Unit 4: Sensation & Perception Checks for Understanding-Answers

1. Contrast sensation and perception, and explain the difference between bottom-up and top-down processing.
Sensation is the process by which our sensory receptors and, nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our
environment. Perception is the process by which we organize and interpret this information. Although we view sensation and
perception separately to analyze and discuss them, they are actually parts of one continuous process. Bottom-up processing is
sensory analysis that begins at the entry level, with information flowing from the sensory receptors to the brain. Top-down
processing is analysis that begins with the brain and flows down, filtering information through our experience and expectations to
produce perceptions.

2. Describe the interplay between attention and perception. In a process traditionally known as sensation, our senses of vision,
hearing, taste, smell, and touch detect physical energy from the environment and encode it as neural signals. Aided by
knowledge and expectations, our brain perceives meaning in these signals. We selectively attend to, and process, a limited
number of the data bombarding our senses and block out the others. This focused attention can result in inattentional or
change blindness, and even choice blindness.

3. Distinguish between absolute and difference thresholds, and discuss whether we can sense stimuli below our absolute
thresholds and be influenced by them.
Each species comes equipped with sensitivities that enable it to survive and thrive. Psychophysics is the study of the
relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli and our psychological experience of them. Our absolute threshold
for any stimulus is the minimum stimulation necessary for us to be consciously aware of it 50percent of the time. Signal
detection theory demonstrates that individual absolute thresholds vary, depending on the strength of the signal and also on
our experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness. Our difference threshold (also called just noticeable difference or jnd)
is the barely noticeable difference we discern between two stimuli 50 percent of the time. As Webers law states, to be
perceptibly different, two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion (such as a 2 percent difference in weight), not a
constant amount, of the original stimulus. The priming effect and other experiments reveal that we can process some
information from stimuli below our absolute threshold for conscious awareness. But the restricted conditions under which it
occurs would not enable unscrupulous opportunists to exploit us with subliminal messages

4. Describe sensory adaptation, and explain how we benefit from being unaware of unchanging stimuli. Sensory adaptation is
our diminished sensitivity to constant or routine odors, sounds, and touches. We benefit from this phenomenon because it
focuses our attention on informative changes in stimulation, rather than on unchanging elements in our environment.

5. Define transduction, and specify the form of energy our visual system converts into the neural messages our brain can
interpret. Transduction is the process by which our sensory systems encode stimulus energy as neural messages the brain can
interpret. In vision, we convert light energy into these neural impulses. The energies we experience as visible light are a thin
slice from the broad spectrum of electromagnetic radiation. The hue and brightness we perceive in a light depend on the
wavelength and intensity.

6. Describe the major structures of the eye, and explain how they guide an incoming ray of light toward the eyes receptor cells.
Light enters the eye through the cornea, a protective covering that bends the light ray. The iris, a ring of muscle, controls the
size of the pupil, through which light enters. The lens changes shape to focus light rays on the retina, the inner surface of the
eye, where receptor cells convert the light energy into neural impulses. After coding in the retina, the impulses travel along the
optic nerve to the brain. Although the retina receives an upside-down image, the brain constructs the impulses it receives into
an upright-seeming image. Distortions in the eyes shape can affect the sharpness of vision.

7. Contrast the two types of receptor cells in the retina, and describe the retinas reaction to light. The two types of receptors in
the retina are the rods and the cones, and they differ in their shape, number, function, location, and links to the brain. When
light enters the eye, it triggers a photochemical reaction in the rods and cones, which in turn activates bipolar cells. The
bipolar cells activate ganglion cells, and their axons (combined to form the optic nerve) transmit information (via the
thalamus) to the visual cortex in the brains occipital region. The more numerous rods, located mainly around the periphery of
the retina, are more sensitive to light. Multiple rods send combined messages to a bipolar cell, and this pool of information
lets us see rough images in dim light. Cones, concentrated in the fovea (at the center of the retina), are sensitive to color and
detail. A cone may link directly to a single bipolar cell, and this direct line to the brain preserves fine details in the cones
message.

