Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Classical Greece
f DF78 .B6
12118
Bowra, C. M.
NEW COLLEGE OF CALIFORNIA (SF)
DF 78 .B6
1898-1971
BoSra, C. M.
Classical Greece
f
#13161
BOBFIOWEH'SNAME_
DATE DUE
#13161
DF
178
B6
Bowraf C M.
(Cecil Maarlce),
1898-
1971.
21 APR 93
407 134
NEWCxc 65-17305r842
DUE DATE
CL7ISSIC7IL
GREECE
Life
World
Life
Nature Library
Library
The
Life
Man
Great Ages of
Life Pictorial
The Epic of
Man
The Wonders of
The World
We
Life
on Earth
Live In
Life
Life's
The
Book of Christmas
Life
Man
Picture
Life
War
Picture History of
Cook Book
Guide to Paris
World War
II
GREAT AGES OF
MAN
CMSSIOL
GREECE
by
C.
M.
BOWRA
and
The
Editors of
TIME-LIFE Books
C. M. Bowra is warden of Wadham College at Oxford, and a towUniverering figure in classical studies. He has held the vice-chancellorship of the
academic post. Among his books are Tradition and Design in
highest
sity, Oxfords
Experithe Iliad, Early Creek Elegists, Sophoclean Tragedy, as well as The Creek
ence, which won him a wide audience. Sir Maurice has also translated Pindar's Pyth-
THE AUTHOR:
ian
a co-editor of
in Translation.
He
is
now
THE COVER:
This head
is
BOOKS
TIME-LIFE
Harold C. Field
SERIES EDITOR:
Notman P Ross
Edward A Hamillo
Designer;
John Stanton
Norman Snyder
Staff Writer:
Beatrice T. Dobie
Researchers:
Arnold Holeywell
Terry Drucker
Ho
Dori Watson,
Lilla
Zabriskie
Rhett Austell
Jr.
McSweeney
L,
Young
Manley
Wayne
R. Young,
David Wyland
Picture Researchers: Margaret K. Goldsmith,
Joan T. Lynch
Copy
Staff;
Valuable aid
in
Inc.
Littles
Content Peck-
News
Service;
Classical Greece
J965 by Time
Inc.
(i.v
in
Canada.
number 65-17305.
Silver Burdetl
Company.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
2
3
4
5
Picture Essay:
SPIRIT
18
OF
30
39
A CONFIDENT ARISTOCRACY
Picture Essay:
48
61
Picture Essay:
68
ATHENS
IN ITS
79
TIME OF GLORY
105
7
8
us
A NEW TIME OF
Picture Essay:
125
BRILLIANCE
i36
ENDURING THEATER
145
i56
AFTERMATH OF EMPIRE
165
APPPENDIX
177
BIBLIOGRAPHY,
INDEX and
lo
Gallery
Pronunciation Guide
188
NTRODUCTION
Apart from
its
ment assures
among
place
it
human
may be
interest.
to accept regimentation
own
Humani-
the
ties,
viduals
who
Mesopota-
Classical Greece
was
different.
We know
in
the heart of
civic
affairs.
name
of those
of
Each ostrakon
some outstanding
Cimon,
offers
Pericles
and many
proof that
men were
aiming
at
at
some
to
In other aspects of
we
new
must
live
generation of
in
The
all
fine pottery
made
in
history
owes much of
its
past
the
men who
Man makes
to
'necessarily
little
this
the privilege
Ages of
choice. Sir
His
Its
author
Greek
and
of Hellenism
his life to
literature, art
brilliant distillation
happy
is
the contemplation of
To
ety.
whom
stretch of time.'
of
suspected by
life,
each
many
Human-
before him.
tyranny. These
in the Sixth
his
to
been kin-
has
man
Athens
poten-
full
to
name
his
contribution
fullest
ist
Aristides, Themistocles,
others.
his
gave their
make
in
thousand
or
tial
their par-
Recent excavations
the
Athens
in
alone,
stated:
anonymous.
all
soci-
on the
its
dewy
document
var-
Greece
will discover
ing, imaginatively
much
that
deployed
to
is
new and
refresh-
of Classical Greece.
HOMER
Field Director,
American School of
A.
THOMPSON
Classical Studies at
Athens
1i
^b
At
ZACYNTHUS
ELIS
Olyrtipia.
CRETE
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
-^^Istrus
Apollonia
BLACK SiA
Abdera
^^l^^"^'*
SAMOTHRACE
-^
^_
;r
^^
^^^ OF
SA
q^ MARMAR/^
^^
lEMNOS
5f/\
^
CHIOS
2frii*^
GREEKS
^^^^
who
of
it.
cities-
its
cated
Romans looked
to the
Greeks
as their masters
in
the
Romans' confidence
in their
own
arts.
was much
in
Despite
and
letters
art,
to
do as well
as the Greeks.
When
CRADLE OF
THE
MODERN
ancient world,
SPIRIT
Rome
at first
felt
Roman
and more
alluring.
Slowly
past,
the
in
interest
this
more power-
was disentangled
and the
full
majesty of
as-
the
until
new
17th Century,
when
the
scientific spirit
which we ourselves
and
exalts us.
life
ex-
as-
reason alone
we
its
achievement.
own
origins,
No
and
for this
know
about
it,
of
is
far too
At
what
it
has inherited.
Greek outlook
lay
an un-
when
east,
man
she
is
life
shown
in
and donor of
many
roles,
among
were
as
the
instrument of an
his
own
sake.
They
others protectress
sought
at all costs
to
EVOLVING STYLES
Greek
in
art, are
in portraying the
shown
here.
left,
monumental
stiff,
much what
of the
it is
valleys,
is
it
cut
al-
most
in
Gulf.
To
is
rounded
is
part of Crete,
off to the
Greece
is
Florida.
Moreover,
able to support
and yet
more than
in the history of
Yemen
than
or
never been
Western
civilization
it
has
The reason
Mesopotamia,
is
GEOMETRIC PERIOD
in the great
it
was easy
large
to subject a
is
man performed an
of his
fied
men were
own
person, and do
This
own
in their
circles a
The Greek
sibilities.
and
own
its
its
most magical of
skies, incited
developed
in its servants
hand and
eye.
an unusual
both
human
honored
in a
of themselves
self-awareness
and
they
their
would
man must
be
re-
in his
of
man
mind, to go his
The
own way
without
belief in
freedom
was sustained by
and nurtured by
This feeling
as
to real-
hand,
at
skill of
what was
all
among
the Greeks
it
may have
was deeply
felt,
started
and
of their respon-
do
to
liberty. Just
freedom
deeply aware of
this,
is
group
is
life,
and owner
show himself
able to
shaped, and
ethical
still
it
after
was based
it
for granted
what
own
its
to establish
the
philosophy, or
It
had
its
regarded themselves as vastly superior in this respect to the Persians, who, utterly dependent on
whim, were
their king's
in the
Greek view no
better
than slaves.
From
the
first
The Romans,
lawmakers
great
in their
own
right,
modern
rise to
most
legal systems.
its
rules
too
lit-
ety to anarchy.
And
liberty
The Greeks
notion of
when
ages,
it.
consequence
as a
local loy-
Though they
er,
they
felt
all
Greeks,
men
of the
and government;
alties
still
little
in
Babylonia
Israel
is
also ancient.
tomsand
saw themselves
Though
a strong
or Persia,
First,
it
either of
to
carry out
the
an omnipotent monarch or of
entirely at
improving the
will
god;
lot
of
Finally,
and property
for a select
for
all
members
to
secure
life
group of leaders or
priests.
The Greeks
which comprised
a large
number
of dif-
common
were subjects of
despotic ruler.
to
Whenever
foreign
the
enemy, they
the
them
to
of personal achievement, of a
make
to give to the
structure of political
life.
works of
their
hands
In the
Even objects so
distinction.
masterpieces of
little
remarkable
relief
sculpture
gold or
in
silver.
We may
ask
why
so
much
what they
The answer
Greek
artisans
worked
is
did, has
is
for specific
state)
ting
at
or grotesque
violent, gross
Instead
effects.
the
showed men
knew what they wanted and insisted on getThe Greeks wanted their arts and handi-
cular bodies,
women
anonymous
public.
it.
and
to
hoped
ion they
to
prolong their
own
influence into
drapery of their
finest clothes.
When
keep
in the rippling
did,
it
Greek
art dealt
with animals, as
it
on
lions leaping
their
terial in
to leave things as
Not content
in
this
process,
and the
result
has that
we
call
justice to
was no
workmanship was
by something more
meant
to
to
exalted.
temples, and
had
What was
less true of
to perpetuate
have
it
had
to
a nobility
it
It
could
in
arts
in
able language,
many
by
re-
it.
lacked inhibitions
They had
and
sight that
it
full
became almost
was accorded
use of
peoples, poetry
religion,
never aimed
who
that art
is
visible
at their
do
an or-
it
such as decorations
each case
something
a people
why Greek
to
this explains
ma-
humbler
was intended
its
that to
felt
classical.
often
it
mus-
to
all
it.
With
came bea
second
of the Fifth
Century B.C.
in
These
seals, originally
carved
in
left)
ewe
The most
relevant today as
with which
cy.
We may
it
was when
it
was
it
to
it
it
for
is
its
was "a
and
light
all
by arguing
technical
its
values.
something important
which
in the early
spoken
all
to say
he often said
it
in verse
originally
it
in
sung
of exciting
and
is
many
irresistible
to
tragic events.
They followed
this
home
its
who were
arts
and
and more
is
difficult relations
manner
of
continued
human
to
foibles.
write
Even
in later years
its
all
they
its
subjects
fields in
of
the
which
physical
be sure,
much
complished
in
such
fields as
provide
to
eral principles,
to the lyre
we
and passion.
The nature
was sung
their high
it
At
pow-
immediacy and
The
gains our
it
son.
and
its
deals with
It
to music.
heroic epic,
an
but
skill,
directness drive
pow-
profound humanity,
Socrates,
and
written.
first
to the extraordinary
human
wise appreciation of
attention not
literature,
as alive
is
it
admire
what binds us
that
is
Greek
striking quality of
arising
sea below.
in the
and
The Greeks'
a
theoretical
in the process
"love of knowledge").
fields
were closely
related,
To
two
to find out
in
their
astronomy
practical
for navigation
way
to another.
the
Greeks
needed
and an understanding
of
this
in
processwn
from the
are,
left:
his thunderbolt:
membership
revised the
this
of
list
pantheon
at
times.
this technical
knowledge with
theories
would produce
it
and experiment.
Fifth
saw
also
When
a theo-
it
made
Greek doctor
to deal
The
spirit
made
wounds especially
with
war.
human
its first
end
on the correct
to verifiable
first
actions,
into
and
it
Century
"What
fact;
Hecataeus of Miletus
at the
what
thought
to
be true; for the stories of the Greeks [of other centuries] are
which deductions
seven-note scale.
Pythagoras
fields:
numerous, and
were hampered by no
were not
my opinion
in
own
its
rigid
scheme of
ridiculous."
were
Such
much
was
of course very
tors
than
in
knowing what
had made
illnesses
a great
at
to
in its infancy,
diagnosing
do
for
it,
but
and doccomplaint
at least
they
were thought
to
be curable by amulets,
like.
things.
inquiries, far
As
showed
the phi-
men
at the
tell
an eclipse
in
re-
who was
able to fore-
>
but equally on high occasions of festival and rejoic-
They thought
ing.
pect
them
to
men
to be,
human
their
behavior.
power.
men
in their
own
lives.
to display
and
Greek did
If a
was making
proper use
that extent
to
means when he
Aristotle
we can." Thus
mortal as far as
that "all things are full of gods,"
and
this
was the
Thus Greek
pily with
to inspire
art
Greek
fitted in
hap-
much
to
modern minds
fall
vinity, they
They were
all
in
di-
common.
to a
mind
that
lest
of man.
invisible,
make
everything,
literally
and
it
what the
gods provided.
all
hymns and
sacrifices;
oracles; they
They
they consulted
all
kinds of
They hoped
would
the characteristic
moderation, both in
Greeks zestfully
life
maxim "Nothing
in excess,"
Mean, the
felt
not
and
felt in
it
set its
mark on
it
to
was
make
the
most
at
least
an
They
which came
their civilization.
it
was
their task
by seeking pleasure
of this, not
reward for
their efforts)
out to
much and
be worthy of their
While the
arts.
desirability of the
it
to
and the
with the
tempered
set
death they
it
eagerly,
tried
lives to rational
knowing
too
trines.
once eager
yet
came
ideal,
what
be im-
to their gods, at
to be as
an ambivalent relation
is
"We must
says:
make
human
new and
to living in
toil,
and
creating some-
as their minds, to
and
us,
MNCiENT GREECE
/
M
is
\ and
literary
left
Vanother. But
great.
It is,
monuments
it is
of art
thought of
man
as a despised figure
full of
who
is
feet.
more wonderful
"The world
human
What
form,
the world
2,400 years later would think of the Greeks the Athenian statesman
Pericles foretold (above) in his eloquent funeral oration
on the
first
It
was
this Apollo,
god of the
some 400
years later and found again under a Piraeus street only in 1959.
ORDER
IN
STONE
IS
shown
in the
das on the island of Rhodes. These columns, which grow narrower as they rise,
when
to
change them
TO
These
harmonious
An
Xenophon, who,
ment, wrote:
.
in his delightful
to their use
ranged
in a
When
the
King
of Bithynia offered to
if
row
that
in
to play
to
pour into his soul through the funnel of his ears those sweet and
soft
WORKADAY
world,
still
by endless thousands
all
to
and melancholy
airs
'
the best
THE
and war so
their
ganized on democratic
lines.
in peace
mand
men, explained
of 10,000
said, "If
anyone has
Athens elected
common
the people"
its
generals.
and
soldier
sidered the
a better
supreme
was
or-
plan to propose,
force
fighting
let
him do
to
so."
one war
test of a
own
least that
was expected
Greeks esteemed Dieneces the Spartan who, told that the enemy
hosts at Thermopylae were so large their arrows would hide the
sun, replied, "So
much
into
the better,
we
how
of giants.
This
is
jMPF'^^
'i
^.
i;.
"^
V.^J^^
^:--
'^^'^i^m..*-;
but
and toleraut
in public affairs
to those
we
hi
our private
lives;
mind does
MAN
OF THE MIND,
exercise of all a
Ath-I.'llr .Irlinr.i
man's
,'/;-
,(.!/,
,i/
Ihll'iuiieas as
the
not
make us soft"
THE
would be one
The complete
man would
or at
be equally active as
an
all
things.
worked
diplomat and
At
priest.
riders easily
honor of the goddess Athena that took place once every four
'TT^'-^'m^^mm
^'^ar
<1'H"^#
/
-\
years.
from the
later period of
SCULPTURE was
long,
Greek
It
a logical reason.
commemorate victories,
ravages of time,
is
a bronze
left"
honor
for
their gods, to
what they
human
westernmost Mediterranean
figures that
to India.
Over
No
period,
illustrates
pressure, a quality
still
testify to the
Greek
belief in the
wonder
of
man.
in
er
restraint
under
much sought
aft-
times.
f^
'->
C>"
/In
);a ^.
*^^V
..'^,
The Greeks
of historical times,
about 750 B.C., believed themselves to be descended from a legendary race of heroes.
Men
of prodi-
of
2
AND NEW DAWN
fiction,
that
many
centu-
and
their
we now know
but
fact.
For nearly a century archeologists have been uncovering evidence of a rich civilization, centered at
the city of
DARK AGE
assumed
scholars
memnon,
the
King who
name
(the ancient
Achaeans
development of
Minoan
version
clothes. Their
colors, intricate
homes, sometimes
elegant
flush toilets)
unmatched
Victorian times.
all
games (they
backgammon) and
of
not
to
original-
civilization of Crete
ans were
Trojan
Some
nicety until
for sanitary
if
by
were
made
and some of
their royal
tures
spectacular
much
as 120 tons.
They were
also
immensely wealthy,
pecially in metals,
Mycenaean tombs,
es-
in gold. In
masks
and breastplates of gold; bronze swords and daggers; gold and silver drinking cups; gold rings and
diadems; and thin sheets of gold used as funeral
wrappings
dren.
The tombs
also
disclose
Their era, 13 centuries before Christ, gloried in mighty deeds of war and
its
taller
chil-
something of the
They were
bearded.
One
a
And
It
Decisions of
court
his
surrounded the
of villages that
Archeologists
city.
efficient
holdings, agricultural
slaves,
horses,
pair wheels
of
chariots
land
assessments,
tax
and inventories
stores,
and chariot
bound with
silver,
parts
phered, also
B.C.,
artifacts.
decayed
crafts
arms
tablets in a script
in
Mycenaean
effective)
icent
at
weapons made
cremation.
The
tightly organized
the
car-
tally disintegrated
foresters,
potters,
of far
("one
Among them
end.
terrible
to a
the
came
by successive invasions
obliterated
of
(called Linear
pations.
was
less civilized
Helen,
Mycenaean
by the Dorian
society
assault.
was
to-
Many
of
wanderers.
To
this
penters,
unguent
boilers.
In
to the
baldly, brigandage
principal
war or,
to
Mycenaean
put
it
more
home on adventurous
cities,
to Crete,
it
subjugating
was only
plain.
From
the
completely.
short voyage to
And from
Rhodes and
its
fate.
east of present-day
Century B.C.
Troy
in the
On
said
clustered
in
Achaean world
one long-
was fought
Attica,
in
of
for
bility
fell
lived as best
they could.
One
of Greece's ear-
at a
depicted on a stone
III,
Nile temple,
seen repelling
is
when Dorian
invaders
marked by
mastery
its
Mediterranean,
the
in
Among
Asia
in
the
Hebrew
apogee
its
kingthe
in
reigns of
to
produced
its
Mahab-
power
Century
in the Eighth
B.C.,
liest
lived at
it
change
their
embodied
all
the
in detail
to
In the
naean
first
each
civilization,
isted
in effect a garrison
and
his captains.
once claimed,
And
of the
Myce-
surrounding
its
in origin:
governed by
little
order ex-
the city
was
commander and
No
fall
with
city,
and
its
if
surrounding countryside
city-state. Military
and shamed.
And men
will scorn
them and
bitter
words
they'll say.
might
their
ravaging
wall.
men
head.
will break
through a city
Nowhere
community
in
Greece,
king was
as well as its
however, did
And
secular
not repay
The cost of
Nor
did they
ence or absolute
demand
authority
that
Oriental
rulers
Along with
Greeks began
ence, the
to acquire certain
uniform
ta
and
local
styles
They became
change
in
dress,
willing to learn
and
their ideas
their
ways
to
of doing things.
sometimes
skills,
The Greeks' own name for themselves, HelDark Age. Greek pottery be-
tastes.
gan
to take
on
mon
And
they shared
com-
From
were eventually
main features
Hellenic
define
to
these
that
civilization
cul-
Dark Age.
It
its
and Sparta, by
reverted to
its
this
pawns
death.
its
and
hardship
Home
without question.
