6 Materials Summary 2014

colinhop@bigpond.net.
au Physics revision 2014 207

Materials and Structures Detailed Study

Identify different types of external forces such as compression, tension and
shear, that can act on a body, including gravitational forces;
- Identify different types of external forces (comprehension (lack of), tension
and fear) which can act on a body, including examinational forces;

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
7, 8 1, 2, 3

1, 2, 7 7 1 1, 2 7, 8,
11
11 11

Strength is the ability to withstand stress without failure. Some materials are strong in tension but
relatively weak in compression (glass), while others like concrete are strong in compression but
weak in tension. Materials that are fibrous such as timber or fibreglass are often strong in tension.
The strength of a material is the STRESS that causes the material to BREAK or FAIL.

Compression forces are pushing forces that try to squeeze the structure or material together. They
can cause crushing, buckling. Struts are supporting beams used in frameworks which are under
compression.

Tension forces are pulling forces that try to stretch or elongate a structure. They can cause
cracking, necking, stretching and tearing. A straight beam bent into a plane curve undergoes
compression on the concave side and tension on the convex side. The material in the middle
experiences neither compression nor tension.

colinhop@bigpond.net.au Physics revision 2014 208

Shear forces are deformation forces in which one layer of the material slides (or tries to slide) over
another. Such an occurrence resembles that of the cards in a deck, which slide apart when they are
tilted so that the edges are at an angle.
Stress =
force
area
o =
F
A
normally measured in N m
-2
(Pa - Pascals) or MN m
-2

Strain is deformation per unit length. The force can be either compressive or tensile
Strain =
change in length
original length
= c =
l
L
strain is dimensionless, can be expressed as a percentage.

The Westgate Bridge is known as a cable-stayed
bridge. This means that the main span is supported
by a number of strong steel cables.

Shown below is a schematic of such a bridge that
shows only one set of cables.

Example 337: 2005 Question 7 (2 marks)
Draw two arrows (on the figure) indicating the tension in the cable AB supporting the main
span.

Draw one arrow where it is attached to the top of the tower, and the other where it is
attached to the deck of the main span.


analyse translational and rotational forces (torques) in simple structures,
including uniform columns, struts, ties, beams, cables, but not including
trusses, modelled as two-dimensional structures in static equilibrium;
calculate torque, = r F;

2001 2002 2003 2004 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
1, 2,
3, 4,
9
1, 2,
3

2, 3,
4, 6

2, 6 3, 2,
6
1, 2,
7, 8,
10,
11,
12
9, 10,
11
2, 3,
9, 10
3, 8,
9, 11,
12
8, 9,
10,
12
9 8, 9 6, 7,
8, 10

Equilibrium
A structure is stable (in static equilibrium) if:
the resultant or net force acting on the object must be zero, and
the clockwise moments of the forces acting on the object must equal the anticlockwise
moments.
t = F r (units N m)
The sum of torques is found by adding all the products of forces and lever arms from that point.
Clockwise torques are considered positive. If the force acts at an angle u to the object, then torque,
t = F sinu r, which is the vertical component of the force. The horizontal component does not
exert a turning effect on the beam.

There are two types of problems that you will encounter. The cantilever beam, the painter
suspended from above by two cables, and an object on a table top (both of these are the same).
You need to find the point where the force is unknown and use this as the pivot point to resolve all
moments about. Remember to use forces (mg) when calculating torques.

Struts, ties and trusses
Other structural members can be used to distribute the loads and reduce the loads in beams and
columns of a structure. Struts are generally members that are placed in compression and ties are
generally in tension.
To determine if a structural member is under compression or tension, imagine that you remove the
member, will the ends of the structure that it was connected to, come together or move apart without
the member being in place. If they move apart, then that member was under tension, if they come
together than that member was under tension. Any member that can be replaced by a string, tie,
chain etc. must be under tension.


A painter stands on a horizontal beam of length 10 m and mass 50 kg. The beam is held at each
end by vertical ropes P and Q. The tensions in ropes P and Q are 686 N and 392 N respectively.
Calculate the mass of the painter.

Example 339: Example 2000 Question 7 (4 marks)
Calculate the distance the painter is standing from the end of the beam attached to rope P.


A vertical fence post is set securely in level ground, A length of fencing wire is tied to the post 0.75
m above the level of the ground. The tension T
1
in the wire is 700 N. The resulting reaction forces of
the ground on the post may be modelled by F
1
and F
2
, as shown below.