8. Discuss the different levels of processing of visual information traveling from the eyes retina to the brains cortex. Perceptions
arise from the interaction of many neuron systems, each performing a simple task. Processing begins in the retinas multiple
neural layers, and then the retinas 6 million cones and 120 million rods relay their information via bipolar cells to ganglion
cells. Impulses travel along the ganglion cells axons, which form the optic nerve, to the thalamus, and on to the visual cortex.
In the visual cortex, feature detectors respond to specific features of the visual stimulus. Higher-levels upper cells integrate this
pool of data for processing in other cortical areas. As sensory input passes through multiple levels of processing, it is
influenced by our assumptions, interests, and expectations.

9. Define parallel processing, and discuss its role in visual information processing. Parallel processing is the brains natural mode
of information processing, in which it handles many aspects of a problem simultaneously. This multitasking ability lets the
brain distribute sub dimensions of vision (color, movement, depth, and form) to separate neural teams that work separately
and simultaneously. Other neural teams collaborate in integrating the results, comparing them with stored information, and
enabling perceptions.

10. Explain how the Young-Helmholtz and opponent process theories help us understand color vision. The Young-Helmholtz
trichromatic (three-color) theory proposed that the retina contains three types of color receptors. Contemporary research has
found three types of cones, each most sensitive to the wavelengths of one of the three primary colors of light (red, green, or
blue). Herings opponent-process theory proposed two additional color processes (red-versus-green and blue-versus-yellow)
plus a third black-versus-white process. Contemporary research has confirmed that, en route to the brain, neurons in the retina
and the thalamus code the color-related information from the cones into pairs of opponent colors, as demonstrated by
afterimages. These two theories, and the research supporting them, show that color processing occurs in two stages.

11. Describe the three regions of the ear, and outline the series of events that triggers the electrical impulses sent to the brain.
The outer ear is the visible portion of the ear. The middle ear is the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea. The inner ear
consists of the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs. Through a mechanical chain of events, sound waves traveling
through the auditory canal cause minuscule vibrations in the eardrum. The bones of the middle ear amplify the vibrations and
relay them to the fluid-filled cochlea. Rippling of the basilar membrane, caused by pressure changes in the cochlear fluid,
causes movement of the tiny hair cells, triggering neural messages to be sent (via the thalamus) to the auditory cortex in the
brain.

12. Contrast the place and frequency theories, and explain how they help us to understand pitch perception. Place theory
proposes that our brain interprets a particular pitch by decoding the location (thus, place) where a sound wave has
stimulated the cochleas basilar membrane. Frequency theory proposes that the brain deciphers the number and rate (thus
frequency) of the pulses traveling up the auditory nerve to the brain. Research supports both theories, but for different
ranges. Place theory cannot explain how we hear low-pitched sounds (which cannot be localized on the basilar membrane),
but it can explain our sensation of high pitched sounds. Frequency theory cannot explain how we hear high-pitched sounds
(individual neurons cannot fire fast enough to produce the necessary number of surges), but it can explain our sensation of
low-pitched sounds. Some combination of the two explains how we hear sounds in the middle range.

13. Describe how we pinpoint sounds. Sound waves strike one ear sooner and more intensely than the other. Using parallel
processing, the brain analyzes the minute differences in the sounds received by the two ears and computes the source of the
sound.

14. Contrast the two types of hearing loss, and describe some of their causes. Conduction hearing loss results from damage to the
mechanical system that transmits sound waves to the cochlea. Sensorineural hearing loss (or nerve deafness) results from
damage to the cochleas hair cells or their associated nerves. Diseases and accidents can cause these problems, but age-related
disorders and prolonged exposure to loud noise are more common causes of hearing loss, especially of nerve deafness.

15. Describe how cochlear implants function, and explain why Deaf culture advocates object to these devices. Cochlear implants
are wired into various sites on the auditory nerve, allowing them to transmit electrical impulses to the brain. These devices can
help deaf children to hear some sounds and to learn to use spoken language. But cochlear implants are most effective when
children are very young, which means that parents must make this decision for their deaf children. Deaf culture advocates
believe the operation is unnecessary since they do not see deafness as a disabilityDeaf people already have a complete
language, sign. Some further argue that sensory compensation, which enhances other senses, gives deaf people advantages that
the hearing does not have.

16. Describe the sense of touch. Our sense of touch is actually four sensespressure, warmth, cold, and painthat combine to
produce other sensations, such as hot. Of these, only pressure has specialized receptors.