The men
to
weapons but
accept
was
life
ate at a
from birth
endure physical
existent.
became
to
discipline
practically non-
common
mess, could
not marry before the age of 20, and could not live
cultural unity.
Not
all
same fashion
to
Dark Age
in the
moment. Strangely,
was
of great
was not
pened
Mycenaean
to
early history of
influential city-states
may
times. Nevertheless,
in the
what hap-
Dark Age
set the
it
cities,
was destined
village,
in
a tiny
off the
crowded
Dorians
Mycenaeans
city
were pre-
built.
opposing philosophies
political
When
it
in
freedom against
as a military
camp.
It
no im-
made
virtue of extreme
was on
natural
Dorian invaders
fortress,
rocky
the
site of
in
simplicity.
Acropolis.
Dorians on the
was
state
large
for the
harbors,
among them
in
about
Aegean
to find
new homes on
the
Aegean
islands
came
to
The
be called Ionia.
first
were on the
is-
The
soil
was
rich,
the
and
harbors,
rivers
like the
to
prodigious achievements.
They were
also lessons in
for trade
newcomers
so the
themselves
fortified
in
walled
good stead,
menaced by
the
Cimmerians and
the Lydians,
instruction while
he
gave
The legends
delight.
were
to
who
Over
fit
in
ans were
home.
at
old
much
If
fashion a
Like
all
new
in Attica.
and
to
nies
free
social
number
all,
a modified
Mycenaean
They kept
form of the
line-
dialect
of characters
and
a central hearth
with geo-
all,
made
passed
The
antiquity.
Greek
civilization.
Not
There was,
first
much
of
a cast
personalities
were
and events,
in-
used
huge stock
of
phrases that
fell
automati-
The
of standardized forms.
always
spoken
least
at
one.
conscious of their
age,
countrymen
epic
drew upon
Age,
offered a
caught
literate
Greeks
number
were
and
the
examine
bards
To
in
some
to live
on
literature of the
it
is
appropriate
The
gods on Mount Olympus
displaced by another.
is
set
of gods
was
Minoan gods
myth which tells
Olympian
in recognizable events.
reminders of a time
when
to be a
Greek was
NAME OF LETTER
ENGLISH TRANSLITERATION
'^H^^VIa9^vl
kappa
lambda
mu
c,
more than
One
his characters.
tales of
at
their ap-
development
final
Mycenaean
times, but
destinies, of
enough
making
imagination
at
is
understanding
really are,
is-
his
why
when
Homer was
ill
new
spirit
body
in
new
plement
was
of the
its
use
Bay
home
to
jewelry and
trinkets
still
its
busy
communal
earliest of these
afield,
they
gold
and
of
to
copy and
was the
and tempering
lives
religious rites.
One
festival of song,
in
their
of the
dance and
honor of Apollo.
far
at
Greece participated
in the
compete
in wrestling,
at Ischia,
an island
am
at the
entrance to the
Nestor's cup.
this
cup
memory
viously entrusted to
man
gave
within his
to
down
as literary
own
lifetime.
and provided
set
down
Writing made
much more
set
up
much more
effective
in writing
it
possible
efficiently
means
of re-
cording history.
to the
Roman
fine
and
flexible
instrument.
it
its
With
To
spread
all
Age
square for
in the public
pre-
or limited to itemized
the
easily, living
parts
all
examples of
still
activity with
earliest
and
Admirably
spread rapidly to
it
hint
carved ivory.
compete with
needs,
consonants.
brought
good
tool,
bookkeeping but
it
clumsy
of Naples:
many
for
Phoenician
the
adapted to
direc-
and
was
it
lists
at the
for
cup found
gentle affection.
pointed tasks, of
Dark
and
crafts,
Ionia
and began
to
IN
OF
The
Homer
reported, "showers of big stones battered the shields of the fighting men.
picture above and most of the other photographs in this essay are taken from
a frieze in grayish
seum
in Vienna.
covered
The
frieze,
it is
on request, and
the
Mu-
It is
in the Kunsthistorisches
it
600
feet in
length it
to depict the
is
two
shown only
rrtore rarely
published.
who fought at the siege of Troy, ancient Ilion that Homer sings of in the Iliad.
Its many panels also contain a scene of the homecoming of Odysseus which Homer
recounts in the Odyssey. Heightening the spell that Homer's poems
these stories in stone give visual form to major episodes from the
still
two
weave,
epics.
sj:
^^^M
P^
^i^.:^
for 10 grind-
scarcely
it, it
and served
as
characters of the
his pride
first
own
document
religious
Olympian
by
six
poem
family. For
a great
man
that set
all
time
the
it
is
brought low
in battle,
is
Agamem-
when
comes forth
to lead
the
Then
is
walls.
But
killed, Achilles
is
moved
to
com-
body
1^
tr.;<i-
%..
^'^'^'^
'mmmm
MAN-TO-MAN COMBAT
OF GREAT WARRIORS
Armies maneuver and
But heroes
to all
combat: Hector
in individual
soldiers;
Homer
his attention
was not
would remember.
clus' death,
vows
he
cries.
would so
The
could
win fame
"Now may
"May
A man
they
know
for himself
win
that
by aveng-
a glorious
I
name!"
the battle! May I bring sobs and groansome wives of Troy and Dardania." And
Hector, knowing he will die at Greek hands, takes
away from
ing to
men
will
they
sail
of a
man dead
Hector slew.' So
my
fame
will
is
as
the barrow
whom
famous
never be forgotten."
who
on Creeks,
Olympian
Athena
set
fair-
Aphrodite
laus of Sparta.
As
King Mene-
gods took
sides.
Zeus,
Zeus
who
favored
to sleep.
When
MOMENT OF
grasps him by the hair and prepares to stab him. The Creeks
POSEIDON'S PERCH
is
Mount
fate
on
scales.
When
the
razed,
Most men
still
and women
and
the city
in
city
was
enslaved.
as an old
his
own
t,^^j0f)>ii-^mB'
house, where
wily
suitors
-^^-^'i^fc^i^l^^'igt
AN EXCITING
The Greeks won
military
their
war with
other ways.
famous ruse
that
tells
gift a
wooden horse
soldiers
in the
slept,
who had
devised the
IV
i<!Li
^\i
.. \iL\.
men
Homer
the
first
playfully
Odysseus
to
who
ev-
wooden
</4^Jir-^k.;<.^ '-tfof
turned his
Greek
Odyssey,
finally got
eating
home
up
in time to
''
\ tti
After the appearance of the Greek alphabet, sometime during the Eighth Century B.C., the Greeks
at last
own contem-
many
add
haphazard but
its
our knowledge in
to
areas.
revival,
marked by
re-
change
in the structure of
Greek
fundamental
life.
In almost
A CONFIDENT
petuated
with
ARISTOCRACY
its
fig-
its
its
holders, kept
its
moved from
office for
ereven though,
as sole repository of
custom and
bound
to
to
conform
any
code.
Where
government by
a single ruler to
The new
riors
rulers
who had
Thus
the
group of men.
Initially
only landowners
men
pursuits,
to the class.
They
common
and the
art of the
subscribed to a
them
to
interest in
and
music
strict
to enemies),
Theodorus of Phocaea,
it
was designed
for
this
was a
tholos,
or
means would
tion to cheat,
These
abundant
permit),
immune
aristocrats
may have
to the
tempta-
itself.
theless
many
like
members
enjoy
The
aristocracies,
a position
become
political
mean, and
of government.
its
came
polis
walls. In
it
who
total
of people
tradesmen and
men
sailors
mingled
now
like
was
small,
Corinth and
one
was
at
various kinds of
to
who governed
with their
own
specially qualified
class.
They
believed themselves
to their
own
advantage
to
so.
it
talent in
of interest
between the
aristocrats
written code of
word "democracy"
existed.
They
feud,
down
and other
also
appointment of magistrates
became
621
syn-
any
area.
of cabbage-stealing
to the
and made
justifiable homicide,
distinction be-
Under
stable system of
came
Greek
differentiate the
to
Long
life
because of
Greeks from
their
its
more
had
lost their
what
inspired view of
to be.
men. But
for
was an
Goodness, or
arete,
existed in
things.
all
According
for the
was
that "Draconian"
pre-
that
ac-
refers.
aristocrats
foreign neighbors.
freely. Life
full of
"politics"
onym
and de-
The
rites
Athens, seafaring
was so harsh
B.C.,
who
affairs discussed
number
and
it,
lived inside
to
the seat
It
The
polls, or city-state.
to be,
overrefined.
was the
life
some
of
in
Un-
or
to this ideal of
owed
related.
A man
it
and
cess
was
a
a
mark
personal reward:
was an
it
ing to disgrace
havior
among
ancestry
and
it,
and be worthy
his
fellows,
his
upbringing.
now
In
this
of his
view
of
failure
brought
shame upon
man and
The
his class.
ideal of
man
aristocratic
generous.
did
It
of be-
field
every
to be in
The
this closely
city's interests
because their
tially
cities'
men went
Greek
the
The
to display
in battle,
in itself.
war
and insoluble
nial
difficulty created
by
shortage
to
was
essentially hand-to-
those qualities
man
it
and
no means
lavish.
were olive
oil,
most admired by
his
their
And
could yield.
an opportunity
at best the
Then
fish,
Greek
now
as
diet
the
for all
was by
staple
foods
as
was
in equal
and
his family.
figs,
as deli-
measure
cacies.
Some
It
honors
lettuce, lentils
B.C.,
on
but
was ennobling
fellows. His
any hope of
for
ini-
fighting
man
hand, taxing a
mentally.
was not
It
civic
existed.
sense a man.
When
any
ful that
and
garlic.
more land
is
the
he
flashing-
fought by
seized lands.
the
needed to farm
the
And
on
of war.
their experience as
seamen and
their
knowl-
To
die in battle
when
was regarded
Greek died
as a fitting
end
to
settle
in distant
And
hon-
The
or, his
est esteem.
about
Greeks
life after
lands.
way
in general
for the
process,
begun
in
To
B.C.,
directions,
first
and
To
finally
then on the
littoral,
of Marmara),
went
and south-
into Sicily
up the western
Bay
CAUL
of Naples. In about
BAY OF
BISCAY
ment
settle-
the coast
now famous
Heracles
Monoecus
at
Adgssjlja
Nicaea, Her-
^^^^^ Nicaea
AphrodisiaJ'
acles
Monaco and
Nice,
BERIA
"tmporiae
raw
as far west as
found
at Vix,
;.;T5aguntum
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large
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bronze vessel,
SARDINIA
It is
local
Compared
to the
king for a
relatively unimportant.
a funeral.
NUMIDIA
colonizing might
And
Greek
yet the
means of
was not
their intention,
GREEK COLONIES
results
<1
when
height. The
Italy
their
language
arts
at its
Greek
was
is
fell
it
is
their
own
refined
EUBOEAN
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seem
and
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550 B.C.
in blue.
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towns and
cities
to the
cities
boxed on the
on the
map
to
the
of the
Etruscan people of
Italy.
new
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200
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300 Miles
I
CYRENAICA
Tyre0
A,
<o
The Creek
ship,
is
its
seafarers.
came
were able
nomad Scyths
with the
in contact
common
httle in
Greek techniques
and,
al-
in
raised relief.
full
advantage of the
the
griffins' land.
Megara Hyblaea,
Selinus and
like Syracuse,
in wealth.
where colonies
Sicily,
far
vital
poet, Stesichorus,
the best of
the age.
The
A SYRACUSE
ens.
reverse,
chariot.
Ath-
On
the
commonly
aloof. Colonization
and
ness,
a detailed
this
is
was so
many Greek
common
in the
mountains, was
cities.
the
was
a gifted poet
who
about his
life.
on
and
his
satire,
for his
them
own
as
freedom on
leaders
little
disillusion.
the
reverse
is
feared
whom
he
liking or respect
came from
illegitimate son of a
slave, he
much
He
of his attitudes
his
some
background. As the
had no rights
to paternal succession
and
plant.
Zeus-AmmonZeus's head
of
On
island
man who
of the
colonies. For
integ-
the
made
lasting impression
rity
home-
Ammon.
had
to
sword.
make
his
own way by
his skill
with the
Bitter,
gov-
Archilochus
reality,
re-
own
when
when they go
tell
much when
go
things
it
Do
and
well,
Homeric values he
He
purest sense.
them
also personified
in
their
his
due,
earned
deadly insult.
he
through
error, before
first
and
trial
From
here.
left to
worked hard,
true successes.
were sim-
them was
not prevent
this did
it
its
The Greek
many
is
infused
rocky landscape
discipline
artist
molded by
pears, unconsciously
that imposes
light.
show
dis-
and balance
it.
stiff
piece.
convention and
he be cast ashore, naked and
shown
making beautiful
May
is
wrote:
at
once
eye.
powerful
worked
had
and
some extent
may
fer,
arts,
to
may
lively
lies
face
downwards by
the margin of
the waves.
manded by
life
its
rewards:
and varied.
Greek
at in
art
is
It
who sought
humble painted
pots
And
head of Athena,
for
life at its
the gods'
domestic
most
favor,
use.
The
to
first
Greek
reflect
its
most
re-
No man
gets
honor or glory of
his
it
common
drink-
subjects.
while
we
worst
part.
live;
As
altation
far
ex-
delight.
back
as
Not
all
tive as Archilochus,
and determination
as percep-
in
establishing themselves in a
new
land.
And
while
at a
much
lower
level,
human
and
Before,
Contrary
to
artistic creativity.
common assumption
away
straight lines,
figures
battles
in
naturalistic.
formalized sets of
tant than
surroundings.
its
new
color
New techniques
were invented,
form devised.
to the clay
Drawing,
tured with
at first hesitant
astonishing speed
into
the
flawless,
ment
of
on the island
ani-
artistic
soon after
life,
There are
dramatic epi-
Apollo
rior
is
kills
home by
carried
tified as
life:
a medicinal plant
much
menting,
artists learned
to stress the
pottery.
mouth
facilitate
to
lifting;
(3),
was a
amphora
hydria
shown
Once forms
(4)
was
made pouring
The
supremacy of Atheniatj
potters.
to use
empty space
how
compose
to
men and women into a continuous prohow to mass them without crowding. Even
groups of
cession,
fit
its
as
particular
easy.
Such vases
how
contours of a figure,
In sculpture, development
came
and had
later
And
then, in
earliest
women,
life-size
and carved
The women
men and
in the round.
their
The men
mere
at
what
layers of
cloth.
behind with
is left
known
itself is
fortless,
And
muscles.
its
its
become
limbs
the female
lighter
forms.
ment
body beneath.
to figures in the
dancing rhythms.
poetry had
Lyric
It
many
uses and
in public affairs.
active in the
B.C.,
battle
the
tri-
which
instances included
in certain
of these
would take
a full
The pediment,
human
else
at its base.
The
frieze
had
And
be
continuous pat-
to
Not
all
Greek
for
artist
form
had learned
to suit the
to balance his
work became
richer in detail
the Greeks
As
knew about
the
human
The impersonal
timents, gave
way
to a
epic,
from
lived
philosophy of so-
when he became
dance for
lyric
its
who,
late in the
for choruses of
lyrics
to
his performers:
time the
parts.
Look, beside
my
me
sings
my
friend,
His
Immortals,
econom-
who
how much
figure.
choral
some
Sometimes
of
his feeling
component
who
to
glories of
He knew how
And
this
to discipline
stir-
ly got
for example,
was required
something
cial
wrote
countrymen
as the frieze,
many
mid-Seventh Century
took
with
its
new
heroic sen-
Some
this
The
the
of lyric song, of
events. This
poems sung
work
of
two
poets, a
man and
woman. The
accompaniment
to the
friend
feelings
for
the
CORINTHIAN
young
girls
Her touch
On
who formed
intimate, personal:
is
Anyone
loveth.
mood can
many
shift
single
times, but
straight
lyric
it
true
is
poem
the
always speaks
and human.
it
know
own
their
to
emotions.
know
themselves
in
it
is
was pleasing
to the
known
had
done much
in their time
to
to explain the
world
to
and
column
capital;
tablets;
and
(1)
an Ionic column
(left)
At
are
shown
style temples.
(J)
capital of the
in
styles;
some
Co-
all
and
all
of
all
it.
was
that
was
colorless
it
was
some
thought
of
material
it
(C) the
jecting cornice;
clear liquid;
Anaximenes thought
gas;
and Anaximander
indeterminate
substance,
and
Ionic-
on the nature of
life
itself.
what they
things are
One
Heraclitus,
who
lived in
life
everything changed.
lute,
who was
Pythagoras,
his life
the
in
numbers.
sum
One
come down
to us
as the
two shorter
right-angled triangle
long side.
The
is
his
was
home
in
Ionia
by
Italy.
Xenophanes founded
which taught
a philosophical school
single,
sides of a
was ordered by
who
operated through
thought alone.
scientists
and philosophers
gods
if
ories,
the
they
myths were
to take
its
at the
dawn
very
place.
call
Their
scientific.
Anaximander,
in
an unending succession of
come out
of the sea,
man had
and produced
orig-
fossils as
To
rich, de-
dis-
turbed by
civil strife.
were so
erless,
at
leaving the
man
scrupulous
take over.
least
way
some
some
clear for
to force his
way
able or un-
to
as tyrants,
The
sort of equilibrium.
produced
best of
at
them
and
made concessions
in return
keep themselves
in
to
the
poorer
power.
tocratic system.
And
befori',
city-state gained
enabling
it
to resist
a scale
that
it
is
true,
were bru-
connotation
icent
it
spirit of a
flected
its
They
their
re-
un-
its
evidence.
the aristocratic
knowledge gave
the
was
it
attack.
for
and slaves
largely
Many of the
of starvation,
believed in
new one
yet
If
And
truth.
was pleasant
Life
conflict.
they created a
Working
by persistent
at
still
of the world.
between
distinction
this
classes,
They made no
of fine arts.
men was
of these
are.
as
elite,
much
most
city-states
conformed
tern of aristocratic
life.
to
this
But one
changing patcity
eventually
moved beyond
the pattern,
And
its
two
again,
the
it
a cultural flowering,
it
did
Remnants
was expelled by
B.C., Hippias
nobles
cities
time in
The
office.
exiles
to Sparta.
world, thereby
Sparta
structure,
refused
cumbersome
tinued to use
to its old
and
serfs.
monetary
up commerce
remain an agra-
serf labor.
even
It
continued
on
partly
fear:
Spartan
their slaves
camp
Greek
B.C.
it
was governed by
Though
tus.
He was
in
the
latter
it
strengthened
became,
political
them
the
Athens
Aegean
his
talents. In
felt
miraculous
in
Then, inflamed by
off.
their
new
belief
in
ritory of
Oropus on
their
in full
the
island
view of Athens
in
of
Aegina,
the Saronic
it.
Once but
single state
among many,
now began
and
influential
results
a
area.
ulti-
lies
ties
democracy
They
its
full
it
which
text
Aulis.
his leadership
If it
factions
sons, Hippias
later
and did
When
freedom of speech.
when opposition
527
art of poetry,
power and
supported the
Athenians
affairs.
exiled twice
briefly regained
managed
to
by promising
so.
