Diehl/Harris 1

The Benefits of Extracurriculars and Parental Involvement;

The Obstruction of Low SES

Eden Diehl, Ivy Diehl, Morgan Harris

TEAC 331: School and Society
William England
December 4, 2013

Eden Diehl, Ivy Diehl, and Morgan Harris

William England
TEAC 331
24 October 2013

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The Benefits of Extracurriculars and Parental Involvement; The Obstruction of Low SES
Introduction
The United States faces a critical decision with regard to the public school system and the
ways in which we approach education. So far, it has been commonly believed that we are failing
too large a proportion of the student population; Linda Darling-Hammond observes the
educational debt we owe to those who have been denied access to quality education for
hundreds of years (Darling-Hammond 29). Although we like to believe the United States has
always been working towards the claim that we are all created equal, this ideal is not prevalent
within the current avenue of public education; the education system seems to be all but equal.
We see the differences in student achievement through high levels of poverty, unequal
allocation of school resources, and a lack of high performing teachers, as well as the rationing of
curriculum performance through tracking and the perpetual use of the factory-model school
design. These five factors are what Linda Darling-Hammond refers to as the major building
blocks of unequal and inadequate educational outcomes (Darling-Hammond 30), therefore
carrying the implication that their role factors into students individual academic success (or lack
thereof). Even though the majority of people may agree that our education system is in dire need
of change, not everyone agrees on the type of reformation that needs to occur. There are
countless ways to approach reformation, and from many different perspectives. But, as we begin
to inspect the education system at its most basic foundations, we believe that a students success
can be influenced highly by forces outside of the classroom itself. Participation in
extracurricular activities and parental involvement are closely intertwined with a students
success within the public school system. Yet, there are significant obstacles, such as low

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socioeconomic status that can negatively affect a students educational gain; some schools may
not be adequately funded to provide students with various outlets for extracurricular options,
parents may not have provided the necessary support for youth to achieve standard academic
goals, and some students may not be provided with the opportunity to join programs due to a low
socioeconomic status. A low socioeconomic status may be indicative of minimal parental
involvement, according to Jane Graves Smith in a case study pertaining to parental involvement
within low-income families. In fact, rates of parental involvement are significantly higher
among middle- and upper-class parents than in low-income families (Smith 44), perpetuating
the academic segregation among economic classes. Thus, both factors may strongly influence
whether or not a student participates in extracurricular activities, which has been linked to
student academic success.
The ways in which we approach the reformation of the public education system is highly
dependent on the environment we create inside the school; still, we must be entirely aware of the
differences in the various socio-ecological factors which affect what occurs inside schools.
Failing to account for outside factors will make it difficult to equalize the opportunities in
educational outcomes for all students within the school system. By recognizing these external
influences, our educators and school systems should be able to create an education regime that
provides the most efficient and successful schooling experience for each individual student.
Extracurricular Involvement in Relation to Academic Success
A student's participation, or lack of participation, in extracurricular activities could have
the potential to profoundly impact their general quality of life as well as the success of their
education (McDevitt & Ormrod 559). Extracurricular activities are key in developing
worthwhile skills that are instrumental to any well-rounded student's academic success. These

