Ch 6 Chemical Bonding

What you should learn in this section (objectives):

Define chemical bond
Explain why most atoms form chemical bonds
Describe ionic and covalent bonding
Explain why most chemical bonding is neither purely ionic or purely covalent
Classify bonding type according to electronegativity differences.
Introduction to Chemical Bonding
There are very few atoms that exist as individual particles in nature. Most atoms are bonded to
other atoms to form compounds. A chemical bond is a mutual electrical attraction between the nuclei
and valence electrons of different atoms that binds the atoms together. One reason atoms bond is to
decrease their amount of potential energy. When atoms exist by themselves they have relatively high
potential energy. Nature favors arrangements that have minimum potential energy. When atoms bond
it decreases the amount of potential energy and creates a more stable arrangement of matter. It takes
less energy to bond atoms together than to break the bonds between atoms. Bond energy is the
amount of energy it takes to break a chemical bond.
Types of Chemical Bonds
Ionic bonding- chemical bonding that results from the electrical attraction between cations and
anions. In purely ionic bonding atoms completely give up electrons to other atoms. Ionic bonding
generally involves metals and nonmetals

Covalent bonding- the sharing of electron pairs between two atoms. In a pure covalent bond
the electrons are shared by the two bonded atoms. Covalent bonding generally involves two nonmetals.
A nonpolar-covalent bond is when the bonding electrons are shared equally by the bonded atoms,
resulting in a balanced distribution of electrical charges. When the distribution of charge is uneven we
call this polar. Polar covalent bonds occur when the bonded atoms have an unequal attraction for the
shared electrons.

Ionic or Covalent?
Most chemical bonds are somewhere in between purely ionic and purely covalent. We use the
difference in electronegativity values to determine the type of bond that is formed. Remember from Ch
5 that electronegativity is an atoms ability to attract electrons to its self. We use the following image
to determine the bond type.
Problem A
Use electronegativity differences to classify bonding between sulfur and the following elements:
hydrogen, cesium, and chlorine. In each pair, which atom will be more negative?

Ionic- electronegativity difference is
greater than 1.67
Polar covalent- electronegativity
difference is less than 1.67
Nonpolar covalent-electronegativity
difference is less than 0.4
Covalent Bonding and Molecular Compounds
What you should learn in this section (objectives):
Define molecule and molecular formula
Explain the relationships among potential energy, distance between approaching atoms, bond
length and bond energy.
State the octet rule
List the six basic steps used in writing Lewis structures
Explain how to determine Lewis structures for molecules containing single bonds, multiple
bonds, or both.
Explain why scientists use resonance structures to represent some molecules.
A molecule is a neutral group of atoms that are held together by covalent bonds. They can exist as two
or more of the same elements bonded together or two or more different elements bonded together. A
chemical compound whose simplest units are molecules is called a molecular compound. A chemical
formula shows the relative numbers of atoms of each kind in a chemical compound by using atomic
symbols and numerical subscripts. Remember sub means below. A molecular formula shows the types
and numbers of atoms combined in a single molecule of a molecular compound.
Formation of a Covalent Bond
Nature favors chemical bonding because most atoms have lower potential energy when they
are bonded to other atoms than they have as they are independent particles.
When 2 hydrogen atoms approach each other 2 bad things happen: electron/electron
repulsion and proton/proton repulsion. One good thing that happens: proton/electron attraction.
When the attractive forces offset the repulsive forces, the energy of the tow atoms decreases and a
bond is formed. Remember, nature is always striving for a lower energy state.



too FAR
too CLOSE
just RIGHT



Bond length is the distance between the two nuclei where the energy is minimal between the two
nuclei. In other words, it is the average distance between two bonded atoms.
When bonds form individual atoms release energy as they change from isolated individual atoms to
molecules. Bond energy is the amount of energy that is required to break the bond. The units for bond
energy are usually kj/mol (kilojoule per mole).





Octet Rule
Chemical compounds tend to form so that each atom, by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons, has an
octet of electrons in its highest occupied energy level (outer most ring of the atom).

Exceptions to the Octet Rule
Fewer than 8: H at most only 2 electrons (one bond),BeH
2
, only 4 valence electrons around Be (only 2
bonds), Boron compounds only 6 valence electrons (three bonds)
Expanded valence (more than 8): can only happen if the central element had d-orbitals which means it is
from the 3
rd
period or greater and can thus be surrounded by more than four valence pairs in certain
compounds. The number of bonds depends on the balance between the ability of the nucleus to attract
electrons and the repulsion between the pairs. Some of the more elements are fluorine, oxygen,
chlorine and noble gases.
Electron-Dot Notation


When two atoms form a covalent bond, their shared
electrons form overlapping orbitals.
This achieves a noble-gas configuration.
The bonding of two hydrogen atoms allows each atom to
have the stable electron configuration of helium, 1s
2
.
To keep track of valence electrons, it is
helpful to use electron-dot notation.
Electron-dot notation is an electron-
configuration notation in which only
the valence electrons of an atom of a
particular element are shown,
indicated by dots placed around the
elements symbol. The inner-shell
electrons are not shown.