From 561
say in public
adult male
all
conformed
any other
city,
citizens
citizens
member
scale, preferring to
re-
who
iron rods as
dependent on
rian society,
was
was
politics.
on any serious
modeled by
whole economic
the
to
In 507 B.C.
taste.
to a revo-
in fact the
would
its
when Lydia
But
group of Athenian
rents of
was
power
were not
to
to
make
in the
it
full
cities:
is
to be brighter
slants
down
was planned.
a stiff
by
their
the
or
bitter,
in
it
On
this peninsula
and on
the lowland
A BOUNCY HUNTER
him and
his
Strides
homeward with
lead.
behind
bow and
arrow.
in separate
and
seas, the
far
in
Of
sea.
mountains and barren regions, covering three quarters of the country, offered poorest fare.
ridges
Fifth
Century
had few
Once
these
of moisture in
had produced
a sparse Greece.
for sap-
The highlands
(if
Arakhnaions
in the
pillars of
to
300
down on
Greeks
A ROADSIDE COPSE
is
filled
in the
moiouaiti>
iyi'ix
this area, a
to
famous hunting
become soldiers.
as the dry
summer wind
ON THESSALYS
(below).
olive
show when
to
white
in
peace
vided essential
warm
clothing,
were often
soft.
less
fertile
pockets. Al-
than a quarter of
level.
all
the
whose
oil
was the
in
demand
butter, soap
and lamp
fuel of an-
growing was
until a tree
left to
gentle-
After that
man
could
sit
IS
^JBS!*""^~'
carrtea to a shrine.
in the
he Creeks' meager
offerings.
They panned
it
upon
it
in
They
talked
end has
the
windy raceways
it
that an adventurous
last
Greek
sailor
from
a principal
the
tors
to
to the next,
always trying
in sight.
throw a
trident.
on the water
that
expanding
their insistence
submitted to
its
was
a ruler
to be challenged
absolute.
The
by the Persian
must sometimes be
curtailed.
was
It
a lesson
Western
For
civilization
petty disputes
many
of
little
trouble with
The power
of Babylonia
Century
Greek
the
in
cities
coast. Later
monarch of
He
greatly.
Apollo
at
his time
deposits,
home
by exploiting
famous shrine of
and the
of a revered oracle
The
Delphi,
rule.
in Greece.
Persia.
Cyrus had
al-
him
that he
He assumed
would "destroy
said to
a great
empire."
"No one
is
so fool-
which, instead of
it
so."
army
to the coast
and subdued
all
of
its
A COUNCIL OF
WAR
the arts.
Persia's
artist
in
alike,
but
to in-
southern Italy
about 325 B.C. Above Darius are gods: below, Persians bringing
He
combined
tribute.
if
they had
first
place.
through
mountain
was no match
He was
also a pioneer
and
dug
a tunnel to be
who
lured
But he
him
to
Darius
I,
who had
The
of
retain their
Ionia.
all
new
subjects to
military service.
The Greeks
Sparta did
make
little
their
a gesture:
Persians, protesting
to
it
actions
and reminding
Greek
But
it
failed to follow
up
all
the protest
on the Greek
cities
to.it.
and
Eretria,
on
and burning
it.
After this
initial
sally,
allies
went
left to their
own
re-
engagement was
The
on
final
Lade, near Miletus, in which, according to the historian Herodotus, a fleet of 353 Ionian ships
overwhelmed by
a fleet of
600 ships
may have
was
in the service
exaggerated the
latter figure.
To
sians sacked
part of
its
protected the head. The bronze tip of the battering ram with the
them
many
though
it
it
is
shown
at right
was
It
blow
terrible
to the Greeks.
its
drachmas
From
the Athenian
its
wept so
when
destruction,
Athenian audience
his
fail to
On
own
show
of
a small affair
the "King's
Mardonius
then,
if
to
move
his first
possible, to
move southward
wrecked
into the
now
demanding
to return
sent heralds to
their
first
home.
Greek
the
all
Some
Greek
part of
his ships
men
of his son-in-law
in
against
a large force of
made
the
official called
Eye."
its
to the Hellespont.
states,
of
gifts
to
Herodotus the
own
in a pit, sug-
and Spar-
earth,
to India,
miles.
The
ta
their
own
to
the protection of
Ahura Mazda,
in
officials,
him
to
with a
for,
says
He
was the
He
and
built a canal
built a
his armies.
economy by
network of roads
One
and he sup-
for the
movement
of
One
of the
most important
literally of
He
fleet
for the
to
march
shore, in case
it
became necessary
its
to sail
the
on
off-
around and
port of Phaleron.
well-
bay of Mara-
overland
two
sent
neighbors.
its
generals, Datis
ever.
in
mentand
Sparta, with
the Athenians
a
remarkably
last-minute plan-
named
must go
to
Miltiades,
the governor
THRACE
MACEDONIA
ILLYRIA
IONIAN
THE PERSIAN WARS
PERSIAN EMPIRE 497
B.C.
B
y/
B.C.
AND
B.C.
Persians,
whose main
East.
When
only his Medes and Persians armored in iron scales but also other
troops variously attired: Assyrians
who wore
carried
tall,
bows
fought with bows, daggers and battle axes. The Thracians dressed
in
long cloaks of
the
army was
many
the
colors.
Ten Thousand,
who
in
of cane,
fell in battle
he
glittering
had firsthand
partly to save as
succeeded to
hemmed
a plain
to thwart
in
pos-
advance
for a distance,
Herodotus says, of
new
by mountains
his infantry to
was
who
much
sea, Miltiades
It
re-
a revolt in
was determined
pursue
to
him
at
At Marathon,
mile."
sible traitors.
and
sulting
sible
Persia
at
meet them
diately to
ac-
He persuaded
tactics.
at a
under
a "little
dug through
the neck of
his fa-
among
squabbles
at
archers,
"made ready
seemed
to
them
their senses,
them, although
to receive
it
that the
own
their
destruction."
They
fell
back
sians 6,400
men
to the
news
of the victory,
and hurried
by ship.
When
his
army back
now advancing on
to
Phaleron
Cape Sunium
commanding
them
position that
it
as
power
of the popular
was impossible
for
Assembly
in military
and the
rights
pow-
increased, the
one
man
of the
petuous as
Athenians' 192.
ly,
and
political leaders,
a youth,
model of
a politician
young man he
suade
a
hand and
top."
know how
raise
it
And
strong
my way to the
harp, but
affairs,
later: "I
to take a
As
it.
and per-
cannot tune
modest
city in
to greatness."
sailed
to
to land,
gasp out
ous!" and
his message,
fall
dead.
"We
to
Athens, 22 miles,
have been
To Athenians
the victory
suming
side.
that gods
The dead
of
high honor
all
it
its
their lives.
still
was
by
as-
their
lived
by
seafaring.
As
far
back
as 493 B.C. he
had
new harbor
for
Athens
at Piraeus,
easier to fortify
at Phaleron. In fact
he had
in a great
stands at the
victori-
in
retreat he
when
it.
was discovered
Then,
in
the
sembly
to
just before
Thanks
crisis.
it
was
to Sparta, rather
Greek
the
all
met and
states
common danger.
At
all
its
But
Peloponnesus
joins the
to the rest
this
it
to the Persians.
to
make
narrow pass
at
left
them un-
to
was
fense
Thinking
abandoned,
itself
all
of
possible, although
mean a palisade or
The two states still
defense confined to
the Peloponnesus,
to
force
the
fleet.
Herodotus puts
at a staggering
total of
Most modern
vessels.
Persian
historians
army probably
troops,
children.
first
and thy
thee
ta in
wooden
480 B.C.
coming
in
this to the
prayers of Athena;
its
When
800 warships.
to
to build
him
but
it
At
says Herodo-
tus,
Xerxes was
this,
a bridge,
full of
and that
lashes,
a pair of fetters
enemy, and
this
the
re-
Hellespont.
its
of
manpower and
to the
materials,
enormous reserves
it
...
who
It
is
it
certain that he
them
said, that
he bade the
commanded
to utter, as
those
they lashed
commanded
wise
get,
spiritual affairs.
The
oracle
hopeless, and
first
to
work on
second
they succeeded.
One
set of bridges,
that resistance
would be destroyed.
was
that they
less
over
on
set
this time
announced
and
work
lined
marching
for the
most part
classic
invasion route,
and
When
supplies.
wide), Xerxes
is
in
some
from
silt
near-
En
place at the
same
time.
route, Leonidas
was some
his
7,000.
marched
into posi-
this period
he sent a
Thermopylae. During
spy
to
and combing
But one of
He
Spartans
to
adorn
"when
it
was
."
were about
in Greece,
ex-
their
and
told
to face
lives,
him
that
the "first
men."
On
at the pass,
different turn
cent character of
XERXES' BRIDGES over the Hellespont are showri in a drawing based on research by modern military experts. The boats are pentekoniers, or 50-
oared galleys. They were anchored fore and aft and lashed in line 9 to 11
less
odds.
way through
took a
Greek
showed
the Persians a
them
to strike
Responding
swiftly,
feet apart.
at the
bles
Roadways were made of thick planks resting on large casuspended from the boats and covered with straw matting and dirt.
rear.
back
to safety,
own 300
Spartans and a
took
to plan,
the
body of Leonidas,
in
moved
to the
fleet.
Most
political
of the Pelopon-
were
left
last,
such
still
ans
end
hands and
teeth;
till
re-
the barbari-
left
taken, Xerxes
city,
moved
across
re-
turned to their original scheme to fortify themselves at the Corinthian Isthmus. Left at the
of the Persians,
Athens had
and recruited
for the
plans.
all
mercy
The-
to be evacuated.
women and
children to be
and Troezen
for
safety,
men
now had new
Greek navy,
He proposed
for
to
which he
to retire
"many
that the
keep
to
narrow channel
from
far
narrowness of the
tactical
advantage, but
it.
He was
could be defeated
at a
might be forced to
If
retire
from that
city as well.
He
with
fleet
away without
was
fight-
battle of Salamis
in
on the Greek
fleet,
sea,
Athenian evac-
at
by land.
He thought
fight in the
With Thermopylae
and
army was
was determined
ma-
some
pity,
is
it
reported that
in
among
came
swam
to stay behind,
away and
died."
he
where he fainted
to
maneuver, and
Persians,
They darted
other.
VITAL
it
was an enormous
sea
rout.
NEW CREEDS
The
From
dead.
sitting
on
Herodotus
five
of Halicarnassus
now
woman,"
when no need
had
When
to the
the Persians
Greece
mous
ships in the
fleet.
first
attacked mainland
fucius (above)
Xerxes
to
in
was teaching
in China.
When
side at Salamis
said,
and
won
my women
men."
territories
its
Zoroastrianism.
to
another
new
creed
esoteric
reli-
re-
wide currency
When Mardonius
to
started south to
fell
renew the
fight, the
Greeks again
nesian generals,
that
Finally,
after
was
Megara
Chou Dynasty,
Athens,
Persians had
der
the
where he took up
Mardonius back
the
position
rifices,
Greeks
into Boeotia,
near Plataea.
The
little
but
north, driving
mass of the
them
moved
in
a life
of solitary contemplation.
Boeotia
With
in
withdraw
the cities of
procrastinated, so
to threaten to
all-
evil.
of
life
Gautama Buddha
arose
to
offer
ius
meantime he hoped
would reveal
when both seemed likely to be realized. But the actual conflict, when it came, was almost accidental
and
outcome,
tainly unforeseen.
Mardonius
to
new Greek
The Persians:
Behold
cer-
Greek
shift
Remember Athens:
henceforth
let
not
pride.
this
Greece,
was
least,
Mardonius mistook
at
themes of Greek
tragic
moments
its
lus departed
skill
Her present
and
grasp
his
main
army
northward as
retreated
On
the very
was
fast as
attempts
could.
it
killed,
to
Awake
Herodotus,
navy was
also
temperate thoughts.
into the
de-
his
To
youth
calls
down
sian ships.
Destruction on his head.
By any standards
Persia
No
other
the Greeks
had done
though
first
strictly professional;
all
as the navy,
never arrived at
mon
it
composed
to equal it and
the
a truly unified
members
the rest
was
largely
Greeks had
the centuries
that
victories. In
ending quest
early 19th
to
be
free.
Century of
in the
com-
state
it
is
and
their litera-
epic proportions.
in noble epitaphs.
by one of these
battles:
not sur-
were celebrated
own
its
in matters of policy.
war assumed
it
ture, the
But
The dead
still
be free;
A TENDER LOVf
child. It is
tliat
Warm,- J nun:
'
',
.i
.!,
jl
'.i
r,\
r,
Jr^filr
ill,:
tells
i-.
..Iinwn tu
,i
y-jotiping of
grandmother and
fJaily life
was
as simple as in stern
and
authoritarian Sparta, but the Athenians brought to their every activity a sense of
excitement unparalleled elsewhere. Every day these zestful people were up with
the sun and to their work. Philosophers paced
in the
walkways talking
markets and
trials in
to students,
un-
Like most Greeks the Athenians professed to love leisure and in truth there was
was
at
banquet but
it
complaint elsewhere in Greece that the Athenians were "by nature incapa-
life
terra-cotta
0W^
'J
^-<'
figu-
children."
'^,
V i
~t^S2i
shown
in a
vase painting. Besides these, there were also simple wheels attached to long poles
that were "horses." Toys were
who were
dolls.
Many Greek
first
enchanting world if he
and
it
if
he found
to
the
de-
be exposed in
it
won-
shown
rattles
with
all
manner
and
three.
The
girls
stayed at
Her
and pain
and amuse-
fear
full of sports
Then
of games.
in charge.
girls
home with
were sepa-
their mothers.
made
of iron, often
tinkling
had
bells
sound
boys
as
the
ancient
in
and rings
to
hoop
make
rolled.
fr'".:
'>5j!?%'
left
Protagoras' words:
and tutor are vying with one another about the im-
is
and blows,
wood." From
their
soon as ever he
is
able to
...
If
he
is
straightened by
like a piece of
bent or warped
as
if
not, he
at-
streets
licly
sometimes held
in the
open
came
into
existence
and
A BOY FISHERMAN
line (right).
IS
is
nibbling on his
IN
the pedagogue,
and
to write.
At
to school.
KVv,
'M
---^T^;
m
!;
is
utensils date
from the
leeks,
Fifth
olives,
round bowl.
the Acropolis.
High
in
and
afternoon,
in
background
the
consumed
a
is
little
then, in
a heavier dinner.
-'./%.
"^^^
Women
were expected
as a
to prepare the
Fathers arranged
marriages
for
their
adolescent
much male
home and being
silent. The playwright Menander told them, "The
loom is women's work and not debate." When their
trol of their
their
own
at
dinner the
women
sweet-scented
traffic
oils,
entertain every
guests
Thus
man and
night,
again
is
that again
so-
and
Among
by
white lead to whiten skin and alkanet root to redden the cheeks.
i^'
.^
iji....tf..t.ii
-rm^j ta
.'a.<( .
WORKING ON A STATUE, AM
WEAVING AT HOME, two Women at a loom (above) pass
the shuttle. Most homes were small workshops, where
household necessities were produced from raw materials.
MEASURING
for a sandal, a
doors and
in
sole.
his
In-
barefoot.
artist
wax
(below) colors a
pair\t.
Nearly
all
fig-
the
IN
A BUTCHER'S SHOP,
fl
BUSY COMMERCE
Athens bustled.
rare
swarmed with
little
shops.
The
people.
largest
Its streets
were
full
likely to
employ not
men and
slaves
worked
IN
of fish,
of
Its
cuts.
free
it
was seldom
A CLASSICAL CITY
icles'
in
work, providing
that
it
did not
nous
toil,
name
fit
benches
to attend the
as ready to stop
left their
just
tired or bored.
its
the earth.
MERCHANT
iron share
To
finish
and
his
up he had
his simple
it
plow
(above).
scarcely turned
oars
and
But roads were so few and so bad that ships offered the easiest
travel.
little
weight
the
to
trader
VITAL
Greek agriculture changed
antiquity.
little
Knowing nothing
Greeks sowed
the course of
year-fallow cycles.
They
persisted in reaping
wheat
to
grains
how
to drain
swamps and
terrace hillsides.
able to feed
all
Never
of Greece,
oil
and
in
were always
the
west.
needed,
all
areas.
it,
SEA
cities
around
Greek
in the east
Besides
they
the
brought
glass
far
Araby.
ATTHESTARJ
and
ui
xiAKii
:i,uests recline
on couches,
sitig
the
Piicciri to Dioiix/iiis,
giver of wine,
in
is
hammering
to
at the
the flute.
doorway
WORK-A BANQUET
tainersdancing
set the
the
symposium,
lot
or a
man was
throw of the
charge of everything.
He
decided
girls,
sym-
man
comb
who took
how much water
sym-
intellectual
the symposiarch,
dice,
race
to
an ardent fellow
flute-girl in his
to
arms.
IN
the
to
The
left
spite of
its
its
all
fine
its
Greek
and Sparta
life,
in
in
of the Persians
vitality. This,
The major
in
fact,
in the history of
man.
OF GLORY
al-
for al-
War
TIME
at
And
most everything
IN ITS
showing
second best.
off
ATHENS
the
in
in Greece. In
and shortcomings
hesitations
first
true
democracy
history.
in
sense of
literal
the
In
word, the
the
by Cleisthenes
in
in
re-
462-461 B.C.
their
all
pow-
his
democ-
to
free
all
It
met 40 times
usually at a place
year,
on one of
any mem-
ber of the
providing he could
command an
was
an
also
lot
from
tribes.
volunteers,
a list of
agenda.
They were
all
of
way
official
it
them
in
no
simply made
its
a year.
After
a smaller,
IS
inner council
the Parthenon.
Through the doorway may be seen the section of modern Athens in which
is located the Agora of classical times. In the distance are the Attic hills.
and
in
effect
administered
the
government. The
and
year,
its
sition of
man remained
one
in
to en-
open
to
from the
directly
general
in
Athens was
for himself.
when
exist
a true
Such
elected
is
population
to
is
small and
intensely
and
that reason
was
true
slavery.
logically
its
govern-
why Athens
to par-
it
democracy. Ironically,
With
They could
to time.
of Attica
total
population of 315,000.
tractor
rich
in a
mine con-
several mines,
and the
in
slaves, or ac-
Many
They
in
ter
of
it
origin.
was
The
life
of a slave
who worked
Creek homes.
bet-
in the mines,
made
has survived,
Little
of
frorrj
it
throne (top) was a seat of honor on state occasions. Just below, separated by
a stool, are couches used both for sleeping
world.
less chair, or
and
reclining at meals.
common
fiber cords,
The arm-
were placed. The Creeks also had chests and three-legged dining
tables.
as their
domestic
them.
playwright Euripides,
who
One was
bad.
itself
the
more
wrote:
touching and
are
that
life
to
Public
That thing of
evil,
by
its
No man
it
life
should yield
nature
man
servant.
evil,
to
what
As
which
in
to.
of considerable responsibility.
men became
however,
failed to explain,
become
why
slaves
servile.
men
servile
all
The home
itself
women
in many
aristocratic age
woman's
theoretically in the
ligation
was
keep
to
women
Pericles advised
be anonymous:
is
silent.