Example 340: 1993 Question 1 (1 mark)
Write down an expression for the torques acting about the point X (see above), and hence show
that F
1
= 2.80 x 10
3
N

Write down an expression for the forces (not torques) acting on the fence post. From this, calculate
the magnitude of force F
2
.


A bird of mass m kg perches on a wire halfway between two posts under the weight of the bird the
wire bends as indicated below.

Write down an expression relating sin to the tension in this wire, T, and the weight of the bird, W.
Using this expression, or otherwise, explain why the weight of the bird will always bend the wire.

The figure below shows part of a prefabricated bridge structure being lifted into position. The
structure is made of concrete and steel. It is held in position at each end by two cranes. The
structure has a mass of 300 tonnes. The centre of mass of the bridge structure is 5.0 m from one
end and the length of the structure is 25.0 m.

Calculate the tension in the cable of each crane.


Alf the painter, who is not very safety conscious, is
using a platform as shown below. The mass of the
platform is 200 kg and it is resting on a pedestal that
is 1.0 m wide. The centre of mass (CM) of the
platform is shown below. Alf has a mass of 100 kg.

What is the value of the anticlockwise torque
(rotational effect of force) about point A due to the
weight of the platform?

As Alf moves to the right, he provides a clockwise torque (rotational effect of force) about
point A.
What is the value of distance X, where Alf will be when the platform begins to tip over?


A sketch of the viewing platform in Victorias Otway Range is shown below. The walkway can be
considered as a long beam which extends 10.0 m beyond two vertical supports, to which the beam
is attached. The supports A and B are 8.0 m apart. The beam is uniform and has a mass of 0.50
tonne.

Which of the statements (AD) below is correct?
A. Both supports A and B are under compression.
B. Both supports A and B are under tension.
C. Support A is under compression and support B is under tension.
D. Support A is under tension and support B is under compression.

Calculate the magnitude of the reaction force at the point where support A is attached to the
walkway. In your calculation you should assume the supports have no width.

Which of the positions on the walkway (P, Q, R, S) is under the greater tension, and which is under
the greater compression?
Select your answer from the statements (A D) below.
A. Position R has the greater compression, and position Q has the greater tension.
B. Position S has the greater compression, and position P has the greater tension.
C. Position P has the greater compression, and position R has the greater tension.
D. Position R has the greater compression, and position P has the greater tension.


A street lamp of mass 20 kg is supported by a cable, AB, and a rigid rod, BC. Assume the
mass of both the rod and wire is negligible. The rod (which you should assume is straight)
is hinged at C, and makes an angle of 30 to the light pole, as shown below.

Calculate the magnitude of the force in the cable AB.


The figure below shows one side of a bridge structure. Each of the beams making up the structure
has a mass of 200 kg.

Which one of the following best describes the stress in beam XY?
A. It is in tension.
B. It is in compression.
C. It is neutral.
D. It depends on whether there is a load on the bridge or not.

Which one of the following best describes the stress in beam YZ?
A. It is in tension.
B. It is in compression.
C. It is neutral.
D. It depends on whether there is a load on the bridge or not.


The figure below shows the reinforced concrete beam, XZ, of a tourist lookout. The mass of
the beam is 4 000 kg. The beam rests (with no fixed connection) on two pillars at X and Y.

Which one of the following best gives the maximum load that can be placed at point Z (assume
load concentrated at end) without the beam tilting?
A. 1 000 kg
B. 2 000 kg
C. 4 000 kg
D. 10 000 kg


The diagram below shows a mass of 100 kg hanging from the end of a 1.20 m uniform
beam PS of mass 20 kg. The beam is pivoted at the point P, with a freely rotating link. The
beam is supported by a cable of negligible mass, connected at the point R.
The point R is 0.80 m from P.
The cable makes an angle of 30 to the horizontal (60 to the wall).

Which one of the following best gives the tension in the cable RQ?
A. 120 N
B. 1320 N
C. 1905 N
D. 3300 N


A new theatre has an entrance with a cantilever roof protruding from the main structure.
The cantilever roof has a mass of 12 000 kg and is attached by a securing bolt to an anchor
structure that is embedded firmly in the ground.

The cantilever roof has uniform thickness and density, and is also supported (as shown) 40 m
from its free end.

The figure below shows the situation from the side.

