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Computer Communication Network: Unit 3- Multiple Access

Prof. Suresha V, Dept. Of E&C E. K V G C E, Sullia, D.K-574 327 Page 1



UNIT 3 - MULTIPLE ACCESS
Learning Objectives:
Upon completion of this unit, the student should be able to:
Understand the need for multiple access in a shared channel.
Discuses many formal protocols have been devised to handle access to a shared link.
Explains the three categories of multiple access protocols.
Describe and analyze the different types of random access protocols.
Describe and analyze controlled access protocols.
Explains channelization protocols.
3.1. Introduction: Transmission technology can be categorized into two categories:
1. Point-to point networks
2. Broadcast networks
1. Point-to-point networks: Point-to-point networks are those in which when a message is sent
from one computer to another, it usually has to be sent via other computers in the network.
A point-to-point network consists of many connections between individual pairs of
computers.
2. Broadcast networks: Broadcast networks have a single communication channel that is
shared by all the machines on the network. A packet sent by one computer is received by all
other computers on the network. The packets that are sent contain the address of the
receiving computer; each computer checks this field to see if it matches its own address If it
does not then it is usually ignored; if it does then it is read. Broadcast channels are
sometimes known as multi-access channel.
The data link layer sublayers: The data link layer has two sublayers.This is shown in figure 3.1

Figure 3.1 Data link layer divided into two functionality-oriented sub-layers
The upper sublayer in the figure 3.1 is responsible for data link control. The lower sublayer is
responsible for resolving access to the shared media. If the channel is dedicated, do not need the
lower sub-layer.
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IEEE has actually made this division for LANs. The upper sublayer that is responsible for flow
and error control is called the Logical Link Control (LLC) Layer. The lower sublayer that is mostly
responsible for multiple access resolution is called the Media Access Control (MAC) Layer.
When nodes or stations are connected and use a common link, called a multipoint or broadcast
link, we need a multiple-access protocol to coordinate access to the link.MAC coordinates
transmission between users sharing the spectrum. The main goals are to prevent collisions while
maximizing throughput and minimizing delay
Many formal protocols have been devised to handle access to a shared link.MAC protocol
categorize them into three groups, shown in figure 3.2

Figure 3.2 Taxonomy of multiple-access protocols
3.2 RANDOM ACCESS PROTOCOLS: In a random access method, each station has the right to the
medium without being controlled by any other station. However, if more than one station tries
to send, there is an access conflict leads to collision and the frames will be either destroyed or
modified. To avoid access conflict or to resolve it when it happens, each station follows a
procedure that answers the following questions:
1. When can the station access the medium?
2. What can the station do if the medium is busy?
3. How can the station determine the success or failure of the transmission?
4. What can the station do if there is an access conflict?
To address above conflicts by using following random Access protocols
1. ALOHA
2. Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
3. Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
4. Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMD/CA)
Computer Communication Network: Unit 3- Multiple Access

Prof. Suresha V, Dept. Of E&C E. K V G C E, Sullia, D.K-574 327 Page 3

1. ALOHA: It was the earliest random access method, developed at the University of Hawaii in
early 1970. It was designed for a radio (wireless) LAN, but it can be used on any shared medium.
Two types of ALOHA
a. Pure ALOHA.
b. Slotted ALOHA
a. Pure ALOHA: The Concept used in this protocol called True Free for All. The original
ALOHA protocol is called pure ALOHA.
Procedure for P-ALOHA:
Whenever a station has data, it transmits immediately
Receivers ACK all packets
No ACK = collision. Wait a random time and retransmit
Figure 3.3 shows an example of frame collisions in pure ALOHA


Figure 3.3 Frames in a pure ALOHA network

Figure 3.3 shows that only two frames survive: frame 1.1 from station 1 and frame 3.2 from
station 3. We need to mention that even if one bit of a frame coexists on the channel with one
bit from another frame, there is a collision and both will be destroyed. If all these stations try to
resend their frames after the time-out, the frames will collide again.
Algorithm for pure ALOHA protocol:
Pure ALOHA dictates that when the time-out period passes, each station waits a random amount
of time before resending its frame. The randomness will help avoid more collisions.
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We call this time the back-off time TB.
1. Pure ALOHA has a second method to prevent congesting the channel with retransmitted
frames.
2. After a maximum number of retransmission attempts Kmax' a station must give up and
try later.
3. Figure 3.4 shows the procedure for pure ALOHA based on the above strategy.


Figure 3.4 Procedure for pure ALOHA protocol
4. The time-out period is equal to the maximum possible round-trip propagation delay,
which is twice the amount of time required to send a frame between the two most,
widely separated stations (2xTp).
5. The back-off time T
B
is a random value that normally depends on K (the number of
attempted unsuccessful transmissions).
6. The formula for T
B
depends on the implementation. One common formula is the binary
exponential back-off. In this method, for each retransmission, a multiplier in the range 0
to 2
K
- 1 is randomly chosen and multiplied by T
p
(maximum propagation time) or T
fr
(the
average time required to send out a frame) to find T
B.
Note that in this procedure, the
range of the random numbers increases after each collision. The value of K
max
is usually
chosen as 15.
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Advantages:
1. Trivially simple
2. No coordination between participants necessary, Hence no need for synchronization
3. No need for fixed length packets
4. Superior to fixed assignment when there is a large number of bursty stations.
5. Adapts to varying number of stations.
Disadvantages:
1. Collision factor is high, hence less efficiency
2. Theoretically proven throughput maximum of 18.4%.
3. Requires queuing buffers for retransmission of packets.

Example 3.1: The stations on a wireless ALOHA networks are a maximum of 600 km apart. If we
assume that signals propagate at 3 x 108 m/s, we find T
p
= (600 x 105) / (3 x 108) = 2 ms. Now we
can find the value of T
B
for different values of K.
Solution:
a. For K = 1, the range is {0, 1}. The station needs to generate a random number with a
value of 0 or 1. This means that TB is either ms (0 x 2) or 2 ms (l x 2), based on the
outcome of the random variable.
b. For K =2, the range is {0, 1, 2, 3}. This means that TB can be 0, 2, 4, or 6 ms, based on
the outcome of the random variable.
c. For K =3, the range is to, 1, 2, 3,4,5,6, 7}. This means that TB can be 0, 2, 4, ... ,14 ms,
based on the outcome of the random variable.
d. We need to mention that if K > 10, it is normally set to 10.
Vulnerable time: The length of time in which there is a possibility of collision called vulnerable
time

