Transformational Era

Description: Leaders are abl e to transform

consti tuents to do more than what i s expected
by i denti fyi ng task val ue, focusi ng on
organi zati onal goals and focusing on the hi gher
order needs of the consti tuents such as sel f-
actual i zati on.
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Behaviour Era
Description: Emphasizes what leader does
(task and process) rather than leader
characteristics and source of power
Situation Era
Description: Leadership is affected by
the situation. The leadership style and
behaviour changes based on the
situation.
Contingency Era
Description: There is no best way to lead.
Effective leadership is dependent on internal
and external factors. It requires leaders to
adapt their style to the situation.
Transactional Era
Description: Leadership results from
compliance of constituents due to an
exchange of rewards/ punishments.
Personality Era
Description: Leaders are born not made. They
possess certain traits that allow them to be
leaders.
Influence Era
Description: Leadership is having Influence over
others through power and persuasion.
Improvement over personality era because it
recognized that leadership involves more than just
the leader.
Great Man Theory
1840-1860
(Carlyle, Gaulton)
Trait Approach
1940s
(Stogdill)
Persuasion Period
1920s
(Schenk)
Power Relations Period
1960s
(French and Raven)
Consideration and
Initiating Structure
1950s
(Stogdill & Ohio State
Studies)
Management
Theory X and Y
1960s
(McGregor)
Managerial Grid
1960s
(Blake and Mouton)
Situational Leadership
1980s
(Blanchard and Hershey)
Fielders Contingency Theory
1960s
(Fielder)
Path-Goal Theory
1970s
(Evans and House)
Normative
1970s
(Vroom and Yetton)
Transactional
Leadership
1970s
(Burns)
Bass
Transformational
Leadership Theory
1980s
(Bass)
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Evolution of Leadership Theory
Authentic Leadership
Description: Effecti ve l eadershi p requi res a
l eader to gui de others wi th hi gh moral val ues. It
i s a process i nvol ving 4 components: sel f-
awareness, moral perspecti ve, bal anced
processi ng and rel ati onal transparency.
Personality Era
Models and Contributors:
1) Great Man Theory Carlyle (1840); Gaulton (1860)
Leaders possess certain characteristics and personalities that allow them to lead. Believed that these traits can
be inherited.
2) Trait Approach Stogdill (1940s)
Leaders are born not made. They possess certain traits that allow them to be leaders.
Limitations:
- Doesnt take into account situation or how constituents respond to the leader
- No need for leadership development
- No single set of traits exists
Northouse, 2010
Influence Era
Models and Contributors:
1) Power Relations French and Raven (1960)
Proposed five sources of power within organizations:
Legitimate - comes from a persons position in the organization. Linked to being a manager and ability to create
policies and procedures.
Reward - persons ability to influence others behavior by providing them with things they want to receive (ex. Pay
bonuses)
Coercive - persons ability to influence others behavior by punishing them or by creating a perceived threat to do
so. For example, employees may comply with a managers directive because of fear or threat of punishment.
Expert - a persons ability to influence others behavior because of recognized knowledge, skills, or abilities. Computer
specialists, tax accountants, and economists have power because of their expertise.ise
Referent - a persons ability to influence others behavior because they like, admire, and respect the individual.
2) Persuasion Period Schenk (1920s)
Leader is the dominant factor in the leader-constituent dyad.
Limitations:
- Constituents have to acknowledge/ accept the power of the leader
- May lead to negative feelings towards the leader
Day & Antonakis, 2012
Behaviour Era
Models and Contributors:
Leaders engage primarily in two kinds of general behaviors: task behaviors and process behaviors.
1) Consideration and Initiating Structure Stogdill & Ohio State Studies (1950s)
Leaders exhibit two types of behaviors, people-oriented (consideration) and task oriented (initiating structure), to facilitate goal
accomplishment. Considerationis the extent to which the leader shows concern for the welfare of the group, whereas initiating
behaviour is the extent to which the leader defines group roles and divides of tasks and goals.
2) Management Theory X and Y McGregor (1960s)
Emphasis on managing people. Leadership is influenced by a leaders assumptions about human nature. Theory X assumes most
people dislike work and the leader must use coercion and control. Theory Y assumes most people view work as a source of
satisfaction.
3) Managerial Grid/Leadership Grid Blake and Mouton (1960s)
Uses a grid to depict leadership styles. The grid depicts two dimensions of leader behavior, concern for production on x-axis and
concern for people on y-axis, each dimension ranging from low (1) to high (9), creates 81 different positions in which the leaders style
may fall. Impoverished management (1,1); Task management (9, 1); Middle of the road (5, 5); Country Club (1, 9); Team management
(9, 9)
Limitations:
- No consistent leadership style is effective in all situations
- Confusion over leader vs. manager
- Ignores internal and external factors
Van Seters & Field, 1990
Contingency Era
Models and Contributors:
1) Situational Leadership Hershey and Blanchard (1980s)
Acknowledged that there are factors (environment, social status of leader and followers, type of task) beyond the leader and
constituents that influence leadership. Effective leadership is task relevant.
