23"%."45(6)47&038&")4("4(6)%.(6%",#&-7(

harmonic motion and the induced phase shift in the sinusoidal

waveform is referred to as the decrement time lag, w (h). This
essentially described the anticipated delay in the occurrence of peak
#<!4*n87!I3!#1.!g(3#.&+!9%(/>!#.2;.&%#$&.-!&%3@.!
temperatures
(both maximum and minimum) between nodes.
The admittance procedure is used to calculate these non=&<2!`Vn8!#<!Sn8!g1(/.!(3!#1.!-$22.&!#1.>!&%3@.!
steady-state parameters values uses matrices to simplify the
=&<2! *Nn8! #<! 4en8! ",INOFGIJ! /RKIGOR! IGL!
temperature and energy cycles for a composite building fabric
$NPFMXSKQOR!$LPOGOMNQINOFG(!9::9<'!C1$-!(3!J.g!
element
(e.g. a wall) that is subjected to sinusoidal temperature
variations
the solair
node [10,11], using:
5.)(0<+!at %3!
$30<39(#(<3.9+!
#1.&2%//>! 2%--(B.!
"!
!
"! "
! " !
"!
"
1<2.!
g<$/9!
2%(3#%(3!
#.2;.&%#$&.-!
1 !R
ui 1 !Rsi m1 m2 n1 n(3#.&3%/!
ue
se
2
###
(1)
0 1
m1 n3 n2
1
qi
qe(@3<&(3@!
3
&%3@(3@!
=&<2!m*n8!
#<! 4*n8! >.%&!0 &<$39+!

positioning and thickness of insulation in earthen walls and its

effects on the dynamic thermal properties of admittance, decrement
and surface factors and their associated time lags. In addition, the
! thermo-physical
C1.! properties
#1.&2%/!
&.-(-#%30.!
<=!known
&%22.9!
of earth
materials are
to vary
considerably
with
varying
moisture-content
and so 1.%#!
the relative
.%&#1!
%/<3.!
(-! 3<#!
@&.%#!
.3<$@1! &.#%(3!
(3! %!
effects of this on the dynamic thermal performance has been
0</9!
0/(2%#.! h$(/9(3@7! Lh#%(3(3@! %! 2.%@.&! ,`4[!
investigated.

g<$/9! &.f$(&.! %! K7S2! g%//! #1(0k3.--7! 8</9!

0/(2%#.!
9.-(@3! #1$-!
9(0#%#.-!
#1%#! &%22.9! .%&#1!
2. The cyclic-response
admittance
method
-1<$/9! h.! 0<$;/.9! g(#1! #1.&2%/! (3-$/%#(<3! #<!
The cyclic-response admittance method attempts to consider the
%##%(3!1(@1.&!#1.&2%/!&.-(-#%30.7!
effects of dynamic conditions on (i) fabric heat transfer, and (ii) fabric

Celsius temperature
q =#<!
heat%3!
flux$30<39(#(<3.9!
in W/m2. The mx
where
-</%&!u =@%(3-7!
8<2;%&.!and
#1(-!
coefficients each represent complex numbers (a + bi, where
1<2.! g(#1! 3<! #1.&2%/! 2%--+! g1(01! g<$/9! -..!
i2 = !1) using the variable p and can be calculated using the
(3#.&3%/!
#.2;.&%#$&.-!
&%3@(3@! =&<2! `Vn8! #<!
following
equations,
where:

thermal sorption and storage, effectively by determining nonsteady-state multiplier factors for application to the steady-state
properties of the fabric. Normally, under simplified steady-state
.%&#1c-!
&./%#(B./>!
/<g!outdoor
#1.&2%/!
conditions,,%22.9!
the difference
between
indoor and
air
temperatures ((-!
Du) 0<$3#.&.9!
is taken to produce
thermal
gradient
across
&.-(-#%30.!
h>! a(#-!
/%&@.!
#1.&2%/!
the thickness of the wall, d, the profile of which is determined by the
2%--7!C1.&2%/!2%--!%//<g-!%!2%#.&(%/!#<!%h-<&h!
thermo-physical properties of the wall material and its correspond1.%#!9$&(3@!g%&2!;.&(<9-!%39!#1.3!&./.%-.!#1(-!
ing surface resistances (Rsi; Rso). Instead of the outside air
temperature 1.%#!
the admittance
model uses
the hypothetical
solair
%h-<&h.9!
<B.&! 0<</.&!
;.&(<9-!
#1%#! =<//<g7!
temperature, ueo (8C) as a single point variable to establish this
Y1.3!
%;;/(.9!
#<!
%!
h$(/9(3@!
.3B./<;.+!
#1.&2%/!
thermal gradient. This represents the rate of heat flow into the
2%--!
#.2;.&%#$&.!
external -(2;/>!
wall surface2(#(@%#.-!
by convection(3#.&3%/!
from the surrounding
air plus
shortwave solar radiation and radiative exchange to the surround=/$0#$%#(<3-+!%-!-1<g3!(3!'(@$&.!*7!A-.!><$&!F:'!
ings (e.g. other buildings, ground and sky). Analogous to solair
h&<g-.&c-!i<<2!=.%#$&.a!#1.!=(@$&.-!(3!#1(-!;%;.&!
temperature (external), the environmental temperature, uei, is a single
point<=!
hypothetical
temperature
that represents
rate of heat #1.!
flow
%&.!
1(@1! f$%/(#>7!
LB.&%//+!
#1(-! the
(30&.%-.-!
into the internal wall surface by (a) convection from the room and (b)
.==.0#(B.!
g(3#.&! 9.-(@3! #.2;.&%#$&.! %39!
radiation from surrounding objects, e.g. people, lights, heaters, etc.
9.0&.%-.-!
#1.! the.==.0#(B.!
-$22.&!
9.-(@3!
In order to consider
heat transfer through
the building
fabric
under dynamic conditions, the fluctuation between maximum and
#.2;.&%#$&.+!g1(01!&.9$0.-!#1.!.3.&@>!&.f$(&.9!
minimum solair temperature about the mean is represented by the
#<!
0<39(#(<3! #1.! (3#.&3%/! h$(/9(3@! -;%0.7! I3! %!
amplitude of a notional sinusoidal waveform across a period, T
2<9.&%#.!
0/(2%#.!
g1.&.!
#1.! 9%>`%B.&%@.!
(normally 24 h)
whilst mean
environmental
temperature is
assumed constant as represented by Fig. 1. The peakpeak
#.2;.&%#$&.!(-!0<2=<&#%h/.+!1.%#(3@!2%>!3<#!h.!
amplitude, Aeo of the hypothetical sine wave generated at the
&.f$(&.9!
#1<$@1!
3(@1##(2.!
#.2;.&%#$&.-!
solair node .B.3!
is suppressed
by the
wall fabric resistance,
which is
quantified
by theG>;<#1.#(0%//>+!
steady-state thermo-physical
properties
of the
%&.!
0<</7!
(=! #1.!
9%>#(2.!
wall material(s). The heat flux is considered to pass between the sol
#.2;.&%#$&.!
g%-! %/g%>-! K[n8! %39! 3(@1##(2.!
air node and the environmental node via the building fabric as
#.2;.&%#$&.!
g%-!network
%/g%>-!
*[n8+!
%!2.1<2.!
illustrated by the nodal
diagram
in Fig.
The ratiog(#1!
of the
heat flux between
nodes,
per degree
of input
temperature
deviation
.3<$@1!
#1.&2%/!
2%--!
g<$/9!
-#%>!
%#! %! 0<3-#%3#!
about the mean, to the steady-state thermal transmittance is called
4[n8!(39<<&-!%#!%//!#(2.-'!I3!#1(-!-%2.!0/(2%#.+!%!
the decrement factor, f. The decrement factor is a dimensionless
1<2.!
g(#1<$#!
#1.&2%/!
3..9!of#<!
h.!
multiplying
factor that
is used to2%--!
quantifyg<$/9!
the suppression
cyclic
temperature
by the steady-state
1.%#.9!
%#!variation
3(@1#! caused
%39! 0<</.9!
9$&(3@!fabric
#1.!properties,
9%>! #<!
i.e. Aeo ! Aei. The temperature variation is described by simple

>@A(91-0,#%(B#77(/**-8&(
!