Figure 3.5 Vulnerable time for pure ALOHA protocol
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Assume that the stations send fixed-length frames with each frame taking T
fr
to send. Figure 3.5
shows the vulnerable time for station A. Station A sends a frame at time t. Now imagine station
B has already sent a frame between t - T
fr
and t. This leads to a collision between the frames
from station A and station B.
Vulnerable time in pure ALOHA is 2 times the frame transmission time.
Pure ALOHA vulnerable time = 2 x T
fr

Example 3.2: A pure ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a shared channel of 200 kbps.
What is the requirement to make this frame collision-free?
Solution
Average frame transmission time T
fr
= Frame length/ transmission speed
= 200 bits / 200 kbps = 1 ms.
The vulnerable time is = 2* T
fr


= 2 1 ms = 2 ms.
This means no station should send later than 1ms before this station starts
transmission and no station should start sending during the 1ms period that station is
sending.
Throughput: The number of packets successfully transmitted through the channel per packet
time called throughput of Pure ALOHA. Let us call G the average number of frames generated by
the system during one frame transmission time. Then it can be proved that the average number
of successful transmissions for pure ALOHA is S = G x e
-2G
.
The maximum throughput S
max
is 0.184, for G = 1/2. i.e., if one-half a frame is generated during
one frame transmission time (in other words, one frame during two frame transmission times),
then 18.4 percent of these frames reach their destination successfully.
Relation between G and S:

Computer Communication Network: Unit 3- Multiple Access

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Example 1.3: A pure ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a shared channel of 200 kbps.
What is the throughput if the system (all stations together) produces?
a. 1000 frames per second
b. 500 frames per second
c. 250 frames per second.
Solution:
The frame transmission time Tp = Frame length/ transmission speed
= 200/200 kbps or 1 ms.
a. If the system creates 1000 frames per second, this is 1 frame per millisecond.
The load is 1. i.e. G = 1
In this case S = G e
2 G
or S = 0.135 (13.5 percent).
This means that the throughput is 1000 0.135 = 135 frames.
Only 135 frames out of 1000 will probably survive
b. If the system creates 500 frames per second, this is (1/2) frame per millisecond.
The load is (1/2). i,e G=
In this case S = G e
2G
or S = 0.184 (18.4 percent).
This means that the throughput is 500 0.184 = 92
Only 92 frames out of 500 will probably survive.
Note that this is the maximum throughput case, percentagewise.
c. If the system creates 250 frames per second, this is (1/4) frame per millisecond.
The load is (1/4). In this case S = G e
2G
or S = 0.152 (15.2 percent).
This means that the throughput is 250 0.152 = 38.
Only 38 frames out of 250 will probably survive

Computer Communication Network: Unit 3- Multiple Access

Prof. Suresha V, Dept. Of E&C E. K V G C E, Sullia, D.K-574 327 Page 8

2. Slotted ALOHA: Slotted ALOHA was invented to improve the efficiency of pure ALOHA. Time is
divided into discrete time intervals(slot).A station can transmit only at the beginning of slot only.
Vulnerable time for slotted ALOHA is one-half that of pure ALOHA.
Slotted ALOHA vulnerable time = T
fr


Figure 1.6 Frames in a slotted ALOHA network

The throughput for slotted ALOHA is S = G e
G
.
The maximum throughput S
max
= 0.368 when G = 1.

Vulnerable time for slotted ALOHA: Slotted ALOHA vulnerable time is T
fr
, This is shown in fig 3.7


Figure 3.7 Vulnerable time for slotted ALOHA protocol
Computer Communication Network: Unit 3- Multiple Access

Prof. Suresha V, Dept. Of E&C E. K V G C E, Sullia, D.K-574 327 Page 9

Example 1 : A slotted ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a shared channel of 200kbps.
What is the throughput if the system (all stations together) produces
a. 1000 frames per second
b. 500 frames per second
c. 250 frames per second.
Solution:
a. The frame transmission time is 200/200 kbps or 1 ms.
If the system creates 1000 frames per second, this is 1 frame per millisecond.
The load is 1. i,e G=1
In this case S = G e
G
or S = 0.368 (36.8 percent).
This means that the throughput is 1000 0.0368 = 368 frames.
Only 386 frames out of 1000 will probably survive.
b. If the system creates 500 frames per second, this is (1/2) frame per millisecond.
The load is (1/2).i,e G=1/2
In this case S = G e
G
or S = 0.303 (30.3 percent).
This means that the throughput is 500 0.0303 = 151.
Only 151 frames out of 500 will probably survive.
c. If the system creates 250 frames per second, this is (1/4) frame per millisecond.
The load is (1/4). I,e G=1/4
In this case S = G e
G
or S = 0.195 (19.5 percent).
This means that the throughput is 250 0.195 = 49.
Only 49 frames out of 250 will probably survive.
3. Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA): CSMA is based on the principle "sense before
transmit" or "listen before talk. To minimize the chance of collision and, therefore, increase the
performance, the CSMA method was developed. The chance of collision can be reduced if a
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Prof. Suresha V, Dept. Of E&C E. K V G C E, Sullia, D.K-574 327 Page 10

station senses the medium before trying to use it. CSMA can reduce the possibility of collision,
but it cannot eliminate it. Figure 3.8 shows a Space/time model of the collision in CSMA

Figure 3.8 Space/time model of the collision in CSMA
The possibility of collision still exists because of propagation delay; when a station sends a
frame, it still takes time (although very short) for the first bit to reach every station and for every
station to sense it.
Vulnerable Time in CSMA: The vulnerable time for CSMA is the propagation time T
p
. This is the
time needed for a signal to propagate from one end of the medium to the other. When a station
sends a frame, and any other station tries to send a frame during this time, a collision will result.
But if the first bit of the frame reaches the end of the medium, every station will already have
heard the bit and will refrain from sending.

Figure 3.9 Vulnerable time in CSMA
The vulnerable time for CSMA is the propagation time T
p



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CSMA Protocols: There are several types of CSMA protocols:
a) 1 - Persistent CSMA.
b) Non - Persistent CSMA.
c) P - Persistent CSMA.
a) 1-Persistent CSMA: Procedure for this algorithm are as follows
Sense the channel.
If busy, keep listening to the channel and transmit immediately when the channel
becomes idle.
If idle, transmit a packet immediately. If collision occurs.
Wait a random amount of time and start over again.
The protocol is called 1-persistent because the host transmits with a probability of 1
whenever it finds the channel idle.
b) Non-Persistent CSMA: Procedure for this algorithm are as follows
Sense the channel.
If busy, wait a random amount of time and sense the channel again.
If idle, transmit a packet immediately.
If collision occurs.
Wait a random amount of time and start all over again.