These factors influence the types of traits, skills and influence that will result in effective leadership.
They categorized all leadership styles into four groups:
S1: Telling - leader defines the roles of the individual or groupand how the task will be completed;
S2: Selling provides the socio-emotional support that will allow the individual or group being influenced to buy into the process;
S3: Participating - shared decision-making about aspects of how the task is accomplished ;
S4: Delegating Leader monitors progress but the process and responsibility has been passed to the individual or group.
Of these, no one style is considered optimal for all leaders to use all the time.
Limitations:
- Doesnt take into account cultural or gender differences. For instance men and women may view situations differently.
- Approach is based on the psychological and job maturity of constituents. How does one define and measure maturity?
Hersey, Blanchard, & Natemeyer, 1979; Van Seters & Field, 1990
Contingency Era
Models and Contributors:
Leadership is influenced by multiple factors not just traits, behaviour, situation
1) Fielders Contingency Model Fielder (1960s)
Model states that there is no one best style of leadership. Aleader's effectiveness is based on the situation. This is the result of two
factors "leadership style" and "situational favourableness. Leadership style is fixed and can be determined by using the Least-
Preferred Co-worker scale. It involves rating the person you have least enjoyed working with. If your total score is high, you're likely to
be a relationship-orientated leader. If your total score is low, you're more likely to be task-orientated leader. Next, a person determines
the situation favourableness based on 3 factors: Leader-Member Relations (level of trust and confidence the team has in the leader);
Task Structure (amount of knowledge the leader or team has with the task); Leader's Position Power (amount of power over group)
2) Path-Goal TheoryEvans and House (1970s)
Focuseson providing the right conditions for follower success. Leaders select specific behaviors that are best suited to the employees'
needs and the working environment so that they may best guide the employees through their path in order to achieve the goals they
have set. Basically, leaders examine the characteristics of employees and environment, then select a leadership style (directive,
supportive, participative, achievement oriented), and finally focus on motivational factors (ex. Define goals, clarify path, remove
obstacles, provide support) that will help employees succeed. )
.
3) Normative Vroom and Yetton (1970s)
Focused on helping the leader determine which behaviour would be most appropriate for the situation. This model was liked because it
meant that you could increase leader effectiveness despite traits or degree of power.
Limitations:
- Each model is very different
- Lack of flexibility in Fielder model
- Too cumbersome for day to day practice.
- Path-goal assumes that leaders can change and adapt to a variety of situations
Van Seters & Field, 1990
Charismatic Leadership
Models and Contributors:
1) Weber - the first to attribute the term charismatic to leaders (Conger, 2004). The charismatic leader as one who could bring about social change
(Antonokis, 2011) Weber asserts that charismatic leaders arise during times of distress, to be maintained leader needs to be viewed as successf ul, will
likely result in institutionalization, and charismatic exert their authority through powers of vision, speech and heroism.
Followers recognize leaders as being charismatic based on their behaviours. As leaders move through the following 3 stages: evaluate the situation critically,
assesses resources and needs to create goals, and demonstrates how goals can be achieved, behaviours can be examined to identify charismatic leaders.
Stage 1: Charismatic leaders are sensitive to the environment in which they operate (emotions of others, social and physical environment) Ex.
Entrepreneurs, Ghandi, Cesar Chavez. Charismatic leaders foster a need for change even during periods of tranquility by emphasizing deficiencies
Stage 2: Charismatic leaders tend to set goals that aim at an idealized future. They are able to evoke this same emotion in their fol lowers. Ex. Steve Jobs.
They are able to articulate their goals and plan of action to their followers.
Stage 3: An effective leader inspires followers with confidence in his or her abilities and clearly demonstrates the tactics and behavi ors required to achieve
the shared goal. To do this, followers must trust the leader. They must also appear knowledgeable and an expert in their field.
It is through uncommon behaviours achieving success that followers view a leader as being charismatic.
2) House the first to present an integrated theoretical framework and testable proposition to explain the behavior of charismatic leaders; he also focused
on the psychological impact of charismatic leaders on followers (Antonakis, 2011, p. 262). Suggested that there are personal characteristics of charismatic
leaders and that individual differences could be measureable. The gifts that the leader appears to possess is a combination of personal characteristics,
behaviours and situation. Defined leadership using four phrases: dominant, desire to influence others, self confident, strong sense of moral values
Limitations:
- overlooks the issues of personal attributes and relational dynamics between the leader and followers
- Charismatic leader may not want anything to change and be more concerned with themselves
- Weber asserts that charismatic leaders have special gifts/attributes that are not accessible to everyone
- House regretted publishing as a chapter and not a journal article
- Unpredictable and potentially dangerous
- Relies on the influence of the leader
Conger, 2004
Transactional Era
Models and Contributors:
Burns (1970s)
Leadership does not just reside in the leader or situation but rather in the role differentiation and social interaction.