4en8+!(@3<&(3@!-</%&!@%(3-7!6//!1<2.-!1%B.!-<2.!
pd 2 r c
#1.&2%/!
-<! #1(-! 0<2;%&(-<3! (2)(-!
86; 400l 2%--+!
1>;<#1.#(0%/7!
8<2;%&(3@! #1.! #g<+! #1.! #1.&2%//>!
And
so,
2%--(B.!
J.g!
5.)(0%3! 1<2.! -%B.-! 1.%#(3@!
(3)
m1 cosh p i p
.3.&@>! (3! #1.! g(3#.&! %39! &.2<B.-! #1.! 3..9! =<&!
d sinh p i p
(4)
m
0<</(3@!
(3! #1.! -$22.&! #<! 2%(3#%(3! %3! (3#.&3%/!
2
l p i p
#.2;.&%#$&.!%&<$39!4[n87!
i p sinh p(#!
i p
! 3 l p G.&.!
(-! (2;<&#%3#! #<! 3<#.! (5)
#1.!
m
d
9(==.&.30.! h.#g..3! %! #1.&2%//>! 2%--(B.!
Eq. (1) can now be consolidated to give complex coefficients for
.3B./<;.!
%39! %! h$(/9(3@!
g(#1!
each
of the component
matrices such
that: (3#.&3%/! #1.&2%/!
!2%--+!
" ! -$01! %-!
"! 0<30&.#.!
"
=/<<&-!
<&! &%22.9! .%&#1!
M
M
ui
ue
1
2
(6)
;%&#(#(<3-7!
#1.&2%/! 2%--! 0%3! %/-<!
M 3 M 4 I3#.&3%/!
qi
qe
2(#(@%#.!
(3#.&3%/!
#.2;.&%#$&.!
=/$0#$%#(<3-+!
h$#!
The thermal
decrement
factor, f is calculated
using the
relationship:
<3/>!#1&<$@1!#1.!-#<&%@.!<=!-</%&!@%(3-!.3#.&(3@!
#1&<$@1!g(39<g-7!6!#1.&2%//>!2%--(B.!.3B./<;.!
1
;
f j f cj
(7)
fc !
UM2
2(#(@%#.-!
(3#.&3%/! #.2;.&%#$&.! =/$0#$%#(<3-!
The thermal
decrement
factor
time
lag, f is calculated
#1&<$@1!
#1.!
0%;#$&.!
%39!
-#<&%@.!
<=! 1.%#!using:
=&<2!
#
$
12%2h(.3#!
Im f%(&+!
#1.!
.B.3!
(3!
#1.!
%h-.30.!
<=!
-</%&!
c
(8)
f arctan
f c
p
@%(3-7!
C1.!Re%99(#(<3!
<=! -</%&! &%9(%#(<3! <3! %!
#1.&2%//>! 2%--(B.! .3B./<;.! -(2;/>! (30&.%-.-!
#1.!%B.&%@.!(39<<&!#.2;.&%#$&.+!%3>!#(2.!<=!#1.!
>.%&7!!
!
J<#.!#1%#!#1.&2%/!2%--!(-!<3/>!.==.0#(B.!
%#! 3<&2%/(i(3@! (39<<&! #.2;.&%#$&.-! g1.3! (#! (-!
.);<-.9! #<! h<#1! %3! <$#9<<&! .3.&@>! -<$&0.! %39!
#1.! (39<<&! .3B(&<32.3#7! Y(#1! #1(-! (3! 2(39+!
g(39<g!9.-(@3!-(i.!1%-!%3!<;;<-(#.!.==.0#!<3!#1.!
#g<! ->-#.2-a! (30&.%-(3@! g(39<g! -(i.! g(//!
(30&.%-.! %3>! (3#.&3%/! #1.&2%/! 2%--c-! .);<-$&.!
#<!-</%&!&%9(%#(<3!g1(/.!(#!9.0&.%-.-!#1.!.);<-.9!
%&.%! <=! .3B./<;.! #1.&2%/! 2%--7! ! I3! @.3.&%/+!
(30&.%-.9! g(39<g! -(i.! /.%9-! #<! /%&@.&!
0<39$0#(B.! 1.%#! #&%3-=.&! h$#! %/-<! /%&@.! -</%&!
@%(3-7!C1$-+!%!b;%--(B.!-</%&c!1<2.!9.-(@3!2(@1#!
=<0$-!<3!$-(3@!(3#.&3%/!#1.&2%/!2%--!#<!0%;#$&.!
Fig.
2. A nodal network diagram for the cyclic-response admittance method using
fluctuating input/output components adapted from Rees et al. [12].
-</%&! @%(3-! #1&<$@1! /%&@.+! -$3`=%0(3@! g(39<g-+!
-(i.9!-$01!#1%#!#1.-.!@%(3-!<$#g.(@1!<&!h%/%30.!
#1.! /<--! (3! .3B./<;.! .==(0(.30>7! 6! &%22.9! .%&#1!
1<2.!9.-(@3!2(@1#!=<0$-!/.--!<3!-</%&!@%(3-!%39!
2<&.! <3! -$&=%0.! .);<-$&.7! :.0(9(3@! g1(01!
9.-(@3! -#>/.! (-! 2<&.! .==.0#(B.! (-! 9(==(0$/#! %39!
/(k./>! 0/(2%#.! 9.;.39.3#+! #1<$@1! #1.! %3-g.&!
0<$/9! h.! =<$39! #1&<$@1! -(#$%#(<3`-;.0(=(0!
h$(/9(3@!-(2$/%#(<37!!
p