Figure 3.10 Behavior of three persistence methods
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c). P-persistent CSMA: Procedure for this algorithm is as follows
It is used if the channel has time slots with slot duration equal to or greater than the
maximum propagation time.
The p-persistent approach combines the advantages of the other two strategies. It
reduces the chance of collision and improves efficiency.
In this method, after the station finds the line idle it follows these steps:
1. With probability p, the station sends its frame.
2. With probability q = 1 - p, the station waits for the beginning of the next time slot
and checks the line again.
If the line is idle, it goes to step 1.
If the line is busy, it acts as though a collision has occurred and uses the back-off
procedure.

Figure 3.11 Flow diagrams for three persistence methods

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3. Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD): The CSMA method does
not specify the procedure following a collision. Carrier senses multiple access with collision
detection (CSMA/CD) augments the algorithm to handle the collision. CSMA/CD is used to
improve CSMA performance by terminating transmission as soon as a collision is detected.
IIIustration od CSMA/CD procedure:

Figure 3.13 Collision of the first bit in CSMA/CD
Let us look at the figure 3.13, first bits transmitted by the two stations involved in the collision.
Although each station continues to send bits in the frame until it detects the collision. At time t
1
,
station A has executed its persistence procedure and starts sending the bits of its frame. At time
t
2,
station C has not yet sensed the first bit sent by A. Station C executes its persistence
procedure and starts sending the bits in its frame, which propagate both to the left and to the
right. The collision occurs sometime after time t
2,
Station C detects a collision at time t
3
when it
receives the first bit of A's frame. Station C immediately aborts transmission. Station A detects
collision at time t
4
when it receives the first bit of C's frame; it also immediately aborts
transmission. A transmits for the duration t
4
t
1
; C transmits for the duration t
3
- t
2
the
length of any frame divided by the bit rate. In this protocol must be more than either of these
durations. At time t
4
, the transmission of A:s frame, though incomplete, is aborted at time t3,
the transmission of B's frame, though incomplete, is aborted.
Minimum Frame Size: For CSMA/CD to work, It restriction on the frame size. Before sending the
last bit of the frame, the sending station must detect a collision, if any, and abort the
transmission.This is so because the station, once the entire frame is sent, does not keep a copy
of the frame and does not monitor the line for collision detection. Therefore,
Frame transmission time T
fr
must be at least two times the maximum propagation
time Tp. i, e T
fr
= 2Tp
The vulnerable time for CSMA/CD is twice the propagation time = 2T
p

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Example 3.5
A network using CSMA/CD has a bandwidth of 10 Mbps. If the maximum propagation time
(including the delays in the devices and ignoring the time needed to send a jamming signal,) is
25.6 s, what is the minimum size of the frame?
Solution
The frame transmission time is T
fr
= 2 Tp = 51.2 s.
In the worst case, a station needs to transmit for a period of 51.2 s to detect the
collision.
The minimum size of the frame is 10 Mbps 51.2 s = 512 bits or 64 bytes.
This is actually the minimum size of the frame for Standard Ethernet.

Procedure for CSMA/CD: Algorithmic steps for CSMA/CD as shown in figure 3.15


Figure 3.15 Flow diagrams for the CSMA/CD
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Prof. Suresha V, Dept. Of E&C E. K V G C E, Sullia, D.K-574 327 Page 15

Energy Level: Level of energy in a channel can have three values:
1. Zero: At this level, the channel is idle
2. Normal: At this level, a station has successfully captured the channel and is sending its
frame
3. Abnormal: At this level, there is a collision and the level of the energy is twice the normal
level.
A station that has a frame to send or is sending a frame needs to monitor the energy level to
determine if the channel is idle, busy, or in collision mode. Figure 3.16 shows the situation.

Figure 3.16 Energy level during transmission, idleness, or collision
Throughput of CSMA/CD: The throughput of CSMA/CD is greater than that of pure or slotted
ALOHA. The maximum throughput occurs at a different value of G and is based on the
persistence method and the value of p in the p-persistent approach. For I-persistent method the
maximum throughput is around 50 percent when G =1.For non persistent method, the maximum
throughput can go up to 90 percent when G is between 3 and 8.
4. Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA): The basic idea behind
CSMA/CD is that a station needs to be able to receive while transmitting to detect a collision.
When there is no collision, the station receives one signal: its own signal. When there is a
collision, the station receives two signals: its own signal and the signal transmitted by a second
station. To distinguish between these two cases, the received signals in these two cases must be
significantly different. The signal from the second station needs to add a significant amount of
energy to the one created by the first station. In a wired network, the received signal has almost
the same energy as the sent signal because either the length of the cable is short or there are
repeaters that amplify the energy between the sender and the receiver. This means that in a
collision, the detected energy almost doubles.
However, in a wireless network, much of the sent energy is lost in transmission. The received
signal has very little energy. Therefore, a collision may add only 5 to 10 percent additional
energy. This is not useful for effective collision detection.CA is used to improve CSMA
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performance by not allowing wireless transmission of a node if another node is transmitting,
thus reducing the probability of collision due to the use of a random time. Collisions are avoided
through the use of CSMA/CA's three strategies:
1. The inter frame space (IFS)
2. The contention window
3. Acknowledgments


Figure 3.17 Timing in CSMA/CA
1. Inter frame Space (IFS):
Collisions are avoided by deferring transmission even if the channel is found idle.
When an idle channel is found, the station does not send immediately.
It waits for a period of time called the inter-frame space or IFS.
Even though the channel may appear idle when it is sensed, a distant station may have
already started transmitting.
The distant station's signal has not yet reached this station. The IFS time allows the front
of the transmitted signal by the distant station to reach this station.
If after the IFS time the channel is still idle, the station can send, but it still needs to wait
a time equal to the contention time.
The IFS variable can also be used to prioritize stations or frame types. for example, a
station that is assigned shorter IFS has a higher priority.
2. Contention Window
The contention window is an amount of time divided into slots.
A station that is ready to send chooses a random number of slots as its wait time.
The number of slots in the window changes according to the binary exponential back- off
strategy.
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This means that it is set to one slot the first time and then doubles each time the station
cannot detect an idle channel after the IFS time.
Contention window is that the station needs to sense the channel after each time slot.
If the station finds the channel busy, it does not restart the process; it just stops the
timer and restarts it when the channel is sensed as idle. This gives priority to the station
with the longest waiting time
3. Acknowledgment
With all these precautions, there still may be a collision resulting in destroyed data.
The positive acknowledgment and the time-out timer can help guarantee that the
receiver has received the frame.
Procedure for CSMA/CA: Figure 1.17 shows the procedure. Note that the channel needs to be
sensed before and after the IFS.