".
.
you or
less
her
home was
is
and
enough
thereafter,
in
the
by insisting on giv-
And
poral authority.
comedy, uses
force
If
thoroughly
women
in the
ment
Lysistrata, in Aristophanes'
to
feminine
make
tactic
to
is
wife for
as he
and
"
Having discovered
of liberty
the
a pas-
saw themselves
as charged with
an
sulting
from
only
minor part
first
Greek
political
re-
city played
life.
From
rulers quickly
fell
its
peace.
to divorce his
tunities.
major importance
said
is
and
a place of
influential
life.
women
gives
rare occa-
at
On
kissed her.
woman
position
man
than
came
criticizing you."
to
woman's
this.
social ob-
are praising
No
was
place
ate
was
uncom-
plicated in
Athenian family
than
slaves.
some
much
Slavery,
He
and
noble,
some argu-
main
in the
This
left
Peloponnesus.
Athens
of Greece, and
it
moved
to
do
so.
famous
of 478-477 B.C.
in
is
fables.
it
lived.
sian reprisals.
called,
as
islands,
came
it
be
to
Asia Minor,
of
cities
some towns on
the
if
it
was
enough
rich
money toward
to
do
to contribute
so, or,
the building
if
ships
of
was
it
which
this contri-
re-
any
as
"
At
line,
"modest and
just
and
at its recital
state
belong
to
to
which threatened
to
it,
state
it
to
the sacred
when
the islands of
leave,
but
council. Each
member had an
nated.
It
was willing
to
Athens was
thus, to
tress of the
Aegean.
With
newed
all
intents
so.
re-
Under Cimon,
of Asia
Minor and
new
Eurymedon
destroyed the
Persian
in the
River, a fleet
fleet as
it
it
lay at anchor
it
And
to
to stay in,
tributary
But the
was
real
itself,
its
Ultimately,
resulted in
States
its
League
to
Athens
becoming the
these:
Chios,
tribute
it
to
rank
time,
League
as equals, but in
The
so.
tried
itary alliance.
Athens soon
it
son of Miltiades,
have
to
punished
states.
do
The
rest
to a lower station.
paid
They
managed by Athenian
of-
Athens claimed
final
jurisdiction
over
all
its
any mat-
It
insisted
it
it
was completely
at the disposal of
demanded
it
to
that
the al-
all
there
all this,
advantage
meant
An
members.
or civil disorders.
raids
Athenian
from
state
central
court
all states.
tage in
single coinage
commerce. In
was
of obvious advan-
Athenian coins,
the
fact,
and
side
re-
re-
when
it
few
throw
to
have
felt
Aegean and
Trade prospered
both financial
sufficient resources,
industrial, to
of
Megara
into the
a large
Empire
who had
Egyptian king
In 458 B.C.
Persians.
two
at its
own
after
ing after
its allies'
be look-
to
it
fleet
was
the
maintained
effi-
in battle
Athenian
was
safe
from Persian
Eurymedon had
umphantly showed.
also safe
the
It
was
from
so
pirates,
were
now
tri-
whom
was
cleared in 474-
Furthermore,
rangements of
in interfering
its allies,
Athens
in
many
aristocrats
and were
ar-
cases es-
tablished a democratic
terly
names
complained
its
bit-
inkling
of
of Boe-
multi-
the
of citizens
from
a single tribe
who
fell
"In
Cy-
Megara.
"
This policy of aggression was not entirely successful, but considering the
marvel
is
that
it
in
number
was successful
473 B.C.).
Some
join
to
it
all
As long
at a
Thebes.
compelling
it,
plicity of
frequently was.
as the
years, captured
otia except
Athens claimed
and
request,
scale.
a local
Athen-
off the
did.
Athenians seemed
bloody
dispatched
was
ian yoke,
some outlying
local
the League
to
litically
despite their
of fronts, the
at all.
come
and then
to ruin
though
after a
its
six years
years,
The Egyptian
some
lasted for
if
lost.
it
allies,
and the
was held
for 10
had continued
this policy,
even
decade of aggression
it
settled
down
to
con-
with
solidate
open
to
who more
Athens
the spirit of
in
its
had
uncle), Pericles
aristocrat
family
pro-democratic
and
democracy
An
was
(the
his great-
Personally
aloof,
men. He owed
ity in the
many
speaker and
most
effective
"the eyesore of
instance,
for
memorable phrases. He
coiner of
called Aegina,
the
youth;
its
War
as
is
it
spring." But
bly's trust
what
was
said that
won
truly
his foresight
to lead the
"The
came
lost
and
its
Assem-
Pericles the
initiative in plan-
time
Pericles
actually
officially
In
had
dream
for
it.
He proposed
to
free to
the
Greek world. In
al-
in
command
of
an im-
posing squadron.
He
It
is
Athens should
to his inspiration,
it.
To the
whose substan-
Pericles' time. In
.pfj:
man embodies
heyday.
both
lot for
the bottom
right.
name
is
traditionally
At
others,
it.
from
solid
men by
religious rites.
name scratched on
and
its
activity lay
of Pericles,
mocking
The
shards.
in
/ t'm":^ V^^"^'
/i.'-;t'-J^
'1^1/
:7j
A A An
f<
JURORS BALLOTS
pletely devastated
from
Acropolis,
the
nians
debris
the
its
built foundations
and
its
new
So
walls.
re-
Pericles
and
architects
project his
money
for
with
its
Athens strength
spirit of
it is
Mount
changing
Its
its
color
its
made
of
Pentelicus
with
the
light,
was the
spir-
itual center of
was
its
in
432 B.C.
"master of works
Ictinus, its
"
Its
architect
Callicrates,
and
sculptor Phidias.
It
is
ingenious adaptations
tapering
its hill
it
when
is
is
its
main outlines
carefully contrived.
make
visible
are
Many
Standing on
its
no long-
was destroyed by
it
later,
that remains
it
metalwork and
in
is
in
most of the
frieze
and
(originally there
were
have done
but
it
all,
92). Phidias
is
it
done
the
of
metopes
cannot possibly
in his style
and
is
men and
their enemies,
for
whose
and gray.
spirit of
was
fire
stern majesty
still
it
dominated, and
The
grants of
a local
in
late Fifth
style,
and covered
make annual
wood
It
to
inside in
monumental
Phidias'
er exists.
time,
his
the cost.
gallery
the
of
artists
own
Assembly
the
afar, the
it
and power.
ful
procession
climaxing
Athena's
solemn and
a holiday.
mal,
also a
happy occasion,
it.
All of
old,
them
this.
It
was
much
is
also caught
pediments were
filled
marvelous
part
either
children,
shown taking
in the spirit of a
At
is
up
It
young and
the
festival,
Olympus. At
wisdom and
power meant
to the
of
so
dreaming gods of
more than
The
for
supremacy
life,
and the
city's
domination
and grave-to-be of
The sculptures
PERICLES
ON DEMOCRACY
of
Zeus
Olympia, gifted
at
the
[n the winter of
War
made
begun, Pericles
to extol
"Our
constitution
is
democracy
called a
is
in the
hands not of
everyone
is
a question of putting
When
when
bility,
what counts
a particular class,
is
not membership of
own
only in his
affairs
and
their
Parthenon
of the
is
human
art
more varied
altogether a finer,
figures
dominant pattern,
is
of the great
and delicately
as firmly
And though
The backs
each sculpture
to
the central
is
worked out
with
the
relating
it
not
interested
is
that he has
no business here
all.
And
this is
ble at the
We
of estimating
at
are caparisks
and
are
when they
man who
brave
is
what
terrible,
he
who
best
sweet in
knows
the
is
to
meet what
is
to
come."
is
for
revealing
ingenuity reduced
dence of the
new democracy,
few
brief years
perfect
new
it
The
Pericles,
visible form.
lofty vision
embodied
in
Parthenon's
the
The
chief
form of
this
was
tragic
many ways. To
ligious rite,
and of what
life
appreciation
begin with,
it
was
a re-
meaning
is
sensitive
to the
man who takes no interest in polia man who minds his own business;
differ
"
we say
of
art
it
we
of
it is
is
life
skimped
because power
earlier,
his funeral
chose
artists
limitations
Nearly 20 years
art.
from
selves
glories.
its
performed
at
annual festivals
the
in
Its
its plot,
some
the profundity of
usually
drawn from
heroic myth,
mo-
merits.
The
sometimes
were
trilogies
performed and
people
to the chorus,
at intervals
which com-
throughout the
mood
in
this
One
be.
his treatment of
is
man who
his
er.
is
Oedipus
in
Oedi-
good-hearted but
own
his
kills
father
and marries
his father,
When
compas-
however
moth-
his
is
who
er.
may
amples of
lies in his
and Lenaean
His power
exalt.
sympathy
sion, in his
is
raise.
He
ex-
thought, and
sions and
is
is
and unsatisfied
far
spirit.
He comes
a less certain
no clear conclu-
to
own,
are
recognizable
human
in a theatrical
individuals
even
world of uninhib-
splendor of speech.
Among
the most
men
as they are,
"
that,
and of himself,
Euripides
is
"He
paint
"I
also the
paints
men
most
as
direct
liefs.
memorable
"
them
And
boldly.
yet, skeptic
though he
of Aeschylus' plays
is,
In
son of
murder of
his mother,
crime Orestes
is
"Thou
little
That curlest
thing
in
my
scents chng,
it
he
Sophocles works
in a different
Sophocles
and
treats
is
its
ways
them with awe and reverence. He examview of some problem and from
central truth.
bosom cradled
And
of the gods,
draws
justifies the
To Sophocles, any
it
violation
thee
through
I
till I
greio
Not ever
climb
again. Put
by
Greek tragedy
is
and
modern sense
it
harmony
tensely
and
to a
relentlessly serious.
it
in-
is
It
Even
if
there
it
happy end,
is
played
is
ev-
is
at
It
tain, fragile
ines-
which was
much
of
the
tragic
Greek thought
implicit in
thought
still
retains the
ceptance of his
Greek
belief that
modern
man's ac-
fate,
his characters,
vitality.
very
spirit of song.
He
Athens.
ly,
when
the
how
they
may
how
they
be borne.
of tragedy, also
also
performed
at
had
a
He wrote
religious origin
festival of
life's
and was
Dionysus. Where
mysteries in pity
it
dalous malice.
If
their ability
disreputable
set. It
it
its
were uninhibited
caricaturists.
libel
poli-
and death,
almost
helps to explain
to hold their
own
why
even when
for so long,
their star
laugh
at
themselves.
center of Greece,
it
Anaxagoras of Clazomenae,
Pericles.
personal friend of
He
believed that
it
was an organized
to a living
it
Athens
tus of
cities
would
life
to face
prac-
for
free-
the universe.
titioners
and does so
their ability to
however,
was
happen, and
at his funniest,
Even
of Pericles,
declining.
humanity, but
burst
life,
was
may
with
fate
indecent,
imaginative.
view of
audacious,
ribald,
all,
ironic,
is
was
It
organism,
a
mental
was
also in
Democri-
it
says
Among
it
calls
atoms.
was Herodotus
of Halicarnassus.
Herodotus was
To
collect
book on
information for
it
he
.^
into
remarkably
He sees
the whole
but
life,
fair,
at the
war
as
same time he
is
to the Persians.
its
concerned with
is
factual background.
includes details on
many
immediately related
its
He
war,
He
is
them with
writes of
makes him
Sometimes he
are
failed, or got
minor compared
fort.
Many
to
it
to the
discover
the
thoroughness of his
times he gives
firsthand
make up
and
spirit
his
ef-
information
truth.
own
a sto-
mind.
sympathy and
He
live-
and
spirit of
a science,
Homer, on
During
this
into a science.
The development
first
common body
school of medi-
adhered to
also developed
associated with
is
common
of knowledge,
common
practices,
exchanged
jMt--K-
new
ideas with
theories
on
strictly
scientific principles.
was impossible
it
understand
to
the
fear
and alarm
its
at
that aristocratic
same time
the
opment
They saw
to
zeal, a devel-
is
was the
rants. Aegina,
The
When
thought
all
in
an almost
in
clinical
spirit.
mined
and
friends,
from
al-
and disapproval. He
trust
its
to
criticized the
Athenian
spirit for
was one
city as
learn
from
He
their predecessors.
Consequently he of-
its
application to a
though
his
conception of history
political, largely
human
is
almost purely
Thucydides
personalities,
moral conclusions.
No
is
in his
own way
not afraid to
Thucydides
sense of
its
tells
And
plicated,
it is
pitfalls of
self-control,
drama:
ments of tragedy.
he
civil strife.
unrestrained power.
draw
No
is
If
risks, its
its
his
language
ugliness,
is
ele-
its
sometimes com-
He
is
serious,
and
the gods,
Like Pindar,
its
troubled by Ath-
unexpected interference
they
were.
The Greek
emergence of
them
of their
aristocrats
likely to deprive
But they
privilege.
re-
seemed
to
them the
were willing
only
let
to let
them go
antithesis of their
Athens go
theirs,
but
its
own. They
own way
this,
if it
they feared,
would
was
it
scope of
its
it
in the
for,
wide
er,
As
the
pow-
shown
He saw
life.
a result
mean
in the lives of
B.C.,
men.
velopments. Inevitably,
and pow-
tions
an object of
was bound
the long
to
a conflict in
come, and
when
the
it
two posi-
came,
it
was
Pericles,
shown above
460
until
in
429 B.C.
Age glowed
brightest in
Athens
it
had the
lead-
courts, the
Agora
whose bust
is
Hill.
The second
core
marbled temples, among them buildings the world has ever since counted
rocky
city of creativity
hill
of
its
"
is
an education to Greece.
-T-l_l
C IT^V O F DF R
r^
FQ
"^^^
above the
whose ruins
still
is
built
the rocky
inspire
men:
fortified city,
but
spread
down
1.
2.
3.
Painted Sloa
4.
Stoa of the
5. Altar of the
in war,
it
was
it
rebuilt.
it.
In the
Agora
the
Herms
Twelve Gods
6.
7.
Temple
8.
Bouleuterion
9.
Monument
of Hephaestus
of the
Eponymous Heroes
South Stoa
IS
Southeast Fount
15.
Mint
Pnyx
19.
Areopagus
20.
Temple
21.
Propylaea
of
Alher
Nike
11. Strategeion
23.
House
Erechtheum
24. Parthenon
dipped
at a dull
in
amphitheater
Assembly meetto
Pnyx
Hill.
AN
EARLY ROSTRUM
OF DEMOCRACY
r^: ^mi'mm, mm
Athens was
talkative town.
orators; Pericles
became
its
was ruled by
It
leader because he
Ecclesia, or
Assembly
of
all citizens,
ai.
was
by the
m^
its
i^w
which
-^
'
f*
>*ito
*
ttani
'=
^^ ^^
M^.
{ ZT ZT ZI ^^
^.
usually met about 40 times a year in the amphitheater dominated by the rostrum
In addition, there
chosen by
lot.
shown
above.
500-man council
daily,
with a sub-
committee available day and night, making decisions that were pressing and preparing the agenda
for the Ecclesia.
Among
Assembly during
Persians:
making
to reconstruct
and the
to
pay
fees
for
office-holding possible
A KLEROTERION" was used
temples destroyed by
of
which
balls
is
fragment
to select jurors
by groups.
ORATING HORSEMAN,
like
most Athenians a man of strong mind, gives the crowd a few words while waiting
:^-^^
K!'-x-iezt
to enclose in
sites of
It
is
on
test
what Homer
says the
theum
is
the
of Athens.
tomb
Under
house of Erechthe-
of Cecrops, mythical
first
King
win
its
fiery trident
to strike
open
life
left in
front
is
now
in the British
Museum.
city
In
a"
all
true Athenians.
left.
To encompass
became
Legend
all
it is
one of which
is
built
shown
it
It
is
not
on two
levels;
at left,
bear no relation to
its
porches,
of these
wooden
which
symmetrical;
the
courtyard
time,
all
itself.
olive tree of
IN
PORCH OF THE MAIDENS On the Erechtheum has four original columns. The background figure has a modern head: the second from
first
Athena
that
was housed
in the
Erechtheum.
ATHENA'S TEMPLE
Three mighty talents collaborated on the Parthenon
Phidias, sculptor and general director; and Ictinus
and
is
was
this
temple
to
columned rectangle
an extraordinary
in
Athena. In appearance
Doric
style. In reality
series of refinements
that,
Plutarch,
when
in
width as they
who
first
saw
rise.
Iron
golden glow.
the Acropolis'
buildings
CEREMONIAL RIDER
clothes to
make
built."
a splendid show.
He
is
hat with ear coverings, while his cloak and tunic are Athenian.
'
^. j
.':.J^>^
\t'^'
builders
hoped
to
a ruin,
still
clearl\/
shows what
s^^^M''i.;|?^':MPi4^jtf ilis
:
^s^
?:.-
yr.n.
,(
uw.
.,
tcnplc
to
.>-
:>^,
forces besiegmg the lurks o the
AcropoUs dropped a
ADORED BY ATHENS
Religious ceremonies and public worship were held
at altars
what the
interior of the
Parthenon looked
exactly
like.
book on the
ship.
It
modern
The
for
scholar-
inside. In
wooden
in gold
In a second
core.
and
room,
Athenian
fleet
at Salamis.
wished
ias,
to strike at
when
him through
Pericles' foes
friend Phid-
his
artist of stealing
make
some
still
fied.
there.
But
their
of the
that
all
to
take
the gold
satis-
Fortu-
when
as a general for a
(
)M
A KAiN\ i'\i
tiir
I'liiiit^
itui
Parthenon stand desolate. The north and south walls were blank.
its
light
sumptuous
On
is
shown
her helmet
was
a Sphinx
in
hand
is
this
reconstruction
clad
in
Along with
display
incredible
its
Athens was
and
trade
also busily
engaged
political influence.
its
now
began
it
to cast
its
The Greek
states,
now drawn
were
expanding
in
covetous eyes on
a precarious balance of
in
Periclean
It
energy
of
spirit,
into one of
War began
Peloponnesian
war became
inevitable.
and
in 431 B.C.
The
lasted,
was
ended
for
Athens
and even
it,
And
in disaster.
the wellspring of
Greek
it
Athens continued
and
intellectual
to be
artistic
life,
those
At
war
was divided
in two.
in
The Spartan
Alliance took in
of Asia Minor.
its
fairs.
new
one
places.
in principle.
It
to history, largely
also
it
in his
therefore an important
through the
count of
it
eyewitness accounts of
tails
at
the
it.
its
battle sites.
book,
same
superb ac-
took notes on
documents and
one man,
effort of
who wrote
rev-
gospel to
its
time,
in the war,
and
He
set
down
his find-
all
Afterward he collected
full
of
his
revealing de-
was fought.