Which of the following is the best estimate of the magnitude of the force that the support exerts
on the cantilever roof?
A. 40 000 N
B. 60 000 N
C. 120 000 N
D. 180 000 N


analyse the behaviour of materials under load in terms of extension and
compression, including Youngs modulus, Y = /;
evaluate the suitability of different materials for use in structures, including
beams, columns and arches, by comparing tensile and compressive strength
and stiffness or flexibility under load;

2001 2002 2003 2004 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
5

6 5 5 4, 10,
11
1, 2,
3, 4
1, 10 2, 13 3, 4,
5
3 10

Elastic strain occurs when the material undergoes deformation due to an applied stress and then
returns to its original size and shape when the stress is removed, i.e. no permanent deformation.

Plastic strain occurs when the material does not return to its original shape on removal of the stress.
The point where the deformation changes from elastic deformation to plastic deformation is called
the elastic limit, or the yield point and the stress that corresponds to this point is called the yield
stress or yield strength. If the load force is too great, the material will fracture. The breaking point
will indicate the maximum force that can be applied to the piece of material.
Hooke's law
When an object is acted on by a force of compression or tension, the length of the object changes.
This relationship is known as HOOKE'S LAW F = k l A : The force constant (k) gives a measure
of the stiffness; ie. how difficult the object is to stretch or compress. Objects that obey Hooke's Law
produce straight - line force - extension or force - compression graphs. The force constant (k) is the
GRADIENT of the force-extension graph.

Youngs Modulus
The concepts of stress and strain are combined to produce a new quantity Young's modulus,
which provides an exact measure of the stiffness of a material but is independent of its dimensions.
Young's modulus = E =
stress (F / A) FL
= = =
strain (l / L) Al

stress ( o )
yield point ultimate tensile strength

fracture point
L
Limit of proportionality

Strain ( c )

In the straight part of the graph, stress is proportional to strain and the material is said to be elastic.
The 'yield point' is where the material has a sudden increase in length as the load is increased,
sometimes there is even a dip in the curve, indicating a stretch at a reduced load. This is often when
the material 'necks'. The maximum stress that the material can sustain without fracturing is called
the 'breaking stress', or 'ultimate tensile point'. Fracture occurs at the fracture point.
You may get more than one graph on the same set of axes. You may need compare the constants
without exact values, (the steeper the gradient the greater Youngs Modulus.)


The figure below shows the stress () versus strain () relationships for two different materials under
tension. For each material the point of fracture is indicated by an X.

All but one of the statements below are true. Using the information in the figure above, which
statement is not correct?
A. The young's modulus for material 1 is greater than that for material 2, while the strain-in both
materials at the elastic limit is similar.
B. After experiencing a strain
1
(see above), material 1 will return to its original shape when the
stress is removed. After experiencing the same strain, material 2 will be plastically deformed
and return to a different shape.
C. Material 1 undergoes brittle fracture whereas material 2 deforms plastically before fracture.
D Material 1 has a greater tensile strength than does material 2.

One definition of toughness is the amount of strain energy per unit volume needed to produce
fracture.
Using this definition of toughness and the information above, which material, 1 or 2, is tougher?
Justify your answer.


A 1.000 m long steel rod obeys Hooke's law up to the point of fracture. Use information in the table
above to calculate the maximum change in length of the rod, just before it fractures under tension.

Example 358: 2000 Question 10
(3 marks)
Two materials, A and B, were tested
and the stress versus strain graphs
are shown.
The elastic limit of each material is
shown as e.
The fracture point is indicated as f at
the end of each graph.

Two types of cable are designed to
undergo a strain of 0.002 when they
are subjected to the same force. One
cable will be made from material A
and the other will be from material B.

Calculate the value of the ratio
cross-sectional area of cable made from material A
cross-sectional area of cable made from material B


evaluate the suitability of a composite material for its use in a structure by
considering its properties and the properties of the component materials
(maximum of three components);

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
4 1 1 9 7, 8 4 7, 13 11 10

A single concrete beam is to be used to span a large distance. The arrangement shown above will
not work, as the beam would crack.
The arrangements shown in the figure below each involve a single steel-reinforced concrete beam.
The position of the reinforcing is indicated by dashed lines.
Which one would be the best choice to replace the arrangement shown above?

Cast-iron beams were once used in bridges to support a roadway as shown below.
Engineers carefully selected the cross-section of
bridge beams. They took into consideration
the forces acting on the beam
the least mass the beam could have without
reducing safety
the fact that cast iron is stronger under compression than under tension.

Diagrams A D represent possible cross-sections of the beam. Which one of the following
cross-sections would an engineer select as most appropriate for the cast-iron beam?


Give reasons for your answer to Question 3.