Lewis Structures

An unshared pair, also called a lone pair, is a pair of electrons that is not involved in bonding
and that belongs exclusively to one atom.
Lewis Structures are formulas in which atomic symbols represent nuclei and inner-shell electrons, dot-
pairs or dashes between two atomic symbols represent electron pairs in covalent bonds, and dots
adjacent to only one atomic symbol represent unshared electrons.
A structural formula indicates the kind, number, arrangement, and bonds but not the unshared pairs of
the atoms in a molecule. Example F-F and
H-Cl.
Single bonds (sigma bonds) are a covalent bond in which one pair of electrons is shared between two
atoms. They are represented by two dots (electrons) or one dash. These are the longest bonds, but also
the weakest
Double bonds (pi bonds) are covalent bonds in which two pairs of electrons are shared between two
atoms. They are represented by four dots (electrons) or 2 dashes = Example C=C
Triple bonds (pi bonds) are covalent bonds in which three pairs of electrons are shared between two
atoms. They are represented by six dots (electrons) or 3 dashes. Example These are shortest,
but also the strongest.
Carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorous, and sulfur are the most common elements that form multiple
bonds.
Drawing Lewis Structures
1. H is always a terminal atom. ALWAYS connected to only one other atom.
2. Lowest electronegativity is the central atom in a molecule.
3. Find the total number of valence electrons by adding up group numbers of the elements. For
ions add electrons for negative charges and subtract electrons for positive charges.
4. Place one pair of electrons (sigma bond) between each pair of bonded atoms.
H:H


5. Subtract from the total number of bonds you just used.
6. Place lone pairs about each terminal atom (except H) to satisfy the octet rule. Left over pairs are
assigned to the central atom.
7. If the central atom is not yet surrounded by four electron pairs, convert on or more terminal
atom lone pairs to a double or triple bond ( pi bonds). Only C, N, O, P, and S can form multiple
bonds (pi bonds)

Resonance Structures
Resonance refers to bonding in molecules or ions that cannot be correctly represented by a single Lewis
structure. Ozone (O
3
) exists as an average of these two images, so it must be shown both ways.















Ionic Bonding and Ionic Compounds
What you should learn in this section (objectives):
Compare and contrast a chemical formula for a molecular compound with one for an ionic
compound.
Discuss the arrangements of ions in crystals
Define lattice energy and explain its significance
List and compare the distinctive properties of ionic and molecular compounds
Write the Lewis structure for a polyatomic ion given the identity of the atoms combined and
other appropriate information.

Formation of an Ionic Compound
Ionic compounds are composed of positive (cation) and negative (anion) ions that are combined
so that the numbers of positive and negative charges are equal

Ionic Bond - Completely transfer electrons.
Positive charge cation lost electrons to the anion.
Negative charge anion gained electrons from the cation.
Positive charge must equal and, therefore, cancel the negative charge.
Example: Sodium Chloride sodium wants to lose one electron to become stable
and chlorine wants to gain one electron to become stable.

Formula unit a chemical formula of the smallest sample of an ionic compound.

Ionic Character
Ionic compounds have the greatest ionic character with full on charged ions. The further
the ions are apart in electronegativity, the more the ionic character.
Molecular compounds have very low electronegativity. The closer the ions are in
electronegativity, the less the ionic character.

Characteristics of Ionic Bonding
Ionic compounds are crystalline solids at room temperature. They are arranged in
repeating three-dimensional pattern called a crystal lattice. These structures are very
orderly and stable. Example: In solid NaCl, each Na is surrounded by six Cl and each Cl is
surrounded by six Na.
These crystalline solids also have very high melting points. It is extremely hard to break
the attraction between the cations and anions because of their stability. Example: NaCl
melts at 800 Celsius. The energy released when one mole of an ionic crystalline
compound is formed from gaseous ions is called lattice energy.
Ionic compounds conduct electric currents when molten (liquid) or dissolved in water
(aqueous). The cations and anions are then able to migrate freely.
Ionic compounds are electrically neutral salts (solids). Many of these compounds appear
as minerals in the Earths crust.

