Unit 2 Factors of Soil Formation

Parent Material as a Soil-Forming Factor

Types of Parent Material

Parent material is the hard rock or unconsolidated deposit on which soil develops. I
would like you to know that a distinction can be made between organic
materials/sediments and mineral material. Fresh peat (an accumulation of partially
decayed vegetation matter) in which soil develops is a good example of organic
sediments. Mineral material may be bedrock; rock fragments; volcanic ash; and
sediments deposited by water, wind and or ice. Mineral material which has moved
down a slope under the influence of gravity is referred to as Colluvium. Material laid
down by running water (river or stream) is known as alluvium, while those deposited
by sea are known as marine deposits. Material deposited by wind is known as
loess.

The Influence of Parent Material on Soil Development

Parent material determines the rate of weathering and for that matter the rate at
which soil formation occurs. Generally, the process of soil formation is quicker on
parent material that is more permeable to water. Parent material also influences the
following soil properties: texture, colour, mineral composition and fertility.

Soil formed from material that is coarse grained and/or composed of minerals
resistant to weathering is likely to be coarse-textured. Conversely, fine grained soil
develops where the parent material is composed of unstable minerals that readily
weather. Thus, because of differences in composition and structure, parent materials
usually weather at different rates, affecting a soils texture. For instance, granite (a
slow weathering rock) produces sandy, coarse soils. On the other hand, shale (an
easily weathered rock) forms clay-rich soils. Given that soil texture affects other
properties, such as porosity, water-holding capacity and fertility (See unit 1), it can
be stated that parent material also indirectly influences these properties.

Furthermore parent material can influence soil colour. This usually occurs in newly
formed soils or in soil horizons where the parent material has not been extensively
weathered. Light grey colours in the subsoil can be inherited from the parent
material quartz, while basalt can imprint a black colour to the subsoil horizons.

Parent material also has a direct impact on soil mineral/chemical composition
and fertility. Generally, parent materials rich in soluble ions, such as magnesium,
calcium, potassium, and sodium, are easily dissolved in water and made available to
plants. Similarly, because basaltic lava and limestone have high amounts of soluble
bases, they tend to form fertile soil in humid climates. On the other hand, if parent
material is low in soluble ions, water moving through the soil may remove the bases
and replace them with hydrogen ions, making the soil acidic and unsuitable for crop
production. Soils developed over sandstone are generally low in soluble bases and
coarse in texture which promotes leaching. With time, the influence of parent
material on soil properties tends to decrease and climate becomes more important
(Ritter, 2006). In the next section we shall examine the role of climate in soil
formation.

The Role of Climate in Soil Formation

Important Climatic Variables in Soil Formation

As you may recall from your second year study of Weather and Climate (GEOG
203), climate encompasses the statistics of temperature, rainfall, humidity,
wind, atmospheric pressure and other meteorological elements in a given
place over long periods of time (usually about 30 years). Generally, an analysis
of climate involves both global (macroclimatic) and local (microclimatic)
considerations. On the global scale, there is a relationship between major soil types
and major climatic zones of the world (Driessen and Dudal, 1991; MacDonald 2003).
Although climate generally becomes less important in soil distribution at local levels,
soils in the same country may vary according to microclimatic differences within the
country.

Which climatic variables are most important in soil formation? The key components
of climate that influence soil formation are temperature and moisture. In most soils,
moisture levels are largely controlled by precipitation and evapotranspiration.
Moisture level in the soil is generally high, if additions of water via precipitation
surpass losses from evapotranspiration. Thus, holding evapotranspiration constant,
moisture levels are high in areas with high amount of rainfall. Apart from temperature
and precipitation wind is another important climatic variable that influences soil
formation. It removes, transports and deposits sand and other particles, especially in
arid regions where there is little plant cover.

How Does Climate Influence Soil Formation?

In many ways, climate is the most important single factor responsible for the
formation/development of soil (Jenny, 1980). As mentioned already, temperature and
precipitation are the two most important climatic variables in soil formation. In
general, rates of rock weathering increase with higher temperatures and high
amount of rainfall. Consequently, deep soils are generally formed in warm moist
climatic zones where both annual temperature and precipitation are high. For
instance, the soils of the high forest zone of Ghana are deep because they are highly
weathered as a result of high temperatures and frequent precipitation. In contrast,
soils produce in desert regions are shallow because of low levels of weathering as a
result of lack of precipitation.