The figure shows the region of the deck between the support cable and the support tower when it is
heavily loaded with traffic. The figure is not to scale and the deformation of the deck is greatly
exaggerated.

Which of the diagrams (A - D) below best indicates which regions of the deck are in tension (T) and
which are under compression (C)?

The main deck is made of a steel/concrete composite.
Indicate which structural property of this composite material makes it suitable for this role.


The figure below shows a suspended bird-watching platform that allows the viewers to
look down on the top of the trees. It consists of a uniform concrete beam of length L and
mass M which is suspended by two strong steel cables.

Steel reinforcing bars are placed in the concrete beam to prevent it from cracking.
Which of the following diagrams (A D) shows the best placement of the steel reinforcing
rods (represented by the pairs of thick black lines) in order to provide optimum strength?


The following information relates to Questions 9 and 10

A diving board is constructed of concrete (strong in compression), reinforced by steel
wires (strong in tension) mounted with two separate supports A and B, as shown. The
board has a mass of 80 kg and a length of 4.0 m. A diver of mass 100 kg is standing
stationary on the very end of the board at C. Support A is at one end of the board. Support
B is 1.0 m from A. The situation is shown below.

Which of the following best gives the magnitude of the force by the support at B on the
board?
A. 560 N
B. 1800 N
C. 5600 N
D. 18000 N

Which of the following best gives the optimum placement for the steel wires in the diving
board?


- calculate the stress and strain resulting from the application of compressive
and tensile forces and loads to materials in structures, = F/A , = l/l;
- calculate the potential energy stored in a material under load (strain energy)
using area under stress versus strain graph;
- evaluate the toughness of a material tested to the point of failure;
- describe elastic or plastic behaviour of materials under load and the resulting
energy transformed to heat;

2001 2002 2003 2005 200
6
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

2013
6

5, 7

8

1, 2,
3, 4,
5, 6
5, 6,
7, 8
4, 5,
6
3, 4,
5, 6,
7
6, 8 1, 2,
4, 5,
6, 12
1, 2,
3, 4,
5, 6,
7

An elastic material like rubber experiences greater deformation than a stiffer material such as steel.
The gradient of the graph for steel is much steeper (in the elastic range) than that of rubber, which
indicates a higher Young's modulus and therefore stiffness of the material. The shape of the graph
for rubber shows that when the stress exceeds the yield strength, the rubber deforms plastically and
becomes stiffer (i.e. the gradient increases).

The stress-strain graph for a particular material
is shown.
Calculate the magnitude of Youngs Modulus
for this material.

Estimate the energy per unit volume stored in the material up to the point of fracture.


Toughness
The toughness of a material is the energy required to cause failure in that material, it can be related
to the area under the stress-strain graph. Toughness is a measure of the amount of energy that it
takes to break a material. It is the strain energy that the material can absorb before it fractures.

The graph is from the web site of a
manufacturer of rail steel. It shows
tensile stress versus strain for samples
of two types of steel; rail steel and
structural steel.
A 3.0 m rod of structural steel is placed
under a tensile stress of 35 MPa.

(3 marks)
Calculate the amount that this rod will
extend.

(3 marks)
Explain whether the samples shown on the manufacturers graph support the manufacturers claims
for the strength and stiffness of rail steel compared with structural steel. Give reasons for your
answer.

Refer to the graph to explain whether rail steel is tougher than structural steel.


A flat horizontal, uniform stadium roof of
mass 50 tonnes is supported at the ends
by two 16.0 m steel cables of diameter 4.0
cm making an angle of 60 with the
horizontal as shown below.

(3 marks)
Calculate the tension in each cable.

The steel in the cables has a Youngs modulus of 2.0 10
11
Pa and before being used to support
the roof the cable is tested at a stress of 2.0 10
5
N m
2
.
Calculate the distance that the 16.0 m cable stretches when tested at a stress of 2.0 10
5
N m
2
.

Calculate the energy stored in each 4.0 cm diameter cable supporting the stadium roof when it is
tested up to a stress of 2.0 10
5
N m
2
.


The figure shows the stress vs strain graphs of two materials, A and B.

Which one of the two materials, A or B, is stronger? Explain your answer using evidence from the
graphs.

Which one of the two materials, A or B, is tougher? Explain your answer using evidence from the
graphs.

Calculate the value of the ratio:
Youngs modulus of material A
Youngs modulus of material B


Use the data in the figure below to answer Questions 16.
The stress-strain graph for two polymers, acrylic and polyethylene, are shown below. Acrylic is
a transparent polymer that is often used as a glass substitute. Polyethylene is a polymer from
which plastic carrier bags are made.

