LITERATURE STUDY

Experiment of Base Plate Wax

PT Dentalino Cemerlang

Iwan Darmawan

2014

Literature Study of Experiment for Base Plate Dental Wax

PT Dentalino Cemerlang
Iwan Darmawan, PT Dentalino Cemerlang, Tangerang, Indonesia

The word wax generally refers to a variety of organic substances that are solid at ambient
temperature but become free-flowing liquids at a slightly higher temperature. The chemical
composition of waxes is complex, but normal alkanes are always present in high proportions,
and molecular weight profiles tend to be wide. The main commercial source of wax is crude
oil which it processed to produce wax, and also it produced from lignite, plants, and animals,
even insects.
I. Dental Waxes Materials
Dental waxes may be composed of natural and synthetic waxes, gums, fats, fatty acids, oils,
natural and synthetic resins, and pigments of various types. The particular working
characteristics of each wax are achieved by blending the appropriate natural and synthetic
waxes and resins and other additives, some of which are shown in Table 1.1. The chemical
components of both natural and synthetic waxes impart characteristic physical properties to
the wax, which are of primary terest because the specific physical properties of a wax or wax
blend determine its usefulness for intended applications. Natural waxes are distributed in
nature, whereas synthetic waxes are produced by combination of various chemicals in the
laboratory or by chemical action on natural waxes. The additives may be natural materials
and synthetic products.
Table 1.1. Components of Dental Waxes
Natural Waxes

Synthetic Waxes

Mineral
Paraffin
Microcrystalline
Barnsdahl
Ozokerite
Ceresin
Montan
Plant
Carnauba
Ouricury
Candelilla
Japan wax
Cocoa butter
Insect
Beeswax
Animal
Spermaceti

Acrawax
Aerosol OT
Castorwax
Flexowax C
Epolene N-10
Natural Resins
Albacer
Aldo 33
Durawax 1032

Additives

Stearic acid
Glyceryl tristearate
Oils
Turpentine
Colorants
Rosin
Copal
Dammar
Sandarac
Mastic
Shellac
Kauri
Synthetic resins
Elvax
Polyethylene
Polystyrene

Table 1.2. Characteristic Various Waxes Used in Dentistry

Wax

Type

Melting Range ( oC )

Characteristic in
mixtures with
Paraffin Wax

Paraffin

Straight-chain hydrocarbon
with 26-30 carbon atoms

40 - 71

No value

Microcrystalline

Brached-chain hydrocarbon
with 26-30 carbon atoms

60 - 91

Less volumetric change

during solidification

Barnsdahl

Microcrystalline wax

70 - 74

Increase melting range

and hardness, reduces
flow

Ozokerite

Microcrystalline wax, Straight-,

branched- and closed-chain
hydrocarbon

Ceresin

Straight- and branched-chain

paraffins

No value

Montan

Long-chain esters with 40-58

carbon atoms, alcohols, acids,
resins

72 - 92

Improves hardness and

melting range

Carnauba

Esters, alcohols, acids,

hydrocarbons

84 - 91

Increase melting range

and hardness

Ouricury

Esters, alcohols, acids,

hydrocarbons

79 - 84

Increase melting range

and hardness

Candelila

Hydrocarbon with 29-33 carbon

atoms, alcohols, acids, esters,
lactones

68 - 75

Increase hardness

Japan wax

Fats glycerides of palmitic and

stearic acids

51

Improves tackiness and

emulsifying ability

Cocoa butter

Fats glycerides of palmitic,

stearic, oleic, lauric acids

No value

Improves tackiness and

emulsifying ability

Beeswax

Esters myricyl palmitate,

hydocarbon, organic acids

63 - 70

Modifies properties of
paraffin wax

1.1.

65

No value
Higher molecular weight,
higher hardness, increase
melting range

Natural Waxes

Historically, waxes have been classified according to their origin: (1) mineral, (2) plant, (3)
insect, and (4) animal; however, a better classification is based on their chemical composition.
The two principal groups of organic compounds contained in waxes are hydrocarbons and
esters, although some waxes contain free alcohols and acids as well. The chief constituents of
most mineral waxes are hydrocarbons ranging from 17 to more than 44 carbon atoms. a fact
that accounts for odd and even numbers in the chain, as shown in the following formula:

The hydrocarbons in plant waxes are saturated alkanes with from 19 to 31 carbon atoms
present in odd numbers. Therefore, dental waxes contain molecules having a range of
molecular weights that affect the melting and flow properties of the waxes.
2

Plant and animal waxes contain considerable concentrations of esters, and carnauba (a plant
wax) contains 85% alkyl esters of various kinds. The principal ester in beeswax is myricyl
palmitate,

which is the reaction product of myricyl alcohol and palmitic acid. Plant and animal waxes
also contain acids, alcohols, hydrocarbons, and resins; whereas Montan wax (an earth wax)
contains large amounts of esters, the main compound being

However, there are other esters composed of C20-C29 acids and C20-C30 alcohols.
This brief description of the composition of natural waxes indicates that they are complex
combinations of organic compounds of reasonably high molecular weights. Also, the
composition of these waxes varies, depending on the source and the time of collection;
therefore, dental manufacturers must blend the particular batches of wax to obtain the
properties desired for a particular application. Characteristics of various waxes used in
dentistry and described below are summarized in Table 1.2.
Paraffin waxes are obtained principally from the high-boiling point fractions of petroleum.
The melting temperatures generally increase with increasing molecular weights. The
presence of oils in the wax, however, lowers the melting temperature; paraffin waxes used in
dentistry are refined waxes and have less than 0.5% oil. Paraffin waxes produced by current
refining procedures can crystallize in the form of plates, needles, or malcrystals, but are
usually of the plate type. Many hydrocarbon waxes undergo crystalline changes on cooling,
and a transition from needles to plates occurs about 5 to 8 C below their melting
temperature. During solidification and cooling, there is a volumetric contraction that varies
from 11% to 15%. This contraction is not uniform throughout the temperature range from
the melting temperature to room temperature, because the wax is a mixture of hydrocarbons
and the wax passes through transition points accompanied by changes in physical properties.
Microcrystalline waxes are similar to paraffin waxes, except they are obtained from the
heavier oil fractions in the petroleum industry and, as a result, have higher melting points.
These waxes crystallize in small plates and are tougher and more flexible than paraffin waxes.
They have an affinity for oil, and their hardness &nd tackiness may be altered by adding oil.
Microcrystalline waxes have less volumetric change during solidification than paraffin waxes.
Barnsdahl is a microcrystalline wax used to increase the melting range and hardness and
reduce the flow of paraffin waxes
Ozokerite is an earth wax found near petroleum deposits in central Europe and the western
United States. Ozokerite is similar to microcrystalline wax in that it is composed of straightand branched-chain hydrocarbons, but it also contains some closed-chain hydrocarbons. It
3

