Chapter 03 - Philosophical Ethics and Business

True / False Questions

1. (p. 98) Ethical theories attempt to answer the question of how we should live, but do
not give reasons to support their answers.
FALSE
Ethical theories attempt to answer the question of how we should live, but they also
give reasons to support their answers.

2. (p. 98) Philosophical ethics provides justifications that must be applicable to all people
regardless of their religious starting points.
TRUE
Unlike religious ethics which explains human well-being in religious terms,
philosophical ethics provides justifications that must be applicable to all people
regardless of their religious starting points.

3. (p. 100) Deontological ethical traditions direct us to consider the moral character of
individuals and how various character traits can contribute to, or obstruct, a happy and
meaningful human life.
FALSE
Virtue ethics directs us to consider the moral character of individuals and how various
character traits can contribute to, or obstruct, a happy and meaningful human life.

4. (p. 100) Utilitarianism has been called a consequentialist approach to ethics and social
policy.
TRUE
Utilitarianism's fundamental insight is that we should decide what to do by
considering the consequences of our actions. In this sense, utilitarianism has been
called a consequentialist approach to ethics and social policy.

5. (p. 100) The ultimate ethical goal of deontology is to produce the best consequences
for all parties affected by the decisions.
FALSE
The ultimate ethical goal, according to utilitarians, is to produce the best
consequences for all parties affected by the decisions.

6. (p. 101) Utilitarianism opposes policies that aim to benefit only a small social,
economic, or political minority.
TRUE
The emphasis on the overall good, and upon producing the greatest good for the
greatest number, make utilitarianism a social philosophy that opposes policies that
aim to benefit only a small social, economic, or political minority.

7. (p. 101) It is possible to argue on utilitarian grounds that child labor is ethically
permissible because it produces better overall consequence than the alternatives.
TRUE
Child labor can have beneficial results for bringing foreign investment and money into
a poor country. Thus, one might argue on utilitarian grounds that such labor practices
are ethically permissible because they produce better overall consequences than the
alternatives.

8. (p. 103) The "administrative" version of utilitarianism considers competitive markets
to be the most efficient means of maximizing happiness.
FALSE
One movement within utilitarian thinking invokes the tradition of Adam Smith and
claims that free and competitive markets are the best means for attaining utilitarian
goals. This "market" version would promote policies that deregulate private industry,
protect property rights, allow for free exchanges, and encourage competition.

9. (p. 104) The "market" version of utilitarianism argues that questions of safety and risk
should be determined by experts who establish standards that the business is required
to meet.
FALSE
The "administrative" version of utilitarianism argues that questions of safety and risk
should be determined by experts who then establish standards that business is required
to meet

10. (p. 106) Utilitarians would object to child labor as a matter of principle.
FALSE
Utilitarians would object to child labor, not as a matter of principle, but only if and to
the degree that it detracts from the overall good.

11. (p. 107) The idea behind deontological ethics is commonsensical.
TRUE
The language of "deontology" and "deontological ethics" is very abstract and is likely
to strike many students as so much academic gobbledygook. But the idea behind this
approach is commonsensical.

12. (p. 108-109) A social contract functions to organize and ease relations between
individuals.
TRUE
Rules can be thought of as part of a social agreement, or social contract, which
functions to organize and ease relations between individuals.

13. (p. 111) The concept of a human or moral right is central to the consequence-
based ethical tradition.
FALSE
The concept of a human or moral right is central to the principle-based ethical
tradition.

14. (p. 114) Employees have a right to a minimum wage, equal opportunity, and to
bargain collectively as part of a union. These rights are examples of contractual
agreements with employers.
FALSE
Legal rights are granted to employees on the basis of legislation or judicial rulings.
Thus, employees have a right to a minimum wage, equal opportunity, to bargain
collectively as part of a union, to be free from sexual harassment, and so forth.
15. (p. 117) An ethics of virtue shifts the focus from questions about who a person is, to
what that person should do.
FALSE
An ethics of virtue shifts the focus from questions about what a person should do, to a
focus on who that person is.
16. (p. 119) Virtue ethics emphasizes the more affective side of our character.
TRUE
Virtue ethics emphasizes the more affective side of our character.