Through its effects on the degree of weathering, climate also influences soil
texture. In places with low moisture levels, chemical weathering is impeded and
soils tend to have larger particles. For instance, the lack of precipitation in hot
deserts inhibits chemical weathering leading to coarse-textured soil in arid regions.
Thus, to produce fine-textured soils, high temperatures must be accompanied by
high moisture levels to facilitate chemical weathering.

Climate also contributes to the development of soil profile. Precipitation
influences horizon development factors, such as the translocation of dissolved ions
through the soil. As we discussed in unit 1, leaching tends to be more pronounced in
places with high amount of rainfall. In this way, the amount of precipitation influence
soil formation by affecting the movement of ions and particles through the soil,
thereby aiding in the development of different soil profiles.

Climate also partly determines the type of pedogenic processes (soil-forming
processes) that occur in a particular place. In unit 1, we learned that laterization (the
pedogenic process that entails heavy leaching of some ions from the surface soil) is
common in the warm moist climates. Another pedogenic process which is influenced
by climate is salinization, a process that occurs in warm and dry environments
(desert climates). Rapid evaporation in these environments causes soluble salts to
precipitate from water and accumulate in the soil. Podzolization is another type of
pedogenic process, and it is also partly influenced by climate and vegetation.
Podzolization occurs in cool and moist climates (e.g. the colder parts of the humid
continental and subarctic climates) under coniferous vegetation. High summer
rainfall and acidic soil solution from decayed coniferous litter promotes leaching of
the topsoil (A and E horizons). The upper portion of the B horizon of podzol (soil that
has undergone podzolisation) is stained reddish colour, due to the accumulation of
iron oxides in that zone. We shall discuss these and other pedogenic processes
more comprehensively in section 6.

Climate also partly determines soil pH values. As we discussed in section 6 of unit
1, soils in the warm moist climates are more acidic because the high amount of
rainfall leaches soluble bases from the soil. As will be discussed in unit 3, the forest
oxysols in the tropical rainforest zone of Ghana are extremely leached and are acidic
because of the high amount of rainfall in the area.

Climate also affects soil development through its effects on the activities of
living organisms. The richness and diversity of soil organisms and plant life that
grows on the surface are related to climate. As will be discussed in the next section,
these soil organisms and vegetation are important for soil development. In the hot
desert regions, vegetation is very scarce (desert shrubs), and soil erosion by wind
and occasional rains is very severe. Soils formed in the desert regions (aridisols) are
therefore very shallow and have very low concentration of organic matter. Similarly,
in the subglacial desert, vegetation is almost absent, weathering is very slow and the
soils formed are very shallow (lithosols). Bacterial activity is impeded by the very low
temperatures in the tundra regions and this causes organic matter to build up. In the
warm and wet tropics, however, bacterial activity proceeds at a rapid rate, thoroughly
decomposing leaf litter. Soils in these regions therefore usually lack organic matter in
their upper horizons.

The Role of Biota in Soil Formation

Groups of Soil Living Organisms

Have you ever dug through the soil? If so, you might have come across plant roots,
earthworms and termites in the soil. These and other organisms which live on and in
the soil constitute the soil biota. Specifically, the components of soil biota include
flora (plants or vegetation), fauna (animals) and micro-organisms (McCauley et
al. 2005). The soil and these organisms living on and in it comprise an ecosystem.
Man is also seen as an active component of the soil ecosystem.


Importance of Various Groups of Living Organisms in Soil Formation

In general, living organisms add organic matter to the soil. Leaves and bark from
trees fall onto the soil and are broken down by bacteria, fungi, insects, earthworms,
and burrowing animals. As these organisms eat and break down organic matter,
nutrients are released into the soil. Some living organisms also convert
certain elements (e.g. nitrogen) into usable forms for plants. Living organisms also
help in the weathering of parent material. Let us now discuss the details of how each
of the components of soil biota specifically contributes to soil formation.