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skills include, but are not limited to: conflict-resolution capabilities, acceptance of diverse
cultures, and pragmatics in a wide variety of social interactions (McDevitt & Ormrod 559).
Additionally, involvement is capable of decreasing risky behaviors such as drug use, theft, and
violence, which aids in positive personal development of the student (McDevitt & Ormrod 106) .
In communities across the United States, students may be presented with the opportunity to join
athletic teams, musical ensembles, religiously affiliated groups, as well as a wide range of other
organizations. No matter what a child is interested in, there are public school systems that
present many possibilities for extracurricular involvement (OBrien & Rollefson 1995). When a
school presents these opportunities for their students, they are creating other ways to aid in
students success both personally and academically.
Additionally, extracurricular activities create an optimal environment for the
reinforcement of information learned within the classroom. Students are able to employ skills
developed in the classroom in real-world, authentic activities, which is exactly why
extracurricular involvement is considered an integral part of any students education (OBrien &
Rollefson 1995). In her book, The Flat World and Education: How Americas Commitment To
Equity Will Determine Our Future, Linda Darling-Hammond references statements made by the
principal and a student of Construction Tech Academy (CTA) in San Diego to emphasize the
significance of authentic application of learned material. Principal Glenn Hillegas stated that,
When kids apply knowledge, they gain a deeper understanding (Darling-Hammond 256). This
assertion was then affirmed when one of CTAs twelfth grade students talked about their own
personal experience with real-world application of material learned in the classroom: It makes it
easier to come to school We learn from textbooks, and we go on to apply them to real-life
projects and then you see how the textbook work is relevant (Darling-Hammond 256).

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Because CTA has discovered the benefits that real-life activities can have on a students
education, they have made consistent efforts to provide such opportunities (Darling-Hammond
257). Darling-Hammond references a field trip that students from the Architecture,
Construction, and Engineering afterschool club were taken on when they showed interest in
creating a mock airport for their second semester project. The students were able to go behind
the scenes at the San Diego Airport to see the inner workings of a real airfield (DarlingHammond 257).
Specialty schools like CTA are working as a model of authentic learning styles; we are
also seeing this implementation of hands-on learning in other school settings as well. To
provide a parallel to CTA, music education programs within school systems provide the
opportunity to utilize the same type of authentic learning style. Music education programs that
occur within a schools curriculum may provide students with the opportunity to learn the basic
principles of playing an instrument, or information pertaining to music history and musical
repertoire. But by offering after school music ensembles, such as show choir or jazz band,
schools that provide extracurricular opportunity are giving their students the chance to use this
newfound knowledge and skills in real world application.
Extracurricular involvement can also influence students futures in a multitude of other
fashions. Students that have productive outlets during their free time are apt to acquire valuable
skills and avoid serious trouble (McDevitt & Ormrod 601). One of the skills that is pertinent to
positive personal growth is time management. To thrive and prosper in the work force, one must
be able to complete their work to a high standard of quality and in a timely manner.
Extracurricular activities will prepare students for this expectation by teaching them how to
allocate their time effectively between academics and activities. In addition, participation in

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extracurricular activities may give students daily motivation needed to attend school; in a study
based on the relationship between student involvement and student achievement, attendance, and
behavior, it was found that students who participated in extracurricular activities reported better
attendance and were three times as likely to have a GPA of 3.0 or higher than their non
participating classmates (Dick 13). Additionally, if a student is involved with an extracurricular
activity that they have a direct interest in, it could potentially give that student a sense of
responsibility towards their academics. If a student is involved in an after-school activity, then it
is pertinent that they be at school that day so that they may participate in the program afterwards.
Unfortunately, schools located within communities of low-socioeconomic status are not
always provided with an equivalent allocation of school resources to that of middle to highsocioeconomic status communities. Therefore, these schools might not have the appropriate
resources to provide their students with the opportunity of higher academic achievement that
extracurricular activities and programs can present. In these areas of lower socioeconomic status
we can see the effects of poverty driving disparities in student achievement and involvement
(Darling-Hammond 101). The economic and social distresses felt within these communities can
prevent children from developing their full potential and can dampen the enthusiasm, effort, and
expectations that students and their families have towards education (Anyon 8). To reverse the
effects of this distress and to support learning at home and at school, more attention must be paid
to the opportunity gap - the accumulated differences in access to key educational resources
(Darling-Hammond 28) - which can be seen primarily in low SES communities.
Given that participation in extracurricular activities is a contributing factor in students
academic and personal success we, as a society, must continue to emphasize the importance of
student involvement and make it a priority to see that all students are reaping the benefits of