1</9!%!0<3-#%3#!4[n8!(39<<&!#.2;.&%#$&.7!!

'@ABCD%
0E% F@GBHI%
DJKIHLHM@NL%
NO% procedure
MPDCQHI%
QHGG%
Fig. 1. A diagrammatic
representation
of the admittance
adapted
from
Asan [19].
MCHLGQ@GG@NL%
DOODRM,% !HCAD% DJMDCLHI% MDQKDCHMBCD%
OIBRMBHM@NLG% NL% MPD% C@APM% HCD% QNSDCHMDS% MN% IDGGDC%
@LMDCLHI%OIBRMBHM@NL%NL%MPD%IDOM%G@SD%!"#$%%!&'!(')!(**+**,-.!
/0+! 12,*/34+562-/+-/57+8+-7+/! 8$4$1+/+4*! 29! */$:,%,*+7!
+$4/0! 1$/+4,$%*! 3*,-.! /0+! 6;6%,654+*82-*+! $71,//$-6+!
1+/027)!<==>?'!

2045
9&3#0&(:";(

!
C1(-!.);/%(3-!#1.!;&</(=(0!$-.!<=!&%22.9!
.%&#1! h$(/9(3@-! (3! -<$#1g.-#.&3! A3(#.9! "#%#.-!
/(k.! J.g! 5.)(0<+! g1.&.! #1.! %B.&%@.!
#.2;.&%#$&.! <B.&! #1.! >.%&! (-! *4n8+! %39! #1.!
2<3#1/>! %B.&%@.! #.2;.&%#$&.! &%3@.-! =&<2! *n8!