Flora/Vegetation: Of the various components of biota, plants play the most
important role in soil formation. First, plants influence soil development by
supplying upper layers with organic matter. As hinted already, vegetation and
climate jointly influence the distribution of major soil types of the world. Certain soil
types usually develop within specific vegetation zones. For instance, Chernozem, a
black-coloured soil containing a very high percentage of humus, is usually found in
temperate grassland zones of the world. Second, the passages created by roots
also influence water movement in the soil. Deep rooted plants tend to contribute
more to soil development than shallow rooted plants because the passages created
by the former allow greater water movement.

Vegetation also contributes to nutrients cycling in the soil. The explanation here
is that living organisms (plants and animals) obtain certain nutrients from the soil for
growth. Upon their death, living organisms return these nutrients to the soil to be
taken up again by other plants and animals. Consequently, there is a constant
cycling of nutrients between organisms and soils. This process helps to maintain the
nutrient status of soils. The extent to which nutrients are cycled depends on the
needs of the plants and animals found at a particular place. For example, broadleaf,
deciduous trees like oak tend to have high nutrient demand. The surface litter
created, when the leaves of these trees die and fall to the forest floor, is rich in
nutrients. The decay of the litter releases the nutrients back into the soil for the trees
to take back up. In other words, soils under broadleaf, deciduous forests are
generally high in nutrients. In contrast, pine trees tend to have low nutrient demands.
The decaying litter created by pine trees is, therefore, relatively poor in nutrients
(Ritter, 2006).

As we shall discuss in unit 3, vegetation also protects the upper layers of a soil
from erosion by way of binding the soils surface and helping to reduce the speed of
moving water and wind across the soil surface. Soil erosion is a serious problem in
places without thick vegetation cover.

Fauna: Soil fauna includes earthworms, insects, nematodes, arthropods and
rodents. Soil fauna influences the process of soil formation in a number of ways. Like
plants, animals also contribute to nutrients cycling in the soil. Other important
functions of soil fauna include: initiating the breakdown of dead animal and
plant material; mixing soil layers; and increasing soil aggregation. In addition,
burrowing animals create channels in the soil for air and water movement.
Earthworms are one of the most important soil fauna. Through the process of
burrowing, earthworms drill tunnels that increase a soils porosity, water-holding
capacity, and water infiltration (Lee, 1985). They also mix leaf litter and other
materials in the surface soil. Earthworms also increase biotic activity by breaking
down large quantities of soil organic matter through digestion and providing nutrient-
rich secretions in their casts.

Microorganisms: Microbes or microorganisms are invisible to the naked eye.
However, they constitute the largest and most diverse biotic group in soil (Tugel and
Lewandowski, 1999). Soil microorganisms include bacteria, fungi, protozoa,
algae, Actinomycetes and soil enzymes. In general, soil microorganisms aid soil
structure by physically gluing soil particles together through the secretion of organic
compounds, mainly sugars. This leads to the development of granular structure in
the A horizon where microbial populations are greatest. In other words, microbes
and the humus they produce act as a kind of adhesive to hold soil particles
together in aggregates. Apart from their general role in the development of soil
structure, various types of microbes play specific roles in soil formation. Bacteria,
which represent the smallest and most diverse soil microbes, play important role in
soil organic matter decomposition. Some bacteria perform unique functions in the
soil. For instance, in the roots of legumes (e.g. beans and peas) live nitrogen-fixing
bacteria (Rhizobia), which convert nitrogen to ammonia. Some of the ammonia is
used by the plant. Protozoa are mobile organisms that feed on other microbes and
soil organic matter. Fungi are also very important in the breakdown of soil organic
matter and improving soil stability. Many fungi have long hyphae (thin thread-like
extensions) that can extend several metres in the soil and physically bind soil
particles. In this way, they improve soil aggregate stability. Actinomycetes have
hyphae similar to fungi. They are very important in the breakdown of soil organic
matter, especially the more resistant fractions, and give soil much of its earthy
odour (McCauley et al., 2005).


Man: Man influences soil formation through his agricultural practices, urban and
industrial development. The use of heavy machinery makes soils compact and
reduces the rate of water infiltration into the soil, thereby increasing surface runoff
and erosion. Bad farming practices that tend to expose the surface soil to the agents
of erosion can reduce soil productivity. The nutrient level of a soil can directly be
increased through application of fertilizers, manuring, and mulching. Tillage tends to
accelerate short-term bacteria and protozoa activity by increasing aeration and
breaking up residue into smaller particles that are more exposed to microbial attack.
Farming practices that increase soil organic matter levels tend to bring about
increase in earthworm populations. Crop rotation systems often support more
organism diversity and activity than monoculture systems due to increased and more
diverse residues and specific interactions taking place between certain plants and
organisms (Olfert et al., 2002).