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engagement in extracurricular activities despite conditions inside and outside of schools.
Parental Involvement in Relation to Academic Success
In regard to early childhood development, parental involvement is a huge factor in
deciding if the child is prepared for success when they first enter their school years (Smith 44).
Parental involvement within language learning and stimulation and reading growth will provide
the necessary skills that children need when first entering the education system. Research shows
that there is a correlation between the reading level of a kindergartener and that of their reading
comprehension scores in Fourth and Seventh grade (Dickinson & Tabors 17). Therefore, if a
child begins their educational career with the necessary knowledge base resulting from an
attentive parenting practice, then they will reap the benefits of their positive home environment
even later in life.
Consequently, limited parental involvement can have a negative effect on a childs
preparedness for success within the education system. Students are taught so that they can meet
a certain level of educational gain within the current construction of our education system.
Children that do not have parents who are strongly involved in educational growth at home are
likely to see the reverse effects of academic success. If the students are falling behind, they can
be put into lower level courses to achieve academic success with more ease. Yet while their
grades may be improving, they are not up to the same level as their peers. This can cause a
vicious cycle of perpetual underachievement. Since a child is so strongly affected by the
involvement of their parents or guardians, tracking can begin at an extremely early age.
If most of the human race begins life imitating the language of those around them and
then subsequently adapting the conventional communication methods of society, why do adults
and children alike exhibit different rates of literacy? Everyone starts off with the same

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capabilities for learning a language, so then there is the implication that we should end up at
about the same level of literacy and speaking. Unfortunately, this is not so since human life
begins by imitating the language around them. According to research of the National Adult
Literacy Survey, 40 to 44 million of the 191 million adults in this country demonstrated
skills in the lowest level of prose (Level 1), document, and quantitative proficiencies (Kirsch
xvi).
How is it that approximately twenty percent of adults only reach the lowest level of
literacy? One possible answer is that their education did not provide all of the necessary skills
and that the education system may have failed them in some way. In fact, the same research
states that ...nearly two-thirds of those in Level 1 (62 percent) had terminated their education
before completing high school (Kirsch xvi). If the same school that students are dropping out
of is capable of providing other students with a decent education, perhaps an external factor
holds influence over the academic success of these students. We believe that it is critical to
explore the role that parents play in the development of reading and speaking for students.
A childs speaking and reading development is heavily influenced and reinforced by the
way in which parents communicate with them on a daily basis (McDevitt & Ormrod 326). As
stated earlier, the reading comprehension scores of a kindergartener are directly related to the
scores that they will receive later in school work (Dickinson & Tabors 10). In other words, a
students reading level upon entering school is critical for the further development of this skill.
Of course, participation in the classroom will enhance this knowledge beyond its baseline level,
but a students literacy skills are heavily reliant on the frequency with which reading is practiced
in the home. This research was based on the theoretical assumption that rich language
experiences during the preschool years play an important role in ensuring that children are able

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to read with comprehension when they reach middle school (Dickinson & Tabors 10). These
rich language experiences can be fostered through reading that occur at home. It is important
to note that while having a home environment that is rich in parental involvement is
exceptionally beneficial to a child and future student, it is not the only means of desired rates of
achievement. If a school system is incredibly focused on these sorts of developments, we
believe that students will be positively affected and teachers will be able to help them achieve
higher learning, even if their home environment is not up to desirable standards. Regardless of
the supports of the school system, if the child does not have a supportive and active home
environment, the student could potentially still fall behind in course work within the current
conditions of our education system.
Many schools in the American education system are set up with a system of tracking, a
system where students are separated by their abilitymaintaining barriers that deny these
students an equal opportunity to reach high standards (Futrell & Gomez 74). In the same
article, it is explained that
almost all schools are still implicitly defined by this curriculum paradigm, which
often starts in primary school and continues through high school Most students, if not
all, are enrolled in one of these tracks by the time they complete middle school (Futrell
& Gomez 75).
Surely there has not been enough curriculum taught to students of this age, and perhaps they just
havent been exposed to enough of the strategies based on learning. Again, this can be credited
towards the amount of work and support that the student is receiving at home from their parents
or guardians.
As stated before, children that do not receive the support to achieve the appropriate level