!
<#'(==>(?@@A(

?(

!"#$"%"&'()*(+#,,-.(/#0&1(23"%."45(6)47&038&")4("4(6)%.(6%",#&-7(

!
I3! -$22%&>+! %! &%22.9! .%&#1! .3B./<;.!
0%3! -#<&.! 1.%#! =&<2! #g<! (39.;.39.3#! -<$&0.-D!
#1.! %2h(.3#! %(&! %39! -</%&! &%9(%#(<37! "(30.! #1.!
%2h(.3#! %(&X#1.&2%/! 2%--! (3#.&%0#(<3! <3/>!
2(#(@%#.-! (3#.&3%/! #.2;.&%#$&.! =/$0#$%#(<3-+! (#!
-..2-! $3/(k./>! #1%#! #1(-! .==.0#! 0<$/9! /.%9! #<!
(39<<&! <B.&1.%#(3@7! I3#.&3%/! #.2;.&%#$&.-!
-1<$/9! <3/>! h.0<2.! $30<2=<&#%h/>! g%&2! (=! #1.!
9%(/>!
%B.&%@.!
#.2;.&%#$&.!
(-!
(#-./=+!
$30<2=<&#%h/>! g%&27! 8<3B.&-./>+! -</%&! @%(3-!
0<$/9!/.%9!#<!(3#.&3%/!<B.&1.%#(3@!(=!#1.!%B.&%@.!
9%(/>! #.2;.&%#$&.! (-! %/&.%9>! 0<2=<&#%h/.7! I3!
1.%#(3@! 9<2(3%#.9! 0/(2%#.-! -</%&! @%(3-! g<$/9!
=$&#1.&! 1./;! 9.0&.%-.! 1.%#(3@! .3.&@>!
&.f$(&.2.3#-!<B.&!#1.!-%B(3@-!=&<2!#1.!%2h(.3#!
%(&!#1.&2%/!2%--!(3#.&%0#(<37!"</%&!@%(3-!0%3!h.!
0<3#&<//.9!#1&<$@1!-</%&!-1%9(3@!<=!#1.!&%22.9!
.%&#1!.3B./<;.7!
!
,.-.%&01!-1<g-!#1%#!2%)(2$2!#1.&2%/!
2%--!.==.0#!<00$&-!g1.3!%!&%22.9!.%&#1!g%//!(-!
4[[22!#1(0k!"#IJJ!&'!$'(!$MMKMMOGU!NSK!PFOMNWQK2
RFGNKGN2LKXKGLKN! XIQIPKNKQM! FV! MNIZOJOMKL! KIQNS!
PINKQOIJM! WMOGU! NSK! RYRJOR2QKMXFGMK! ILPONNIGRK!
PKNSFL(! 9::;<'! Y%//-! g(#1! @&.%#.&! #1(0k3.--!
;&<B(9.! 3<! (2;&<B.2.3#! (3! #1.&2%/! 2%--!
;.&=<&2%30.+! 9$.! #<! #1.! 4N1&! #(2.! /(2(#! =<&!
#.2;.&%#$&.! =/$0#$%#(<3-! #<! ;.3.#&%#.! 2<&.!
#1.&2%/!2%--7!

>@C(6)%.(6%",#&-(D(91-0,#%(B#77(
!

9&3#0&(:";(

`*Kn8!#<!*Tn8!g1(/.!9%(/>!#.2;.&%#$&.!.)#&.2.-!
&%3@.! h.#g..3! `*en8! %39! `en8! (3! _%3$%&>! %39!
*[n8! #<! 44n8! (3! _$/>+! %B.&%@.9! <B.&! #1.! 2<3#1!
]8%3%9%o-! J%#(<3%/! 8/(2%#.! 6&01(B.-+! 4[[4^'! I3!
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M. Hall, D. Allinson / Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 20442051
9%(/>!%B.&%@.!%2h(.3#!#.2;.&%#$&.!&%3@.-!=&<2!

2047

'@ABCD% 6E% /NQKNG@MD% *HQQDS% +HCMPT5NIUGMUCDLD% VHII% HGGDQWI@DG% XMNK% @QHADGY,% $PD% WNMMNQ% @QHADG% SDK@RM% INVDC%
Fig. 5. A diagram to illustrate the effects of insulation positioning in SRE walls on amplitude suppression.
HQKI@MBSD% RURI@R% @LSNNC% MDQKDCHMBCD% CDGKNLGD% MPCNBAP% DHRP% VHII% HG% SC@ZDL% WU% H% G@LBGN@SHI% DJMDC@NC% MDQKDCHMBCD%
OIBRMBHM@NL% "#$%%! &'! (')! (**+**,-.! /0+! 12,*/34+562-/+-/57+8+-7+/! 8$4$1+/+4*! 29! */$:,%,*+7! +$4/0! 1$/+4,$%*! 3*,-.! /0+!
whilst the reduced thermal transmittance prevents excess winter
of this layer6;6%,654+*82-*+!$71,//$-6+!1+/027)!<==>?'!
significantly affects the non-steady-state thermal
properties when cyclic outdoor temperature variations are
! heat loss. Interestingly, for temperate climates, a cavity insulated
composite SRE wall provides a slightly better thermal admittance
considered. Fig. 5 shows six wall configurations using a generic
and greater
300 mm SRE
wall and 100 mm total thickness of extruded ( (due to d being closer to optimum) than a solid wall B(
<#'(==>(?@@A(
suppression of heat flux variation over an externally insulated wall.
polystyrene as the insulating medium. Table 1 shows the relative
These initial findings and observations should be used to better
effects of insulation positioning on the thermal transmittance and
inform the design of new earth buildings and refurbishment
the non-steady-state parameters for SRE wall configurations, along

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Materials 20 (2006)<=!
119127
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Table 3
Test results