Before bringing this section to an end, I would like to stress again that while plants
and animals contribute significantly to soil formation, they also depend on soils for
nutrients. In other words, living organisms influence soil development, while soil
properties (e.g. texture, structure and pH) also have influence on the distribution of
plants and animals. In this way, soil and life on earth have evolved together
(MacDonald, 2003).


The Importance of Topography in Soil Formation

Topography basically refers to the angle and length of a slope. Other soil-forming
factors (i.e. parent material, climate, living organisms and time) determine the
general features of soils in a region, but within each broad soil group there might be
local variations caused by the effect of topography or relief. Topography influences
soil formation because it affects runoff, erosion and drainage. The orientation of
slope also shapes microclimate which in turn affects vegetation and for that
matter organic matter levels in the soil. Let us now discuss these various ways by
which topography influences soil formation.

First, the nature of a slope influences runoff and the rate at which water enters
the soil (water infiltration). You might have observed that when rain falls on
a landscape, water moves downward by the force of gravity, either through the soil
(infiltration) or across the surface to a lower elevation (runoff). Steep slopes at higher
elevation are associated with high surface runoff rates and less water infiltration.
Hence, steep slopes tend to be drier than gentle slopes where water accumulates.
These differences in moisture content may affect the process of soil formation at the
various points of a slope. For instance, given that water is needed for weathering of
rocks, soil development tends to be slower on steep than on gentles slopes. As
weathering is slower on steep slopes, soils produced there may be relatively shallow.

Again, the nature of the slope influences the rate of soil erosion. If unprotected,
soils on steep slopes may erode leaving a thinner surface layer. In other words,
water erosion is stronger on steeper slopes. As materials are constantly eroded,
soils on very steep slopes are thinner and do not have well developed profiles.
Within the same region, eroded soils are less fertile than those that are not eroded.
Since steep slopes at high elevation are not fertile, they tend to have fewer plant
forms than gentle slopes at the base of hills.

Topography also influences soil drainage. Soils developing on gentle slopes are
often better drained than those developing in valleys. For instance, an undulating
land will allow the easy flow of water and therefore the development of well drained
soils. However, within the same area, a valley may impede the flow of water thereby
encouraging the development of waterlogged soils.

Apart from determining the rate of erosion, slope also influences the deposition of
soil material in suspension. As surface water empties from a mountain stream, its
speed begins to decrease. The largest size particles, like sand, are usually the first
to drop out of suspension. Smaller particles, like fine clay, can be carried further
away from the base of the slope before they are deposited. As a result, coarse-
textured soils are generally found near the base of the mountain, while fine textured
soils are located further away. In this way, topography influences soil texture
along a slope.

Hill slope orientation also affects the microclimate of a place. Within the same
area, slopes facing the sun directly are warmer and drier than those surfaces that
are not directly facing the sun. For instance, in the Northern Hemisphere, south
facing slopes tend to be warmer and drier than north facing slopes. Since climate
affects soil development and vegetation type, this difference results in the soils of the
two areas being different in terms of texture, organic matter levels and soil profile
development.

Soil Catena

I am sure you have observed from the preceding discussion that the same parent
material that forms a slope in an area can give rise to a chain of related soils, whose
individual features will depend on the particular portions of the slope on which they
have developed. Put differently, as one moves from a hill top to valley bottom, the
soils tend to show different characteristics of texture, colour and water content. Such
a sequence of soils down a slope where each facet is slightly different from, but
linked to adjacent facets is referred to as catena (latin for chain).

Time as a Soil-Forming Factor

According to Grunwald (2009), time influences soil formation in two ways. First, the
value of a soil-forming factor may change with time. In other words, the
environmental factors that influence soil formation may change with time. For
example, the climate of a region may change and this may affect processes of soil
formation in that area. Similarly, soil formation may begin with a particular type of
parent material. With time, the deposition of new material can bring about changes in
the original parent material. Second, the extent of a pedogenetic process
depends on the time for which it has operated. The argument here is that since
soil development is a very slow process, time is needed for the full operation of all
the factors of soil formation (Ritter, 2006). Thus, even if the same environmental
factors are operating, time is needed for their full effects to be seen.