Diehl/Harris 10
of education at home that is required to keep them at the same level as their peers will have
scores later on in the academic career that will reflect this very situation. If this is the case, then
being put into a system of tracking isnt going to be beneficial. Students in the higher-level
track are often taught enriched, challenging content, whereas those in the lower track are often
given rote lessons characterized by filling in the blanks on a worksheet whereas students in
the second (tracked) group may receive a more watered-down curriculum that emphasizes
memorization (Futrell & Gomez 74). Unfortunately, if we allow a child to enter the school
system without a basic knowledge of language and reading learned at home or in pre-school, we
may have just set this child up for an academic career full underachievement.Parental
involvement is incredibly crucial when it comes to preparing a child for the educational world
and it continues to be important later in the educational career by supporting them in their
academic endeavours.
Socioeconomic Status as an Obstacle for Academic Success
Apart from involvement within the school system, there is an influence that is such an
integral part of a students life that it is undeniably correlated with academic success. A familys
socioeconomic status (SES) can play a very crucial role in regards to a students educational
experience. Multiple factors are interconnected through the socioeconomic status, such as
income, education, and occupation. In regards to education, Linda Darling-Hammond points out
that the United States has poverty rates for children that are the highest among industrialized
nations (Darling-Hammond 31), and that this low SES also provides fewer social supports for
well-being and fewer resources for them at school (Darling-Hammond 31). These factors play
a major role in defining the social and financial status already in place based on the familys
SES, but redefine the schooling experience for the student. Rather than creating a schooling

Diehl/Harris 11
environment that allows for equality among things such as economic status, the economic
difference defined by occupation and income ends up being one of the most integral parts of the
learning experience. Not only are students from a low SES granted less in their home life than
those of a higher SES, but the lack of resources provided in a school system within a low SES
community can negatively impact them as well. We see the impact based on SES especially
when we are comparing students we consider to be privileged within our society (such as
middle/upper class in regards to income, education, and occupation) to those who are less
privileged in the same regard.
Within Jennifer Barrys research, she cites Eamon and Hochschild, who claim that
students with a low SES may receive lower test scores and are additionally more likely to drop
out of school. The resounding idea for students from a low socioeconomic status is that while it
is not always detrimental, it typically can lead to more obstacles within a students educational
and academic success than for those from a higher SES background. In her article "What
Counts as Educational Policy? Notes Toward a New Paradigm, author Jean Anyon references
a large-sample assessment conducted in 2002 by Valerie Lee and David Burkham, professors at
the University of Michigan, to show the effects of poverty on cognitive development. This
assessment explored differences in young childrens achievement scores in literacy and
mathematics by race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status by utilizing one of the United States
Department of Educations early childhood longitudinal studies (Anyon 74). Lee and Burkham
were able to demonstrate that inequalities in students cognitive abilities are influenced
substantially by SES, even before the students enter kindergarten (Anyon 74). For example, the
assessments findings include that before children enter kindergarten, the average cognitive
scores of children in the highest SES group are 60 percent above the scores of the lowest SES

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group (Anyon 74). This statistic portrays how much of a factor a familys socioeconomic status
is when it comes to their childs education. In this case, it is quite unfortunate that the school
system is not entirely to blame when it comes to underachievement in the academic world.
These scores are before a child steps foot into the standard school system - the main source of
knowledge and education they have received up to this point is generally what they receive at
home.
Unfortunately, the current construct of the education system within the United States
does not always accommodate for children who have already fallen behind before they have even
had the chance to enter into the schooling system. Students that originate from low SES are
presented with a path set up for failure. Instead of allowing children to continue on with a
widening achievement gap based on an influence that occurs outside of the school, the education
system should begin to incorporate ways in which equal schooling and education techniques can
be provided to ensure quality education for every student, no matter their socioeconomic status.
In addition, Lee and Burkham discovered that disadvantaged children not only enter
kindergarten with significantly lower cognitive skills than their advantaged peers, but [they] also
begin school in systematically lower-quality elementary schools than their advantaged
counterparts (Anyon 74). While the wide ranges of variance within the knowledge of children
entering the school system is enough to speak on the behalf of socioeconomic status and its role
within the education system, we also see from this finding in Anyons research that the students
who are from a low SES typically wind up in a lower performing school system. When this
situation becomes reality, the child already has multiple strikes against them upon entering the
educational realm.
Most importantly, we see the effects of socioeconomic status highly correlating with the