Figure 3.18 Flow diagram for CSMA/CA
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3.3 CONTROLLED ACCESS: Here, every station consults one another to find which station has
the right to send. A station cannot send unless it has been authorized by other stations. There
are three popular controlled-access methods
1. Reservation
2. Polling
3. Token Passing

1. Reservation: In this method, a station needs to make a reservation before sending data. Time
is divided into intervals. In each interval, a reservation frame precedes the data frames sent in
that interval which is shown in figure 3.18

Figure 3.18 Reservation access methods
If there are N stations in the system, there are exactly N reservation minislots in the reservation
frame. Each minislot belongs to a station. When a station needs to send a data frame, it makes a
reservation in its own minislots. The stations that have made reservations can send their data
frames after the reservation frame.
2. Polling: Polling works with topologies in which one device is designated as a primary station
and the other devices are secondary stations. All data exchanges must be made through the
primary device even when the ultimate destination is a secondary device shown in figure 3.19

Figure 3.19 Select and poll functions in polling access method
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The primary device controls the link; the secondary devices follow its instructions. It is up to the
primary device to determine which device is allowed to use the channel at a given time. The
primary device, therefore, is always the initiator of the session, if the primary wants to receive
data, it asks the secondarys if they have anything to send; this is called Poll function. If the
primary wants to send data, it tells the secondary to get ready to receive; this is called select
function. If the primary is neither sending nor receiving data, it knows the link is available. The
primary must alert the secondary to the upcoming transmission and wait for an
acknowledgment of the secondary's ready status. Before sending data, the primary creates and
ransmits a select (SEL) frame, one field of which includes the address of the intended secondary.
3. Token passing: In the token-passing method, the stations in a network are organized in a
logical ring. For each station, there is a predecessor and a successor. The predecessor is the
station which is logically before the station in the ring; the successor is the station which is after
the station in the ring. The current station is the one that is accessing the channel now. The right
to this access has been passed from the predecessor to the current station. The right will be
passed to the successor when the current station has no more data to send.

Figure 3.20 Logical ring and physical topology in token-passing access method
3.4 CHANNELIZATION: Channelization is a multiple-access method in which the available
bandwidth of a link is shared in time, frequency, or through code, between different stations.
Three channelization protocols.
Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
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1. Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA): In FDMA, the available bandwidth of the
common channel is divided into bands that are separated by guard bands, see in figure 3.21.
Mainly used in Analog System or as a Voice channel. Main limitation is it is not efficiency
multiple access method.

Figure 3.21 Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA)
2. Time - Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
In TDMA, the bandwidth is just one channel that is timeshared between different stations.

Figure 3.22 Time-division multiple access (TDMA)

3. Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA): In CDMA, one channel carries all transmissions
simultaneously. This is shown in figure 3.23
Each station assign with unique code
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Assigned codes have two properties.
1. If we multiply each code by another, we get 0.
2. If we multiply each code by itself, we get 4 (the number of stations).

Figure 3.23 Simple idea of communication with code
Any station that wants to receive data from one of the other three multiplies the data on
the channel by the code of the sender.
For example, suppose stations 1 and 2 are talking to each other. Station 2 wants to hear
what station 1 is saying.
It multiplies the data on the channel by c1' the code of station 1. Because (c1 . c1) is 4,
but (c2 . c1), (c3 . c1), and (c4 . c1) are all 0
s

Station 2 divides the result by 4 to get the data from station 1.
Data = (d1. C1 + d2 . C2 +d3 . C3 + d4 . c4) . C1
= d 1. C1. C1 + d2. C2 . C1 + d3 . C3 . C1 + d4 . C4. C1 =4 X d1
Chips
CDMA is based on coding theory. Each station is assigned a code, which is a sequence of
numbers called chipsShown in Figure 3.24: The codes are for the previous example.

Figure 3.24 Chip sequences
We need to know that we did not choose the sequences randomly; they were carefully selected.
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Orthogonal sequences and have the following properties:
1. Each sequence is made of N elements, where N is the number of stations.
2. If we multiply a sequence by a number, every element in the sequence is multiplied by that
element. This is called multiplication of a sequence by a scalar.
For example, 2. [+1 +1-1-1] = [+2+2-2-2]
3. If we multiply two equal sequences, element by element, and add the results, we get N,
Where N is the number of elements in the each sequence. This is called the inner product
of two equal sequences. For example, [+1 +1-1 -1] [+1 +1 -1 - 1] = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 4
4. If we multiply two different sequences, element by element, and add the results, we get 0.
This is called inner product of two different sequences.
For example, [+1 +1 -1 - 1] [+1 +1 + 1 +1] = 1 + 1 - 1 - 1 = 0
5. Adding two sequences means adding the corresponding elements. The result is another
sequence. For example,[+1+1-1-1]+[+1+1+1+1]=[+2+2+0+0]
Data Representation in CDMA:


Figure 3.25 Data representation in CDMA
Rules for encoding:
1. If a station needs to send a 0 bit, it encodes it as -1
2. If it needs to send a 1 bit, it encodes it as +1.
3. When a station is idle, it sends no signal, which is interpreted as a 0
Encoding and Decoding in CDMA: Let a simple example show how four stations share the link
during a 1-bit interval. The procedure can easily be repeated for additional intervals. Assume
that stations 1 and 2 are sending a 0 bit and channel 4 is sending a 1 bit. Station 3 is silent. The
data at the sender site are translated to -1, -1, 0, and +1.Each station multiplies the
corresponding number by its chip (its orthogonal sequence) which is unique for each station. The
result is a new sequence which is sent to the channel. For simplicity, we assume that all stations
send the resulting sequences at the same time. The sequence on the channel is the sum of all
four sequences. Figure 3.26 shows the situation. Now imagine station 3, which we said is silent,
Computer Communication Network: Unit 3- Multiple Access

Prof. Suresha V, Dept. Of E&C E. K V G C E, Sullia, D.K-574 327 Page 23

is listening to station 2. Station 3 multiplies the total data on the channel by the code for station
2, which is [ +1 -1 +1-1], to get [-1-1-3 +1] [+1-1 +1-1] =-4/4 =-1 ...... bit 1

Figure 3.26 Sharing channel in CDMA

Illustration of Encoding and Decoding processes in CDMA



Figure 3.27 Encoding process in CDMA
Computer Communication Network: Unit 3- Multiple Access

Prof. Suresha V, Dept. Of E&C E. K V G C E, Sullia, D.K-574 327 Page 24


Figure 3.28 Sharing channel in CDMA

Signal Level in Encoding and Decoding of CDMA signal:
The figure 3.29 and 3.30 shows the digital signal produced by each station and the data
recovered at the destination (using NRZ-L for simplicity) and the signal that is on the common
channel


Figure 3.29 Digital signal created by four stations in CDMA

Computer Communication Network: Unit 3- Multiple Access

Prof. Suresha V, Dept. Of E&C E. K V G C E, Sullia, D.K-574 327 Page 25


Figure 3.30 Decoding of the composite signal for one in CDMA
Figure 3.28 shows how station 3 can detect the data sent by station 2 by using the code for
station 2. The total data on the channel are multiplied (inner product operation) by the signal
representing station 2 chip code to get a new signal. The station then integrates and adds the
area under the signal, to get the value -4, which is divided by 4 and interpreted as bit 0.

