DM Beezer: A Fi rst Course i n Li near Algebra 346

Subsection DD
Denition of the Determinant
We will now turn to the denition of a determinant and do some sample computations.
The denition of the determinant function is recursive, that is, the determinant of
a large matrix is dened in terms of the determinant of smaller matrices. To this
end, we will make a few denitions.
Denition SM SubMatrix
Suppose that A is an mn matrix. Then the submatrix A(i|j) is the (m1)(n1)
matrix obtained from A by removing row i and column j.
Example SS Some submatrices
For the matrix
A =
_
1 2 3 9
4 2 0 1
3 5 2 1
_
we have the submatrices
A(2|3) =
_
1 2 9
3 5 1
_
A(3|1) =
_
2 3 9
2 0 1
_

Denition DM Determinant of a Matrix

Suppose A is a square matrix. Then its determinant, det (A) = |A|, is an element
of C dened recursively by:
1. If A is a 1 1 matrix, then det (A) = [A]
11
.
2. If A is a matrix of size n with n 2, then
det (A) = [A]
11
det (A(1|1)) [A]
12
det (A(1|2)) + [A]
13
det (A(1|3))
[A]
14
det (A(1|4)) + + (1)
n+1
[A]
1n
det (A(1|n))

So to compute the determinant of a 5 5 matrix we must build 5 submatrices,

each of size 4. To compute the determinants of each the 4 4 matrices we need
to create 4 submatrices each, these now of size 3 and so on. To compute the
determinant of a 10 10 matrix would require computing the determinant of
10! = 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 = 3, 628, 800 1 1 matrices. Fortunately there
are better ways. However this does suggest an excellent computer programming
exercise to write a recursive procedure to compute a determinant.
Let us compute the determinant of a reasonably sized matrix by hand.
DM Beezer: A Fi rst Course i n Li near Algebra 347
Example D33M Determinant of a 3 3 matrix
Suppose that we have the 3 3 matrix
A =
_
3 2 1
4 1 6
3 1 2
_
Then
det (A) = |A| =

3 2 1
4 1 6
3 1 2

= 3

1 6
1 2

4 6
3 2

+ (1)

4 1
3 1

= 3 (1 |2| 6 |1|) 2 (4 |2| 6 |3|) (4 |1| 1 |3|)

= 3 (1(2) 6(1)) 2 (4(2) 6(3)) (4(1) 1(3))
= 24 52 + 1
= 27

In practice it is a bit silly to decompose a 2 2 matrix down into a couple of

1 1 matrices and then compute the exceedingly easy determinant of these puny
matrices. So here is a simple theorem.
Theorem DMST Determinant of Matrices of Size Two
Suppose that A =
_
a b
c d
_
. Then det (A) = ad bc.
Proof. Applying Denition DM,

a b
c d

= a |d| b |c| = ad bc

Do you recall seeing the expression ad bc before? (Hint: Theorem TTMI)

Subsection CD
Computing Determinants
There are a variety of ways to compute the determinant. We will establish rst
that we can choose to mimic our denition of the determinant, but by using matrix
entries and submatrices based on a row other than the rst one.
Theorem DER Determinant Expansion about Rows
DM Beezer: A Fi rst Course i n Li near Algebra 348
Suppose that A is a square matrix of size n. Then for 1 i n
det (A) = (1)
i+1
[A]
i1
det (A(i|1)) + (1)
i+2
[A]
i2
det (A(i|2))
+ (1)
i+3
[A]
i3
det (A(i|3)) + + (1)
i+n
[A]
in
det (A(i|n))
which is known as expansion about row i.
Proof. First, the statement of the theorem coincides with Denition DM when i = 1,
so throughout, we need only consider i > 1.
Given the recursive denition of the determinant, it should be no surprise that we
will use induction for this proof (Proof Technique I). When n = 1, there is nothing
to prove since there is but one row. When n = 2, we just examine expansion about
the second row,
(1)
2+1
[A]
21
det (A(2|1)) + (1)
2+2
[A]
22
det (A(2|2))
= [A]
21
[A]
12
+ [A]
22
[A]
11
Denition DM
= [A]
11
[A]
22
[A]
12
[A]
21
= det (A) Theorem DMST
So the theorem is true for matrices of size n = 1 and n = 2. Now assume the
result is true for all matrices of size n 1 as we derive an expression for expansion
about row i for a matrix of size n. We will abuse our notation for a submatrix slightly,
so A(i
1
, i
2
|j
1
, j
2
) will denote the matrix formed by removing rows i
1
and i
2
, along
with removing columns j
1
and j
2
. Also, as we take a determinant of a submatrix,
we will need to jump up the index of summation partway through as we skip
over a missing column. To do this smoothly we will set