Example 496 2006 Question 4
What is the value of Young's modulus for acrylic? Give your answer in units of MPa.

Stress is measured in the unit MPa (10
6
N m
2
). full scale not shown
Which one of the statements (AD) below concerning the properties of the polymers is true?
A. Acrylic is tougher than polyethylene.
B. Acrylic is more brittle than polyethylene.
C. Acrylic is more flexible than polyethylene.
D. Acrylic breaks more easily than polyethylene.

Which one of the two polymers is tougher? Support your answer with evidence from the
graphs.


A strip of polyethylene of length 5.0 m is placed under a tensile stress of 20 MPa.
By how much does the strip stretch?

What is the value of Young's modulus for acrylic? Give your answer in units of MPa.

An acrylic rod that is 2.0 m long, and has a cross sectional area of 2.0 x
-4
10 m
2
, is used to
suspend items in a window display.
What is the greatest mass that can be suspended from the rod before it breaks?

Calculate the total work done on the acrylic rod up to the point of fracture.


Cast iron and mild steel are two types of steel. Their stress-strain graphs are shown
below.

A circular rod with a length of 1.0 m and diameter of 10 mm is made from the mild steel as
shown above. This rod is placed under tension with a stress of 240 MPa.
Calculate the total strain energy stored in the rod when this stress is applied.


Since ancient times, stone columns have been used to
support beams and arches on which the upper parts of
walls and ceilings rest. Persepolis (below) was an
ancient capital of the Persian Empire.

A typical stress-strain graph for stone is shown below.
The points of failure are indicated by crosses (X).

The largest building in Persepolis was the Apadana, an audience hall. It had a roof
supported by tall stone columns. Assume each of the columns was 20.0 m high with a
uniform cross-sectional area of 1.50 m
2
.
Which one of the following best gives the strain energy per unit volume stored in this stone
material up to the point of fracture in compression?
A. 6.0 10
4
J m
3
B. 1.2 10
5
J m
3
C. 6.0 10
8
J m
3
D. 1.2 10
9
J m
3

By which one of the following factors would you multiply your answer to the previous
question to calculate the total strain energy stored in the column up to the point of
fracture?
A. 1.5 B. 20 C. 30 D. 45


Engineers are testing steel cables for use in a lift. The first cable they test is sample X. The
sample has a length of 10.0 m exactly, when unstretched.
The stress-strain graph for the material from which the cable is made is shown below.
F represents the breaking point.

The engineers test another cable (sample Z) of the same material as used in sample X.
The cable (sample Z) has a stress of 300 MPa. This cable has a cross-sectional area of
10
-4
m
2
and a length of 10 m.
Which one of the following best gives the total energy stored in the cable sample at this
stress?
A. 225 J
B. 450 J
C. 2.25 10
4
J
D. 30.0 J 10
6
J


Engineers are testing samples of different types of steel to determine the best type to use in
construction of a bridge. The samples they are testing have a cross-section area of
2.0 x 10
-5
m
2
. They are all 0.10 m long. The samples are under tension.
They first test a sample of material P. The force-extension graph for this test is shown below.
The sample breaks at X.

Which of the following is closest to the measure of the toughness of material P?
A. 2.7 x 10
-5
J m
-3

B. 10 J m
-3

C. 16.5 J m
-3

D. 6.6 10
6
J m
-3


describe brittle and ductile failure and apply data to predict brittle or ductile
failure under load;

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
7 12,
13
5, 6

2 1 7

- A brittle material, like glass, exhibits little, if any, plastic deformation and tends to fail
suddenly. They do not exhibit a yield point, they fracture at their elastic limit. A brittle material
can only display elastic behaviour, and will fail (snap) at its elastic limit.
- Ductility is a measure of how much plastic behaviour occurs in a material. A ductile material
will undergo a large degree of plastic deformation before it fails. Many metals are ductile and
can be drawn into wires.
- Malleability is the ability to be beaten into thin sheets, eg. gold leaf.

Ductility and malleability give an indication as to the workability of the material.

Materials that are hard resist wear. Wear occurs when surfaces rub on each other. Hardness is
particularly important in engines, gearboxes and bearings.

Two materials, A and B, were tested and the stress versus strain graphs are shown below. The
elastic limit of each material is shown as e. The fracture point is indicated as f at the end of each
graph.

Which one of these two materials is more brittle? Support your answer with evidence from the
graphs.

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au Physics revision 2014 207

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