Multiple Choice Questions
17. (p. 97-98) Ethical reasoning falls into three major categories. Identify them.
A.Utility, virtue, and values
B.Universal rights, values, and moral principles
C.Universal rights, cultural norms, and mores
D. Personal character, consequences, and principles
The three categories are consequences, principles, and personal character.
18. (p. 100) An ethical tradition that directs us to decide based on overall consequences
of our acts is:
A.deontological ethics.
B.spinozism.
C. utilitarianism.
D. virtue ethics.
Utilitarianism is an ethical tradition that directs us to decide based on overall
consequences of our act.

19. (p. 100) Identify the ethical tradition that directs us to act on the basis of moral
principles.
A.Deontological ethical tradition
B.Utilitarianism
C.Virtue ethics
D.Spinozism
Deontological ethical traditions direct us to act on the basis of moral principles such
as respecting human rights.
20. (p. 100) The study of various character traits that can contribute to, or obstruct, a
happy and meaningful human life is part of:
A. philosophical ethics.B. virtue ethics.
C.deontological ethics.
D.utilitarianism.
Virtue ethics directs us to consider the moral character of individuals and how various
character traits can contribute to, or obstruct a happy and meaningful human life.

21. (p. 100) Utilitarianism's fundamental insight is that we should decide what to do by:
A.considering the moral character of individuals.
B.thinking rationally and following rules and regulations.
C.following our instincts.
D. considering the consequences of our actions.
Utilitarianism's fundamental insight is that we should decide what to do by
considering the consequences of our actions.
22. (p. 100) Utilitarianism has been called a(n):
A.commonsensical approach to ethics.
B.behavioral approach to ethics.
C. consequentialist approach to ethics.
D. intuitive approach to ethics.
Utilitarianism has been called a consequentialist approach to ethics and social policy.