also has great affinity for oil, and in quantities of 5% to 15% greatly improves the physical
characteristics of paraffins in the melting range of 54C
Ceresin is a term used to describe waxes from wax-bearing distillates from natural-mineral
petroleum refining or lignite refining. Like microcrystalline waxes, they are straight- and
branched-chain paraffins, but they have higher molecular weights and greater hardness than
hydrocarbon waxes distilled from the crude products. These waxes also may be used to
increase the melting range of paraffin waxes.
Montan waxes are obtained by extraction from various lignites, and although they are mineral
waxes, their composition and properties are similar to those of the plant waxes. Montan
waxes are hard, brittle, and lustrous; they blend well with other waxes, and therefore are
often substituted for plant waxes to improve the hardness and melting range of paraffin
waxes.
Carnauba and ouricury waxes are composed of straight-chain esters, alcohols, acids, and
hydrocarbons. They are characterized by high hardness, brittleness, and high melting
temperatures. Both possess the outstanding quality of increasing the melting range and
hardness of paraffin waxes; for example, adding 10% of carnauba wax to paraffin wax with a
melting range of 20C increases the melting range to 46C. Adding ouricury waxes produces a
similar effect, but they are less effective than carnauba wax.
Candelilla waxes consist of 40% to 60% paraffin hydrocarbons containing 29 to 33 carbon
atoms, accompanied by free alcohols, acids, esters, and lactones. Like carnauba and ouricury
wax, they harden paraffin waxes but are not so effective for increasing the melting range.
Japan wax and cocoa butter are not true waxes; they are chiefly fats. Japan wax contains the
glycerides of palmitic and stearic acids and higher-molecular-weight acids; cocoa butter is
completely fat and composed of glycerides of stearic, palmitic, oleic, lauric, and lower fatty
acids. Japan wax is a tough, malleable, and sticky material that melts at about 51C, whereas
cocoa butter is a brittle substance at room temperatures.
Japan wax may be mixed with paraffin to improve tackiness and emulsifying ability, and cocoa
butter is used to protect against dehydration of soft tissues and to protect glass ionomer
products temporarily from moisture during setting or from dehydrating after they are set.
Beeswax is the primary insect wax used in dentistry. It is a complex mixture of esters plus
saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons and high-molecular-weight organic acids. It is a
brittle material at room temperature but becomes plastic at body temperature. It is used to
modify the properties of paraffin waxes, and is the main component in sticky wax.
Animal waxes such as spermaceti wax, obtained from the sperm whale, are not used
extensively in dentistry; like beeswax, they are mainly ester waxes. Spermaceti wax has been
used as a coating in the manufacture of dental floss
1.2.

Synthetic Waxes

In recent years synthetic waxes and resins have become available. Although the use of
4

synthetic waxes and resins is increasing, it is still limited in dental formulations, and the
natural waxes continue to be the primary components.
Synthetic waxes are complex organic compounds of varied chemical compositions. Although
they differ chemically from natural waxes, they possess certain physical properties, such as
melting temperature or hardness, which are akin to those of the natural waxes. They may
differ from natural waxes in certain characteristics because of their high degree of
refinement, in contrast with the contanmination that is common in natural waxes.
Synthetic waxes include (1) polyethylene waxes, (2) polyoxyethylene glycol waxes, (3)
halogenated hydrocarbon waxes, (4) hydrogenated waxes, and (5) wax esters from the reaction
of fatty alcohols and acids. Polyethylene polymers having molecular weights from 2000 to
4000 are waxes melting at 100 to 105C. These waxes possess properties similar to highmolecular weight paraffin waxes obtained from petroleum.
Polyoxyethylene waxes are polymers of ethylene glycols and have melting temperatures from
37 to 63 C. They have limited compatibility with other waxes but do function as plasticizers
and tend to toughen films of wax. The remainin synthetic waxes are prepared by reactions
with natural waxes or wax products, as with chlorine in the preparation of halogenated waxes
and hydrogen in the manufacture of hydrogenated waxes. The variability of various batches of
synthetic wax is similar to that of natural waxes.
1.3.

Gums

Many waxes obtained from plants and animals resemble in appearance a group of substances
described as gums. Many plants produce a variety of gums that are viscous, amorphous
exudates that harden on exposure to air. Most gums are complicated substances. Many are
mixtures containing largely carbohydrates; when they are mixed with water, they either
dissolve or form sticky, viscous liquids. Gum arabic and tragacanth are two natural gums that
do not resemble waxes in either their properties or composition.
1.4.

Fats

As a class of substances, waxes are harder and have higher melting temperatures than fats,
but in some ways they resemble fat. Both are tasteless, odorless, and colorless in the pure
form, and they usually feel greasy. Chemically, fats are composed of esters of various fatty
acids with glycerol and are known as glycerides, which distinguishes them from waxes. Some
examples of fats are glycerides of stearic acid or tristearate, found in tallow, and the mixed
glyceride of oleic, palmitic, and butyric acids, found in butter.
Glyceryl tristearate, the chief ingredient of beef tallow, is a fat with a melting temperature of
about 43 C. It has a lustrous appearance and is a firm, slightly greasy solid that bears a
resemblance to waxes. The fat may be used to increase the melting range and hardness of
compounded wax. Oils have a pronounced effect on the properties of waxes, as mentioned
earlier in connection with the discussion of paraffin waxes. Hydrocarbon oils may be used to
soften mixtures of waxes, and small quantities of silicone oils may be added to improve the
ease of polishing with waxes.

1.5.

Resins

In some respects natural resins resemble waxes in appearance and properties, although they
form a distinct classification of substances. Many species of trees and other plants produce
exudates of natural resins, such as dammar, rosin, or sandarac. Natural resins are relatively
insoluble in water, but vary in solubility in certain organic liquids. Generally, resins are
complex, amorphous mixtures of organic substances that are characterized by specific
physical behavior rather than by any definite chemical composition. Most natural resins are
obtained from trees and plants; shellac, however, is produced by insects. Numerous natural
resins are blended with waxes to develop waxes for dental applications.
Natural resins such as dammar and kauri may be mixed with waxes. They are compatible with
most natural waxes and produce harder products. Synthetic resins, such as polyethylene and
vinyl resins of various types, may be added to paraffin waxes to improve their toughness,
film-forming characteristics, and melting ranges.
Natural and synthetic resins may also be used in organic solvents to produce film-forming
materials that may be used as a cavity liner.
Copal is a natural, brittle resin that has a melting range well above 149 C, but when deposited
as a film from an organic solvent, it serves as a liner for prepared cavities.
Polystyrene is a synthetic resin that may be used in a similar manner.