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results of standardized testing within school systems (Barry 3). As a society, we are observing
students from a low-income family and/or minority students experiencing negative outcomes
within our school system. A students SES ends up playing a part in the results of standardized
tests; thus we encounter the issue of the achievement gap. A study by Sean F. Reardon indicates
that the achievement gap appears to have grown at least partly because of an increase in the
association between family income and childrens academic achievement for families above the
median income level (Reardon 3). While studies such as Barrys and Reardons indicate
different reasonings behind the achievement gap (minority including race or income), more than
anything the gap has a correlation resulting back to a low socioeconomic status.
Students in a wide range of minority groups, such as race or income level, test
considerably lower than students in the majority (Barry 6); there are many outside factors that
shape the minority, thus, influencing the test outcome. These students SES can result in being
placed in lower academic groupings and peers, according to research done by Jennifer Barry.
Within she makes the observation that It is thought that minority students come to expect
discrimination in school and believe that racial prejudice will outweigh their effort (Barry 7).
The state of apparent discrimination within our societys school system perpetuates low
achievement in minorities, resulting in furthering the achievement gap. Minority students have a
tendency to feel more disconnected from their school and peers (Barry 7), also leading to the
potential for lower academic achievement. Perhaps one of the most crucial areas for
improvement within the construction of the American classroom is to create an environment
where the racial aspect of SES plays less significant of a role. As Barry suggests, the lack of
investment in school (Barry 7) has next to nothing to do with the individual students ability,
but a reaction to racial prejudice and discrimination that minority students face in the

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classroom (Barry 7). If every education system presented extracurricular opportunities to the
students that feel a disconnect to their school system based on inequalities they have come to
expect, the possibility of involvement in extracurriculars could be the solution to the lack of
investment in school. Involvement in an activity that is tied to the school system may provide a
sense of responsibility for those involved.
Barry also notes that students attending a school staffed with very skilled teachers are
more likely to have a positive and successful educational experience. Unfortunately, a students
family socioeconomic status plays an important role in school placement as well . As we
observed within the documentary Waiting for Superman, even students within the same city
will experience the segregation based on something as simple as location and the socioeconomic
status of the community. Families made statements such as Its not fair, but its where we live
to describe their childrens enrollment in a school that is notorious for a high dropout rate and
falling behind in curriculum. Despite the proximity of schools that could be significantly more
successful, location for families with a low SES generally indicates the enrollment of students in
a school that is less successful in terms of academic achievement and gain than those from a
higher SES community.
Obvious as it may seem, we must consider the fact that low-income students often live in
low-income area. As Darling-Hammond examines the anatomy of inequality, she illustrates the
correlation between concentrated areas of income and the effect on the corresponding school
district: ...education costs are supported primarily by local property taxes, along with state
grants-in-aid [that are] not sufficient to close the gaps caused by differences in local property
values (Darling-Hammond 29). If a school district happens to lie in a high poverty district, then
all kinds of students, no matter the financial background, may have lower academic achievement

