PHYSICS

DEMONSTRATION
PROJECT
Made by : Rahul
Chauhan
Class : XII B
Roll no. : 21
Session : 2009-2010
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Rahul Chauhan,
Roll number _________ of class XII-B
has successfully completed PHYSICS
DEMONSTRATION EXPERIMENTS
under my supervision according to the
guidelines laid down by CBSE.

TEACHER VICE
PRINCIPAL
INCHARGE PRINCIPAL
ACKNOWLEGDEMENT

I acknowledge the invaluable

contribution of my physics teacher,
Mr. Umesh Tyagi, in helping me to
complete these demonstrations.
These experiments wouldn’t have
been possible to complete without
her moral support and proper
guidance.
Also I’m deeply grateful to the lab
assistant Mr. Satyapal Singh for his
constant help.

Rahul Chauhan
CONTENTS
1) DEMONSTRATION-1

• aim
• apparatus required
• Diffraction
• observation table
• Conclusion
2) DEMONSTRATION-2
• full wave rectifier
• PN Junction (forward
bias,reverse bias)
• step down transformer
• Capacitor
• biblography
DEMONSTRATION-1

To observe the
variation of width
of central maxima
of a diffraction
method with the
distance of screen
from the slit.
AIM: To observe the effect on the width of central maxima by
changing the distance between screen and the slit in
diffraction.
APPARATUS REQUIRED: laser, single slit, opticalbench,
screen, scale.

THEORY:

DIFFRACTION
Diffraction is the phenomenon of bending of light at the
sharp edge of the obstacle.

Condition for diffraction:

The width of the obstacle should be comparable with the
wavelength of light falling on the obstacle.

Single slit experiment:

 Path difference=BC=asin0
In diffraction light waves come front two different parts
of same wave front superimpose and alternate dark and
bright bands are obtained on this screen.The intensity of
light at the centre is maximum and goes on decreasing
from two sides of central maxima so other maxima and
minima are called secondary maxima and secondary
minima.
CONDITION FOR SECONDARY MINIMA:-

1. Path difference = n
asin0 = n where n = 1,2,3,………
It is because the waves coming from two different parts of
same wavefront have the path difference /2 or multiple of /
2

2. Phase difference= 0 = 2Nii where n=1,2,3……

3. Position of n dark band or n secondary minima = x = n D/a

CONDITION FOR SECONDARY MAXIMA:-

1. Path difference= (2n+1) /2

asin0 = (2n+1) /2 where n =1,2,3……

It is because when the path difference between the two waves

coming from two different parts is the multiple of and /
2respectively and maxima is obtained.

2. Phase difference = 0 = (2n+1)ii

3. Position of n bright band or n secondary maxima
x =(2n+1) D/2a
EXPRESSION FOR WIDTH OF CENTRAL
MAXIMA IN SINGLE SLIT EXPERIMENT:

It is the distance between the first two secondary minima on

both sides of the central point.

For secondary minima

•asin0 = n
•For n =1
•asin0 =
•So, sin0 = /a …………………….(1)
•And, sin0 = x/a …….……………(2)
•From (1) and (2)
•Sin0 = /a = x/a
•x = D/a
Hence, width of the central minima is x = D/a

WIDTH OF CENTRAL MAXIMA

•B = 2x
•B = 2 D/a
 OBSERVATION TABLE:-

CONCLUSION:-
Width of central maxima increases with increase in distance between
the slit and the screen.
DEMONSTRATION - 2

To construct and
demonstrate a full
wave rectifier.
 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
Rectifier is a device which is used for converting alternating
current/voltage into direct current/voltage. The circuit using two
diodes gives output rectifier voltage corresponding to both the
positive as well negative half of the cycle. Hence, it is known as a
full wave rectifier.
Principle:
Its working is based on the fact that resistance of p-n junction
becomes low when forward biased and becomes high when
reversed biased.

Working:
During the positive half cycle of the input AC, the upper p-n
junction diode is forward biased, and the lower p-n junction diode is
reversed biased. The forward current flows on account of majority
carriers of upper p-n junction diode. During the negative half cycle
of input AC, the upper p-n junction is diode is reversed biased and
the lower one is forward biased. The forward current flows on
account of majority carriers of lower p-n junction diode. We
observe that during both the halves, current through R flows in the
same direction. the output signal voltage is unidirectional having
ripple contents i.e. DC voltage by filtering through a filter circuit,
before it can be put to any use.
A single capacitor C of high value of capacitance connected across
the output of rectifier, can serve the purpose of a filter circuit.
 P-N JUNCTION DIODE

A semiconductor diode is basically a p-n junction with

metallic contacts provided at the two ends for the
application of an external voltage. it is a two terminal
device.

1. FORWARD BIASED:
When an external voltage V is applied across
semiconductor diode such that p-side is connected to the
positive terminal of the battery and n-side to the negative
terminal, it is said to be forward biased.
2. REVERSE BIASED:
When an external voltage V is applied across the
semiconductor diode such that n-side is connected to
the positive terminal of the battery and p-side to the
negative terminal, it is said to be reversed biased.
STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER
A transformer is an electric device which is used
for changing the AC voltages. It is based on the
principle of mutual induction i.e. whenever the
amount of magnetic flux linked with coil changes,
an e.m.f. is induced in the neighboring coil.
Transformer which decreases the AC voltage is
called a step down transformer.
The voltage Ep across the primary coil is equal to
the e.m.f. induced in the primary coil, and the
voltage Es across the secondary coil Is equal to
the e.m.f. induced in the secondary coil. Thus,
ETURN =EP/NP=ES/NS
ES=EP/NP*NS
when NS<NP;ES<EP the device is called a step down
transformer. Ns/NP= k represents the
transformation ratio.
 CAPACITOR
Acapacitorisanarrangementforstoringlarge

amountsofelectricchargeandhenceelectrical

energyinasmall piece.

ofacapacitorisdefinedasthecapacitanceCiscalled

capacitanceofthecapacitor. Capacitanceeratioof

chargeonthecapacitortothepotential ofthecapacitor.

ThecapacitanceCisbasedontheprinciplethatthe

capacitanceofaninsultedconductorisincreased

considerablybybringingnearitanunchargedearthed

conductor.
Anideal capacitoriswhollycharacterizedbya

constantcapacitanceC, definedastheratioofcharge

+QoneachconductortothevoltageVbetweenthem:

C = Q/V

Theunitofcapacitanceisthuscoulombspervolt, or

farads. Highercapacitanceindicatesthatmore

chargemaybestoredatagivenenergylevel, or

voltage. Inactual capacitors, theinsulatorallowsa

small amountofcurrentthrough, calledleakage

current, theconductorsaddanadditional series

resistance, andtheinsulatorhasanelectricfield

strengthlimitresultinginabreakdownvoltage.
 Load Resistance

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component

that produces a voltage across its terminals that
is proportional to the electric current through it
in accordance with Ohm's law:
  V = IR
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Wikipedia – The Free

Encyclopedia
Physics NCERT Class XII
Textbook of Physics –
Pradeep’s
Encarta Encyclopedia
Britannica Encyclopedia