II. Material Properties

From the above, waxes (where the fact that these are mixtures is taken as read) may be
formulated to exhibit a wide range of properties such as melting range. But in order to
achieve a more practically useful suite of properties for dental applications other additives
must be used. For example, many waxes are not very tough, and flake or crumble when cut,
more or less exhibiting brittle behaviour on a small scale due to high rates of strain. This
would leave a carved surface rough and difficult to smooth. On that basis, slow carving of
small slivers at a time will give a better result than attempts to remove large portions quickly.
Plasticity is also important, for shaping a pattern without cracking. Other substances are
therefore included. To the list of natural and synthetic waxes which are potential ingredients
may be added carbohydrate gums, oils (i.e., liquids) and other fatty substances, and resinous
materials.
2.1. Colour
Colouring agents, which must be oil-soluble dyes, are also generally included in waxes, almost
entirely to distinguish between product applications or brand. They have no appreciable
effect on physical or mechanical properties. However, inlay and other casting waxes are
usually intensely coloured to provide good contrast with tooth or die material and allow
feather edges and other undesirable extensions of the pattern to be easily detectable. There
seems to be no real reason, though, why baseplate waxes should be pink, and so on, except for
easy recognition.
6

2.2. Melting Point and Melting Range

Natural waxes are likely to consist of a mixture of a great many compounds: mixtures of types
(alcohols, esters, etc.) and mixtures of straight and branched chains, all of which will have
different physical and mechanical properties. Although one or a few compounds may
dominate, they never approach purity. Even in refined paraffin waxes derived (by distillation)
from petroleum, there will be a range of sizes present, probably concentrated around some
central value, but with tails in both directions. Under these circumstances it is not surprising
to find that there is no single, sharp melting point for any of these natural products, but rather
there is a pronounced melting range.
A mixture of two two chemically different waxes can be studied in the context of the phase
diagram, differential temperature and cooling curve. Since phase changes generally result in
dimensional changes, the temperatures at which the phase changes occur in waxes and the
influence of adding one wax to another are important in understanding the behavior of waxes.
Differential thermal analysis (DTA) offers a useful tool in the study of phase transitions. This
study examines the temperature of phase transitions for various commercial, dental, and
combined waxes.
Because waxes may contain several types of molecules, each having a range of molecular
weights, they have melting ranges rather than melting points. The melting ranges of a paraffin
wax, a carnauba wax, and a mixture of these two waxes are illustrated in Fig. 2.1. The curves
are differential thermograms. The peak temperatures represent the means of five
replications of the thermograms. Analyses of variance were calculated for paraffin and
combinations containing carnauba wax as well as for carnauba wax and combinations
containing paraffin. The most noticeable features of these data are the great effect of small
additions of carnauba wax on increasing the melting range. Also, major additions of carnauba
to paraffin wax had little influence on the onset of melting. The measurements of melting
points, as determined by DTA, indicated that addition of large amounts of carnauba wax to
paraffin wax had little effect on the melting point; 50 percent to 75 percent of this wax was
added before a detectable change in melting point of paraffin wax was noticed.
The melting range for paraffin wax is from 44 to 62 C, and for carnauba wax, from 50 to
90C. When a mixture of 75% paraffin and 25% carnauba wax was prepared, the paraffin
component melted at essentially the same temperatures, but the melting temperature of the
carnauba wax was decreased slightly. Note that adding carnauba to paraffin wax dramatically
increased the melting range to 44 C, compared with 18 C for paraffin alone.
Generally the mixture has a wider melting range than either component wax (Fig. 2.2.). But
when the mixture consists of many compounds, with strong chemical similarities, it may
become impossible to obtain precise values for the top and bottom of the melting range
merely by studying ordinary cooling curves (Fig. 2.3). In these cases, microscopic observation
of a few shavings on a heating stage may be necessary to detect changes in appearance, but
with an appropriate technique it is possible to demonstrate not only the onset and completion
of cooling but also the presence of many other features that may then be related to
mechanical properties (Fig. 2.4).

Fig. 2.2. Melting range for mixtures of two natural

wax mixtures ( paraffin - carnauba ).

Fig. 2.1. Differential thermograms (DTA curves)

of paraffin-carnauba wax mixture and
combinations containing these waxes.

Fig. 2.3. Typical cooling curves for natural wax

mixtures

Fig. 2.4. Differential cooling curve for beeswax (rate of change of

temperature with time) showing the complexity of the
mixture. Broad bands indicate progressive freezing of
multiple components. This graph is to be read from right to
left, i.e. for cooling. Evolution of latent heat of solidification
is indicated by the curve deviating upwards (slower
cooling). dT/t >0 means a rise in temperature, here
because of the supercooling of the eutectic

The effect of the composition of paraffin-carnauba mixtures on the melting range is shown in
Fig. 2.2. The presence of 2.5% carnauba wax had little effect on the melting range, but the
range increased rapidly as the concentration of carnauba wax was increased to 10%.
Although concentrations of carnauba wax greater than 10% had no further effect on the
melting range, higher amounts are necessary for certain applications to control the flow and
mechanical properties. The melting of mixtures of paraffin and higher-melting point waxes
can be visualized as the melting of paraffin near its usual temperature, but the entire wax
does not appear melted because the matrix of carnauba wax does not melt until a
considerably higher temperature is reached.
The melting range is of primary importance in designing a commercial wax product because
this, and particularly the lower limit, controls the applicability of a given wax formulation in a
particular function. Thus, a wax intended for use at room temperature may be within the
melting range at mouth temperature and so have little or no mechanical stability. For oral use
the onset of melting would appear to be necessarily above 37C (or whatever open mouth
temperature is decided to be), but not so far as to risk burning the patient or otherwise
traumatizing their tissues. Inflammation starts at least as low as 42C, and 45C is painful if
applied for more than brief periods. Conversely, an impression wax needs to have
considerable flow at mouth temperature to function. The width of the melting range is also
important for allowing greater latitude in operation, avoiding complete melting for slight
overheating and permitting moulding to the correct shape without it becoming too rigid too
soon as it cools.
However, it may be noticed that room temperature is not in practice very well defined. In
the lower latitudes ordinary working temperatures may be above 30C, when products sold
for more temperate climates, with working temperatures perhaps below 20C, would be
unserviceably soft. Conversely, tropical products would be too stiff and brittle under lowtemperature conditions. Clearly, it is not even as simple as that because the air-conditioning
may be adjusted for high or low temperatures in any climate or non-existent, as may be the
more normal condition in many places. The only appropriate advice would seem to be to find
a wax product that performs properly under the local working conditions and stay with it.
2.3. Thermal expansion
Waxes typically have very high coefficients of thermal expansion (Fig. 2.5.), particularly
around the obvious melting range, with values for linear expansion typically in the range 300
- 600 MK-1 but even up to ~1500 MK-1 in some cases. Compare PMMA and other polymers at
about 70 MK-1 below their Tg, or even 200 ~ 300 MK-1 above the Tg. But, given the
liquid+solid model for waxes over most of the ordinary temperature range of use, and the
progressive melting that occurs on raising the temperature, it is apparent that the expansion
coefficient is a complicated mixture of the ordinary thermal expansion contributions from
both solid and liquid, plus that due to the progressive change of state as components melt
which expansion is normally a relatively large, discontinuous event, as seen clearly for pure
substances (water is an exception).