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(Darling-Hammond 37). When this is the case, the schools within that district have a much
higher chance of receiving low to minimal funding (despite efforts at the state at federal levels to
equalize funding). Resources may be lacking within the school system, and technology may not
be up to date with schools in neighboring districts that happen to be in a community that has a
tendency to be more wealthy.
As Darling-Hammond reminds us throughout her text, money does matter in accordance
to the resources and experience presented to school districts. In this way, schools that are
presented with the opportunity for proper resources (potentially leading to extra curricular
activities and more experienced teachers), can leverage strong achievement (DarlingHammond 30). Concentrated poverty, as Darling-Hammond states, is shorthand for a
constellation of inequalities that shape schooling (Darling-Hammond 37), these inequalities
including access to ...less qualified and less experienced teachers and fewer learning resources
(Darling-Hammond 37). An important aspect of the availability of resources is teacher turnover
rate, these low-income schools have a much higher teacher turnover rate, resulting in a
revolving-door teaching force with little professional expertise (Darling-Hammond 38). Even
though the lack of experience among teachers is not always completely detrimental to the school
system, it is just one other factor that takes its toll on the low-income students. Already, these
low-income students are not receiving all of the privileges other schools have to offer, simply in
accordance with their familys income.
For example, one of the most effective means for aiding children in the formation of noncognitive skills is attachment mentoring, which involves nurturing, sustained, and interactive
talk with children and lots of guided, interactive activities (Gee 7). Attachment mentoring
ensures that optimal conditions for learning are present in a childs socialization (Gee 7).

Diehl/Harris 16
Inexperienced teachers may be unfamiliar with those conditions that are most beneficial for their
students learning process, and, therefore, might be interfering with their cognitive development
and acquisition of new skills. The low-income schools are not totally to blame when it comes to
the knowledge and experience of their teachers - it simply could be as we stated before: lowincome schools have a much higher teacher turnover rate. If the school is this revolving-door
for new teachers, that school system is not able to keep their teachers long enough so that they
can receive the proper experience base that is necessary to provide such skills as attachment
mentoring. By missing out on these teachers that may have a multitude of experience with
students and teaching, the low-income areas are more likely to perform poorly on standardized
tests, therefore furthering the achievement gap between low-income and middle/high-income
students.
Yet another incredibly vital factor in the achievement of students in regards to SES is the
family background. Since the socioeconomic status is contributed to by the parents (education,
occupation, income), the experience and environment of home lives for students is completely
influential towards their experience within the school system. As Barrys research states, ...low
SES negatively affects academic achievement because low SES prevents access to vital
resources and creates additional stress at home (Barry 8). From Barrys research we can see
that a low socioeconomic status is not a fairly good teller of a childs future academic success,
but it can also be a negative influence on parental involvement and the opportunities for
extracurricular programs within the school system. The socioeconomic status, especially a low
one, can create a home environment that is not ideal in fostering a positive atmosphere for
students to carry over into their education. Unfortunately, if a low SES is in the picture, then it
is possible that the school system could also be low income. As mentioned before, a low-income

Diehl/Harris 17
school may not be able to provide as many extracurricular options, which can then fail to provide
an important attachment to the school system with the student.
Conclusion
Ultimately, we believe that the United States education system is in dire need of
reformation. Students across the nation are without equal resources within the school system,
and are not provided with the same opportunities due to socioeconomic status. If we wish to
begin the reformation process within the public school system, we must begin to reevaluate the
construct from the very foundation. Advocates for reformation, such as Linda DarlingHammond, believe that there are multiple problems that inhibit students from receiving a
successful and fulfilling academic experience. Additionally, she believes that our continued use
of an old and out-of-date education prototype (the factory model) contributes to and perpetuates
the growing gap of achievement and income within our schooling system. In order to reevaluate
and reorganize our approach to the public school system entirely, we must assess its ultimate
goal and realize a common frontier: equality in education and in opportunity.
Although the picture painted of our public school system is currently quite alarming, the
idea of reformation is one that inspires hope and perhaps ignites a passion for instigating the
reform. As Darling-Hammond also acknowledges within her text, Some states and districts
have made significant strides at educating both rich and poor children well. Some states have
created comprehensive reforms that have raised performance and closed achievement gaps
(Darling-Hammond 26). Clearly, the idea of reformation is not a new one based on the changes
these states and districts have already installed, and the desire to create equality beyond the
segregation of income and opportunity for students is something that is not too momentous to
tackle with that perspective in mind. As we examined, the educational atmosphere within