Bricks characteristics

Different walls treatment

Cement (%)

Compressive strength in dry state, MPa

Compressive strength in wet state, MPa
Water strength coefficient
Capillary absorption, %
Total absorption, %
Weight loss (wetdry), %
Weight loss (freezing and thawing), %
Hole depth, mm After spray test
Hole depth,a mm Real life exposure

lime (%)

Cement (%) +
Lime (%)

Cement (%) +
Resin (%)

12

5+3

8+4

5 + 50

8 + 50

15.4
9
0.58
2.35
8.27
1.4
2.35
1.0

18.4
12.7
0.69
2.2
7.35
1.25
2.23
0.5

15.9
10.1
0.64
3.7
9.8
2.3
3.7
2.2
1.0

17.8
11.7
0.66
2.9
9.02
2.1
2.9
1.0
0.5

17.5
12.3
0.63
2.3
8.1
1.2
2.3
1.0

21.5
15.6
0.7
2
7.9
1.0
2.0
0.5

17.2
11.5
0.67
2.3
5.9
0.9
2.3
0.25

19.5
14
0.72
2.1
5.3
0.9
1.8
0.2

a
Values obtained using a comparator.
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Cement treatment (dry state)

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Lime treatment (dry state)
Lime treatment (wet state)
Cement and lime (dry state)
Cement and lime (wet sate)

Almost all bricks can absorb water by capillarity [28].

( The total amount of water absorbed is a useful measureE(
of bulk quality. Generally, the less water a block absorbs and retains, the better is its performance likely
to be [29]. There was a general decrease in water absorp-

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ization are those with low plasticity index (PI) and the
product (PI M) in the vicinity of 500800, where M
is the percentage of the mortar. In this case,
PI M = 644.

The cement used is manufactured locally under the

commercial label C.P.J 45 and has been tested in respect
to the AFNOR regulations [21] in order to determine its
real class. The tests carried out on mortar cubes have
!"#$"%"&'()*(+#,,-.(/#0&1(23"%."45(6)47&038&")4("4(6)%.(6%",#&-7(
9&3#0&(:";(
shown that the strength at 28 days is 46 MPa.
2.4. Resin

P@A(H)"%7()*(&1-(6#4#."#4(?0#"0"-7(

Table 1
Soil Characteristics
Constituents/
properties

Values

Textural composition,
% by weight
Sand
Silt
Clay

64
18
18

Atterberg limits

Constituents/
properties
Mineralogical
constituents
Kaolin
Illites
Interstratifiers
Quartz
Calcite

The resin used for this work has a commercial name

!
C1.&.! (-! %! @&.%#! %h$39%30.! <=! -<(/! (3!
of !MEDALATEX", supplied by Granitex; private Alge#1.! 8%3%9(%3!
bR&.%9h%-k.#c!
;&<B(30.-!
<=!
rian company
making additives.
MEDALATEX
is an
6/h.&#%+!
"%-k%#01.g%3+!
%39! It"s
5%3(#<h%7!
I3!
aqueous
dispersion
of resin of white color.
compatible with
most of cement
well as lime.<=!
In &%22.9!
general, the .%&#1!
9.#.&2(3(3@!
#1.!as B(%h(/(#>!
latex content varies between 10% and 20% in respect to
0<3-#&$0#(<3! (3! #1(-! &.@(<3+! (#! (-! $-.=$/! #<!
the cement mass. The latex addition gives a good adher%3%/>i.!
-;.0(=(0!
;&<;.&#(.-7!
C1.!the
%$#1<&!
ence to
the support.
It gives-<(/!
also the
impermeability,
1%9!(3(#(%/!0<30.&3!#1%#!#1.!#<;-<(/!;&.-.3#!(3!
durability and the improvement in protection of the
reinforcement,
thus resistance
to chemical
attacks.
#1.! F&%(&(.-!
g<$/9! h.!
#<<! 9..;!
%39! 1(@1! (3!