Although the war's underlying cause was Sparta's
led
MARCHING TO WAR,
up
to its
is
bronze greaves around his legs and a helmet equipped with cheek guards.
quite trivial.
One
of Sparta's
leading
allies
was
m
WAR
OF THE BROTHERS
shown on
are
tics
the map.
of the Pelopotinesiaii
Many
tunneled
the
to the
bottom as
When
fast as the
the walls.
a circle,
sailed
At sea
the dirt
Spartans put
up
the Spartans
their
The Plataeans
it
on
from
top.
them
inside
drew up 47 ships
in
an ever smaller
all
War
unconventional tac-
to
make
ASIA
MINOR
IONIAN
SEA
PYLOS
SPHACTERIA
425 BC.
MODES
Revolt, 411 B.C.
and
tried
for
re-elected him,
One
is
was the
described by Plutarch as
all
Thucydides
himself.
of others."
and
little,
rivaled
One
Nicias,
him
by the
rich
and respectable
to
con-
He
doings and
less
likely to believe
his slander
ments
the
in
two days.
On
angry debates.
Assembly reversed
itself
at least
one occasion
on the island of
Empire.
To punish
ty
for
its
to
vote death
ship was
known
in his or in
opposed
had
he
evaluation of
that
faction, led
wanted
own
suggests
little
his
com-
He
the
a
fort, arrived
On
in the
ahead of the
first
prodigious ef-
one.
in
425
many months
The
when
had dragged on
nounced that
Athenian
if
for
he had been in
command
of the
forces, he could
command over
make good on his
to
claim.
Cleon
sailed off,
tried to renege,
To
held Sphac-
still
teria.
siege
spirit of recklessness, of
an extreme representative,
Added
to
it
was
new
Thucydides, "War
them
of the
wants,
it
is
power
now
pervaded Athens.
a stern teacher;
depriving
in
down
way
when
put to death
seemed
good time
to
all
who
the people
when
of pos-
the Spartans
to the
Neither Ath-
To many Athenians
words of
ruthlessness. In the
ally,
they
surrendered. In the
the island of Melos
all
flated
by
struggle.
ground.
his success,
was defeated
first
at
at
Delium
Amphipolis
422 B.C.
in-
on continuing the
in
insisted
in
men
of military age
rest of the
inhabitants.
to lose
acts.
Women,
in Boeotia
Thrace
in
it,
man
Who am
wisdom was
pro-Spartan feeling
in creating
allies later in
felt
little
gains, while at
ure
a
new
to
Athenian
kinsman of
up
Athens
made bold
sit
Weeping alone
allies
before,
home,
And
plans.
They were
politics, the
Pericles. Alcibiades
in Pericles'
that they
generation
was
that
the Athenian
the war.
peace had
among
young
led
by
a fig-
Alcibiades,
new
offen-
The climax
of this
campaign came
year
later,
and
their allies
He continued
to
control a powerful,
if
proposed
If
would destroy
by other means. He
it
to leave
financial
and
cattle
would
fall to
new
source of troops
may have
was the
rich
lightly
After a slow
city of
from Syracusan
point of cutting
crowd of well-
rival of a
tation at the
same
hope and
full of
torical events
doomed
which seem
to disaster.
a success,
No
and every
of those his-
in retrospect to
effort
have been
was spared
effort failed.
in
It
to
was
make
led
by
Athens, Nicias
project in the
drawback
Assembly and
in
ar-
us,
or
to
first,
me
of the
command,
me
grew even
the situation
to
encamped
led
in a low-lying,
fever,
re-
and
its
was
area.
The troops
illness
worsened.
marshy
Nicias'
either
defenses,
late;
they sailed
it
lamen-
made and
that might be
whom
full of
sea,
by land
contracted
off
it
When
Toward
at
to the
down
to Piraeus
images
It
sailed
start,
blockading Syracuse by
force,
was the
stand
to
campaign
home
against
either to recall
of sacrilege
act
of the
The immediate
he was ordered
Sicily,
for a gross
trial
Em-
upon reaching
as
moon was
in eclipse
moving
at
to divination
and such
things."
By
the
were unable
to
to the
expedition he had no
one of which
is
shown
fleets
in a side
in
ers
and 10
oars,
30
to
were put
to hole
to death.
became house
deck crew
in the
weapon
in battle
ships.
slaves, but
dides, "they
where
they suffered
trast,
came on
change
and then,
air;
in
con-
in temperature
it
pit,
the cold
narrow
all
were on an enormous
their sufferings
scale;
army, navy,
total;
in Sparta,
and serve
city's
as general, but
he failed to
to return
fulfill
the
was not
first
Thucy-
welcome
re-elected.
One was
many of
the Athenian
Spartan side
in
and Greek
among
Persia;
tradition, to
for
few returned."
The
end,
own
its
form an
when
it
princi-
alliance with
includ-
allies,
move sup-
third calamity
to build
a fleet
at sea.
an
it,
its
were
built,
new crews
At
trained,
its vital
wonder
conships
to the
the
it
New
sufficiently
self-
fleet,
Spartan
fleet,
Athens on
that night
no man
day
in late
summer, 405
slept."
B.C.,
and "on
critical
to
with
its
a short time
it
if
forms.
From June
stance,
it
to
in-
control of
money
tribes.
democracy was
most
a year,
restored.
At one
of peace
it
its fleet,
agreed to pull
down
itself to
become an
ally of Sparta.
The
Men
service;
up
the city.
for active
vice. In the
physical re-
its
its
interest in the
arts.
two of the
raised
lis,
abandoned
the
little
loveliest
temple
to
the
blow
by forcing
infusing
sense
it
life.
Oedipus
in this play
is
old
finally
is
permitted
to die in
Oedipus
last play,
but
many
others to
those
who put
off
God and
Athens
"
termed
democracy
"an
experience of Athens.
and morality,
his
made fun
ebullient
of the
comedies.
In
in
it
acknowledged
eventually threw
it
fine
to pro-
Acharnians
he
Birds he ridi-
their
behavior with
The
made
to
appear excellent.
erated into
day cared
Lacking
ate
prolonged
turn to madness!
Electra,
of Alcibiades'
and
of the spiritual
makes
to
strife
ligion
gods attend
was
it
him
spirit
matters and
himself
it.
sinister
Partly
it
folly,
will be
many
it
degraded
something
deeply into
to look
it
when
of defeat
comfort. Frogs, an
it
means came
to
views happened
Sophists.
advance
cause by whatever
among
it
wise ad-
his
Many
preached a meth-
much
in
demand, because
Thrasymachus,
by force was
Sophists,
all
a considerable
men around
Not
who
for instance,
however
Some
cess.
them were
of
The
an unparalleled oppor-
it
the
last,
Greek
city-states.
Alcibiades.
city.
thority at
used to
Its
being
own
their
men
to treat
masters.
generals,
Its
by
new
rison
by concluding:
"I
cannot
know
that
they
exist,
imagined them
Men
Athens.
flee
were
it
could muster.
piety,"
who
new
of "im-
phi-
in
Athens had
first to
recover
which
left
political
problems.
political
difficulties
stemmed
government favorable
gave
its
cratic
element
a ruling
to
Spartan
to
ideas.
in
under
a gifted
general
At Athens, with
rants, a
city
was de-
of
its
Theban army
named Epaminondas.
Ty-
began
to
mend
its
shattered economic
its
The
life.
treasury and
it
traders
the
in
now had
large
in the
began
to concentrate its
install
Sparta
Athenian
council of 30
ferred to in
politics,
and appointed
Athenian history
as
afterward
the Thirty
re-
Ty-
army
it
were
to share their
com-
Athens'
part
governments
losophy
local
Its
to be
commanders.
positions as gar-
They
an appalling number of
men
to death,
condemned
with
little
still
was
of
sufficiently
its
and
intact,
it
now
prosperous
to
attempt
a restoration
vitality to
new phase
the
the
Athens
of
flat
palm outward. At
first
disk was used. Stone disks weighed about 15, metal ones 3 to 9 pounds.
Games
at
Olympia and
the Pythian
in Argolis
Games
at Delphi,
festivals:
all
the
at
parts of Greece.
They competed
Olympic
on
as
a fer-
fined for
the Peloponnesian
War.
IN
A PRE-GAME CEREMONY fl pig, IS formally slaughtered as a sacriThen the athletes swore they had trained hard for 10 months.
fice.
Games were
town but
the
Olym-
came
to
it
from
all
in
parts of Greece
up
and
tents
politics; often
ranged
ers
at the
Among them
all
the cities
who
talked high
deal-
but also a
fair.
The crowds
They went
to
and chariot
altar of
tling.
races.
An open
and
at night, there
was
feasting.
the
:F^
jm0:
jat-v*^;
m^}^:^
H"-"
.^tt
4J
*"^J
.fW
in the actual
games.
THE CHARIOTEER was one of the few clothed athletes. Because the victor's crown went not to the driver but to the
owner of
the chariot
and
horses, rich
men
same
who wore no
according
to
shoes, lined
up by positioning
their feet
ipmn
race.
starting blocks as
all
the chariots
lined
up
As many
The ropes
its
prow-shaped
in the
as 40 chariots
a dust
storm of
Very few
collisions,
starters
managed
spills
to
and upendings.
finish
the course.
IN
WAR GEAR
citizen warriors
compete
in
many Creek
spectators apparently considered comic. But the event was, nonetheless, very
popular and 25 shields were on hand at Olympia for the use of the contestants.
FIERCE
COMPETITIVE SPIRIT
Competition
all
Olympia was
at
fierce.
Jockeys rode
weights
in their
to gain
combina-
condemned. Save
were contested
in the nude.
To
to exercise and
was
games
shame
at
it
fostered
being flabby.
loser,
left,
round athletes
sport.
Among
who
the pentathletes
shown
raises a finger to
at the left,
in
were designed
a crack to the
acknowledge
to
defeat.
choose
all-
IN
AN ANCIENT BALL CAME, each side tries to force the other back
its own goal line. A favorite sport of youths in their late teens,
over
PASTIMES
Training was grinding work.
that the
Greek word
for
It is
not happenstance
idle
moment
and dog
at the training
one
Men
might use an
for the
this sport
was recreation
AND AMUSEMENTS
it
at, for
in
or a picture of a
to catch
made
ball.
what looks
man on
there
is
a picture of
like a
no other
evi-
hockey
face-off,
the Olympics,
art pictures
promoted
in
for
gambUng
in
gymnasiums.
at the great
Games
Panhellenic
at
received
the Olympics,
Games at Corinth,
Games at Delphi, and parsley
Nemean Games in Argolis. Lesser festivals
Pythian
to the
oil
special
home
cities statues
were erected
to
were sung
in public places.
public spectacles,
tion
Games,
is
laurel,
awarded winners
Laurel
was sacred
this
one.
at
Delphi's
now
to
in
the
Apollo.
it
was given
for
on the other.
especially
seats to
free meals.
An
him front-row
taxa-
in cash.
is
shown
in this
bronze wearing a
fillet,
or hand,
around
band
will serve to
1%
the Periclean
from
were now,
beliefs that
To Athenians
eroded.
not dead,
when
at
least
their city-state
feat
if
ideal,
the Sophists
life,
sway
held
to
new
conscience was
the
demands
man's
a better
An
of society.
Athens with
this belief
A NEW TIME
Pericles,
but
accomplishments
its
OF BRILLIANCE
ishing. In Plato
the
in the
if
and Aristotle
it
century that
no
aston-
less
produced two of
underlie
much
of
art;
public
an
style that
earlier age
poetry.
exponent
first
Greece of
in
demands
The
Socratic
pitiless
have doomed
his
search
truth
for
And
be found?
intentions
posed
to
yet
to
how
the
of
theories
may
failure.
If
can truth
seriousness of Socrates'
the
is
exami-
that
totally op-
money
refused to take
order his
own
life
said very
little
about his
beliefs,
they played
Socrates'
ruthless
inquisitions
generations
it
is
was found
a statue of Aphrodite,
known
a large
life.
of
the
tried to
lines. In his
own way
part in his
and
traditional
to
undermine
One segment
this to be so,
and
of the
felt
that
as
War, though some arts declined, sculpture flourished for over 300 years.
his teachings
officially
Socra-
trial.
tes
On
by de-
Athenians,
own
sake
am
am
not going
argue for
my
may
not
to
may
if
and
a great
is
am
is
and requires
to be stirred into
God
gadfly which
and
all
fastening
you
am
that
am
in all places
always
life.
like
would advise
to spare me.
to drink
who
The
talk
was recorded by
down
all
and most
and
lived, a saint
and
his
own
by Socrates'
for
truth,
When
is
his
was shaped
in
his cloak
its
own
without
to
enlist
He was born
letters.
The
by
life
in a
harsh military
commu-
Spartan was the best infantryman of his time. But rigid rule brought
nity, the
uncomprolife
"
thing),
life
just
a martyr.
strength
to
insignificance.
life.
When
to travel abroad.
city
and
spirit
For a time he
as the
Socrates:
durance
noble, certainly.
is
also
the
in
Most
Laches:
altered
Athens
left
Socrates: But
known
ish
endurance?
a fool-
Is
to be
in 347.
was much
Laches: True.
day Plato
intellectuals of his
in
He
especially geometry.
to
believed that
self a
more than
assign
ideas
this,
him
fact,
Plato
was
it
basic
that
is
it
to fight,
is willitjg
will be
hard to
fol-
of such a one
some man
opposing army
in the
mathematical
systems
upon numerical
relationships.
Plato
some matter
cussion
which
in
written dia-
The
disin
it
plan. Socrates
much
as he
behaved
in
is
in the
should say
is
the braver?
is
a foolish endur-
ance?
having
that he, or
Laches: That
true.
is
of far-reaching importance.
is
who
It
is
to
the
was constructed
logues, in each of
and
He had come
who had
cal-
endures
and wisely
war, and
culates
much more
so
label.
who
life.
He
subjects
own
ideas, he
when
continued
his
thoughts
He
also
undoubtedly
to
spokesman.
to use Socrates as a
characteristic of
down
is
him
that he should
in this indirect
have
set
it
for a reason.
for
opponents
character
to
named Laches on
this search
truth.
Socrates:
am
you would
They were
difficult
it
man when
he
is
is
to find the
on within
drama
a literary
in
that
is,
are ideas.
The dialogue
and
ar-
the
may have
method was
merely "appearance";
a
templation, though
arts.
many
of his
trine
was
lived.
complishments of men
to reality.
which he
a source of
tocles
and
Pericles
meant nothing
to
it.
The
ac-
and Themis-
like Miltiades
known
more im-
too
consummate
because
system of
be
far
it
was
to poetry,
state
thought.
Plato had
it
set so
He thought them
artist in
may sometimes
it
Greeks
world, was
of Ideas.
ideas,
it
It is
long
which gives
of a thing
much
that lay
ment.
He
stories of
truth,
was
there
rational argu-
was truth
in the old
actions done in
life,
Thus
system of mor-
his
by
ality.
false, for
down
his notions of
and
what
Laws, he set
later, his
a state
ought
to be.
He
These "philosopher-kings
'
philosophy
is
on monotheism
life
in others, but
was
fortified
He
he did believe
a necessary
foundation to
elite.
his rational
Once
his
combination of mys-
would be
method
fit
to
govern the
state. Plato
described this
and went on
to lay
down
his
ideal state.
These
phy
that
was
at
were based on
a philoso-
all
the eye,
political notions
matter,
however various
was governed by
it
appeared to
show
When
were God-given.
blow
by looking
when
is
must obey
to science.
To
God was
the
phenomena were
at
it
to be ex-
so.
Thus
Plato ignored
IN BATTLE
A young
soldier,
that
Rome's chief
age.
asset
in the
his sacrifice
de-
is
left.
In a series of local
Rome imposed
first
on
treaties of alliance
its
Mace-
as
But
in
dominance
Tales of
tion
which began
According
required
to
on the Tiber.
as a city
by the gods
to
all
their
sacrifice
which
is
of Athens' past
suc-
its scientific
With
litical
fend
in Greece,
local rivals
all
system,
Rome
its
his
de-
finally
former
allies.
absorbed into
its
po-
free to de-
interests
its
Macedon confirmed
the legends
that followed
made Rome
He
for disorder.
and the
life
away from
of action to a
deed a revolution.
cesses.
to realize,
counter to
revolts.
as he
voked
human
nature.
The
Athens
collapse of
to
im-
pose
a rigid
and
Plato's philosophical
Plato's
and contradicted, by
girus in
Plato's
Macedonia
Academy.
In
Aristotle,
at the
volume
were even
his writings
all
of
them were,
Sta-
age of 17 to study at
criticized
his guid-
acteristics of
But he represented
political liberty
was
made
less
fancy
im-
itself
name
these
writings
are
Aristotle's
own.
is
which concern
clarity
is
treatises in
sacrificed to
Aristotle
was
rightly called
knowledge seems
an experimental
to
approach
sentially his
him. Es-
scientist.
to
to all
his
Plato
If
was fundamentally
bi-
being untrust-
world.
Aristotle
the scientists
who had
preceded him.
human
logic, to
to
human
society and
first
collected
and
ar-
and
finally
and wisdom,
He
by
common
in-
both
The
than Aristotle's.
reject
human
in
it
tried to see
man,
a trait not
ings,
combined
the good
always visible
Aristotle's
life
generous conception of
own
intellectual virtues
to the fore.
To
which Plato
it
in
is
divine.
It
which everything
of thought
is
principles
by stern
system
which everything
in
men
in
In examining
human and
been incalculable.
is,
other
of existence,
level
spired
it
is
his lack of
use of one's
and devised
and animals.
metaphysics and
full
pleasure. Happiness
He examined
logic,
while other
men
examined
is
follow a
in detail
ways been
al-
He
provided
it still
into Christianity,
exerts an influence.
an thinkers, where,
in a
on
By
to
where
roundabout route
modern
authoritari-
down
for centuries.
still
the principles
When
or as part
men
II
in front,
to
prepare the
way
for
cavalry charges.
Wars, and
ceeded
to the
make
to
civilization
trifling.
Greek
all
He began
lands.
moved south
into Thessaly
By
Pangaeum
in Thrace,
Arab
him
It
Arab scholars
phalanx formation a
North
Africa, Sicily
and Spain
re-
to create
was
moving
ern times.
in
were failures as
way
theorists.
left in
Greece by the
By 352
made
the center of
it
creator,
have thought
it
prise
in the
to
life.
same
northern frontier
Macedonia stood
tion to the
in a
somewhat ambiguous
to
was
force
brought
Greek world.
Its
kings,
rela-
who were
of
their
The Macedoni-
feelings
its
reli-
anywhere
orators,
Macedonia.
new
in
him
six or
Greek
gious
its
to
it
all,
to
death of
he tied
B.C., he
shrine of Apollo
and south-
force,
seven wives.