Diehl/Harris 18
academia can be supported by extracurricular activities; in fact, the overall result within
education can prosper greatly if schools are providing students with opportunities to get involved
outside of the classroom. The lack of these sorts of programs stemming from communities with
a high concentration of low SES and poverty is a current dilemma that simultaneously can be
solved.
While the involvement of parents and participation in extracurricular activities are
outside forces that can provide opportunities to promote and expand a student/childs knowledge
base and connection to the school, these two factors can only get the student so far if a lowsocioeconomic status is hindering these opportunities. Unfortunately, the opportunity gap that
exists due to the differing socioeconomic statuses is out of a school systems control with the
current format that we have for our education system. Rather than allowing outside factors, such
as socioeconomic status and home environment, to be the ultimate decider in the outcome of a
students learning, the United States should begin to more earnestly commit to a system that
approaches education from a level playing field. A students academic endeavors, in this way,
could not be defined by something such as family income, location, or parental involvement;
instead, arriving to school would foster a learning environment that seeks to inculcate a positive
growth and development through application and teacher engagement. The key, according to
Darling-Hammond, is ...the creation of a teaching and learning system that provides excellent
education to all students (Darling-Hammond 26). It is important to understand the implication
presented by the and within the phrase teaching and learning system. The success of
reformation is not merely dependent on the adjustment of just teaching, or just learning, but on
the preparation of all parties for the challenging work they are asked to do and the organization
of schools to support both student and teacher learning (Darling-Hammond 26). By

Diehl/Harris 19
implementing significant preparation to ensure optimal learning, our school systems are
presented with the opportunity to become much closer to the goal of equity among that same
style of learning.
Ultimately, a schools understanding and willingness to ensure support for a positive and
high-achieving environment for all students requires the necessary preparation to mitigate the
influences of outside factors like socioeconomic status and the lack of parental involvement in
corresponding cases as much as possible. After overcoming the obstacles of a low
socioeconomic status and low parental involvement, our schooling system would potentially be
able to focus on the purpose that it was initially created for: fostering an environment that is
solely dedicated to providing quality education for our students, as well as implementing equal
opportunities to supplement the education process.

Works Cited
Anyon, Jean. "What "Counts" as Educational Policy? Notes Toward a New Paradigm." Harvard
Educational Review. 2005. Print.
Barry, Jennifer. The Effects of Socio-Economic Status on Academic Achievement. 2006.
Department of Sociology, Wichita State University.
Darling-Hammond, Linda. The Flat World and Education: How Americas Commitment to
Equity Will
Determine Our Future. Teachers College Press. 2010. Print.
Dick, Andrew D. "The relationship of participation in extracurricular activities to student
achievement,
student attendance, and student behavior in a Nebraska school district. " ETD collection
for University of Nebraska - Lincoln. January 1, 2010. Paper.
Dickinson, David K, and Patton O Tabors. "Fostering Language and Literacy in Classrooms and
Homes. " YC: Young Children. 2002. Print.
Futrell, Mary Hatwood, and Joel Gomez. "How Tracking Creates a Poverty of Learning."
Educational Leadership. 2008. Print.

Diehl/Harris 20
Gee, James Paul. Digital Media and Learning: A Prospective Retrospective. 2013.
Kirsch, Irwin S. Adult literacy in America: a first look at the results of the National Adult
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Improvement, U.S. Department of Education, 1993. Print.
McDevitt, Teresa, and Jeanne Ormrod. Child Development and Education. 5th ed. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2002. Print.
O'Brien, Eileen, and Mary Rollefson. "Extracurricular Participation and Student Engagement. "
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