Sequence Generation:To generate chip sequences, we use a Walsh table, which is a two-
dimensional table with an equal number of rows and columns, as shown below. The number of
sequences in a Walsh table needs to be N = 2
m
.

Figure 3.31 General rule and examples of creating Walsh tables
Computer Communication Network: Unit 3- Multiple Access

Prof. Suresha V, Dept. Of E&C E. K V G C E, Sullia, D.K-574 327 Page 26

Example 3.6: Find the chips for a network with
a. Two stations
b. Four stations
Solution
We can use the rows of W2 and W4 in Figure 3.31:
a. For a two-station network, we have
[+1 +1] and [+1 1].
b. For a four-station network we have
[+1 +1 +1 +1], [+1 1 +1 1], [+1 +1 1 1], and [+1 1 1 +1].
Example 3.7
What is the number of sequences if we have 90 stations in our network?
Solution
The number of sequences needs to be 2
m
. We need to choose m = 7 and N = 2
7
or 128. We can
then use 90 of the sequences as the chips.
Example 1.8
Prove that a receiving station can get the data sent by a specific sender if it multiplies the entire
data on the channel by the senders chip code and then divides it by the number of stations.
Solution
Let us prove this for the first station, using our previous four-station example. We can
say that the data on the channel D = (d1 c1 + d2 c2 + d3 c3 + d4 c4).


The receiver which wants to get the data sent by station 1 multiplies these data by c1. When we
divide the result by N, we get d1.

Computer Communication Network: Unit 3- Multiple Access

Prof. Suresha V, Dept. Of E&C E. K V G C E, Sullia, D.K-574 327 Page 27

SUMMARY OF UNIT THREE: MULTIPLE ACCESS
Data link layer as two sublayers. The upper sublayer is responsible for data link control, and
the lower sublayer is responsible for resolving access to the shared media.
Many formal protocols have been devised to handle access to a shared link. We categorize
them into three groups: random access protocols, controlled access protocols, and
channelization protocols.
In random access or contention methods, no station is superior to another station and none
is assigned the control over another.
ALOHA allows multiple access (MA) to the shared medium. There are potential collisions in
this arrangement. When a station sends data, another station may attempt to do so at the
same time. The data from the two stations collide and become garbled.
To minimize the chance of collision and, therefore, increase the performance, the CSMA
method was developed. The chance of collision can be reduced if a station senses the
medium before trying to use it. Carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) requires that each
station first listen to the medium before sending. Three methods have been devised for
carrier sensing: I-persistent, nonpersistent, and P-persistent.
Carrier senses multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) augments the CSMA
algorithm to handle collision. In this method, a station monitors the medium after it sends a
frame to see if the transmission was successful. If so, the station is finished. If, however,
there is a collision, the frame is sent again.
To avoid collisions on wireless networks, carrier sense multiple access with collision
avoidance (CSMA/CA) was invented. Collisions are avoided through the use three strategies:
the interframe space, the contention window, and acknowledgments.
In controlled access, the stations consult one another to find which station has the right to
send. A station cannot send unless it has been authorized by other stations. We discussed
three popular controlled-access methods: reservation, polling, and token passing.
In the reservation access method, a station needs to make a reservation before sending data.
Time is divided into intervals. In each interval, a reservation frame precedes the data frames
sent in that interval.
In the polling method, all data exchanges must be made through the primary device even
when the ultimate destination is a secondary device. The primary device controls the link;
the secondary devices follow its instructions.
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In the token-passing method, the stations in a network are organized in a logical ring. Each
station has a predecessor and a successor. A special packet called a token circulates through
the ring.
Channelization is a multiple-access method in which the available bandwidth of a link is
shared in time, frequency, or through code, between different stations. We discussed three
channelization protocols: FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA.
In frequency-division multiple access (FDMA), the available bandwidth is divided into
frequency bands. Each station is allocated a band to send its data. In other words, each band
is reserved for a specific station, and it belongs to the station all the time.
In time-division multiple access (TDMA), the stations share the bandwidth of the channel in
time. Each station is allocated a time slot during which it can send data. Each station
transmits its data in its assigned time slot.
In code-division multiple access (CDMA), the stations use different codes to achieve multiple
access. CDMA is based on coding theory and uses sequences of numbers called chips. The
sequences are generated using orthogonal codes such the Walsh tables.

UNIT -3 MULTIPLE ACCESS QUESTION BANK
1. List three categories of multiple access protocols discussed in this chapter.
2. Define random access and list three protocols in this category.
3. Define controlled access and list three protocols in this category.
4. Define channelization and list three protocols in this category.
5. Explain why collision is an issue in a random access protocol but not in controlled access or
channelizing protocols.
6. Compare and contrast a random access protocol with a controlled access protocol.
7. Compare and contrast a random access protocol with a channelizing protocol.
8. Compare and contrast a controlled access protocol with a channelizing protocol.
9. Do we need a multiple access protocol when we use the 1ocalloop of the telephone company
to access the Internet? Why?
10. Do we need a multiple access protocol when we use one CATV channel to access the
Internet? Why?
11. We have a pure ALOHA network with 100 stations. If T
fr
= 1, what is the number of frames/s
each station can send to achieve the maximum efficiency.
12. Repeat Exercise 11 for slotted ALOHA.