23. (p. 100) Which of the following traditions is commonly identified with the principle
of producing "the greatest good for the greatest number"?
A.Deontological
B.Kantian
C.Virtue
D. Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is commonly identified with the principle of "maximize the overall
good" or, in a slightly different version, of producing "the greatest good for the
greatest number."
24. (p. 101) Which of the following principles of utilitarianism indicates its support for
democratic institutions and policies?
A. The greatest good for the greatest number
B.Doing the right thing
C.Fairness is a matter of opinion
D.Obey the law, keep your promises
The emphasis on the overall good, and upon producing the greatest good for the
greatest number, make utilitarianism a social philosophy that opposes policies that
aim to benefit only a small social, economic, or political minority. In this way,
utilitarianism provides strong support for democratic institutions and policies.
25. (p. 101) Which of the following traditions would support child labor because it
produces better overall consequences than the available alternatives?
A.Virtue ethics
B.Deontological ethics
C.Utilitarianism
D.Classicism
One might argue on utilitarian grounds that child labor is ethically permissible
because it produces better overall consequences than the alternatives.
26. (p. 101) The utilitarian tradition has a long history of relying on _____ for deciding
on the ethical legitimacy of alternative decisions.
A.intuition
B.experience
C.variable analysis
D.social sciences
Deciding on the ethical legitimacy of alternative decisions requires that we make
judgments about the likely consequences of our actions. Within the utilitarian
tradition, there is a strong inclination to turn to social science for help in making such
predictions.
27. (p. 102) The "market" version of utilitarianism would promote all of the following
policies except:
A.deregulation of private industry.
B.protection of property rights.
C.regulation of advertising.
D.allow for free exchanges.
Utilitarian thinking invokes the tradition of Adam Smith, claiming that free and
competitive markets are the best means for attaining utilitarian goals. This "market"
version would promote policies that deregulate private industry, protect property
rights, allow for free exchanges, and encourage competition.
28. (p. 103) Economists that view profit maximization as a central idea to corporate
social responsibility are following the:
A.kantian framework of ethics.
B.deontological framework of ethics.
C.utilitarian framework of ethics.
D.virtue-based framework of ethics.
One movement within utilitarian thinking invokes the tradition of Adam Smith,
claiming that free and competitive markets are the best means for attaining utilitarian
goals. Given this utilitarian goal, current free market economics advises us that the
most efficient economy is structured according to the principles of free market
capitalism. This requires that business managers, in turn, should seek to maximize
profits. This idea is central to one common perspective on corporate social
responsibility.
29. (p. 104) Which of the following would be advocated by the "administrative" version
of utilitarianism?
A.Abolition of private enterprise
B.Reliance on free and competitive markets
C.Profit maximization of private enterprises
D.Government regulation of business
The "administrative" approach to public policy underlies one theory of the entire
administrative and bureaucratic side of government and organizations. This utilitarian
approach would be sympathetic with government regulation of business on the
grounds that such regulation will insure that business activities do contribute to the
overall good.
30. (p. 106) The essence of utilitarianism is its:A. focus on personal character.
B. reliance on consequences.
C.focus on principles.
D.reliance on moral systems.
The essence of utilitarianism is its reliance on consequences.
31. (p. 106) The statement, "the end justifies the means," reflects the principle
of: A.utilitarianism.
B.kantian ethics.
C.virtue ethics.
D.deontology.
In utilitarianism, ethical and unethical acts are determined by their consequences. In
short, the end justifies the means.
32. (p. 106) Which ethical framework goes against the ethical principle of obeying
certain duties or responsibilities, no matter the end result?
A.Deontological framework of ethics
B.Kantian framework of ethics
C.Virtue ethics framework of ethics
D.Utilitarian framework of ethics
The essence of utilitarianism is its reliance on consequences. Ethical and unethical
acts are determined by their consequences. In short, the end justifies the means.
33. (p. 107) The idea behind deontological approach to ethics is:
A.intuitive.
B.consequentialist.
C.behavioral.
D. commonsensical.
The language of "deontology" and "deontological ethics" is very abstract and is likely
to strike many students as so much academic gobbledygook. But the idea behind this
approach is commonsensical.
34. (p. 107) Which of the following approaches to ethics tells us that there are some rules
that we ought to follow even if doing so prevents good consequences from happening
or even if it results in some bad consequences?
A.Classicism
B.Utilitarianism
C.Deontological