j
=
_
0 < j
1 > j
Now,
det (A)
=
n

j=1
(1)
1+j
[A]
1j
det (A(1|j)) Denition DM
=
n

j=1
(1)
1+j
[A]
1j

1n
=j
(1)
i1+
j
[A]
i
det (A(1, i|j, )) Induction
=
n

j=1

1n
=j
(1)
j+i+
j
[A]
1j
[A]
i
det (A(1, i|j, )) Property DCN
DM Beezer: A Fi rst Course i n Li near Algebra 349
=
n

=1

1jn
j=
(1)
j+i+
j
[A]
1j
[A]
i
det (A(1, i|j, )) Property CACN
=
n

=1
(1)
i+
[A]
i

1jn
j=
(1)
j
j
[A]
1j
det (A(1, i|j, )) Property DCN
=
n

=1
(1)
i+
[A]
i

1jn
j=
(1)

j
+j
[A]
1j
det (A(i, 1|, j)) 2
j
is even
=
n

=1
(1)
i+
[A]
i
det (A(i|)) Denition DM

We can also obtain a formula that computes a determinant by expansion about

a column, but this will be simpler if we rst prove a result about the interplay of
determinants and transposes. Notice how the following proof makes use of the ability
to compute a determinant by expanding about any row.
Theorem DT Determinant of the Transpose
Suppose that A is a square matrix. Then det (A
t
) = det (A).
Proof. With our denition of the determinant (Denition DM) and theorems like
Theorem DER, using induction (Proof Technique I) is a natural approach to proving
properties of determinants. And so it is here. Let n be the size of the matrix A, and
we will use induction on n.
For n = 1, the transpose of a matrix is identical to the original matrix, so
vacuously, the determinants are equal.
Now assume the result is true for matrices of size n 1. Then,
det
_
A
t
_
=
1
n
n

i=1
det
_
A
t
_
=
1
n
n

i=1
n

j=1
(1)
i+j
_
A
t

ij
det
_
A
t
(i|j)
_
Theorem DER
=
1
n
n

i=1
n

j=1
(1)
i+j
[A]
ji
det
_
A
t
(i|j)
_
Denition TM
=
1
n
n

i=1
n

j=1
(1)
i+j
[A]
ji
det
_
(A(j|i))
t
_
Denition TM
DM Beezer: A Fi rst Course i n Li near Algebra 350
=
1
n
n

i=1
n

j=1
(1)
i+j
[A]
ji
det (A(j|i)) Induction Hypothesis
=
1
n
n

j=1
n

i=1
(1)
j+i
[A]
ji
det (A(j|i)) Property CACN
=
1
n
n

j=1
det (A) Theorem DER
= det (A)