Computer Communication Network: Unit 3- Multiple Access

Prof. Suresha V, Dept. Of E&C E. K V G C E, Sullia, D.K-574 327 Page 29

13. One hundred stations on a pure ALOHA network share a l-Mbps channel. If frames are 1000
bits long, find the throughput if each station is sending 10 frames per second.
14. Repeat Exercise 13 for slotted ALOHA.
15. In a CDMA/CD network with a data rate of 10 Mbps, the minimum frame size is found to be
512 bits for the correct operation of the collision detection process. What should be the
minimum frame size if we increase the data rate to 100 Mbps? To 1 Gbps? To 10 Gbps?
16. In a CDMA/CD network with a data rate of 10 Mbps, the maximum distance between any
station pair is found to be 2500 m for the correct operation of the collision detection process.
What should be the maximum distance if we increase the data rate to 100 Mbps? To 1 Gbps?
To 10 Gbps?
17. In Figure 3.13, the data rate is 10 Mbps, the distance between station A and C is 2000 m,
and the propagation speed is 2 x 108 m/s. Station A starts sending a long frame at time t1 =0;
station C starts sending a long frame at time t2 =3, if The size of the frame is long enough to
guarantee the detection of collision by both stations. Find:
a. The time when station C hears the collision (t3)'
b. The time when station A hears the collision (t4)'
c. The number of bits station A has sent before detecting the collision.
d. The number of bits station C has sent before detecting the collision.
18. Repeat Exercise 17 if the data rate is 100 Mbps.
19. Calculate the Walsh table Ws from W4 in Figure 3.31.
20. Recreate the W2 and W4 tables in Figure 3.29 using WI = [-1]. Compare the recreated
tables with the ones in Figure 3.31.
21. Prove the third and fourth orthogonal properties of Walsh chips for W4 in Figure 3.31.
22. Prove the third and fourth orthogonal properties of Walsh chips for W4 recreated in Q20
23. Repeat the scenario depicted in Figures 3.29 to 3.30 if both stations 1 and 3 are silent.
24. A network with one primary and four secondary stations uses polling. The size of a data
frame is 1000 bytes. The size of the poll, ACK, and NAK frames are 32 bytes each. Each station
has 5 frames to send. How many total bytes are exchanged if there is no limitation on the
number of frames a station? can send in response to a poll?
25. Repeat question 24 if each station can send only one frame in response to a poll.



Computer Communication Network: Unit 3- Multiple Access

Prof. Suresha V, Dept. Of E&C E. K V G C E, Sullia, D.K-574 327 Page 30

UNIT 3- MULTIPLE ACCESS - SOLVED EXAMPLES
1. Determine the maximum throughput that can be achieved using ALOHA and slotted ALOHA
protocols.
Solution:

We know that throughput of the ALOHA protocol S = Ge


-2G
To find the maximum throughputs that can be achieved using pure ALOHA protocol
we have to calculate the derivative of the above equation and equating it to zero.
dS/dG = e
-2G
2Ge
-2G
= 0
S
max
= 18.39, when G = 0.5
Thus the best taffic utilization one can hope for using pure ALOHA is 0.5/e=0.1839
Erlangs.
Similar for slotted ALOHA:

Throughput of the ALOHA protocol S = Ge


-G
To find the maximum throughputs that can be achieved using Slotted ALOHA
protocol we have to calculate the derivative of the above equation and equating it to
zero.
dS/dG = e
-G
Ge
-G
= 0
S
max
= 36.78, when G = 1.

2. In a pure ALOHA system the packet arrival times forms a Poisson process having rate of
10
3
packets/sec. The channel bit rate equals 10 Mbps. Each packet comprises of 1000 bits. What
is the normalized throughput of the system? Find the number of bits per packet that will maximize
the throughput.
Solution:
Normalized throughput, S, expresses throughput as a fraction of channel capacity and
equals S= L s /R. Hence the normalized throughput of the system is
S=1000 [bits/packet] 1000 [packets/sec] / 10
7
[bits/sec] = 0.1.
Maximal normalized throughput equals 0.18.
Hence the number of bits per packet that will maximize the throughput = 0.18 10
7
/ 10
3

= 1800 bits/packet.
3. Three stations share a 1 Mbps pure ALOHA channel. The average bit rate transmitted from
each of the three stations is R
1
=150 kbits/s, R
2
=200 kbits/s and R
3
=400 kbits/s. The size of each
packet is 2000 bits/packet. Assume that the arrival process is Poisson.
Computer Communication Network: Unit 3- Multiple Access

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1. What is the normalized total traffic on the channel?
2. What is the normalized throughput?
3. What is the probability of successful transmission?
4. Find the arrival rate of successful packets.
Solution:
1. 1=R1/L is the first station average packet arrival rate.
1=75 packets/s, 2=100 packets/s, 3=200 packets/s.
Total average packet arrival rate equals = 1 + 2 + 3 = 375 packets/s.
The transmission time of each packet equals T = 2000 [bits/packet] /1000000 [bits/s]=2
ms/packet.
The normalized total traffic G= T = 375 0.002 = 0.75
2. The normalized throughput S = G e
-2G
= 0.17
3. The probability of successful transmission Ps = P(K=0) = e
-2G
= 0.22
4. The arrival rate of successful packets s = Ps = 83.7 packets/s.

4. We have a pure ALOHA network with 100 stations. If T
fr
= 1s, what is the number of
Frames/s each station can send to achieve the maximum efficiency.
Solution:
Given, The number of stations in a network n=100
The frame transmission time T
fr
= 1s
To achieve the maximum efficiency in pure ALOHA, G = 1/2.
If we let ns to be the number of stations
let nfs to be the number of frames a station can send per second.
Then load G = ns nfs T
fr

1/2 = 100 nfs 1 s
nfs = 5000 frames/s
Thefore, total number of frames each station can send to achieve the maximum efficiency
is 5000 frames/s

5. Repeat Exercise 1 for slotted ALOHA.
Solution:
Given, The number of stations in a network n=100
The frame transmission time T
fr
= 1s
To achieve the maximum efficiency in Slotted ALOHA, G = 1.
Computer Communication Network: Unit 3- Multiple Access

Prof. Suresha V, Dept. Of E&C E. K V G C E, Sullia, D.K-574 327 Page 32

If we let ns to be the number of stations
Let nfs to be the number of frames a station can send per second.
Then load G = ns nfs T
fr

1 = 100 nfs 1 s
nfs = 10,000 frames/s
Thefore, total number of frames each station can send to achieve the maximum efficiency
is 10,000 frames/s

6. One hundred stations on a pure ALOHA network share a l-Mbps channel. If frames are 1000
bits long, find the throughput if each station is sending 10 frames per second.
Solution:
We can first calculate T
fr
and G, and then the throughput S.
Frame transmission time T
fr
= frame size/ data rate = (1000 bits) / 1 Mbps = 1 ms
G = ns nfs Tfr = 100 10 1 ms = 1
For pure ALOHA, through put S = G e
2G
= 1 e
2
13.53 percent.
This means that each station can successfully send only 1.35 frames per second.
7. Repeat Exercise 6 for slotted ALOHA.
Solution:
We can first calculate T
fr
and G, and then the throughput S.
Frame transmission time T
fr
= frame size/ Channel B.W = (1000 bits) / 1 Mbps = 1 ms
G = ns nfs Tfr = 100 10 1 ms = 1
For Slotted ALOHA, through put S = G e
G
= 1 e
1
27.06 percent.
This means that each station can successfully send only 2.706 frames per second.