D.Virtue ethics
The deontological approach to ethics tells us that there are some rules that we ought to
follow even if doing so prevents good consequences from happening or even if it
results in some bad consequences.
35. (p. 107) Which of the following statements reflects the deontological ethical
tradition? A.Obey the law
B.Ends justify the means
C.Maximize the overall good
D.Survival of the fittest
Ethical principles can simply be thought of as a type of rule, and the deontological
approach to ethics tells us that there are some rules that we ought to follow even if
doing so prevents good consequences from happening or even if it results in some bad
consequences.
36. (p. 107) "All of my friends trust me because I never back down on my word and I
never break promises, no matter what." Identify the ethical approach that reflects this
line of thought.
A.Classicism
B.Utilitarianism
C.Deontological
D.Spinozism
Ethical principles can simply be thought of as a type of rule, and the deontological
approach to ethics tells us that there are some rules that we ought to follow even if
doing so prevents good consequences from happening or even if it results in some bad
consequences. Rules or principles (e.g., "obey the law," "keep your promises,"
"uphold your contracts") create duties that bind us to act or decide in certain ways.
37. (p. 108) "We ought to stop at a red light, even if no cars are coming and I could get to
my destination that much sooner." Identify the ethical approach that follows this line
of thought.
A.Virtue ethics
B.Utilitarianism
C.Classicism
D.Deontological
The deontological approach to ethics tells us that there are some rules that we ought to
follow even if doing so prevents good consequences from happening or even if it
results in some bad consequences.
38. (p. 108) Lawyers, accountants, auditors, financial analysts, bankers have important
roles to play within political and economic institutions. These roles insure the
integrity and proper functioning of the economic, legal, or financial system and are
termed as:
A.initiating functions.
B.authentic roles.
C.critical path functions.
D.gatekeeper functions.
Professionals within business have important roles to play within political and
economic institutions. Many of these roles, often described as "gatekeeper functions,"
insure the integrity and proper functioning of the economic, legal, or financial system.
39. (p. 108-109) No group could function if members were free at all times to decide for
themselves what to do and how to act. Which of the following functions to organize
and ease relations between individuals?
A. Gatekeepers B.Social contracts
C.Social mores
D.Personal norms
Legal rules, organizational rules, role-based rules, and professional rules can be
thought of being a part of a social agreement, or social contract, which functions to
organize and ease relations between individuals. No group could function if members
were free at all times to decide for themselves what to do and how to act.
40. (p. 110) According to Immanuel Kant, there is essentially one fundamental moral
duty:
A.always speak the truth.
B.remain loyal to your family.
C. respect the dignity of each individual.
D. you should never steal.
The 18th-century German philosopher Immanuel Kant, argued that there is essentially
one such fundamental moral duty, one categorical imperative: respect the dignity of
each individual human being.
41. (p. 110) Immanuel Kant claimed that the duty to respect human dignity could be
expressed in several ways. One version directs us to act according to those rules that
could be universally agreed to by all people. This is the first form of the:
A.Kantian hypothetical imperative.
B.Kantian decisive correlations.
C.Kantian categorical imperative.
D.Kantian moral objectivism.
Kant claimed that the duty to respect human dignity could be expressed in several
ways. One version directs us to act according to those rules that could be universally
agreed to by all people. (This is the first form of the famous "Kantian categorical
imperative.")
42. (p. 111) Which of the following is also known as the Kantian tradition in ethics?
A.Utilitarianism
B.Virtue ethics
C.Classicism
D. Deontological ethics
Deontology is also known as the Kantian tradition in ethics.
43. (p. 111) The concept of moral rights is central to the:
A.tradition of virtue ethics.
B.consequence-based ethical tradition.
C.behavior-based ethical tradition.
D. principle-based ethical tradition.
The concept of a human or moral right is central to the principle-based ethical
tradition.
44. (p. 112) The Kantian tradition claims that humans do not act only out of instinct and
conditioning; they make free choices about how they live their lives, about their own
ends. In this sense, humans are said to have a fundamental human right of:
A.dignity.
B.rationality.
C.autonomy.
D.equality.
The Kantian tradition claims that our fundamental human rights, and the duties that
follow from them, are derived from our nature as free and rational beings. Humans do
not act only out of instinct and conditioning; they make free choices about how they
live their lives, about their own ends. In this sense, humans are said to have a
fundamental human right of autonomy, or "self-rule."