Values

45
40
15
05
10

Physico-chemical
characteristics

Liquid limit, %
Plastic limit, %
Shrinkage limit
Plasticity index, PI
Water content, %
Activity coefficient

31
17
10
14
9.5
0.77

Product (PI M)

644

pH
Methylene blue
Organic matter, %
Optimum (Wc), %
Max. dry density (c),
kg/m3

7.1
0.2
0.15
11.75
1877

'@ABCD% ;E% +JHQKID% NO% H% CHQQDS% DHCMP% QHMDC@HI%

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-$(#%h/.! -(/#-+! -%39-+! %39! 0/%>-! =<&! &%22.9!
3. Experimental work
.%&#1! 0<3-#&$0#(<37! ,.-.%&01! -1<g-! #1%#! #1(-!
(-!#1.!0%-.!=<&!-<2.!1(@1/>!<&@%3(0!%&.%-!(3!#1.!
For
this part of the present work, two different tests
were 3<&#1.&3!%&.%-!<=!#1.!;&<B(30.-+!h$#!(3!@.3.&%/!
programmed: laboratory and real life exposure
tests. #1.!0.3#&%/!M!-<$#1.&3+!1(@1/>!;<;$/%#.9!%&.%-!
All the bricks samples used throughout this work
were fabricated under the same conditions using a
-1<$/9! 1%B.! -$(#%h/.! -<(/-7! "..! '(@$&.! e! =<&! %!
h&.%k9<g3!<=!-<(/!#>;.-!(3!6/h.&#%7!
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R%-.9! $;<3! #&%9(#(<3! %39! 2<9.&3!

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-#&.3@#1!01%&%0#.&(-#(0-+!3<#!<3!#1.!@&%9(3@!<=!
#1.! 2()#$&.! "-FTKQGPKGN! FV! ,K]! &K_ORF(!
ARTICLE
9::=<7! "#&.3@#1! #.-#-! <=! -(#.! -%2;/.-! 2$-#!
h.! IN PRESS
M.R.
Hall
/
Building
and Environment 42 (2007) 139145
0<2;/.#.9!;&(<&!#<!0<3-#&$0#(<3!%#!%!3.g!-(#.7!!

141

4. Test run 1: low-velocity rainfall simulation

'@ABCD% ?E% .C@M@GP% #MHLSHCS% .#% 08??% KHCM@RID% G@[D%

Fig. 4. Particle-size distribution chart showing the grading parameters for

S@GMC@WBM@NL%RPHCM,%#MHLSHCS%ACHSD%LBQWDCG%788^%;08^%
SRE
mix designs.

HLS%?>8%GPNVL%X3HII%4,%*,^%6>>?Y,%

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<#'(==>(?@@A(

The test methodologies and apparatus described in the

following section are based on the specifications provided
in BS 4315-2: 1970 Methods of test for resistance to air and
water penetrationpermeable walling constructions (water
penetration) [10]. Test run 1 employed a sparge pipe
delivery system with a low-velocity constant head supply of
water. The 15 mm diameter copper sparge pipes (1 per wall)
each had an array of eight holes at 0.7 mm diameter in
order to deliver the rainfall trickle. Each sparge pipe had a
skirting attachment connecting the flow of water with the
wall in such a way that the run-off was distributed more
evenly across the face of the test wall. The water supply was
pumped from a reservoir into a separate header tank that
was positioned on the roof of the chamber. This ensured a
greater degree of accuracy in maintaining consistent water
flow rates. Between the supply of water from the header
tank and each of the four sparge pipes there was an in-line
gate valve to enable the water supply to be shut off from
within the chamber. Also fitted in-line was a 6.7 mm needle
valve to regulate flow through a range between 0.2 and
2.0 L/min. The overall configuration of this rainfall
delivery system is illustrated in Fig. 6. The rate of water !
'@ABCD%
=E% #N@I%
MUKDG%
9% S@GMC@WBM@NL%
delivery
specified
in BS
4315-2:1970
is 0.5 L/m2NO%
min-IWDCMH%
[10].
"(%:+4/$B*!
C+*2346+!
D-E+-/24;!
5!
F2,%!
G,*/4,:3/,2-!
&$8!
Since the surface area of the rammed earth
test walls
is )!
0.45<==<?,%
m2 the required rate of water delivery equates to
0.225 L/min per wall.
The process of calibration includes covering the wall face
! with
a removable plastic sheet such that the total amount
( of water delivery can be measured before being applied to
==(
the porous wall face. Due to the small pressure required to
achieve this very low flow rate the delivery pattern of the
rainfall was observed to trickle down the wall in discreet
channels. The outlet for each decanting pipe was posi-

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