Fig. 2.5. Thermal expansion

for a variety of waxes

The exceptionally high values recorded for the mixture of substances of a typical wax is
therefore an artefact of the constitution, and is not really true thermal expansion, although it
remains a convenience to refer to it as such from a macroscopic, phenomenological point of
view.
A wax pattern for a lost-wax casting is expected (or, rather, intended) to be an accurate
representation of the shape and size of the desired device. Whether or not that intention is to
be realized obviously depends on the temperature at which the pattern was created and the
temperature at which it was invested. The correct compensation through the use of
investment expansion must take such factors into account if the failure of the casting through
lack of fit is to be avoided. Thus, for example, the techniques used must distinguish between
direct and indirect inlay patterns. However, if there is a change of dimension which is
successfully part of the overall compensation for metal cooling shrinkage, then constancy of
conditions and technique is evidently important for clinical success. Low-melting paraffin
waxes are also used for impressions, largely for soft tissue-related purposes but also for biteregistration. Generally, these techniques are not dimensionally critical and the waxes are
considered to provide convenience of use. However, it should be recognized that the
shrinkage on cooling from mouth temperature to that of the laboratory is substantial for
these materials, probably well over 1% (Fig. 2.5.), and adjustment or correction may well be
necessary at some stage.
The linear thermal expansion properties of waxes may be explained on the basis of the
strength of secondary valence forces and the transition points. Mineral waxes generally have
higher coefficients of linear thermal expansion than plant waxes (Table 2.3.). Mineral waxes
expand more because they have weak secondary valence forces, which are easily overcome
by the energy absorbed during a rise in temperature. This permits more movement of the wax
components, thus allowing a greater amount of thermal expansion. Plant waxes, on the other
hand, have high secondary valence forces because of their high concentrations of esters.
Because the secondary valence forces restrict the movement of the wax components, small
coefficients of thermal expansion are observed until the melting range of the wax is
10

approached. This phenomenon is illustrated by beeswax; yellow beeswax has much higher
coefficients of linear thermal expansion than bleached beeswax.
Table 2.3. Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Waxes
Waxes Type
Mineral
Paraffin

Temperature Range
C

Coefficient
10-6 /C

20.0 27.8

307

27.8 34.0

1631

22.0 47.5

205

47.5 52.0

590

22.0 40.4

185

40.4 52.0

243

22.0 27.4

307

27.4 34.7

849

34.7 42.2

471

42.2 50.0

1434

22.0 41.5

188

41.5 52.0

294

Carnauba

22.0 52.0

156

Candelilla

22.0 40.2

182

40.2 52.0

365

22.0 43.0

186

43.0 52.0

307

22.0 38.6

304

38.6 45.0

755

Beeswax
(yellow)

22.0 41.2

344

41.2 50.0

1048

Beeswax
leached
(bleached)

22.0 38.6

271

38.6 50.0

606

22.0 37.5

323

37.5 45.0

629

45.0 50.0

328

22.0 32.7

263

32.7 40.9

662

40.9 46.9

458

46.9 50.0

1084

Litene
Barnsdahl
Ceresin

Montan
Plant

Ouricury
Japan wax
Insect

INLAY
Kerr blue inlay
wax (hard)
Kerr blue inlay
wax (hard)
0

2.4. Modulus of Elasticity

During the investment of wax patterns, and in other procedures, various forces are applied to
the wax. It is evidently desirable that distortion by simple elastic deflection be minimized to
11

preserve the accuracy of the procedure. In other words, the Youngs modulus must be
sufficiently high to resist appreciable deflection. This property is also strongly temperaturedependent (Fig. 2.6.). We are referring of course to elastic behaviour, but permanent
deformation through flow (creep) is perhaps of greater concern.
Fig. 2.6.

Variation in static elastic modulus with

temperature for a variety of waxes

The stresses generated by an investment when it expands on setting, as it usually must, are
more than sufficient to distort the pattern if there is any constraint acting on the investment
to spoil the intended isotropic expansion. This is exacerbated by the investments setting
temperature rise, or the technique of hygroscopic expansion in a water bath at an elevated
temperature. The chemical nature of waxes is such as to leave no possibility of of any
substantial modification of this behaviour, given the other property demands. All techniques
employing waxes in the sense of a dimensionally-accurate representation of an object, be it
metal casting, baseplate or impression, must take due recognition of this severe limitation.
The same features that cause the plasticity and low melting temperatures, i.e. weak
intermolecular forces and short chains, also guarantee plasticity under other forces. This
necessitates a compromise that must be heeded.
2.5. Residue
One other feature of casting waxes is essential to their efficacy: the residue after the burning
out of the investment must be very small, in other words, the products of combustion should
all be gaseous. Such a requirement ought to be self-evident, as the mould space clearly should
not have any foreign material in it, nor should the permeability of the investment be impaired.
This demands a very low inorganic content for the wax: silicone waxes, for example, could not
be satisfactory ingredients of dental casting waxes no matter what other advantages they
might have, and fillers could not be used to modify properties unless they too were
completely combustible (although no examples of this are known). The effects on the casting
may range from gross defects due to occlusion by the debris, to increased surface roughness
or contamination by particular materials which may make polishing difficult or corrosion
worse.

12

2.6. Thermal Conductivity

Waxes have very low values of thermal conductivity, similar to those of polymers at around
1/3000th of the value for silver (which is about 425 W/m/K), and about 1/10th of the value
for tooth enamel. The practical implications of this are clear: heat slowly. The problem arises
because the temperature range over which substantial changes in viscosity occur, and then
melting, is very small only about 20 K. Thus, the surface can melt and start running away
while the material only a millimetre thickness away is still at room temperature. Using a gas
flame, as is commonly done, it may be impossible to avoid the very surface melting. However,
intermittent exposure to the heat source with intervals allowed for the heat to spread more
evenly will achieve a better result when a uniformly softly-plastic mass is required for
moulding.
The converse of this situation also needs to be taken into account. It takes an appreciable
time for wax to cool enough that flow and stress-relaxation do not occur to distort the work.
It is not enough to wait until the surface appears cool and solid enough, time must be allowed
for the whole mass to cool because the distortions will probably not be visible.
3. Flow
The flow of waxes is clearly important, not only as part of the deliberate moulding process but
also as an undesirable aspect after the pattern or impression has been made. All of the
principles of rheology remain valid in wax systems. The difficulty is essentially that wax
viscosities are so very high at normal working temperatures (108 - 1012 Pa.s) that
macroscopic rheometric techniques are frequently quite inappropriate; yet the deformations
are too large for the kind of approach that would be taken with creep metals in metals, for
example.
Because of these practical difficulties, in dentistry the usual approach has been rather crude:
the relative change in length of an arbitrary sample under an arbitrary static compressive
load after an arbitrary time (American Dental Association Specification No. 4 [ADA 4], which
dates from a method of about 1932) (Fig. 2.7). The inclusion of three arbitrary factors is less
than scientific and although some useful comparisons can perhaps be made (Fig. 1.8), the
flow curve is non-linear because of the changing shape of the sample (Fig. 1.9), from a
relatively narrow cylinder to a very thin disc. This results in a more or less abrupt change
from very little to very much deformation as the test temperature is raised. No useful
property value is derivable from this approach, and little information is obtainable about
behaviour at other timescales or temperatures. Thus, although the 50% point may appear to
offer a characterization of the wax, the temperature at which this is obtained depends on load,
size and time. In particular, the kinds of deformation which would be important in terms of
dimensional accuracy cannot be studied with an appropriate sensitivity. This situation is
altogether rather odd for a class of materials that might be considered central to a number of
high precision tasks.

13

Fig. 2.7. (a) Apparatus for the wax flow test of ADA 4
(b) Principle of the wax flow test of ADA 4

(b)
(a)

Fig. 2.8. Flow at 10 minutes of some representative

waxes according to ADA 4.

Fig. 2.9. Variation in flow (as in Fig. 3.2) with time for
various temperatures with an inlay wax. The
distortion due to the changing geometry is clear

In principle, it would be far better to determine the stress F on the test piece (F/A), observing
the rate of change of dimension as a function of temperature. Flow rate would then be
expressed in terms analogous to a viscosity. Thus, the strain rate would be given by:
(3.1)

where L is the original length and t the time taken. Then the flow modulus, D, would be
given by:
(3.2)

14

3.1. Stokes Law

Fig. 2.10. Some experimental results for the falling ball apparent viscosity of a baseplate wax.