Transactional leadership is a style of leadership in which the leader promotes compliance of his/her followers through both rewards and
consequences. EX
CHANGE between leader and follower (a transaction of one thing for another).
Transactional leaders are leaders who exchange tangible rewards for the work and loyalty of followers.
This is a method of leadership as opposed to a style.
Prime purpose is to do what the leader says.
Limitations:
- Constituents are unlikely to grow as leaders
- May create stressful work environments
- Does not encourage creative thinking
- Assumes people are motivated by simple rewards
Burns & Avolio, 2004
Transformational Era
Models and Contributors:
Bass (1980s)
1) Full range leadership theory or transformational/transactional leadership theory. Identifies 3 major types of leadership: Laissez-
faire, transactional and transformational.
Leaders inspire their constituents to work towards a common vision or goal.
Leaders must be proactive, creative, open to new idea, radical rather than conservative (unlike the transactional).
The leader transforms and motivates constituents through their personality (charisma), intellectual stimulation and considerationof
individual needs (a leader needs an understanding of followers to grow their needs and capabilities to full potential). In addition, this
leader encourages followers to be creative and look for new ways of achieving goals.
Basic Tenets:
- People will followa leader that inspires them.
- Vision of leader can transform constituents
- Energy and enthusiasm will motivate constituents to work towards goal/vision
- Fostering creativity is important
- People like to be challenged
Limitations:
Leader may not have the ability or know how to inspire their constituents.
Subjective because of the emphasis on motivation, morality (different circumstances/different cultures), hard work
Burns & Avolio, 2004
Authentic Leadership
Models and Contributors:
Authentic Leadership focuses on whether or not the leader is genuine and adheres to their True North. According to Avolio and
Gardner (2005), authentic leaders are deeply aware of how they think and behave and are perceived by others. They are confident,
resilient and have high moral standards.
Basic Tenets:
- Authentic leadership is based on ones life story. It is influenced by the relationship of ones self-concept and their subsequent
actions. Authentic leadership characteristics include: leading from conviction, values based, genuine, and originality.
- Authentic leadership can be developed over time. There are 4 componentsto authentic leadership:
1. Self Awareness reflecting on values and emotions.
2. Moral perspective guided by ones true moral compass
3. Balanced Processing ability to consider multiple perspectives
4. Relational transparency openly share information with each other
- Authentic leadership is dependent on both leaders and constituents
- Measured using the ALQ
Limitations:
- Is authentic leadership enough to achieve all goals and objectives?
Avolio& Gardner, 2005
References
Avolio, B.J., & Gardner, W. L. (2005). Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership. The Leadership
Quarterly 16, 315338.
Conger, J. (2004). Charismatic theory. In G. Goethals, G. Sorenson, & J. Burns (Eds.), Encyclopedia of leadership. (pp. 163-168). Thousand Oaks,
CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. doi: http://dx.doi.org.uproxy.library.dc-uoit.ca/10.4135/9781412952392.n42
Bolden, R., Gosling., J., Marturano,A., & Dennison., P. (2003, June). A review of leadership theory and competency frameworks. Centre for
Leadership Studies University of Exeter.
Burns, J., & Avolio, B. (2004). Transformational and Transactional Leadership. In G. Goethals, G. Sorenson, & J. Burns (Eds.), Encyclopedia of
leadership. (pp. 1559-1567). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
doi: http://dx.doi.org.uproxy.library.dc-uoit.ca/10.4135/9781412952392.n356
Day, D.V., & Antonakis, J. (2012). Leadership: Past, present, and future. In D.V. Day & J. Antonakis (Eds), The nature of leadership (3-23).
Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications Inc.
Hersey, P., Blanchard, K. H., & Natemeyer, W. E. (1979). Situational leadership, perception, and the impact of power. Group & Organization
Management, 4(4), 418-428.
Northouse, P.G. (2010). Leadership: Theory and practice. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, Inc. Chapter 2:Trait Approach
Northouse, P. G. (2012). Leadership: Theory and practice. Sage Publications. Chapter 1: Introduction
Thompson, G., & Vecchio, R. P. (2009). Situational leadership theory: A test of three versions. Leadership Quarterly, 20(5), 837-848
Van Seters, D. A., & Field, R. H.G. (1990). The evolution of leadership theory. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 3(3), 29 - 45.