Now we can easily get the result that a determinant can be computed by expansion
about any column as well.
Theorem DEC Determinant Expansion about Columns
Suppose that A is a square matrix of size n. Then for 1 j n
det (A) = (1)
1+j
[A]
1j
det (A(1|j)) + (1)
2+j
[A]
2j
det (A(2|j))
+ (1)
3+j
[A]
3j
det (A(3|j)) + + (1)
n+j
[A]
nj
det (A(n|j))
which is known as expansion about column j.
Proof.
det (A) = det
_
A
t
_
Theorem DT
=
n

i=1
(1)
j+i
_
A
t

ji
det
_
A
t
(j|i)
_
Theorem DER
=
n

i=1
(1)
j+i
_
A
t

ji
det
_
(A(i|j))
t
_
Denition TM
=
n

i=1
(1)
j+i
_
A
t

ji
det (A(i|j)) Theorem DT
=
n

i=1
(1)
i+j
[A]
ij
det (A(i|j)) Denition TM

That the determinant of an nn matrix can be computed in 2n dierent (albeit

similar) ways is nothing short of remarkable. For the doubters among us, we will do
an example, computing a 4 4 matrix in two dierent ways.
DM Beezer: A Fi rst Course i n Li near Algebra 351
Example TCSD Two computations, same determinant
Let
A =
_

_
2 3 0 1
9 2 0 1
1 3 2 1
4 1 2 6
_

_
Then expanding about the fourth row (Theorem DER with i = 4) yields,
|A| = (4)(1)
4+1

3 0 1
2 0 1
3 2 1

+ (1)(1)
4+2

2 0 1
9 0 1
1 2 1

+ (2)(1)
4+3

2 3 1
9 2 1
1 3 1

+ (6)(1)
4+4

2 3 0
9 2 0
1 3 2

= (4)(10) + (1)(22) + (2)(61) + 6(46) = 92

Expanding about column 3 (Theorem DEC with j = 3) gives
|A| = (0)(1)
1+3

9 2 1
1 3 1
4 1 6

+ (0)(1)
2+3

2 3 1
1 3 1
4 1 6

+
(2)(1)
3+3

2 3 1
9 2 1
4 1 6

+ (2)(1)
4+3

2 3 1
9 2 1
1 3 1

= 0 + 0 + (2)(107) + (2)(61) = 92
Notice how much easier the second computation was. By choosing to expand
about the third column, we have two entries that are zero, so two 3 3 determinants
need not be computed at all!
When a matrix has all zeros above (or below) the diagonal, exploiting the zeros
by expanding about the proper row or column makes computing a determinant
insanely easy.
Example DUTM Determinant of an upper triangular matrix
Suppose that
T =
_

_
2 3 1 3 3
0 1 5 2 1
0 0 3 9 2
0 0 0 1 3
0 0 0 0 5
_

_
We will compute the determinant of this 5 5 matrix by consistently expanding
about the rst column for each submatrix that arises and does not have a zero entry
DM Beezer: A Fi rst Course i n Li near Algebra 352
multiplying it.
det (T) =

2 3 1 3 3
0 1 5 2 1
0 0 3 9 2
0 0 0 1 3
0 0 0 0 5

= 2(1)
1+1

1 5 2 1
0 3 9 2
0 0 1 3
0 0 0 5

= 2(1)(1)
1+1

3 9 2
0 1 3
0 0 5

= 2(1)(3)(1)
1+1

1 3
0 5

= 2(1)(3)(1)(1)
1+1
|5|
= 2(1)(3)(1)(5) = 30

When you consult other texts in your study of determinants, you may run into
the terms minor and cofactor, especially in a discussion centered on expansion
about rows and columns. We have chosen not to make these denitions formally
since we have been able to get along without them. However, informally, a minor is
a determinant of a submatrix, specically det (A(i|j)) and is usually referenced as
the minor of [A]
ij
. A cofactor is a signed minor, specically the cofactor of [A]
ij
is
(1)
i+j
det (A(i|j)).
Reading Questions
1. Construct the elementary matrix that will eect the row operation 6R
2
+ R
3
on a
4 7 matrix.
2. Compute the determinant of the matrix

2 3 1
3 8 2
4 1 3

3. Compute the determinant of the matrix

3 9 2 4 2
0 1 4 2 7
0 0 2 5 2
0 0 0 1 6
0 0 0 0 4