An alternative approach which has the advantage of more constant conditions is the falling
ball test derived from Stokes Law. This gives an apparent viscosity, a , taking the view that
the long chain molecules of the wax constituents are somewhat similar to low polymers.
Rearrangement, supplying a constant of proportionality, and taking logs, yields the following
expression:
(3.2)

A where T is the absolute temperature, R is the gas constant( 8.3145 J.K-1.mol-1 ), and E is the
apparent activation energy for the flow. Thus, plotting ln(a/T) vs. 1/T gives a straight line of
slope E/R. Some examples are shown in Fig. 2.10. This provides a very sensitive test and
reveals that the viscosity of waxes changes steadily with temperature, quite unlike the
impression gained from plots such as those in Fig. 2.8. One consequence of this view is that
there is no safe temperature, below which deformation may be ignored. Under load, waxes
deform continuously no matter what the temperature. There is in fact no evidence of a true
yield point. This is not unreasonable given that T/T m > 0.90 for a 50 C m.p. material at 20 C,
especially since lower m.p. solids will be present anyway, and some liquid. A low load for a
long time will result in distortion that could be significant as detrimental to the fit of a casting
or denture base, or the accuracy of a bite registration. A further point to be seen illustrated in
Fig. 2.10. is the stress-dependency of the viscosity: the higher load giving the lower viscosity.
Waxes are therefore probably best described as pseudoplastic.
A number of other rheological behaviours are also exhibited by waxes. They do, for example,
show marked viscoelasticity, so that in addition to showing Hookean and Newtonian
compliances the retarded compliance component can be very strong. Thus, the attempts at
the determination of a static (Young) modulus of elasticity (Fig. 2.6.) will show results that are
strain-rate dependent, as the relaxation times of the various molecular rearrangements must
be taken into account. These are also strongly temperature-dependent. In fact, the chemical
15

similarity of waxes to polymers in general means that many of the remarks made there are
directly applicable to waxes. Thus, the interrelationships of temperature, strain rate,
plasticizers (for such are many additives in effect) and modulus of elasticity, as well as the
interpretation and existence of glass and other transition temperatures in terms of molecular
movements, are applicable here also.
3.2. Residual stress
Even so, one particular manifestation of the viscoelasticity of waxes is of great importance:
that of warpage due to residual stresses (although this effect is not restricted to this class of
material). That is, after moulding has been completed, and the pattern or impression is
considered finished, some slow deformation occurs even in the absence of external stresses
or elevated temperatures. To explain this we refer to the model of viscoelasticity.

Fig. 2.11. Variation in apparent thermal expansion due to strain relief on warming for a typical wax.

If a stress is applied to such a body, then the primary response we expect to see is the gross
flow which corresponds to the moulding process that is the intention. However,
simultaneously, some strain energy is being stored in that part of the system that corresponds
to the Kelvin-Voigt behavioural element, the retarded compliance component, i.e. some form
of molecular deformation. At the usual moulding temperatures, that is, somewhat elevated
above room temperature, the component elastic moduli and viscosities are all lowered.
Deformation is easy, so that the stresses imposed during moulding tend to be relaxed quite
quickly. However, this process slows down markedly as the wax cools, and this it must be
doing continuously during the moulding. The Hookean elastic recovery (which is very small)
of course occurs immediately on removing the stress (a finger), while recovery of the
retarded elastic deformation is not. But because the wax has now cooled, both the elastic
moduli and viscosities again have high values. Even so, the remaining stored energy is
unaffected - it is still stored. The rate of relaxation is thus low, but the driving force is
undiminished. Room temperature may, for some waxes, be sufficiently low in comparison
with the moulding temperature that no observable change will occur on ordinary timescales
(say, up to a few hours), but equally for other waxes this may not be true and relaxation
deformation will occur before an investment or model can be cast. Worse, should the wax be
16

warmed in the meantime, such as by being left in the sun or too close to a bench light, or even
during the investment process by the heat of the setting reaction or immersion water bath,
the recovery will occur much more quickly, potentially with critical effect: failure of the
device to fit.
Nevertheless, the longer the wax pattern is left before being invested, the greater the
distortion that must result. In common, then, with most other impression or pattern
materials, the next stage (such as pouring a model) should be done promptly to minimize the
effects of such distortion. For safety, probably not more than about 30 min should be allowed
before pouring such models or investments. A simple demonstration is possible: bend a stick
of inlay wax when it is just warm enough to bend slowly, chill in cold water while under stress
(i.e. still being bent), then float the piece on warm water. The bend will be seen to recover,
straightening the stick. This demonstration is obvious, but the damage done in practice will
not be visible to the eye; yet it will be great enough to be detrimental. Residual strains also
affect the apparent thermal expansion, as this represents a strain also (i.e. a change in
dimension), and the two will be additive. That is, any residual strain from compression will
result in exaggerated thermal expansion as the compressive strain is relieved, while tensile
strain may reduce or even reverse the dimensional change on warming (Fig. 2.11.). The
complications these provide for casting accuracy are clear. The complementary tension and
compression effects at right angles, no matter what the imposed load, means that these effects
are always anisotropic. While annealing can remove these effects, the strain relief this allows
causes dimensional changes anyway.
3.3. DUCTILITY
Like flow, ductility increases as the temperature of a wax specimen is increased. In general,
waxes with lower melting temperatures have a greater ductility at any given temperature
than those with higher melting temperatures.
The ductility of a blended wax is greatly influenced by the distribution of the melting
temperatures of the component waxes. A blended wax with components that have wide
melting ranges generally has greater ductility than blended waxes that have a narrow range.
Whenever a wide range of melting temperatures is present, the softening point of the lowest
component is approached first. A further temperature rise begins to liquefy this component
and approach still closer to the softening points of the higher-softening point components.
This tends to plasticize the entire wax mass, thereby enhancing ductility.
Generally, highly refined waxes are quite brittle. The lower-melting point, microcrystalline
mineral waxes, which contain appreciable amounts of occluded oil, are moderately soft and
exhibit a high degree of plasticity or ductility, even with their comparatively high melting
temperatures.

17

III. Dental Wax Classification

A variety of natural waxes and resins have been used in dentistry for specific and well-defined
applications. In some instances, the most favorable qualities can be obtained from a single
wax, such as beeswax, but more often a blend of several waxes is necessary to develop the
most desirable qualities.
Table 3.1. Classification Dental Wax in Dentistry
Gen. Class of
Dental Wax

Dental Name :

Inlay Wax

PATTERN

General
Application :

General
Form :

General
Color :

Type A (Hard)

Direct patterns in
the mouth

Stick, Cones

Blue, Green,
Purple

Type B (Medium)
- Type I (Hard)

Indirect patterns on
dies

Stick, Cones,
Other

Type C (Soft)
- Type II (Reguler)

Acrylic buildups,
clasps, bars,etc

Casting Wax

Blue, Pink,
White

Type I (Soft)

Impression in cool
climates

Sheets

Pink

Type II (Hard)

Impression in warm
climates

Type III (Extra Hard)

Impression in hot
climates

Boxing Wax

Denture Master
Casts, Impression
tray border

Sheets, ropes

Green, Black

Utility Wax

Impression tray
border

Ropes

Orange, Dark
Red

Sticky Wax

Sprues, wax
connections

Sticks

Dark colors

Corrective Wax

Edentulous
Impression

Sheets, sticks

Orange,
White, Green

Biteplate Wax

Occlussal
Registration

Baseplate Wax

PROCESSING

ADA Specification
Name :

IMPRESSION

A classification of dental waxes according to their use and application is given in Table 3.1.
Pattern waxes are used to form the general predetermined size and contour of an artificial
dental restoration, which is to be constructed of a more durable material such as cast gold
alloys, cobalt-chromium-nickel alloys, or acrylic resin. All pattern waxes have two major
qualities, thermal change in dimension and tendency to warp or distort on standing, which
create serious problems in their use whether an inlay pattern, crown, or complete denture is
being constructed.