From the preceding presentation, you might have understood that while some soils
are formed under the same set of factor values (environmental factors remain
relatively unchanged), others are formed under more than one set of factor values. In
view of this difference, a distinction can be made between monogenic and
polygenic soils. Monogenetic soils are those that have formed under one set of
factor values for a certain period of time. In other words, monogenic soils are those
that have formed in a period when the changes in environmental factors were too
small to produce detectably different assemblages of soil characteristics in different
parts of that period. In contrast, polygenetic soils are those that have formed under
more than one set of factor values (Grunwald, 2009).

In both monogenic and polygenic soils, time plays a major role in a number of soil
formation processes (e.g. weathering, deposition and leaching). Consequently, time
affects soil horizon development and soil texture. As explained in unit 1, the nature
of a soils profile depends on how long the soil formation processes have been
occurring. The longer a soil surface has been exposed to soil forming agents (e.g
rain, microorganisms, and vegetation) the greater the development of soil horizons.
Older/mature soils tend to have well-developed sequence of horizons (though in a
few cases, older soils may undergo so much leaching that distinct layers are not
clearly visible). Thus, soils on older, stable surfaces are usually characterised by
well defined horizons. In contrast, newly deposited alluvial materials may show very
little horizon development.

Time also influences soil texture, leaching and acidity. Holding parent material
constant, soils that have been exposed to climatic variables for a long period of time
tend to be dominated by fine clay particles. This is due to extreme weathering that
might have taken place over a long period of time. Again, under the same climate
and vegetation, soils become more leached and more acidic as they age.

Old and Young Soils

As far as time is concerned, soils can be classified as either old/mature or young. I
would like to stress that a soils level of maturity does not only depend on the number
of years that it has taken to form. Rather, a soils age is determined by an interaction
between time and the other soil forming factors. For instance, soil formation is often
faster on transported sediments than underlying bedrock because the weathering of
bedrock usually takes a long period of time. Climate also interacts with time to
influence soil formation. As we discussed in section 2 of this unit, soil formation
proceeds faster in warm moist climates. Hence, soils formed under such climatic
conditions reach a mature status sooner. In cold climates, weathering is impeded
and soil development takes much longer. As a result, it may take relatively more
years for soils formed under cold climatic variables to reach a mature status.

While the age of a soil depends on an interaction among several factors, over the
same parent material and relief and under the same climate and vegetation,
old/mature soils have characteristics that are different from those of young soils.
Although we have mentioned some of these features already, I would like to list all of
them more clearly here.

Young soils:

Are usually formed from volcanic or alluvial materials. Some may also develop
on steep slopes or in desert and tundra regions where weathering is slow.
Tend to have poorly developed profiles, since the parent materials have not
gotten enough time to develop clearly defined horizons.
Are richer in nutrients because they may not have experienced long period of
leaching.

Old soils:

Have well developed profiles
Tend to have increased clay content, because weathering may have occurred
over a long period of time.
Have lower levels of nutrients than some young soils (e.g alluvial soils), since
minerals may be leached from older soils.


I want to stress again that the general characteristics listed above apply only when
we hold certain factors (such as climate, parent material and vegetation) constant.
For instance, although young soils on alluvial materials are fertile, some young soils
(e.g. those formed over steep slopes) are less fertile than old soils that formed over
gentle slopes.

Interactions among Soil-Forming Factors

Having understood the importance of all the five factors of soil formation, you may
wish to find out which of them is most important. I wish to remind you that it is
response to such a question that I have stated already that, in many ways, climate is
the most important single factor responsible for soil formation/development (see
section 2). This statement does not mean that other factors are not important. As you
might have observed already, the various soil-forming factors interact with one
another to influence soil properties. According to Jenny (1980) parent material and
topography define the initial state for soil development, climate and biota determine
the rate at which biological and chemical processes occur in the soil, and time
measures the extent to which a reaction will have proceeded. While all these factors
may be operating together, at some places, some factors may be more dominant
over others. Thus, the nature and relative importance of each of these five soil-
forming factors vary in time and in space.