7. 10,000 stations are competing for the use of a single slotted ALOHA channel. The average
station makes 18 requests/ hour. A slot is 125 sec. What is the approximate total
channel load?
Solution:
Average requests for 10000 stations = 10
4
x 18 / (60 x 60) = 50 requests/sec
Average slots number = 1 / (125 x 10
-6
) = 8000 slots/sec.
Total channel load = Average requests / average slots number
= 50 / 8000 = 0.0625
Hence, the total channel load is 0.0625 request/slot.

Computer Communication Network: Unit 3- Multiple Access

Prof. Suresha V, Dept. Of E&C E. K V G C E, Sullia, D.K-574 327 Page 33

8. In a CDMA system the four chip sequences are:
A = (-1 -1 -1 +1 +1 -1 +1 +1)
B = (-1 -1 +1 -1 +1 +1 +1 -1)
C = (-1 +1 -1 +1 +1 +1 -1 -1)
D = (-1 +1 -1 -1 -1 -1 +1 -1) in bipolar form.
If the received sequence is (-1 +1 -3 +3 +1 -1 -1 +1) .What is the data transmitted by the
four stations.
Solution:
Station A = (-1 -1 -1 +1 +1 -1 +1 +1) . (-1 +1 -3 +3 +1 -1 -1 +1) = +8/8= +1 = bit 1
Station B = (-1 -1 +1 -1 +1 +1 +1 -1) . (-1 +1 -3 +3 +1 -1 -1 +1) = - 8/8= -1 = bit 0
Station C = (-1 +1 -1 +1 +1 +1 -1 -1) . (-1 +1 -3 +3 +1 -1 -1 +1) = + 8/8= +1 = bit 1
Station D = (-1 +1 -1 -1 -1 -1 +1 -1) . (-1 +1 -3 +3 +1 -1 -1 +1) = 0 = Silent
Data transmitted by the four stations are 101 and station D is silent

10 . In a CDMA/CD network with a data rate of 10 Mbps, the minimum frame size is found to be
512 bits for the correct operation of the collision detection process. What should be the
minimum frame size if we increase the data rate to 100 Mbps? To 1 Gbps? To 10 Gbps?
Solution:
Given, Data rate =10Mbps
The frame size

= 512 bits
Let us find the relationship between the minimum frame size and the data rate. We
know that T
fr
= (frame size) / (data rate)
For CSMA/CD T
fr
= 2 Tp = 2 Distance / (propagation speed)
9. frame size = [2 (distance) / (propagation speed)] (data rate)]
10. (frame size) = K (data rate)
11. This means that minimum frame size is proportional to the data rate (K is a constant).
12. When the data rate is increased, the frame size must be increased in a network with a fixed
length to continue the proper operation of the CSMA/CD. we mentioned that the minimum
frame size for a data rate of 10 Mbps is 512 bits. We calculate the minimum frame size
based on the above proportionality relationship
o Data rate = 10 Mbps minimum frame size = 512 bits
o Data rate = 100 Mbps minimum frame size = 5120 bits
o Data rate = 1 Gbps minimum frame size = 51,200 bits
o Data rate = 10 Gbps minimum frame size = 512,000 bits
Computer Communication Network: Unit 3- Multiple Access

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11. In a CDMA/CD network with a data rate of 10 Mbps, the maximum distance between any
station pair is found to be 2500 m for the correct operation of the collision detection process.
What should be the maximum distance if we increase the data rate to 100 Mbps? To 1 Gbps?
To 10 Gbps?
Solution:
Given, Data rate =10Mbps
Maximum distance between any station pair

= 2500 mts
Let us find the relationship between the maximum distance and the data rate. We
know that T
fr
= (frame size) / (data rate)
For CSMA/CD T
fr
= 2 T
p
= 2 Distance / (propagation speed)
T
p
= Distance / Data rate = 2500/ 1010
6
= 250 s
We calculate the maximum distance based on the above proportionality relationship
o Data rate = 10 Mbps maximum distance = 2500 mts
o Data rate = 100 Mbps 250 s = maximum distance/ data rate
250 s = distance / 100 10
6

Maximum Distance = 250 s 100 10
6
= 25000 mts or 25 Km.
Similarly for:
o Data rate = 1 Gbps maximum distance = 250 Km.
o Data rate = 10 Gbps maximum distance = 2500 Km.
12. Figure 3.33, the data rate is 10 Mbps, the distance between station A and C is 2000 m, and
the propagation speed is 2 x 108 m/s. Station A starts sending a long frame at time t1 =0s;
station C starts sending a long frame at time t
2 b
=3s, if the size of the frame is long enough to
guarantee the detection of collision by both stations. Find:
a. The time when station C hears the collision (t
3
)
b. The time when station A hears the collision (t
4
)
c. The number of bits station A has sent before detecting the collision.
d. The number of bits station C has sent before detecting the collision.

Figure 3.33 Collision of the first bit in CSMA/CD
Computer Communication Network: Unit 3- Multiple Access

Prof. Suresha V, Dept. Of E&C E. K V G C E, Sullia, D.K-574 327 Page 35

Solution:
We have t1 = 0 and t2 = 3 s
a. t3 t1= (2000 m) / (2 108 m/s) =10 s t3 = 10 s + t1 = 10 s
b. t4 t2 = (2000 m) / (2 108 m/s) =10 s t4 = 10 s + t2 = 13 s
c. Tfr(A) = t4 t1 = 13 0 = 13 s BitsA = 10 Mbps 13 s = 130 bits
d. Tfr(C) = t3 t2 = 10 3 = 07s BitsC = 10 Mbps 07 s = 70 bits
13. Repeat Exercise 7 if the data rate is 100 Mbps
Solution:
We have t1 = 0 and t2 = 3 s
a. t3 t1= (2000 m) / (2 108 m/s) =10 s t3 = 10 s + t1 = 10 s
b. t4 t2 = (2000 m) / (2 108 m/s) =10 s t4 = 10 s + t2 = 13 s
c. Tfr(A) = t4 t1 = 13 0 = 13 s BitsA = 100 Mbps 13 s = 1300 bits
d. Tfr(C) = t3 t2 = 10 3 = 07s BitsC = 100 Mbps 07 s = 700 bits
14. Calculate the Walsh table W
8
from W
4
in figure below.