18

Processing waxes are used primarily as auxiliary aids in constructing a variety of restorations
and appliances, either clinically or in the laboratory. Processing waxes perform numerous
tasks that simplify many dental procedures in such operations as denture construction or
soldering.
One of the oldest recorded uses of wax in dentistry is for taking impressions within the
mouth. Because a wax formulated for use as an impression material exhibits high flow and
ductility, it distorts readily when withdrawn from undercut areas. Therefore, the use of wax
has been limited to the non-undercut edentulous portions of the mouth. Recently, specially
formulated addition-silicone and polyether impression materials have replaced wax as a bite
registration material.
3.1. INLAY PATTERN WAX
Gold inlays, crowns, and bridge units are formed by a casting process that uses the lost-wax
pattern technique. A pattern of wax is first constructed that duplicates the shape and contour
of the desired gold casting. The carved wax pattern is then embedded in a gypsum-silica
investment material to form a mold with an ingate or sprue leading from the outer surface of
the investment mold to the pattern. The wax is subsequently eliminated by heating and
softening, and the mold is further conditioned to receive the molten gold by controlled
heating in a furnace.

Fig. 3.1. Product and application in dentistry of Inlay dental wax

3.1.1. Composition of Inlay Wax

The principal waxes used to formulate inlay waxes are paraffin, microcrystalline wax, ceresin,
carnauba, candelilla, and beeswax. For example, an inlay wax may contain 60% paraffin, 25%
carnauba, 10% ceresin, and 5% beeswax. Therefore, hydrocarbon waxes constitute the major
portion of this formulation.

19

Some inlay waxes are described as hard, regular (medium), or soft, which is a general
indication of their flow. The flow can be reduced by adding more carnauba wax or by
selecting a higher-melting-point paraffin wax. An interesting example is that a hard inlay wax
may contain a lower percentage of carnauba wax than a regular inlay wax, but the flow of the
hard inlay wax is less than the regular wax because of the selection of a higher-melting-point
paraffin in the formulation of the hard wax. Resins in small amounts, such as 1%, also affect
the flow of inlay waxes.
Inlay waxes are usually produced in deep blue, green, or purple rods or sticks about 7.5 cm
long and 0.64 cm in diameter. Some manufacturers supply the wax in the form of small pellets
or cones or in small, metal ointment jars.
3.1.2. Properties of Inlay Wax
The accuracy and ultimate usefulness of the resulting gold casting depend largely on the
accuracy and fine detail of the wax pattern. A wax that is able to function well in the gold
casting technique must possess certain, very important physical properties.
Revised ANSI/ADA Specification No. 4 (IS0 1561:1999) for dental inlay casting wax has been
formulated for waxes used in direct and indirect waxing techniques. A summary of flow
requirements of this specification is given in Table 3.2. Because the wax patterns are to be
melted and vaporized from the investment mold, it is essential that no excessive residue
remain in the mold because of incomplete wax burnout. Excess residue may result in the
incomplete casting of inlay margins. The specification therefore limits the nonvolatile residue
of these waxes to a maximum of 0.10% at an ignition temperature of 700C.
Table 3.2. Flow Requirements for Dental Inlay Casting Wax
Wax Temperature
30C
Maximum
%

37C
Maximum
%

40C
Minimum Maximum
%
%

45C
Minimum Maximum
%
%

Type 1 (soft)

1.0

50

70

90

Type 2 (hard)

1.0

20

70

90

Adapted from Dental casting wax ISO 1561:1999(E).

Types 1 (soft) and 2 (hard) dental inlay casting waxes are recognized by Revised ANSI/ADA
Specification No. 4. Type 1 wax is a soft wax used as an indirect technique wax. Type 2 wax is
a harder wax prescribed for forming direct patterns in the mouth, where lower flow values at
37C tend to minimize any tendency for distortion of the pattern on its removal from the
cavity preparation. Type 1 wax shows greater flow than Type 2 wax at temperatures both
below and above mouth temperature. The lower flow of Type 2 wax and the greater ease of
carving the softer Type 1 waxes are desirable working characteristics for the techniques
associated with each.
The specification also requires the manufacturers to include instructions regarding the
method of softening and the working temperature for the wax preparatory to forming a
20

directpattern. Both types should soften without becoming flaky, and when trimmed to a fine
margin during the pattern-carving operation, they should not chip or flake. Thermal
expansion data for the Type 2 wax are no longer required by the specification.
3.1.3. Flow of Inlay Wax
When forming a wax pattern directly in the mouth, the wax must be heated to a temperature
at which it has sufficient flow under compression to reproduce the prepared cavity walls in
great detail. The working temperature, suggested by the manufacturer, which should be
satisfactory for making direct wax patterns, must not be so high as to cause damage to the
vital tooth structure or be uncomfortable to the patient. Insufficient flow of the wax caused by
insufficient heating results in the lack of cavity detail and introduces excess stress within the
pattern. An overabundant amount of flow resulting from excessive heating makes
compression of the wax difficult because of a lack of "body" in the material.
The values listed in Table 3.2. represent minimum or maximum values of percent flow that
occur at various temperatures when Types 1 and 2 wax specimens are subjected to a 19.6 N
load for 10 minutes. The temperature that the Type 2 wax must attain to register cavity detail
is usually somewhat above 45C. As seen from these values, the flow of the hard wax is no
more than 1% at body temperature. The flow of the Type 1 wax is about 9% at this
temperature. Low flow at this temperature tends to minimize distortion of a well-carved
pattern as it is withdrawn from an adequately tapered cavity in the tooth.
3.1.4. Thermal Coefficient of Expansion of Inlay Wax
The curve in Fig. 3.2. shows that the rate of
expansion of the Type 1 inlay wax is greatest from
just below mouth temperature to just above 45C.
Knowing the amount of wax expansion or
contraction allows one to judge the compensation
necessary to produce an accurate casting. Data
sufficient to show the thermal contraction of the
wax from its working temperature to room
temperature may be included in each package of
inlay wax. Once the wax pattern is carved, its
removal from the tooth cavity and transfer to the
laboratory bring about a reduction in tempera ure
and subsequent thermal contraction. A decrease of
12 to 13C in temperature, from mouth
temperature to a room temperature of about 24C,
causes a 0.4% linear contraction of the wax, or
about 0.04% change for each degree change in
temperature.
Fig. 3.2. Percent expansion of inlay and casting
waxes from 20 to 50C, showing the
percent dimensional change from mouth
temperature to average room temperature