45. (p. 114) Which among the following is a legal right? A.Right to select a specific health
care package.
B. Right to bargain collectively as part of a union.
C.Right to select a particular pension fund.
D.Right to select the number of paid holidays.
Legal rights granted to employees on the basis of legislation or judicial rulings are a
right to a minimum wage, equal opportunity, to bargain collectively as part of a union,
to be free from sexual harassment, and so forth.
46. (p. 116-117) Which of the following approaches conceive of practical reason in terms
of deciding how to act and what to do?
A. Utilitarianism and deontology
B.Utilitarianism and virtue ethics
C.Kantian ethics and virtue ethics
D.Virtue ethics and deontology
Utilitarian and deontological approaches to ethics focus on rules that we might follow
in deciding what we should do, both as individuals and as citizens. These approaches
conceive of practical reason in terms of deciding how to act and what to do.
47. (p. 117) Which of the following traditions seeks a full and detailed description of
those character traits that would constitute a good and full human life?
A.Kantian ethics
B.Deontological ethics
C.Utilitarianism
D. Virtue ethics
Virtue Ethics is a tradition within philosophical ethics that seeks a full and detailed
description of those character traits, or virtues, that would constitute a good and full
human life.
48. (p. 117) Identify the view which holds that people act only out of a self-
interest. A.Altruism
B. Egoism
C.Epistemic
D.Solipsism
Egoism is a view which holds that people act only out of a self-interest.
49. (p. 117) Identify the approach to ethics that shifts the focus from questions about
what a person should do, to a focus on who that person is.
A.Classicism
B.Deontological
C.Utilitarianism
D.Virtue ethics
An ethics of virtue shifts the focus from questions about what a person should do, to a
focus on who that person is.
50. (p. 119) Virtue ethics emphasizes the more _____ side of our character. A.affective
B.cognitive
C.conative
D.intuitive
Virtue ethics emphasizes the more affective side of our character.
51. (p. 120) Which of the following focuses on the concept of practices and what type of
people these practices are creating?
A. Virtue ethics framework of ethics.
B.Social justice through fairness framework of ethics.
C.Utilitarian framework of ethics.
D.Deontological framework of ethics.
Virtue ethics reminds us to look to the actual practices we find in the business world
and ask what type of people these practices are creating.
Fill in the Blank Questions
52. (p. 100) Virtue ethics directs us to consider the _____ of individuals and how various
character traits can contribute to, or obstruct a happy, meaningful life.
moral character
Virtue ethics directs us to consider the moral character of individuals and how various
character traits can contribute to, or obstruct, a happy and meaningful human life.
53. (p. 100) _____ is commonly identified with the principle of "maximize the overall
good" or, in a slightly different version, of producing "the greatest good for the
greatest number."
Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is commonly identified with the principle of "maximize the overall
good" or, in a slightly different version, of producing "the greatest good for the
greatest number."
54. (p. 101) The emphasis on producing the greatest good for the greatest number makes
utilitarianism a _____.
social philosophy
The emphasis on producing the greatest good for the greatest number makes
utilitarianism a social philosophy that provides strong support for democratic
institutions and policies and opposes those policies that aim to benefit only a small
social, economic, or political minority.
55. (p. 101) People endorsing child labor by justifying that it brings in foreign investment
within poor countries are mostly _____.
utilitarians
Child labor can have beneficial results for bringing foreign investment and money into
a poor country. In the opinion of some observers, allowing children to work for
pennies a day under sweatshop conditions produces better overall consequences than
the available alternatives.
Thus, one might argue on utilitarian grounds that such labor practices are ethically
permissible because they produce better overall consequences than the alternatives.
56. (p. 104) The " _____ " version of utilitarianism would be sympathetic with
government regulation of business on the grounds that such regulation will insure that
business activities do contribute to the overall good.
administrative
The administrative version of utilitarianism would be sympathetic with government
regulation of business on the grounds that such regulation will insure that business
activities do contribute to the overall good.
57. (p. 106) One problem associated with utilitarianism is that the essence of
utilitarianism is its reliance on _____.
consequences
One challenge goes directly to the core of utilitarianism. The essence of utilitarianism
is its reliance on consequences.
58. (p. 108) Legal rules, organizational rules, role-based rules, and professional rules, all
form a part of a social agreement called the _____, which functions to organize and
ease relations between individuals.
social contract
Legal rules, organizational rules, role-based rules, and professional rules can be