17. State the purpose of pain, and describe the biopsychosocial perspective on pain. Pain is an alarm system that draws our
attention to some physical problem. One theory of pain is that a gate in the spinal cord either opens to permit pain signals
traveling up small nerve fibers to reach the brain, or closes to prevent their passage. The biopsychosocial perspective views a
persons experience of pain as the sum of three sets of forces: biological influences, such as nerve fibers sending messages to
the brain; psychological influences, such as the situation and our past experiences; and social-cultural influences, such as
cultural expectations and the presence of observers. Treatments to control pain often combine physiological and psychological
elements. Melzack and Wall (1965, 1983) proposed that our spinal cord contains neurological gates that either block pain
or allow it to be sensed.


18. Describe the sense of taste, and explain the principle of sensory interaction. Taste, a chemical sense, is a composite of five
basic sensationssweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umamiand of the aromas that interact with information from the taste buds.
Taste buds on the top and sides of the tongue and in tieback and on the roof of the mouth contain taste receptor cells. These
cells send information to an area of the temporal lobe near the area where olfactory information is received. The influence of
smell on our sense of taste is an example of sensory interaction, the ability of one sense to influence another.

19. Describe the sense of smell, and explain why specific odors so easily trigger memories. Smell is a chemical sense, but there are
no basic sensations for smell, as there are for touch and taste. Unlike the retinas receptor cells that sense color by breaking it
into component parts, the 5 million olfactory receptor cells, with their approximately 350 different receptor proteins,
recognize individual odor molecules. The receptor cells send messages to the brains olfactory bulb, then to the temporal lobe
and to parts of the limbic system. Some odors trigger combination of receptors. An odors ability to spontaneously evoke
memories and feelings is due in part to the close connections between brain areas that process smell and those involved in
memory storage.

20. Distinguish between kinesthesis and the vestibular sense. By means of millions of position and motion sensors all over our
body, our kinesthetic sense monitors the position and movement of our individual body parts. Our vestibular sense relies on
semicircular canals and vestibular sacs in the inner ear to sense our headsand thus our whole bodysposition and
movement, letting us maintain our balance.

21. Describe Gestalt psychologys contribution to our understanding of perception.
Gestalt psychologists searched for rules by which the brain organizes fragments of sensory data into gestalts (from the
German word for whole), or meaningful forms. In pointing out that the whole is more than the sum of its parts, these
researchers showed that we constantly filter sensory information and infer perceptions in ways that make sense to us. This
truth remains valid, even though contemporary research demonstrates that sensation and perception are parts of a continuous
information processing system, involving both bottom-up and top-down processing.

22. Explain the figure-ground relationship, and identify principles of perceptual grouping in form perception. To recognize an
object, we must first perceive it (see it as a figure) as distinct from its surroundings (the ground). We bring order and form to
stimuli by organizing them into meaningful groups, following the rules of proximity, similarity, continuity, connectedness,
and closure.

23. Explain the importance of depth perception, and discuss the contribution of visual cliff research to our understanding of this
ability. Depth perception is our ability to see objects in three dimensions, even though our retinas receive two-dimensional
images. Without depth perception, we would be unable to judge distance, height, or depth. The visual cliff research with 6-
to14-month-olds demonstrated that depth perception is in part innate. Many species perceive the world in three dimensions
at, or very soon after, birth.

24. Describe two binocular cues for perceiving depth, and explain how they help the brain to compute distance. Binocular cues
are depth cues that rely on information from both eyes. In the retinal disparity cue, the brain computes the relative distance of
an object by comparing the slightly different images the object casts on our two retinas. The greater the difference, the closer
the object must be. In the convergence cue, the brain calculates the degree of neuromuscular strain when our two eyes turn
inward to look at a nearby object. The greater the strain (or the angle of convergence), the closer the object.

25. Explain how monocular cues differ from binocular cues, and describe several monocular cues for perceiving depth.
Monocular cues let us judge depth using information transmitted by only one eye; binocular cues require information from
both eyes. Monocular cues include
relative size (smaller is more distant). interposition (an object that blocks another is closer than the blocked object).
relative clarity (a hazy object is farther away than an object seen clearly).
texture gradient (when texture changes, coarse distinct objects are close and fine indistinct objects are distant).
relative height (objects higher in our field of vision are farther away).
relative motion or motion parallax (when you are moving, objects closer than a fixation point appear to move backward
the nearer the object, the faster it moves; objects beyond the fixation point appear to move with you).
linear perspective (the more two parallel lines converge, the farther away they are).
light and shadow (nearby objects reflect more light than faraway objects).