21

3.1.5. Warpage of Wax Patterns

Inlay pattern wax has a high coefficient of expansion and tends to warp or distort when
allowed to stand unrestrained. The distortion is increased generally as the temperature and
time of storage are increased. This quality of wax patterns is related to the release of residual
stress developed in the pattern during the process of formation. This characteristic of stress
release and warpage is present in all dental waxes, but is particularly troublesome in inlay
patterns because of the critical dimensional relations that must be maintained in inlay
castings.
Because warpage of the pattern is related to the temperature during pattern formation and
storage, the rules related to the pattern temperature must be understood. In general, the
higher the temperature of the wax at the time the pattern was adapted and shaped, the less
the tendency for distortion in the prepared pattern. This is reasonable, because the residual
stress in the pattern causing the distortion is associated with the forces necessary to shape
the wax originally. The incorporation of residual stress can be minimized by softening a wax
uniformly by heating at 100C for at least 15 minutes before use, by using warmed carving
instruments and a warmed die, and by adding wax to the die in small amounts. Also
annealing wax at 50C for 24 hours has the effect of increasing the resistance of the wax to
penetration and distortion (Powers and Craig, 1974).
Because the release of internal stress and subsequent warpage are associated with the
storage temperature, it follows that greater warpage results at higher storage temperatures.
Lower temperature does not completely prevent distortion, but generally the amount is
reduced when the storage temperature is kept to a minimum. If inlay wax patterns must be
allowed to stand uninvested for a time longer than 30 minutes, they should be kept in a
refrigerator. Although some distortion may take place at this temperature, it will be less than
at normal room temperature. Such a practice of storage for long periods is not recommended
if freedom from warpage is desired. The best way to minimize the warpage of inlay wax
patterns is to invest the pattern immediately after it is completely shaped. A refrigerated wax
pattern should be allowed to warm to room temperature before it is invested. During spruing,
distortion can be reduced by use of a solid wax sprue or a hollow metal sprue filled with
sticky wax. If the pattern was stored, the margins should be readapted. Temperature of
formation, time and condition of storage, and promptness of investing the pattern are major
factors related to all techniques of pattern formation.
3.2. CASTING WAX
The pattern for the metallic framework of removable partial dentures and other similar
structures is fabricated from casting waxes. These waxes are available in the form of sheets,
usually of 28- and 30-gauge (0.40 and 0.32 mm) thickness, ready-made shapes, and in bulk.
As shown in Fig. 3.3., the ready-made shapes are supplied as round, half-round, and half-pearshaped rods and wires of various gauges in approximately 10-cm lengths. Although casting
waxes serve the same basic purpose as inlay waxes in the formation of patterns for metallic
castings, their physical properties differ slightly. Little is known of the exact composition of
these sheet and shaped waxes, but they include ingredients similar to those found in inlay
22

waxes, with various combinations and proportions of paraffin, ceresin, beeswax, resins, and
other waxes being used.
The casting wax sheets are used to establish minimum thickness in certain areas of the partial
denture framework, such as the palatal and lingual bar, and to produce the desired contour of
the lingual bar. A partial denture framework in the process of being waxed is shown in the
below of Fig. 3.3. The physical nature and form in which the sheet casting wax is supplied
resulted in its use for post damming of complete maxillary denture impressions, checking
high points of articulation, producing wax bites of cusp tips for the articulation of stone casts,
and many other uses.

Fig. 3.3. Products and application in dentistry of Dental Casting Wax

3.2.1. Physical Characteristics of Casting Wax

The casting sheets and ready-made shapes of certain types of casting waxes may possess a
slight degree of tackiness, which helps to maintain their position on the cast and on each
other during assembly of the pattern. This tackiness is not sufficient to prevent changes in
position from being made with relative ease, and when the waxes are in final position, they
are sealed to the investment cast with a hot spatula.
There is no ANSI/ADA specification for these casting waxes, but a federal specification has
been formulated that includes values for softening temperature, amount of flow at various
temperatures, general working qualities, and other characteristics. A summary of the
23

properties included in Federal Specification No. U-W-140 is given in Table 3.3. In general, the
characteristics most desired include a certain degree of toughness and strength, with a true
gauge dimension, combined with a minimum of dimensional change with change in
temperature, and the ability to be vaporized completely from the investment mold.
Table 3.3. Requirements Federal Specification for Dental Casting Wax
Type of Wax
Casting wax
Class A - 28-gauge, pink

Flow
35C-maximum, 10%

Breaking Point
No fracture at
23 C 1

38 C-minimum, 60%

Working Properties
Pliable and readily
adaptable at 40 to 45 C
Copies accurately surface
against which it is pressed

Class B - 30-gauge, green

Will not be brittle on

cooling

Class C - ready-made
shapes, blue

Vaporizes at 500 C, leaving

no film other than carbon

Adapted from Federal Specitication No. U-W-140, March 1948, for casting wax

Because the pattern for the removable partial denture framework is constructed on and
sealed to an investment cast (from which it is not separated subsequently) at room
temperature, there is little need for the casting wax to exhibit low flow at body temperature.
The flow characteristics of the casting wax, when measured similarly to the inlay wax, show a
maximum of 10% flow at 35 C and a minimum of 60% flow at 38 C. These characteristics
are significantly different from the flow values for inlay waxes that comply with the
requirements of ANSI/ADA Specification No. 4.
The requirement for ductility of the casting waxes is high. The federal specification requires
that the casting wax be bent double on itself without fracture at a temperature of 23 C and
that the waxes be pliable and readily adaptable at 40 to 45 C. Heating over a flame and the
compression to adapt either the ready-made shapes or the sheet casting wax easily may alter
their thickness and contour because of their relatively high ductility and flow.
Because these materials are casting pattern waxes for partial denture cast restorations, as is
the inlay wax, they too must vaporize at about 500 C with no residue other than carbon. The
mold cavity thus produced will result in more desirable casting surfaces, because it will be
free of foreign materials. Pattern waxes are being replaced to some extent by preformed
plastic patterns.
3.3. BASEPLATE WAX
Baseplate wax derives its name from its use on the baseplate tray to establish the vertical
dimension, plane of occlusion, and initial arch form in the technique for the complete denture
restoration. This wax also may be used to form all or a portion of the tray itself. The normally
pink color provides some esthetic quality for the initial stage of construction of the denture
before processing.
Baseplate wax is the material used to produce the desired contour of the denture after teeth
are set in position. As a result, the contour wax establishes the pattern for the final plastic
24

denture. Patterns for orthodontic appliances and prostheses other than complete dentures,
which are to be constructed of plastics, also are made of baseplate wax. Although these are
the primary functions of baseplate wax, it has also been widely used in many phases of
dentistry to check the various articulating relations in the mouth and to transfer them to
mechanical articulators.