Solution:
W8
=
[


]


Computer Communication Network: Unit 3- Multiple Access

Prof. Suresha V, Dept. Of E&C E. K V G C E, Sullia, D.K-574 327 Page 36

15. Prove the third and fourth orthogonal properties of Walsh chips for W4
Solution:


16. A network with one primary and four secondary stations uses polling. The size of a data
frame is 1000 bytes. The size of the poll, ACK, and NAK frames are 32 bytes each. Each station
has 5 frames to send. How many total bytes are exchanged if there is no limitation on the number
of frames a station? Can send in response to a poll?
Solution:
Polling and Data Transfer
Frame 1 for all four stations: 4 [poll + frame + ACK)]
Frame 2 for all four stations: 4 [poll + frame + ACK)]
Frame 3 for all four stations: 4 [poll + frame + ACK)]
Frame 4 for all four stations: 4 [poll + frame + ACK)]
Frame 5 for all four stations: 4 [poll + frame + ACK)]
Polling and Sending NAKs
Station 1: [poll + NAK]
Station 2: [poll + NAK]
Station 3: [poll + NAK]
Station 4: [poll + NAK]
Total Activity:
24 polls + 20 frames + 20 ACKs + 4 NAKs
Total Bytes:
2432 + 201000 + 2032 + 432 = 21536 bytes


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Prof. Suresha V, Dept. Of E&C E. K V G C E, Sullia, D.K-574 327 Page 37

UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS AND ANSWER
1. a). Explain CSMA and show the behavior of the three persistence methods of CSMA. Compare
the vulnerable times in CSMA and CSMA/CD.
(Dec 09/ Jan 10 10marks Answer refer page no. 9 to 13)
b). 10,000 stations are competing for the use of a single slotted ALOHA channel. The average
station makes 18 requests/ hour. A slot is 125 sec. What is the approximate total
channel load? (Dec 09/ Jan 10 05 marks Answer refer page no. 32)
c). In a CDMA system the four chip sequences are:
A=(-1 -1 -1 +1 +1 -1 +1 +1)
B=(-1 -1 +1 -1 +1 +1 +1 -1)
C=(-1 +1 -1 +1 +1 +1 -1 -1)
D=(-1 +1 -1 -1 -1 -1 +1 -1) in bipolar form.
If the received sequence is (-1 +1 -3 +3 +1 -1 -1 +1) what is the data transmitted by the four
stations. (Dec 09/ Jan 10 05 marks Answer refer page no. 33)

2. a). A slotted ALOHA network transmits 200 bit frames using a shared channel with 200 kbps
bandwidth. Find the throughput if the system produces 500 frames
(May/ June 10 03 marks Ans refer page no.9)
b). A network using CSMA/CD has a bandwidth of 10 mbps. If the maximum propagation
time is 25.6 sec, what is the minimum size of the frame?
(May/ June 10 03 marks Ans refer page no.14)
c). Explain token passing method of controlled access of the channel.
(May/ June 10 06 marks Ans refer page no.19)
d). What is channelization in the context of multiple access? What are the various available
channelization techniques? List the properties of orthogonal sequences used in CDMA.
(May/ June 10 08 marks Ans refer page no.20 to 23)
3 a). Explain Pure ALOHA protocol. (December 10 06 marks Answer refer page no.3 to 5)
b). Pure ALOHA networks transmits 200-bit frames on shared channel of 200Kbps. What is the
throughput if the system produces: i)1000 frames/sec ii)500 frames/sec iii)250 frames/sec
(December 10 04marks Answer refer page no.07)
c). Discuss the three controlled access methods.
(December 10 10marks Answer refer page no.18 to 19)
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Prof. Suresha V, Dept. Of E&C E. K V G C E, Sullia, D.K-574 327 Page 38

4 a). Define random access method explain three different protocols in this category.
(June/July 2011 10marks Answer refer page no.2 to 3 and 8 to 11)
b). Explain reservation, pooling and token passing in controlled access method.
((June/July 2011 10marks Answer refer page no.18 to 19)
5.a) Write the different physical topologies used in the logical ring method and explain briefly.
(December 2011 10marks Answer refer page no.19)
b). In CSMA/CD, the data rate is 10Mbps,the distance between the stations A and C is
2000m and propagation is 2*10^8m.Station A starts sending a long frame at time t1=0;station C
starts sending along frame at t2=3s. The size of the frame is long enough to guarantee the
detection of collision by the stations. Find:
i. The time when station C hears the collision (t3).
ii. The time when station A hears the collision (t4).
iii. The number of bits station A has sent before detection the collision.
iv. The number of bits station C has sent before detection the collision.
(December 2011 10marks Answer refer page no.34)

6. a). Compare ALOHA with slotted ALOHA. What are the reasons for poor channel utilization
in ALOHA systems? How the same is improved in CSMA.
(December 2012 08 marks Answer refer page no.5 and 7)
b). Discuss the concept of
i) 1-persistent CSMA ii) Non-persistent CSMA.
(December 2012 06 marks Answer refer page no.11 and 12)
c). Explain the working of CSMA/CD. Suppose a point to point link is set up between earth and
MARS. The distance from earth to mars is approximately 55 Gm and data travels over the
link at a speed of light 310
8
m/s. Calculate the minimum round trip propagation time.
(December 2012 06 marks Answer refer page no.13)
Solution: Minimum round trip propagation time = 2 * T
p
= 2*183.33 = 366.66 seconds


Where T
p
= Distance earth and MARS / Speed of light = 55 *10
9
/ 3*10
8
= 183.33 sec
7 a). Explain how collision are avoided through use of IFS, contention window and
acknowledgments in CSMA/CA. with help of the flow chart show the proceduer for
CSMA/CA. ( June/July 2013 10marks Ans refer page no. 15 to 17)

Computer Communication Network: Unit 3- Multiple Access

Prof. Suresha V, Dept. Of E&C E. K V G C E, Sullia, D.K-574 327 Page 39

b).Explain the Token Passing method of controlled access of the channel
(June/July 2013 06marks Answer refer page no. 19)
c). Slotted ALOHA networks transmits 200-bit frames on shared channel of 200Kbps. What is
the throughput if the system produces: i) 1000 frames/sec ii) 500 frames/sec iii) 250 frames/se
(June /July 2013 04marks Answer refer page no. 9)

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