26. State the basic assumption we make in our perceptions of motion, and explain how these perceptions can be deceiving. As
objects move across or toward our retinas, our basic assumption is that shrinking objects are retreating, and enlarging objects
are approaching. But our perception of motion is not always trustworthy. We may miscalculate the speed of movement of
large objects or objects picked up by our peripheral vision. A quick succession of images on the retina can create an illusion of
movement, as in stroboscopic movement (triggered by a rapid series of slightly varying images) or the phi phenomenon
(triggered by the rapid on-off blinking of two adjacent stationary lights).

27. Explain how illusions help us to understand some of the ways we organize stimuli into meaningful perceptions. Perceptual
illusions fascinate psychologists because they reveal how we normally organize and interpret sensations. When visual and
other sensory information conflict, our brain usually resolves the disagreement by accepting the visual data, a tendency known
as visual capture. In contests between hearing and touch, hearing may dominate.

28. Explain the importance of perceptual constancy. Perceptual constancy is necessary in vision to recognize an object, regardless
of its changing angle, distance, or illumination. Because of this ability, we perceive objects as having unchanging characteristics
despite the changing images they cast on our retinas.

29. Discuss lightness constancy and its similarity to color constancy. Lightness (or brightness) constancy is our ability to perceive
an object as having a constant lightness even when its illuminationthe light cast upon itchanges. Color constancy enables
us to perceive the color of an object as unchanging even when its illumination changes. In both cases, the brain perceives the
quality (lightness or color) relative to surrounding objects.

30. Describe the shape and size constancies, and explain how our expectations about perceived size and distance contribute to
some visual illusions. Shape constancy is our ability to perceive familiar objects (such as an opening door) as unchanging in
shape, and size constancy perceives objects as unchanging in size, despite the changing images they cast on our retinas. There
is a close relationship between perceived size and perceived distance. Knowing an objects size gives us clues to its distance;
knowing its distance gives clues about its size. This interplay sometimes misleads us, as when we misread monocular distance
cues and reach the wrong conclusions, as in the Moon, Ponzo, and Mller-Lyer illusions.

31. Define perceptual set, and explain how it influences what we do or do not perceive. Perceptual set is a mental predisposition
that functions as a lens through which we perceive the world. Once again, nature and nurture interact: Our sensory input
bounces off our experiences, learned assumptions, and beliefs. Because our learned concepts (schemas) prime us to organize
and interpret ambiguous stimuli in certain ways, our perceptions reflect our version of reality. Thus, some of us see
monsters, faces, and UFOs or hear messages that others do not.

32. Describe the contribution of restored-vision and sensory deprivation research in our understanding of the nature nurture
interplay in our perceptions. If all aspects of visual perception were entirely inborn, people who were born blind but regained
sight after surgery should have normal visual perception. They do not. After cataract surgery, for example, adults who had
been blind from birth are able to distinguish figure from ground and to perceive colors, but they lack the experience to
recognize shapes, forms, and complete faces. Further evidence comes from animals reared with severely restricted visual input,
who suffered enduring visual handicaps when their visual exposure was returned to normal. Clinical and experimental evidence
indicates that there is a critical period for some aspects of sensory and perceptual development. Without the stimulation
provided by early visual experiences, the brains neural organization does not develop normally.



33. Identify the three most testable forms of ESP, and explain why most research psychologists remain skeptical of ESP claims.
ESP (extrasensory perception) is one form of purported paranormal phenomena. (Another form is psychokinesis [PK].) The
three most testable forms of ESP are telepathy (mind-to-mind communication), clairvoyance (perceiving remote events), and
precognition (perceiving future events). Most research psychologists skepticism focuses on two points. First, to believe in
ESP, you must believe the brain is capable of perceiving without sensory input. Second (and most important in terms of
critical inquiry), parapsychologists have been unable to replicate (reproduce) ESP phenomena under controlled conditions.

34. Describe the role human factors psychologists play in creating user-friendly machines and work settings. Human factors
psychologists encourage developers and designers to consider human perceptual abilities, to avoid the curse of knowledge (the
mistaken assumption that others share our expertise and will behave as we would), and to schedule user-testing to reveal
perception-based problems before production and distribution. Human factors psychologists have contributed to improved
safety in air and space travel; better-designed appliances, equipment, and workplaces; and easier-to-use assistive listening.