Comparing Ionic and Molecular Compounds
The force that holds ions together in an ionic compound is a very strong electrostatic
attraction.
In contrast, the forces of attraction between molecules of a covalent compound are
much weaker.
This difference in the strength of attraction between the basic units of molecular and
ionic compounds
gives rise to different properties between the two
types of compounds.
Molecular compounds have relatively weak forces between individual molecules.
They melt at low temperatures.
The strong attraction between ions in an ionic compound gives ionic compounds some
characteristic properties, listed below.
o very high melting points
o hard but brittle
o not electrical conductors in the solid state, because the ions cannot
move
Polyatomic Ions
Polyatomic Ions a group of atoms that acts as a unit with a single charge
Begin memorizing polyatomic ionsget the list from the website and make flashcards.
Know the formula, the charge, and the correct spelling of the name of the polyatomic ions listed
on the website. We will have a quiz over these.







Metallic Bonding
What you should learn in this section (objectives):
Describe the electron-sea model of metallic bonding, and explain why metals are good
electrical conductors
Explain why metal surfaces are shiny
Explain why metals are malleable and ductile but ionic crystalline compounds are not.
The Metallic-Bond Model
Metallic bonding is the chemical bonding that is a result from the attraction between metal
atoms and the surrounding sea of electrons. A sea of electrons refers to the free moving valence
electrons in an atom. These electrons are delocalized which means that they can freely move to any
other atom
Properties of Metals
Good conductors of electricity electrons enter one end of the metal bar and leave the other.
Ductile can be stretched into wires.
Malleable can be pounded into shapes. Metals ions slide passed one another in a sea of
drifting











Molecular Geometry
What you should learn in this section (objectives):
Explain VSEPR theory
Predict the shapes of molecules or polyatomic ions using VSEPR theory
Explain how the shapes of molecules are accounted for by hybridization theory
Describe dipole-dipole forces, hydrogen bonding, induced dipoles, and London dispersion forces
and their effects on properties such as boiling and melting points
VSEPR Theory - Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
The VSEPR theory states that repulsion between the sets of valence-level electrons surrounding an atom
causes these sets to be oriented as far apart as possible. The electron dot structures are not flat 2D
structures, but are 3D in real life.
Molecules adjust their shapes so that the valence electron pairs are as far apart as possible.
**See the chart on pg. 200 of your textbook
Linear angles are 180 degrees definitely will be linear if only have two atoms in the molecule. No
lone pairs and two covalent bonds or three lone pairs and one covalent bond around central atom.
Example: CO
2

Bent again, unshared pair(s) strongly repels the covalent bonding pairs. Two lone pairs and two shared
pairs around central atom. All angles are 105 degrees. Example: H
2
O
Trigonal-Planar three shared pairs (covalent bonds ) separate as much as possible, but are unaffected
by a lone pair (no lone pairs) of electrons like the pyramidal structure. Example: BF
3

Trigonal-Pyramidal one unshared pair strongly repels the three shared pairs (covalent bonding),
pushing them closer together. All angles are 107 degrees. Example: NH
3

Tetrahedral four faced four shared pairs and no lone pairs, all angles are 109.5 degrees. Example:
CH
4

Trigonal Bipyramidal five shared pairs separate as much as possible, but are unaffected by a lone pair
of electrons (no lone pairs). Example: PCl
5

Octahedral six shared pairs separate as much as possible, but are unaffected by a lone pair of
electrons (no lone pairs). Example: SF
6

Hybridization
Hybridization - two atoms combine, their atomic orbitals overlap to produce molecular orbitals. One
electron from each atomic orbital combines to create a shared pair in a molecular orbital.
sp hybridization has electrons in 2 orbitals
sp
2
hybridization has electrons in 3 orbitals
sp
3
hybridization has electrons in 4 orbitals



Intermolecular Forces (IMF)
The forces of attraction between molecules are known as intermolecular forces. These forces vary in
strength and are generally weaker than bonds
The strongest IMF exists between polar molecules. A dipole is created by equal but opposite charges
that are separated by a short distance. The direction of a dipole is from the dipoles positive pole to its
negative pole.



Dipole Interactions - when polar molecules are attracted to one another: opposite charged regions of polar
molecules are attracted.

Hydrogen Bonds a particularly strong dipole interaction specifically involving hydrogen at the partially positive
pole. Hydrogen is covalently bonded to a very electronegative atom AND to an unshared pair of another atom.
The negative region in one polar molecule attracts the positive region in
adjacent molecules. So the molecules all attract each other from opposite
sides.
Such forces of attraction between polar molecules are known as dipole-dipole
forces.
Dipole-dipole forces act at short range, only between
nearby molecules.

Hydrogen is able to bond with the unshared pair of electrons from another molecule because its valence
electrons are not shielded from the nucleus by another layer of electrons (hydrogens valence electrons are
directly up against the nucleus). Example: H
2
O
The more electronegative the element that hydrogen is bonded to the stronger the intermolecular attractions.

Dispersion Forces - weakest of all molecular interactions caused by the motion of electrons.
Vibrating electrons may end up moving randomly closer to one atom or another creating a momentary dipole.
The more electrons there are the greater the interaction between nonpolar molecules.