thought of as part of a social agreement, or social contract, which functions to
organize and ease relations between individuals.
59. (p. 110) The basis of the ethical principle emphasized by _____ is to respect the
dignity of individuals.
Immanuel Kant
The 18th-century German philosopher Immanuel Kant, argued that there is essentially
one such fundamental ethical principle: respect the dignity of each individual human
being.
60. (p. 114) Right to a minimum wage, equal opportunity, to bargain collectively as part
of a union, and to be free from sexual harassment are examples of _____ rights.
legal
Legal rights are granted to employees on the basis of legislation or judicial rulings.
Thus, employees have a right to a minimum wage, equal opportunity, to bargain
collectively as part of a union, to be free from sexual harassment, and so forth.
61. (p. 117) _____ is a view that holds that people act only out of self-interest.
Egoism
To understand how virtue ethics differs from utilitarian and deontological approaches,
consider the problem of egoism. Egoism is a view that holds that people act only out
of self- interest.
Essay Questions
62. (p. 98) What is an ethical theory and how do they help?
An ethical theory is nothing more than an attempt to provide a systematic answer to
the fundamental ethical question: How should human beings live their lives? Not only
do ethical theories attempt to answer the question of how we should live, but they also
provide reasons to support their answer. Ethical theories seek to provide a rational
justification for why we should act and decide in a particular way.
63. (p. 100-101) Explain how child labor may be justified in the eyes of a utilitarian.
Utilitarianism's fundamental insight is that we should decide what to do by
considering the consequences of our actions. One might argue on utilitarian grounds
that child labor practices are ethically permissible because they produce better overall
consequences than the alternatives.
64. (p. 102-103) According to one version of attaining the utilitarian goal, and with
reference to Adam Smith's an invisible hand', how is it possible to have the most
efficient economy?
One movement within utilitarian thinking invokes the tradition of Adam Smith and
claims that free and competitive markets are the best means for attaining utilitarian
goals. Given this utilitarian goal, current free market economics advises us that the
most efficient economy is structured according to the principles of free market
capitalism.
65. (p. 102-103) Explain how the branch of utilitarianism claims free and competitive
markets can help maximize the overall good?
Utilitarianism answers the fundamental questions of ethics - what should we do? - by
reference to a rule: Maximize the overall happiness. One movement within utilitarian
thinking invokes the tradition of Adam Smith, claiming that free and competitive
markets are the best means for attaining utilitarian goals. This version would promote
policies that deregulate private industry, protect property rights, allow for free
exchanges, and encourage competition. In such situations, decisions of rationallyself-
interested individuals would result, as if led by "an invisible hand" in Adam Smith's
terms, in the maximum satisfaction of individual happiness.
Current free market economics advises us that the most efficient economy is
structured according to the principles of free market capitalism. This requires that
business managers, in turn, should seek to maximize profits. This idea is central to
one common perspective on corporate social responsibility. By pursuing profits,
business insures that scarce resources go to those who most value them and thereby
insures that resources will provide optimal overall satisfaction. Thus, these economists
see competitive markets as the most efficient means to the utilitarian end of
maximizing happiness.
66. (p. 105-106) Briefly highlight the problems associated with utilitarian thinking.
If utilitarianism advises that decisions be made by comparing the consequences of
alternative actions, then we must have a method for making such comparisons. In
practice, however, some comparisons and measurements are very difficult.
A second challenge goes directly to the core of utilitarianism. The essence of
utilitarianism is its reliance on consequences. Ethical and unethical acts are
determined by their consequences. In short, the end justifies the means. But this seems
to deny one of the earliest ethical principles that many of us have learned: The ends do
not justify the means.
Utilitarian reasoning demands rigorous work to calculate all the beneficial and
harmful consequences of our actions. Perhaps more important, utilitarian reasoning
does not exhaust the range of ethical concerns. Consequences are only a part of the
ethical landscape. Responsible ethical decision-making also involves matters of
duties, principles, and personal integrity.
67. (p. 106) How does utilitarianism directly go against the fundamental ethical
principle?
The essence of utilitarianism is its reliance on consequences. Ethical and unethical
acts are determined by their consequences. In short, the end justifies the means. But
this seems to deny one of the earliest ethical principles that many of us have learned:
the ends do not justify the means.
68. (p. 108) Briefly explain how the concept of role-based rules works in business.
As an employee, one takes on a certain role that creates duties. Every business will
have a set of rules that employees are expected to follow. Sometimes these rules are
explicitly stated in a code of conduct, other times in employee handbooks, still others
simply by managers.
Likewise, as a business manager, one ought to follow many rules in respect to
stockholders, employees, suppliers, and other stakeholders.
Perhaps the most dramatic example of role-based duties concerns the work of
professionals within business. Lawyers, accountants, auditors, financial analysts, and
bankers have important roles to play within political and economic institutions. Many
of these roles, often described as "gatekeeper functions," insure the integrity and
proper functioning of the economic, legal, or financial system.
69. (p. 108) What are the roles enacted by professionals within business termed as, and
what do they entail?
Lawyers, accountants, auditors, financial analysts, and bankers have important roles to
play within political and economic institutions. Many of these roles, often described
as "gatekeeper functions," insure the integrity and proper functioning of the economic,
legal, or financial system.
70. (p. 108-109) What is the social contract?
Legal rules, organizational rules, role-based rules, and professional rules can be
thought of as part of a social agreement, or social contract, which functions to
organize and ease relations between individuals.
71. (p. 110) What is a moral right?
Moral right is the right to be treated with respect, to expect that others will treat us as
an end and never as a means only, the right to be treated as an autonomous person.
72. (p. 110) Explain how Immanuel Kant means that humans are subjects, and not
objects.
German philosopher Immanuel Kant, argued that there is essentially one fundamental
ethical principle: respect the dignity of each individual human being. One way to do
so requires us to treat all persons as ends in themselves and never only as means to
our own ends. In other words, our fundamental duty is to treat people as subjects
capable of living their own lives and not as mere objects that exist for our purposes.
To use the familiar subject/object categories from grammar, humans are subjects
because they make decisions and perform actions rather than being objects that are
acted upon.
73. (p. 111) How is the concept of moral right central to the concept of deontological
ethics?
The concept of a moral right is central to the deontological tradition since the inherent
dignity of each individual means that we cannot do just anything we choose to another
person. Moral rights protect individuals from being treated in ways that would violate
their dignity and that would treat them as mere objects or means. Moral rights imply
that some acts and some decisions are "off-limits."
Accordingly, our fundamental moral duty (the "categorical imperative") is to respect
the fundamental moral rights of others. Our rights establish limits on the decisions and
authority of others.
74. (p. 114) Distinguish between legal and contractual employee rights.
Legal rights are those granted to employees on the basis of legislation or judicial
rulings. Thus, employees have a right to a minimum wage, equal opportunity, to
bargain collectively as part of a union, to be free from sexual harassment, and so forth.
Employee rights might refer to those goods that employees are entitled to on the basis
of contractual agreements with employers. In this sense, a particular employee might
have a right to a specific health care package, a certain number of paid holidays,
pension funds, and the like.
75. (p. 117-118) Briefly explain the concept of virtue ethics.
Virtue ethics is a tradition within philosophical ethics that seeks a full and detailed
description of those character traits, or virtues, that would constitute a good and full
human life.
An ethics of virtue shifts the focus from questions about what a person should do, to a
focus on who that person is. This shift requires not only a different view of ethics but,
at least as important, a different view of ourselves. Implicit in this distinction is the
recognition that our identity as a person is constituted in part by our wants, beliefs,
values, and attitudes. A person's characterthosedispositions, relationships,
attitudes, values, and beliefs that popularly might be called a"personality"is not a
feature independent of that person's identity. Character is not like a suit of clothes that
you step into and out of at will. Rather, the self is identical to a person's most
fundamental and enduring dispositions, attitudes, values, and beliefs. Note how this
shift to an emphasis on the individual changes the nature of justification in ethics.
76. (p. 117) What is the biggest challenge posed by egoism'?
The biggest challenge posed by egoism and, according to some, the biggest challenge
to ethics, is the apparent gap between self-interest and altruism, or between motivation
that is "self-regarding"and motivation that is "other-regarding." Ethics requires us, at
least at times, to act for thewell-being of others.