Fourth
had
in Sicily
by military
was preparing
empire
en-
and
to his
a state
He
states,
and added
by
for a civi-
talent.
new
body of men
annexing
of his time.
in close order,
city-state
commander
mod-
Philip
groundwork
suc-
of Macedonia, then he
II
himself master of
by extending
and
Greek
their contribution to
who
and
skill
to poetry.
which an
One
side
earlier generation
was
led
by
had
Isocrates,
Persians,
still
But
in the
all
Greek speakers.
of
lightness
Appealing
to his
who meant
to
countrymen
the tyrant
to resist
may have
for
it
him.
to
upon
their
used
to
make
In the
liberty.
the
Philip,
He
first
was harsh
Although there
treated
by
mosthenes
talks
big
cannot
he
rest
cause, but
content
men
It
like
us,
while
we
When, Athenians,
action?
What
sit idle
are
you
we
For
my own
to
powers of eloquence
to
a lost
its
He was
that Greece
for?
Until
But
what
he succeeded
happening now?
in
doing
so.
was
waiting
is
to
He had
and
city-states,
achieved what
shame
all their
is
presume.
think of what
part
is
Philip saw, as
and do nothing.
will
It
it
cul-
round
its
his capacity
always
is
no question of
and
is
posterity.
denounce him.
you
as the cen-
ter of
Ath-
to
questionable stran-
for chicanery
which the
to
the eyes of
of his attacks
to
Undoubtedly
ture.
Demosthenes
all
and confederated
the Athenians
Philippic,"
"First
ens.
lacked
city-states at Corinth
League of Corinth.
home
his gifts of
all
Greek
Philip
in the
meant everything
the
pow-
Pericles' sense of
tia.
was on the
prehend
Philip's
up
Philip's intentions
to a point.
He
was
moves, and made carefully considered and practicable proposals to counter them.
Through constant
his
But
in
the
countrymen
to join
summer
to
Athens
of 338 B.C.,
down. In 336
any
case,
it
first
wife,
Olym-
As
was mur-
a Persian agent,
at
now
markable father
in the
in military skill, in
re-
diplomacy and
THE ORCHESTRA
ill
ENDURING THEATER
Of
full,
but
it
is
clear
from
drama
whose
this small
it
titles
are
still
whole history of
theater.
The
to deal
behaved
in
this choral
in
beginning,
origins of Hellenic
in
In
the
art
tragedies
of
form achieved
vision
of
the
its
playwrights
most exalted
Ih
!^
wn
matic story
telling;
was
it
a religious rite
honoring
good
life
woods
as the
at
first
Among
night in
drama grew
torchlit
in
his
orgiastic
revels.
the
But
its
sus,
to
Diony-
which
in
to
be
MAENAD
carries a staff
believe,
ATTHE GRAPE
and leopard
began
in
ecstatic
his grapevine
(left)
flaunts
two symbols:
things.
many
rites.
The
art of acting,
dancing of Dionysian
cub.
up more grapes
to
making
of the wine.
tails
One
and
brings
feet.
^^B
A GLORIOUS SETTING
FOR MAJESTIC
The
DRAMA
where large
citizens
would
sit
through
and
tails
and
ears)
a
to
who
it,
day's wages.
was
jail.
in
priest of Dionysus.
Other
seats.
Then came
at the theater.
officials,
priests claimed
50 of the 67 front-row
0k.
A
MAKER OF COMEDIES,
the playwright
masks.
masks
He
for a
Menander
holds the
is
mask
shown
in
mar-
of a youth.
On
large that
it
was hard
to
head;
funnel-shaped mouths
acted as
was
tators.
py or
man
or
woman, hap-
megaphones
a rolling
to
the
in
direct
side
to
derrick per-
vices:
that
masks
It
was
called
mechane
used to
mean any
artificial or
miraculous event
difficulty.
MASKS FOR TRAGEDY represent King Priam of Troy and a youth. These are terra-cotta
made of linen and plaster, once used by Creek actors.
own
personalities in
the
Li*'!!?
m"
came
to domir\ate the
hymn
two
festivals
to
comedy
March-
festival, in
April, centered
named
the
for
festival,
was
If
official
known
as the Ar-
the
his
a chorus"
work would
cho-
was assigned
to a
The
choregus
successful dramatist
rich
(a
citizen
to
flute player
openhanded,
a lavish
pay the
If
and
costs).
a
the choregus
tattered
drunks
was
tN
The
chorus and
(left),
ivy.
IN
of tragedy, contemplates
near Athens, which was the center of the best of Creek drama.
social criticism.
153
Athens by
its
all,
re-created in
is
Army
soldiers.
A FLOURISHING THEATER
ZOOO YEARS OLD
With
the emergence of
Roman
some
Rome
all
as mistress of the
and
tragedy with
its
ets translated
time.
first
artists,
trying to re-create
Greek
Greek into
rolling French,
are
in
In
some
New
York and
else-
part of every
own
plays.
Greek
man's education.
THETROJAN WOMEN,"
in a
its
1964
New
women
is
shown below
victors
to
serve as
city
their slaves.
"'
J'.
; ^^*^;
When
Philip of
Macedon
much more
it
all
the city-states
members
League's
Few
of the
Greek
much of
to retain
states
autonomy.
their
insisted
among
power
at the
young
He longed
and to make
hostage at Thebes.
his
own
people Hellenic.
Even
so, the
dom was
the
whom
Greeks, to
first
individual free-
article
conduct their
own
affairs.
Alexander dreamed of
heir.
led
ly,
the
to
which was
close
ultimate downfall of
his cultural
homeland,
the
just as
it
country
had been
his father's.
When
of 20, Macedonia's
and
Philip's policy of
He
to pick
his father's
for organization, he
ality.
dream
his
up where
Alexander had
age
that the
at the
established,
had
of a unified
his father
had
to settle
liked
Iliad.
risks.
Alexander saw
out
LEADING THE CHARGE, Alexander the Great, ardent and brave,
Persians.
field
many
all
fights
battles he suffered
justice. If
ever a
to
be classed
the
wounds.
in
his
physique,
his
and
tle
his
and
gifts
unconquerable
his confident
will,
He was no
and
loyalties, in his
remained Macedonian
tion of Sparta,
Alexander
less heroic in
the
states,
now
allies.
planned but never carried out: an invasion of PerSolid political reasons led
him
sia.
sion.
And
devoted
were mainly
Greek
affairs
Greek
cities in
although his
to warfare,
to this decision.
and
life
talents
dangerous possibility
originality.
might step up
under
that,
strong king,
it
its
The
Aristotle
Greek
art
instilled in
teacher.
him
interest in
a lasting
later
life
campaigns
to advise
him on
political matters.
totle's
own
Of
Aris-
It
paradox that
is
and
better
way
His
for glory
some ways
taking.
mous
It
the invasion
distance from
the
foe.
was
army
required a large
to
a reckless
to
under-
move an
enor-
its
in
Persia
was gov-
show
was eager
to
enemy
asty,
Darius
have conceived of
Within
a political
civilization.
year of his
He
then
also
in
But the
war.
figures of
hereditary despotisms.
III,
prowess
its
had come
to
The
current
fate of
King, Darius
murder
He was no leader in
brave man. The best of his
he
of his predecessor.
fact,
generals
ander put
down
had
its
League. Alex-
to bolt the
the insurrection in
Thebes
in
335
what he regarded
inhabitants slaughtered or
all
of
its
buildings ex-
for his
quarter.
Many
The
sav-
The Athenian
chance.
a Hellene.
no loyalty or affection
compensate
to
their
Persian
rulers
an invading army. In
401-400 B.C.
onstrated just
how
move
for
to resist
easy
across Persia.
it
was
in
the
led his
tar as the
were
Athenian, Xenophon,
in a
Cyrus
II,
later
leaderless.
left
killed,
young
attacks, plagued
made
The
their
way
back,
al-
Persians had
his far
on the Asian
armor back
to
From
the
won
this spoil
from the
his
contempt
this relief of a
on a stairway
who were
what went on
whim
there.
in
camel
being,
led in
of lovely Thais,
who was
it
Greek
tribute to
to satisfy a
cause.
As
plan
he went on to achieve
gle battle.
Of
all
this
And
a sin-
He
pos-
and was
consummately resourceful
Napoleon, he believed
tactician. Like
in swiftness of
movement,
He was enormously
skillful at dealing
with un-
iots
in
If
it
simply as
battle,
who was
enemy. Darius,
the
cruel as well as
cow-
did
em-
up
the
bittered
Macedonian
Darius
victories
from the
fled
two major
battles, at Issus in
B.C.,
In
soldiers.
field.
in
331
resist-
December
of the
capital at Susa.
monial capital
at
Persepolis.
Here he collected
King
the Great
clear. Possibly
in a
it
fit
remove
it
was
at last
it.
took 20,000
it
Before leaving
drunken excitement,
of
to signify
had
to
to the cere-
it
or possibly he did
been avenged.
Darius was
him.
He had
still
was
in
and more
govern
effectively he
was
statecraft as he
menid
kings.
the Great
Now,
King of
at last,
He
many
Hellenic ideas.
Greek
of the
number
He was
city-state.
of
that
with his
liberal
no
As
his
city
first
which became,
century
Somehow
that
Asia
much
sensible that he
was mortal;
as
much
Alexander was
frailty
officially
and imbecility
of
human
for
wom-
say that
to
he headed
327 B.C.,
In
single unit.
role
reli-
extent,
national institu-
its
tions.
local
some
even, to
Greece.
new
at
summer
in pursuit of
Persia. In his
with
it
skillful
to be as
lis
and that
it,
merge
to
at military matters.
love,
it
had
He proved
more
defense. Alexander
setting
territory,
the Empire
to
beyond
control
establish his
question
at large. In the
marched north
to
Consequently he
later, the
as long as
little
he thought of
at all,
a source of wealth.
made him
to say,
as
"
Three
he
now
controlled
all
the
time,
communal
affair: at
on Alexander's order, 80 of
officers
married 80 Persian
girls
the
same
his top-ranking
of
noble birth.
Further
consolidate
to
Empire
his
Alexander
or-
and
He adopted
Persian dress
for a
custom of prostration
They
affronted by this.
felt
that
it
implied worship,
Once Alexander
a god.
their
home and
all
to
and
regard the
good men
as
idea
Alexander
the phi-
left to
who made it a
His own vision of
They
felt that
which
resented his
Persians
their
as
equals,
dis-
He
govern occupied
cities
would not
left
revolt.
behind
He
enormous Empire
to
could
And
together.
ex-
political
without granting
He wanted
its
that they
Macedonians
Possibly
was
it
also
prompted Alexander
to
be regarded as
to
political
announce
expediency
that he
representative of
that
wished
gods.
the
The
to associating
gods,
himself. Divinity
man by
Most
for a
the
at
his
as
to deify
a
impression
fit
their
no sympathy
own
sol-
two centuries
govern responsibly.
it,
fol-
to
Hydaspes River. At
the
to
now
called Jhelum, he
career. His
larger
It
than Alex-
power because
his
defeated Porus.
ever,
was
had earned
others.
did not
man
kings
I,
to
of Darius
his
no one
else
on the
From
the
naming
it
Bucephala.
most men of
and
that
was
its
small peninsula
uttermost extremity
reach
campaign. With
it
He
expected
to
this in
him rowers and shipwrights from Phoenicia, Cyand Egypt, and had even chosen
prus, Caria
admiral, a
._
his troops
had other
ideas.
India.
fierce warriors
^^
an invasion of
"t
^P-*-
of vast deserts
and
334
AlCiAN-?,ry\
'Athens
/
M,le.us/Sa)is
-r-^4
'"
"
Xy
/I
R.
B.C.
'2^
a / CRAWmS
V^UiSPCtnf
They could
'^^Or-
BLACK SBA
his
^
~V,_^
->>n^.V-ASIaV^^^INOR
^'
,,.
>,
t-.
'"
CAUCAMELA
'
331 B.C.
CRETE
They refused
to
march.
When
minds.
their
would
them
for
to
change
home.
On
the banks
many
victories
Then he divided
world's end.
in-
The
ALEXANDER'S ROUTE
rest
Much
Iran.
desert.
route
of this
now
lay
Baluchistan and
through scorching
army had
o
to
march
For
at night.
a stretch of
EGYPT
a northerly route.
Amman
Indian
Oracle of
troops, sending
his
Ocean and
Siwa
Visited the
MAIN BATTLES
MACEDONIA IN
V'^,
336 B.C.
ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE
RED
ALEXANDERS
SEA
ALLIES
had
He
to be slaughtered.
Alexanits
In the spring of
at
once
to
ney
had
The
him
11 years to complete
for everyone.
struck him.
hard-
efforts
undermined
fever
hitherto
magnificent
is
in
traced on the
map
above.
visit
He began with
a mixed
of
Ma-
of
and
lightly
armed
.f..;j^
^^^l^j^j^f^^i^'"^
.*.-^'*W^
<!?nj|
javelin throwers
and
archers.
carriers,
There was
al-
health.
longer speak.
his bed;
'ir^Z
ARAL
SEA
a sign
On
With
SOGDIANA
tj Alexandria Eschata
Em-
own
(ieninabad)
his
The Indian
lift
the 13th
and Alex-
rulers,
what was
Bokhara*
Winter 328-327 B.C.
Persia
Bactra-Zariaspa
326
ARACHOSIA HYDRAOTIS
325
Alexandria
Arachosiae
B.C.
j
R.h
^,
Macedon.
states,
of
wounded
^"^1
two new
alliances,
(Uch)
INDIA
beyond
on
his rule,
own membership.
its
some of
city-state
uJinte'^i^^
INDIAN OCEAN
at least
They modeled
their cities
titles
and
his
on the Greek
the
as
attributes,
and stamped
In Bactria
300 Mile
authority or
patterns.
their coins
200
much
ed Alexander's
SCALE
city-
Achaean
100
apart.
fell
influence
Alexandria
League of Corinth
Opiana
BALUCHISTAN
Alexander
Alexandria.o'^AIexandrla
BALUCHISTAN
DES[RT
a third,
In Greece the
hyphasis r
X^
(Kandahar)
(Colashkerd)
Egypt; and
R.
B.C.
GANDHARA//"^.
n/
>'
"S
TJ^Nicaea
Alexandria
ni>o
(Chazni)
in
HYDASPS
,./kBU1 ,
ad Caucasunn
,o'
'
Alexandria
"t-
BACTRIA
BADAKHSHAN
left.
rulers for
many
cen-
The
In-
archy.
The Mirs
horses were
of
Badakhshan believed
descended
mon-
that their
from Alexander's
horse,
Bucephalus. Greek
left
moved
there
Roman
still
some
it
but
came
his life
was
retold
The
story of
it
24
in
Malaya. In
to
Rome and
to
made
siah.
tale
comes
to the
more
still
part of Islamic
Egypt. Bedouin
cultural
life.
Classical Hellenism
was modified by
Greek
and
zest of
and reached
heyday
its
to
Dark Age
the
in
in Periclean
and virtues of an
the elegances
all
ciety,
a sunset.
was nonetheless
it
their
marvelous
aristocratic so-
The
ple could
way,
for action
les
do what they
did.
Alexander began
temperament
Greek
this
spirit,
improvisation,
its
its
love of effort,
to
realize
his
own
He embodied
its
full
the
capacity for
adaptation of ideals to
unconquerable urge
long and
was driven by
to a similar destiny.
with
life to a
regained
its
its
to turn against
too.
itself;
creative impulse
of endeavor.
its field
B.C. Without
are,
certainly
Fifth Centuries
man
much
different
poorer in the
an ideal of
and
of the Sixth
from what we
that
human
to
in so full a
be realized
of
life
the
life
for
perform
maintained
began
to fail.
failed
If
Greece
of
rest
reality, its
individual.
litically
fine intelligence
it
the
failure,
its
narrowed
un-
With
its
carnated.
a splendid sunset to the
Athens
made
the
to decline
lost
its
had
civilization
this
and large
Alexander's career
same
the
at
inspired confidence
homogeneous.
to
The
influence
its
it
of Asia
also
began
der, "the
was
first
until he
it
Mes-
The Persian
The opening
is
to Biblical
independence, but
it
never
at
and
in the
histories,
but none
left
so rich a
he believes in him-
is
born.
'>''
''^wii
A
CAVALRYMAN
IN
nished contingents of horsemen to the armies with which Alexander established the Hellenistic world.
AFTERMATH OF EMPIRE
Alexander multiplied the Greek world fourfold and paradoxically made the
earth a smaller place.
When
his
Persian control of the profitable trade routes to the Orient. Alexander put into
circulation the gold hoard heaped
ternational trade.
freeing
He
instituted a
regional restrictions.
new
affluence.
his
in-
their
Alexander's death in 323 B.C., they created a different era the Hellenistic age
man
for
many more
centuries.
Hi
A SHIFT TO REALISM
Greek
human emotions
of
anatomy and
way
to
an exploration of
The new
for
their
cities in
temples and
fl
in a
is
laOCOOn and
young women.
was done by three sculptors. The famshown in the death grip of serpents sent
terror,
ily is
the
wooden
horse.
became big
AN OLD WOMAN 15 Roman copy of a Hellenistic work showing a very real and wrinkled
woman who
knowledge
streets.
Not only
IN
ART
kings and generals but rich merchants bought marble replicas of themselves.
profits of its sculpture.
fair
all
up near
sale.
parts of
were
set
Even
so,
new
Greek in
cities
architec-
to
caravan
marketplace,
a senate, a theater,
shops and
fine
style.
These towns,
laid
at
Didyma shows
is
They had
great
some Greeks
in the
i^^Bii
A STREET IN
PALMYRA
IS
lined with
columns that
in classical
less
^^-
>
-.
r
\f^
/
modern Afghanistan,
at Bactra, in
is
He spent two
GREECE IN ASIA
The long reach
of Hellenistic influence
is
century
later.
in Pakistan
nowhere
ancient India.
in
first
But
in
under
Gan-
and Afghanistan
istic in
technique and
seven centuries.
It
is
was
style.
It
Buddha
it
repugnant
first
human form
in
to depict the
repre-
arose
one opposite,
Earlier
Buddhists
was embedded
in the religion.
in
hump
Candhara,
is
a modified head of
traditionally said
bump
is
to
contain
the
III
Cuhihanm
'^t.-,-;-
'*
m..
^*'r^<^\
most
Creek
civilized aspects of
on the ground
(left).
life,
lies
Hellenistic
theater's
decoration.
European Greece,
testaments
to
the
FINAL ACTS
ON A CHANGING STAGE
generations.
Hellenistic world.
tiny
was decided
No
at times
by Macedonia,
des-
its
at
other
and
its
its
new Museum
Athens was
still
with
new
Hellenistic
buildings.
Rome,
Not
to
new
Athens
years after the birth of Christ did the statues bethe city to crumble. But by then
gin to
Zeno and
beautified
The
kings
fall,
a city.
It
Athens
us,
!^^
>'^-
APPENDIX
Greece
^^H
AD
GREAT AGES
OF WESTERN
100
1200
X300
CIVILIZATION
1400
The
chart at right
is
Exploration
Colonization
comprehensive
which
this chart
world
is
one
chronology from
excerpted appears
Comparison
in
this series.
to
this
in
series.
some
On
is
a table of the
this
book.
and
_____
SHI
Renaissa
Rome
^^1
u
o
(DO
E
g
"^
"2
I I o
mV IVDISSVID
RISE
PELOPONNESIAN
OF ATHENIAN EMPIRE
WAR
SUPREMACY
RISE OF
MACEDONIAN
EMPIRE
.SPARTA
S a
"2
t;
-S
III
111!
1 1
1 1
! I
-S
jSS ^
I
'-^
Ht^Sn
oH<<H
"iHI-'<
Dft.
.c.<<UH<<
<
.1
<
Titans, led
deities the
called Chaos.
the
Golden Age
Olympians.
grown from
the
the intellect,
womanly
ment
when
blow on
win
to
how
after seeing
looked
at
it.
disfigured
ARTEMIS,
fig-
ure,
her face
virgin goddess of
own
demanded
ter.
love
daugh-
girl's
life.
ZEUS,
pus, king of gods
er,
sixth child of
was
ruler of
Mount Olym-
to
Some say
his brothers
children
won
the battle
APHRODITE,
APOLLO, god
patron of
truth,
archery,
of the sun
music,
and
medicine
PALLAS ATHENA,
virgin pa-
and "Nothing
"Know
in excess." In
thy-
Delphi he
dom and
had,
protectress in
war
of those
who
clear
and murky.
the goddess of
rapture, embraces
and
devised false
tongue
in
witli
was named
god not only of commerce and the marketplace, but of orators and writers as well.
HERA,
O^
protectress of marriage,
ARES, god
ly
of war, appropriate-
betrayed
who
her
husband,
in
Hephaestus,
ible net.
POSEIDON, god
of the sea
and
deep
in
the
Aegean
Sea.
The Creeks
DEMETER,
giver of grain and
fruit,
who voyage
in
ships."
goddess of crops,
to
carry
off
Demeter
relented,
HEPHAESTUS, god
artisans, was, according to
pelled from
DIONYSUS, god
HERMES,
senger
cattle,
to
and
and mischief-makers, and
of thieves
of the vine
and fertility, of the joyous life and hospitality was the son of Zeus by a mortal mother.
Jealous Hera destroyed his mother and drove
him mad. He wandered the earth accompanied by satyrs and maenads. A symbol of
revelry, he
at times
gift of
wine
his
ruin.
Olympus by
of
fire
and
his
own mother,
the
whom
the
gods breathed
life.
On Olympus
he built
many mechanical
in
in
servants.
matters of work-
A GALLERY OF HEROES
The heroes
of
Greek mythology,
as distinguished
some of
whom
gods; their feats were chronicled in tales and depicted in works of art
that expressed
thors, artists
Greek views
of life
this
day au-
Highlights from the lives of some of the most famous of them follow.
killed
OEDIPUS, journeying
man in a scuffle. He
an old
to
Thebes,
then chal-
passersby
What
two
ing,
their deliverance
and heard
mother over
their shoulders.
At
first
they refused.
earth
stones.
human
who
beings
who
at
noonday and
morn-
alt
who
must use
HERACLES was
to
complete
in
atonement
given 12 tasks
for a crime
com-
choked
to
Nemea;
(3)
ing
nine-headed Hydra;
running
it
to
drove away
Augean
sta-
by
(7)
them
captured
the
his
flood
tempting
to forestall the
kill
set
up
tar
and Ceuta);
(now Gibral-
the couple
land
receded
to the
the waters
at-
res-
was
sea serpent,
As
cast
large chest
was
who was
him. Perseus
visions.
as a child,
PERSEUS,
Cerberus, the
and wed
to
many adventures fighting Harpies, skillfully avoiding battle with Amazons the heroes,
called the Argonauts, reached Colchis
on the
and
fled,
down
in the
CADMUS, commanded by
BELLEROPHON was
Apol-
ordered to
kill
which had a
arid a slithering
snake for a
monster
body of a goat
tail.
Mounted
in-
men who fought each other until only five remained; with these Cadmus founded Thebes.
city,
structed by Athena.
phon angered
Pegasus
them
to join
in their
sacred enclosure
THESEUS, kinsman
and
earth, crip-
the deities.
of Heracles
kill
the
half-bull,
and
EUROPA,
gathering flowers
in
sister of
Cadmus,
to
ivas
her
Argonauts
terrible
in the
"Argo"
He took
in
search
circle
crescent.
to
Achil-
greatest of the
is all
by allowing his
ATALANTA,
Horse that
suitors
She offered
who
to
marry
in
of heroes,
"Argo"
in
and
search
an honorable
women, took
Hector,
of
any of her
among them
foe.
most adventurous
race.
finally
won
the Trojan
GREEKS GREAT
AND FAMOUS
SOLON
(c.MO-c.SdO)
en
who made
this
lasting contributions to
(C.528-CA62)
were outstanding
is
in several fields,
of birth
THEMISTOCLES
Athenian statesman and commander whose advocacy of sea power and national unity made
him the chief architect of victory over Persia.
many
major
activity.
Most
dates
Politician, professional
"democracy
acknowledged
is
who
averred
folly."
(384-322)
He
ALEXANDER THE
GREAT
(356-323)
II,
King
Mace-
of
13-year career of
GORCIAS
483-376)
culture around the eastern rim of the Mediterranean, through Asia Minor and into India.
ISOCRATES
(436-338)
CIMON
(C.512-499J
commander
cessful
in the
and
war against
won fame
for
King Philip
(c.
implacable oppo-
An
of
II
Macedon.
member
of the Sophists,
Influential speech-writer
al
famous
orators.
suc-
LYSIAS
Persia.
style.
(C.4S9-C380)
CLEISTHENES
Brilliant
(Sixth Century)
ocratic
who
statesman
government
in
revolutionized
dem-
PROTAGORAS
Athens.
Earliest
(C.485-C.4U)
CLEON
(fifth
Century)
EPAMINONDAS
(c.418-362)
EPHIALTES
(Fifth
Century)
LEONIDAS
(fifth
Century)
LVSANDER
(fifth
Century)
MILTIADES
(c.550-489)
NICIAS
(c.470-413)
Illustrious
per-
POETS
for
major dem-
ocratic reforms.
AESCHYLUS
(c.525-456)
ALCAEUS
defeated
ALCMAN
(Seventh Century)
(Seventh Century)
who
Aegospotami
in
and philosophic.
on the island
works
of Lesbos.
(Sixth Century)
405 B.C.
AND HISTORIANS
ARCHILOCHUS
ARISTOPHANES
(c.450-c.385)
Spartan poet, considered the inventor of love poetry. He wrote in simple meters, with easy charm.
Satirical poet
much admired
and
metrical originality.
spirited,
and
inventive
laced
with
PEISISTRATUS
(c.605-527)
Athenian tyrant who patronized the arts, beautified the city and promoted its power.
BACCHYLIDES
(Fifth
PERICLES
(c.495-429)
II
OF
MACEDON
(382-336)
narrative
for
his
clarity
and
skill.
greatest of
to
PHILIP
Century)
its
EURIPIDES
(c.485-c.406)
HERODOTUS
(c.484-e. 424)
Author
of a discursive
work
of
and
religion.
first
HESIOD
(Ei<ihih O'li/iirj/)
Author
farm
of
life,
PRAXITELES
(fourthCentiiry)
who
excelled at repre-
of religious lore.
SCOPAS
HOMtR
(Eighth CeiiUiry)
The
MENANDER
(C.342-C.291)
author of the
who
lived in Asia
known
is
Iliad
(fourthCentiiry)
is
of his
Greek of hum-
Minor.
He
ANAXAGORAS
edy of manners.
(C.500-C.428J
PINDAR
Supreme Greek
(518-4JS)
revered that
lyric poet.
His
memory was
when Alexander
the
so
telligence
composed of an
was
Great
ANAXIMANDER
SAPPHO
(Sixth Century)
(610-C.547)
Tenth Muse."
ter
(c.556-468)
limitless quantity.
(c.
496-406)
(C.460-C.400)
ARISTOTLE
TYRTAEUS
tion
terrible stress.
and
all
a general.
DEMOCRITUS
His poems
reputedly
EMPEDOCLES
Tomb
mer-
HERACLITUS
(C.535-C.475)
AND ARCHITECTS
Century)
ICTINUS
scientific
method.
all
inde-
Philosopher
who held
that matter
air,
was composed
cles'
and frequent
429-347)
(c
styles,
his
the existence of
intuitive
later
think-
and subjective.
portraitist
two new
physical truth.
favorite sculptor
who
Radical thinker
ers
The
teacher, an early
PARMENIDES
licrates
(Fifth Century)
PLATO
LYSIPPUS
modern
ARTISTS
(FoiirthCentnryj
logic.
strict
(C.460-C.377)
(FifthCenturyj
Be-
structible particles,
HIPPOCRATES
(Fifth
it.
cenary in
CALLICRATES
to
lieving that
(C.493-C.433)
(C.430-C.354)
in space.
opposed
XENOPHON
(C.460-C.370)
(Seventh Century)
He
body suspended
THUCYDIDES
mat-
all
(384-322)
SOPHOCLES
held that
of the earth as a
SIMONIDES
who
Philosopher-astronomer
PYTHAGORAS
(Sixth Century)
Mathematician who sought to explain the natureof all things in mathematical terms.
SOCRATES
MYRON
(FifthCenturyj
(469-399)
er.
PHIDIAS
190-C-J27;
THALES
(C.640-C.546)
POLYCLITUS
(FifthCentury)
Greek concept
(FifthCentiiry)
Realistic painter
known Western
Earliest
philosopher.
He
assert-
of physical perfection.
ZENO OF
POLYCNOTUS
who
introduced such
new
ef-
(Fifth
ELEA
Century)
pupil of Parmenides
logical
method
in
who
an attempt
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ume
An
to readers
GENERAL HISTORY
in
Bury,
|.
B.,
A,.
Modern
History of Greece.
table in both
editions,
danger
(i)
aoailabilil^
only
paperback.
Omar
asterisk
paperback
Graphic
Society,
I960.
Hislori/
(4lh ed
Matmiilan.
LITERATURE
19t>2
Library, 1937
Vol, IV.
the kVfsl
Man
WH.D
1926,
TheCamhridge Ancient
J. M,, The Crfeifs
Cook,
History. \o\.
in Ionia
/?ise of (fic
Press. 1960.
1.),
he Persian Wars.
Random House,
Transl.
THEATER
1042,
tKitto, H.D.F.,
()ie
NoWe
Crecioris
Biebei
Mod
Margarete, Tfie
Press. 1961,
Oklahoma
Press.
1050
Roy
Flickinger,
ek and Ro
of the
f^is
Drj
its
Chicago
of
iity
Pn
1960.
Books.
ek Drama. 2 vols.
Andri
Cohen. M. R. and
1.
Drabkin.
Source Book
ill
Press. 1959,
Hippocrates. 4 vols
by
WHS
Library)
Harvard Univ
1957
sity Press.
Taylor.
Transl
Henry
Creek
8iolo.<y
RELIGION
AND MYTHOLOGY
ART, ARCHITECTURE
AND ARCHEOLOGY
tNilsson, Martin
tAnas. Paolo E.. and Max Hirmer. A History of 1000 Years of Creek V,
Patntins
Harry N-Abrams, 19t,2.
Berve, Helmut, Gottfried Cruben and Max Hirmer. Creek Temples. Theaitres and
ijfirine>. Harry N Abrams, 19o2,
Bieber. Margarele. The Sculpture 0/ (lie Hellenistic Age. Columbia Universil
1961.
ATHLETICS
Gardiner. E
Gardiner, E
& Row.
AND
1961,
FESTIVALS
/lt/i/c(ics of Ifie
London. Batsfor
World, lo.so
&.
Richter. Gisela
Richter.
Reinhard. and
MacKendrick.
Richlcr.
P.,
1950
Robertson, D.
tBurn, A, R Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Empire. Collier, 1962.
Lamb. Harold, .4/exaMifer of Moce^fou. Doubleday, 194o
,
tTarn.
S,.
A Handbook
of
Creek
& Roman
Architecture. Cambridge
Press, 1959.
W
W W
W W
1952,
ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF QUOTATIONS
from Herodotus' The Persian War: are from Tfie Greek Historians Vol I.
Random House. 1942. Translation by George Rav linson. All quotations from Thucydides'
Tfie Peloponnesian War are from the translation by Rex Warner, Penguin Books, 1961.
All quotations
Otfier (jMofations;
33: Hesiod; from Tfie
Random House.
Dorothy Burr
Museo Nazionale di Villa Ciul ia. Rome; Alfonso de Franciscis and Giuseppe
Maggi. Musco Naiionale. Naples. Ermiilia Speyer. Vatican Galleries and Museums;
Nina Longobardi and Ernest Nash. Ameiican Academy. Rome; Theodor Kraus, Istituto
Scichilone.
PICTURE CREDITS
-Poseidon, bronze, ca, 400 B,C
al
les
(si
The sources
for the
low. Descriptive
no
Mili).
CKAPTER
BC
CHAPTER 2: 30-Wall painting, Tiryus. 13th c. B.C.. National Archaeological Museum. Athens
(Stephanos Papadopoulos). 33-Temple of Ramses III. 12th c, BC
Medinet Habu, Egypt
(Eliot Elisofon), 36-Etruscan Bucchero vase, 7th c, BC, The Metropolitan Museum of Art,
Fletcher Fund, 1924 (Eric Schaal), 39 through 47 (except 41 and 44 below)-Sandstone
frieze from Gjolbaschi, ca, 400 BC Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna (Erich Lessing from
Magnum) 41-Walls of Troy (Ara Guler), 44-Samothrace (Roloff Beny)
.
CHAnTER3: 4
,ca,
400
,d
ca,
Archaeologico Germanico, Rome; Denys Haynes, Keeper of Creek and Roman Antiquities,
British Museum. London. Gerhard R. Meyer. Director, and Elisabeth Rhode, Antikenabteilung. Slaatliche Museen. East Berlin; Norbert Kunisch. Antikcnableilung. Staatliche
Muscen. West Berlin. Erwin M, Auer. Kunsthistorisches Museum. Vienna. Antikensammlungen. Prin/ Carl Palais. Munich. The Rev, Raymond V, Schoder. S,i,, Loyola
University. Chicago. Phillip Bacon. Professor of Geography. Teachers College. Columbia
University. Paul P Vouras, Associate Professor of Geography, and Livio C
Stecchini.
Assistant Professor of History. Paterson State College; Colonel |ohn R, Elling. Acting
Deputy Head. Department of Military Art and Engineering, and Frederick P Todd.
Director of the Museum. United States Military Academy, West Point; and Judy Higgins.
in this
hook
me
b\/
dasht
viations include
Phototiraphei
INDEX
MAPS
All
IN THIS
VOLUME
map
Arabia,
8-9
53.
map
Arakhnaions
Greek Colonics
118-119
52-53
Archilochus
32
(ar-kii'o-kiis). 54-55.
map
coin, '54
(a-bi'dos).
53.
com, *54.
Academy, the, 139, 141
Acarnania (ak er-na'ni'fl). map 8;
Peloponncsian War, map 119
Achaea (a-ke'rt). map 8. map 53;
71:
Mycenaean
in
Empire
158, loO
loI-lo2,
Minoan.
map 72
74,
expansion
Marrdonlan
118-119, 121
Alphabet, Creek, table 36-37, 38, 49
map
,37
(ad-r
Adriatic Sea,
map
158,
to,
lo2
(e-je'an) islands: in
Empire. 117.
map
League
158, 163:
Athenian
8,
map
53,
map
i-mis'iis),
Oracleof,
at
Arginusae
Argolis (ar'go-lis),
Games
in,
19;
map
53, Persian
War
fleet
movements,
71. mop 72
Aegina (e-ji'no). map 8. map 72, 76. 98.
Athenian aggression against. 60. 73. 97.
104; in Delian League. 97
(e-6'li-<i|.
Aeschylus
map
9:
Persians
in.
map 72
(Agamemnon;
Aesop
IS,
map
Aeotolia
(e-to'li-a),
map 8; in
map 119
Peloponncsian War,
Aetolian League. 163
Agamemnon (aga-mcm'nonl.
31. 3d,
Agrigentum
map
(ag-ri-jen'tiim),
map
118
Ahura Mazda. 71
53,
lt.2;
8, battle
Amphora, *56
Anabasis (a-nab'a-sis). Xenophon, 159
Anaxagoras (an ak-sag'o-ras). 102. 185
Anaximander (a-nak
185
map
lo2
Andromache (androm'a-ke), 101
Andromeda (androm'l-da), 37, 182
Ancyra(an-sir'ol,
Andros
Animal
(an'dros),
8,
fights,
Animals:
119
Nemean
of.
Argonauts, 183
Argos
(ar'gos).
map
map
8, 62.
map
71.
map
women.
husbandry. 51.
62
73, 93, 97
influenceon.l63.^170-171;andreligion,
women
of, 85.
95
Atomic theory
9;
159,
map
Attica (an-kfl).
map
invasion of,
19;
of.
Greek
34-35.
map
8, 32, 34,
map
119;
map
Achaean warfare on
colonization on coast
map
of Democritus. 102-103
Asclepius(as-kle'pi.us).^103
69;
52
Antiphon(an'ti-f6n), 184
map
Antipolis (an-tip'O'lis),
figure. 105;
Peloponnesian
after
map
72.
map
Asia Minor,
map
Creek
of.
'173;
95; science
sociopolitical
in
in. 167.
Golden Age
Aristotle (arls-tot
119. 124;
149,153(sfealsoCilyDiony5ia,Lenaean
Panathenaic festival); generals,
festival:
antagonism
toward democratic Athens. 104. 117-118
Aristocratic era. 41. 49-o0. art and
Aristocracies. 49-51,59. 117.
52-53; role of
Empire
of, 97.
map
119. 134
Aristides(ar'is-ti'dez). 96
>72
campaign
'133
78
(e'sdp), '96
173. Egyptian
map
and
125, 134
map
in.
53
Siwa,
of
architecture
Weapons
119
162;
of. in
158.
conditions. 49-51.59
162-163
(ak'te),
map
s ally.
loO,
map
Alexander
Aegospotami.
map
162, 173
at
8.
map
map
Aegean
loO-lol,
(n-kar'ni-anz). Aristoph-
Alexander
of.
Acte
map
in India,
anes, 123
Acropolis
Alcman(alk'man).57. 184
Alexander the Great, 144, '156, 157-lo3,
lo5, 184, aims of. 157. 158. 159, army of.
162; campaigns of. 159-160. 161. map
lo2-l63. at Baclra, *171: cities founded
by, 160,
civilization, 31-32, in
Acharnians
map
Argive plain, ol
map 9. map
map 119. 122
Abydos
(al
in
Athens,
Alcaeus(al-se'iis).57. 184
map
106-107
map 52
Alcestis(alses'tis).37
Alcibiades
battle of Salamis.
31;
Alalia (a-laH-a).
184
reflect the
Athena
changes in terrain
and coastline worked by wind and wave action. The most familiar form
of old place names has been used-Greek. Latin or an Anglicized version
8.
Arcesilas(arses'i-las).56
162-163
Alexander's Route
map
11. 15. 17
Atalanta(ala-lan'ta). 183
*62-63
(<i-rok-na'dnz).
Arcadia (ar-ka'di-a).
Astronomy.
Creek trade
162;
with. 89
72-73
map
53.
Hittite
71
Aspasia (as-pa'shi-a), 95
Assembly, Athenian, 60. 73. 87. 93. 108.
119. speaker s podium, loa
Assyria. 69. map 162. comparisons with
Greece. 18: Empire. 33
add,:
B
Babylon, map Io2. Alexander
Babylonia. 13. 15. 69. map 162
in.
160. 162
stay
at,
ofa.
map
163:
Alexanders
'171
ind.
silc-nt.
aker.
Bactria.
Ball
lt>3
map lo3
Banquets. Athenian. PO-'Jl
(Bar'kii).
Cimon
Circe
Biriis.
Aristophanes. 123
map
Athenian
Peloponnesian
8;
aggression. 7. 104. in
map
Macedon
in. 144
Bokhara,
map 163
Bosporus, map 9, map
map
53, 06.
lo2
53; coin. 54
(sith'er-a).
{siz^klis).
69
Persia,
map 6
map 9. map
53
dynasty, 163
Elca (e'le-o).
City-state
Ekclta
(s), 13.
at
history.
Wars,
U?
Danube
at
map
River,
expansion
to.
map
158.
lo2
Daphnae. map 53
Dardanelles. 66
Darius
Darius
Kingof
1,
Persia, "68,70-71,73,
158. l6l
King
III.
Dark Age
and
EphesUb(efe-si(S).
Datis. 71
David. King of
Deforestation, 62
"39-47, 60
Epicurus (epl-kii-rus), 173
Epidamnus
Israel,
33
map
of.
Burial.
Mycenaean (Achaean),
map
53. 183
31
Columns: Corinthian.
map 53
Byron. George Gordon. Lord. 78
Byzantium, map 9. map 53, map
119
Byblos,
(kad'mus). 183
map 53
Camarina (kam-a-rin'ij). map 118
Cape Sunium (sunl-iim). map 72.
73
Caria (karl-a).
map
9.
map
53,
map
map
Carpathos (kar'pa-thds),
Carthage. 33.
map
map
118.
121.124
Carystus (ka-rls'tiis). 96
Castor (kas'ter). 183
Catana
(kat'a-na).
map
Cavalry. Alexander
s.
118
map
Chalcidice (kil-sid'i-se),
map 72
Chalcis(kal'sis). map 8;
invasion
8,
Persian
60
US-UO
map
53
abandonment
Sparta, 34
Chimaera(ki-mer'a), 183
China, 33,77, 163
72
Elruna, 52,
Euboea
relief
Corcyra
Demosthenes
(kor-sir'a) (island),
map
map
8.51,
Eupolis(u'po-hs). 102
Temple
of Apollo. "168
Dionysus
Eurymedon River
97
(ii-rim'e-diJn). 96.
map
Dark
Doriscus (dor-is'kus),
Drachma, coin. *55
Family
8. 12.
map
53,
map
life.
53
and
map
Nemean
Fish
Cumae(ku'me). map53
101. 153;
Ecbatana,
map
100-102, 123
Drawing, art of. 50
Dress, See Clothing
53;
(si-len'e),
162,
civilization, 31
map
map
map 72
modern
un
slavery.
EurotasRiver(a-riVlas).map8
143
on
Europa, 183
Cremation. 32
colonization,
Women,
"154-155
Cyllene. Mt,
(di
Greek
53; and
Women
map
map
Diomedes
Dodona
Minoan
8.
Dieneces (di-en'c-sez). 22
Cosmetics. 85
Crete,
map
Didyma
(ij-be'a),
119
map
Creusa(kre-ij'sa). 183
Charybdis(karib'dis),66
Wai
expeditionary force
70; in Persian
BC),
Cratinus(kra-ti'nus).102
of.
Ill
(e-rck'thiis).
(e-re'tri-ii):
to Ionia (499
Maidens), "110
118,
Erechlheus
Eretria
on. 100
Confucius, '77
Contract law. 50
Callipolis (ki-lip'o-lis).
Ethiopia.
Cadmus
119. 120
Colchis (kol'kis).
battle of 1 18.
124. 184
map9
Delium (deh-um).
Climate. 12. 01
Clothing. 31.34. 62. 64. 80.95, 112
183
123
Bronze, use
map
Elis(c'lis).map8
Elysium. 17
Macedonian
8-9;
53
(c-lek'lra). Euripides.
Eleusis le-lu'sis),
144;
map
Eleatic school, 59
City-states
Boeolia (be-o'sha).
map
47
Citium, map 53
City Dionysia festival, 153
Bilhynia
(si-re'nc),
(siit-s^),
Cities:
U2
Cyrene
Cythera
Cyzicus
Cimmerians. 35
map S3
Cilicia(si-lishl-a).
map
53
Bards. 35: Homer. 37-38
Battering ram. '70
Barca
map
l63
Assembly
64-65
Foot racing, 38. 126. "128. 129. "130
Footwear. "86
Forests. o2
Egypt. 33.
162.
map
Athenian aid
10,
map
111-112
Frogs. Aristophanes,
Hermus River
Fuel. lamp. 65
Herodotus
(hur'miisl,
map
Heroes, myths
Furniture. 94. 95
of,
184
31, 36-38, 182-183,
Lysippus
lumping.
Hmdu
map 52
Gades.
s,
Hippodrome, 126
and games)
Gandhara, map 163; Hellenistic
innuence on religious art of, 163.
History:
170-171
Caul,
map
of, 160,
map 162
52
Homer
Gibraltar, 182
185:
Gods, Greek,
at,
14, 16-17: in
"39-47
Olympian, "10-17,
drama, 100,
and
Gordium
Gorgias
lliati,
(gor'di-iim).
(gor'ji^is}.
map
Hydraotis River,
Hydria. "56
163
map
map 162
184
Greek beauty.
Ideals,
manhood. 50-51.
of.
map
map
map
map
53.
map
72,
India:
77,
River (hahak'mon),
map
map
map 102
Halieisfha'li-es), 118
Hebrui River
Alexander
map
map
161.
in,
163. 165.
at.
161.
mop
163
(hek-fl-tom'pi'los), 160,
Ionia {i-6'ni-o).
map 163
Hector (hek'ter), 35, 41, 43, 183
Hecuba (hek'u-ba), 120
Helen of Trov, 32, 44, 47, 183
Hellenistic Age, 160, 163-164, 165;
architecture, "168-169, "172-173;
Asian influences, 164; Athens' role,
domination,
map
map
9.
53.
map
sculpture,
*172
9,
map 119;
159, map 162,
53,
Hephaestus (he-fes'tus
-fes'liis),
Israel:
Kingdom,
Mosaic law. 13
33.
map
Italy:
mop 53
Heracles (her'o.klcz), 36. "86. 181, 182,
183
Ithaca
Istrus (is'triis).
map
map 53
9.
map
{ith'fl-kii).
map
8.
183
Marcus
52,
map
mop 72
Law
"
in Persian army, 72
Media, 69, map 163
Medicine, 11, 16, 32, 103-104
Mediterranean: Greek colonization and
trade, map 52-53, Phoenician-controlled
Medes,
(lem'nos),
coasts,
9,
Megalopolis
map 72
(le-6n'f-dds), 75-76,
153
map
Melita (mel'f-td),
96,
rule,
8; in
Peloponnesian
Wars, map 72
in Persian
mop
Long Walls,
Piraeus, 122
Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 37
Lycia (lish'i'd), map 9, map 53, liberation
map
9,
map
53,
map
119,
09
map
8,
in
map 8
map S3, map
(meg'fl-lop'o-lis),
(meg'fl-rd),
184
under Persian
mop
163-164
Medusa, 182
Megara
map
Persia.
Geometry
"Mean (moderation),
Drama;
Reform
Lydia,
Curtius, "141
Marseilles,
mop
by Athens, 96
163
Athens, '106-107
Hera (he'ra), "16-17, 44, 180, 181, 182
Heraclea Pontica (her'a-klW p6n'ti-ko),
Heracles
89
trade, 52,
71, 93
LaoTzu,77
Greek
Ischia(Is'ki-ij),38
map
against
philosophers
map
Iskander, 164
(mnl'iis),
Marathon (mar'o-thon).
Athenian
on oriental
28, *166-168,
34
mop 72
119
34-35
Leonidas
182
9,
Lenaean
Infanticide. 63. 80
Hecatompylos
Hellespont,
mop
Athens,
lo(i'6).
163, "170-171,
8, 32,
Lemnos
(heb'riis),
mop
art,
Laconia (Id'ko'ni-a),
influence
Halicarnassus (hal'I-kar-nas'us),
9,
8.
lo2
Imbros (im'bros),
Hahacmon
Mallus
157
143-144
Mantinea (man
II,
mop 8
mop 53
Malis (mal'is),
Homer.
Graecia, map 53
Magnesia (mag-ne'zhd), map 8
121
53,
Magna
'56
mop9
Icaria(i-ka'ri'O).
Hades
(ki'liks).
Larissa (la-ris'a),
Iberia.
Gylippus
Kylix
map
8,
Magistrates, 50
163
map
Krater. '56
Lade
Homicide, 50, 93
Horseback racing, 126, 131
Houses, 31,35
Hunting, "62, 63
Hydaspes River, battle at, l6l, mop 163
mop
Lacedaemonians (las'e-de-mo'ni-on), 76
map
(mas'e-do'niti),
157-158,
180,
Odyssey, 37,
180-181;
of,
map
102:
Macedonia
Kabul River. Alexander at. 161. mop 163
Kings. See Monarchial government
Gaugamcia, battle
185
Ihii
(li-sip'iis),
182
Jocasta(j6-kas'tii).
mop
53,
53, 54
mop 118
Messene
(me"-se'ne),
Messenia
map 8
map
(me'-se'ni-o),
8,
51
Methone
(me"-th6n'e),
map
53,
map
119
map
119: Alexander
in,
map
map
102:
Warfare
Military training, 34, 49
Miltiades(mill['iide2),71,73,o<,, 140.
184
Demosthenes, 144;
banquets, '90;
at
map
(mi-se'ne),
i,55;
Myron
Mysia
72, 78
8: civilization
fall of,
(or-6p'i(s).
Orpheus
(or'fe-i"<s). 183
Oslrolcon (os'tro-kon). ostracism ballot.
destruction in
9f
map
53.
119
Eurymedon
in Pel
at
Wa
'72;
map
map
Paeonia (pe-o'ni-a),
coin. "165
Pagasae (pag'a-se).
My
map
map
8,
8.
162.
map
72
Minoan,
31;
,31
map
9,
73-77, 96
Olympia, "120-127
Athena
map
renewed
72;
Palaestra (pa-les-trn), at
nts.
map
180
annexation by
Athens, 60
32-33;
(mi'rdnl. 185
(mish1'(i),
Oropus
map
Mycenae
Orestes
Mycale
Pamphylia
(pim-fitt-ii),
map
53
(fi-le'mdn), 173
Philippi(fi-lip1).map9
Pangaeum
Mytilene
(mit'*I-e'ne).
map
map
9.
119;
map
53
67,88
map
8, 34.
Delian League. 96
Neapolis (ne-ap'6-lis).
map
72; in
map 53
Nicaea (on
Nike Apteros
(ap'te-ros)
(Athena Nike),
map
53.
in,
map
52-53
Northern Sporades,
map
41,43
map 163
Pausanias (p6-sa'ni-as), 77-78
Peasant uprisings, 59
Pedagogue, '83
pel'a),
map
8,
map
183
39. 47, 60
Oinochoe
Olbia
Olive
Olive
oil.
map
53
51. 65. 89. 134
l6l'bi-o).
"106.
"173
Olympus. Ml.
72.
home
Olynthus
(o-lim'piis),
map
8.
map
of gods. 35
map 8
Ammon. map
(6-lin'thus),
Oracles. 17: of
lo2;
ill,
conn
map
sphere of influence in
Mediterranean, map 52-53
Phrvgia (frii'i-a). map 9. map 53
Phrynichuslfrinl-kus). 71
Pillars of Heracles. 182
Pindar (pin'der). 104. 158. 185
Pindus Mountains (pin'diis). map 8
Piracy. 32. 69. 94. 97
Piraeus (pi-ri'us). map 8. 34, 73, 98,
36, 38;
map
map
119
Plant
life,
map
occupation
Renaissance. 11
Republic, Plato. 140
map
53.
map
119,
alphabet. 36. 38
Rome, map
map
of. 118.
views on liberty
Saguntum
lis.
Sais,
(sa-gun'ti^m),
'126
map 52
map 53
Plowing. '88
Plutarch (pldb'tark), 76, 95, 112, 119, 160
Pnyx (p'niks), 93, 105, '106-107, '108
Poetry, 14-15. 37, 54, 57-58, 60, 100-102;
15, 57, 100.
Pergamum
Political systems.
Samos
(sa'mos),
map
Empire,
map
9.
of,
map
72,
34; in Athenian
map
map
72;
9. '44:
Sappho
See City-states;
Government, forms of
map 52
map 9. 71. map
Sardinia,
Sardis,
72.
map
Ionian expedition to 70 71
Saronic Gulf (sa-ron'ik). map
Satraps, 70
Posidonia (p6-si-d6n'i-a),
map
Peloponnesian War,
map
map 53
8, map 53:
map 119
99
Schools. "82-83;
Academy.
138; of
"106-107
interest
18,
exports
162;
8. 60. 7o.
111, 181
118
Roman
Penelope (pe-nel'o-pe), 47
Peneus River (pe-ne'us), map 8
Pentathlon (pen-tath'lon), '130-131
and
Gods
painting. 56
map
of, 37,
See also
Penal codes, 50
(pur'ga-miim),
book
as source
monotheist
62. *63
72. 77-78;
119, 122
Athenian
118
72
Phoenicia(ns). 33.
map
162
map
Pellenelpe-len'el, 134
Peloponnesian War, 117-123, map 118119, causes of, 104, 117-118; effects on
map
Odysseus
map 162
state, 33.
Pella
Pharaoh, *33
Ideals
map 52
Hydaspes R). map 163
Macedon,
111,
Nicaea(ni.se-a| (Nice),
of
Ramses
Nearchus(n5ar'kus).lo2
Nemean (ne-me'dn) Games, 125. 134
Nestus River Ines'tiVs). map 9
139, 185
Pythagorean theorem. 59, 139
Pythian (pith'i-an) Games, 125, 134
Python (pi-|h6n), 56
Homer's epics
Pattala,
ot>,
120
Nausicaa(n6-sik'3-a).37
(nak'sos),
19,
16, 59,
Patroclus(pa.tr6't
Naxos
map
Pythagoras (pi-thag'o-ras),
map 53
Naupactus (no-pak'tus). map 119
Navigation, 15.
8, 34,
Alliances of city-states
Naucratis {n6'kra-tis).
II
158, 184
Festivals
N
Naples, Greek settlement, 52.
Philip
163
(tol'e-mi), 159,
'54
Philemon
(pan-je'iVm). 143
Prytany
Ptolemy
map 8
Phaselis (fa-sells), map 53; coin
Phasis(fas'is), map 53
Panathenaic
Pharsalus(far.sa'liis).
140-141, 142-143
Scopas (sko'pas), 185
Prasiae(pras'l.e).118
Hermes
of.
"13
Sphacteria
Athenian
Hunting
Stesichorus (stc-sik'o-riis), 54
Strymon River
66
(stri'mon),
mufi 118
Sybaris
map
118
map 9
Shipping, 66, 67, "88-89; pentekonlers,
"74-75; triremes, "122-123
Sestos (ses'tds),
(sib'a-ris),
map
163
map
map
53,
mop
53
"169
Tanais(lan'a-is),
53.
map53
(tan'ta-liisl.
36
(td-ren-tiim) (Taranto).
map
map 52
map
53, 54,
Apollo,
at
Didyma, "168;
map 72,
map
in
119
124
(thra'-sira'a-kiis),
map
39-45; tactics,
in
tom'i).
map
(tor-on'e).
Erechtheum
map 163
Solomon, King of
Israel.
map
8, 34. 60.
117,
map
policies after
map
79
Spartan Confederacy, 117,
life,
121
34,
map
118-119,
(tha'sos).
map
Trojan
Delian
map 72
Tyras
Women,
Tyre,
(tir'as),
map
44. 47,
map
at
(li-re'ni-an) Sea.
map
118
map
-Ammon, on
Ferri
and Robert
I
E.
E.
Foy,
Eraser
Dunn and
Paper hy The
(ziis),
182, 183;
(za-sin'thus),
Menton, Caroline
&
Zacynthus
Zeus
K- Donnelley
.173
Zeno, of Elea, 185
f7y /<.
159
Athens,
Tyrlaeu5(tCir-le'us).57. 185
Bound
/liialiasis,
of.
53
Printed hy Fawcett
Xanthippus (zan-thip'ijs), 76
Xanthus (zan'thlis), map 9
Xenophanes (ze-nofa-nez). 16. 59
Xenophon (zen'o-tiin), 20, 22, 185;
map 162
Tyrrhenian
P.
US
183
of.
lames
at battle
Woodcarving.
Wool. 64. 89
^85
heroes
9. 54; in
of.
147
Victory, '24
Thasos
Women:
53
33
Solon (so'lon), 57. 87. 184
Sophists. 123-124. 137
Sparta
map
*64, 89
Winged
Transportation. 88
Triglyph. '58
Trireme. 122-123
map 53
Wheat growing,
Wine,
65
Soli (sol'i).
Sogdiana, Alexander
Militarism
map bi
123,
53
at
Achaean (Mycenaean]
architectural elements,
Warfare.
Soil. 61,
The
Tombstones. '79. 95
Toys, '80-81
Trade, 35, 49, 51-52, 54, 66, *88, 89,
map
Torone
-S"
9,
Weapons
map 118
Smyrna, map
map
Tanagra(tan'a.gra),I53
uprisines.
(thras),
Tin trade, 66
Tiryns (tir'inz),
Painting
Vegetable crops. 51
Vegetation. 62. "63
Tomi
Tarentum
Macedonian
Titans. 180
Tantalus
o4-65, 74.
Thucydides
map
8,
75,77
Thrasymachus
Sicily:
Sidon,
map
Peloponnesian War,
of,
and utensils
52
Syria,
(thes'o-li),
53
map
183
(the'sus),
160,
in.
map
Thrace
Stylobate(sti'lo-bat), "58
Surgery. 16, 32
Susa,7I; Alexander
fleet
(se-jes't(i),
mop
at,
Utica.
143
map
106-107
map
Macedon
Theseus
Scyths, 54, 72
Thessaly
Segesta
map 72
54
Scylla (sil'i), 66
in Sicily,
Thermopylae
and
siege
(sfak-ter'i-fl).
Arthur
Rockville,
Dunn
Maryland
Mead
Inc..
Norwood, Massachusetts
^Ma