Fig. 3.4. Products and application in dentistry of Baseplate Wax

3.3.1. Composition of Baseplate Wax

A few formulas are found in the literature for baseplate wax. Baseplate waxes may contain
70% to 80% paraffin-based waxes or commercial ceresin, with small quantities of other
waxes, resins, and additives to develop the specific qualities desired in the wax. A typical
composition might include 80% ceresin, 12% beeswax, 2.5% carnauba, 3% natural or
synthetic resins, and 2.5% microcrystalline or synthetic waxes. Differential thermal analysis
and penetration curves of a typical baseplate wax are shown in Fig. 3.5.
Fig. 3.5. Differential thermal analysis and
penetration curves for dental
baseplate and sticky waxes. The
stresses for TMA-1 and TMA-2 are
0.015 and 0.25 MPa, respectively.

25

3.3.2. Physical Characteristics of Baseplate Wax

Baseplate waxes are normally supplied in sheets 7.60 x 15.00 x 0.13 cm in pink or red. The
manufacturer usually formulates two types of wax to accommodate the varying climates in
which they will be used, because the flow of the wax is influenced greatly by the temperature.
The requirements for dental baseplate wax are listed in Table 3.4., which summarizes
ANSI/ADA Specification No. 24 (IS0 12163). Three types of wax are included: Type 1 is a soft
wax for building contours and veneers, Type 2 is a hard wax to be used for patterns to be
tried in the mouth in temperate climates, and Type 3 is an extra-hard wax for patterns to be
tried in the mouth in tropical weather. The flow values are listed for 23, 37, and 45 C when
they are applicable. The maximum flow allowed at any given temperature decreases rapidly
from Type 1 to Type 3. The flow requirements of Type 3 baseplate wax are comparable to
those of the Type 2 (hard) inlay wax, with less flow allowed for the baseplate wax at 45 C.
Table 3.4. Requirements for Dental Baseplate Wax
Flow ( % )

Temperature
( C )
Type 1 Soft, building
contours and veneers

Type 2 Hard, patterns in

mouth, temperate
weather
Type 3 Extra Hard, patterns
in mouth, hot
weather

Minimum

Maximum

23

1.0

37

5.0

90

45

23

0.6

37

10.0

45

50.0

90

23

0.2

37

1.2

45

5.0

50.0

Practical Requirements
Softened sheets shall cohere
readily without becoming
flaky or adhering to fingers
No irritation of oral tissues
Trim easily with a sharp
instrument at 23C
Smooth glossy surface after
gentle flaming
No residue on porcelain or
plastic teeth
Coloring shall not separate or
impregnate plaster during
processing
No adhesion to other sheets
of wax or separating papaer
on storage

Adapted from ISO 12163:1999.

Because baseplate wax is used both to set denture teeth and to adapt around these teeth to
develop proper contour, the dimensional changes that may take place because of variations in
temperature are important. Although the need for dimensional stability is not as critical as
with the inlay wax, the maintenance of good tooth relationship is important. Although no
shrinkage value from a molten state to room temperature is required by the specification, the
linear thermal expansion from 26 to 40 C should be less than 0.8%.
A summary of practical requirements is also given in Table 3.4. Baseplate waxes should be
easily trimmed with a sharp instrument at 23 C and should yield a smooth surface after
gentle flaming. These waxes should not leave any residue on porcelain or plastic teeth, and

26

the coloring agents in the wax should not separate or impregnate the plastic mold during
processing.
There is residual stress within the baseplate wax that holds and surrounds the teeth of a wax
denture pattern. This stress results from differential cooling, "pooling" the wax with a hot
spatula, and physically manipulating the wax below its most desirable working temperature.
Remember that both time and temperature affect the relief of these residual stresses, the
waxed and properly articulated denture should not be allowed to stand for long periods of
time, especially when subjected to elevated temperatures. Such treatment often results in
distortion of the wax and movement of the teeth. The waxed denture should be flasked soon
after completion to maintain the greatest accuracy of tooth relations.
3.4. BOXING WAX
To form a plaster or stone cast from an impression of the edentulous arch, first a wax box
must be formed around the impression, into which the freshly mixed plaster or stone is
poured and vibrated. This boxing procedure is also necessary for some other types of
impressions. The boxing operation usually consists of first adapting a long, narrow stick or
strip of wax around the impression below its peripheral height, followed by a wide strip of
wax, producing a form around the entire impression, as seen in the right of Fig. 3.6.

Use to form a plaster or stone cast from an

impression of the edentulous arch
Fig. 3.6. Products and application in dentistry of Boxing Wax

The dental literature occasionally refers to carding wax for use in the boxing operation.
Carding wax was the original material on which porcelain teeth were fixed when received
from the manufacturer. The terms carding wax and boxing wax have been used
interchangeably, although boxing wax is more acceptable.
The requirements of Federal Specification No. U-W-138 for boxing wax, which are
summarized in Table 3.5., sipulate that this wax should be pliable at 21 C and should retain
its shape at 35 C. This broadly defines its lower temperature limit of ductility and flow.
Because the impression may be made from a viscoelastic material that is easily distorted, a
boxing wax that is readily adaptable to the impression at room temperature is desirable. This
property reduces the likelihood of distorting the impression, from the standpoint of both the
temperature and stress involved in the boxing procedures. In general, boxing wax should be
slightly tacky and have sufficient strength and toughness for convenient manipulation.
27

3.5. UTILITY WAX

An easily workable, adhesive wax is often desired. For example, a standard perforated tray for
use with hydrocolloids may easily be brought to a more desirable contour by such a wax, as
shown in the view of Fig. 3.7. This is done to prevent a sag and distortion of the impression
material. A soft, pliable, adhesive wax may be used on the lingual portion of a bridge pontic to
stabilize it while a labial plaster splint is poured. These and many other tasks are performed
by the utility wax, justifying its name.

It can be used to alter the stock

of impression tray extensions

Fig. 3.7. Products and application in dentistry of Utility Wax

The utility wax is usually supplied in both stick and sheet form in dark red or orange. The
ductility and flow of utility waxes, as indicated by the summarized requirements of Federal
Specification No. U-W-156 in Table 3.5., are the highest of any of the dental waxes. The utility
wax should be pliable at a temperature of 21 to 24 C, which makes it workable and easily
adaptable at normal room temperature. The flow of this wax should not be less than 65% nor
more than 80% at 37.5 C. Because building one layer on top of another is often desirable, the
specification requires a sufficient adhesiveness at 21 to 24 C. Utility wax probably consists
of beeswax, petrolatum, and other soft waxes in varying proportions.
3.6. STlCKY WAX
A suitable sticky wax for prosthetic dentistry is formulated from a mixture of waxes and
resins or other additive ingredients. Such a material is sticky when melted and adheres
closely to the surfaces on which it is applied. However, at room temperature the wax is firm,
free from tackiness, and brittle. Sticky wax should fracture rather than flow if it is deformed
during soldering or repair procedures. Although this wax is used to assemble metallic or resin
pieces in a fixed temporary position, it is primarily used on dental stones and plasters.
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According to Federal Specification No. U-W-00149a (DSA-DM), sticky wax should have a dark
or vivid color so it is readily distinguishable from the light-colored gypsum materials. The
specification, summarized in Table 3.5., also limits the shrinkage of sticky wax to 0.5% at
temperatures between 43 and 28 C.
Table 3.5. Requirements Federal Specification for Dental Casting Wax
Type of Wax

Flow

Boxing Wax

Utility Wax

37.5 C - minimum, 65%

- maximum, 80%

Sticky Wax

30 C - minimum, 65%
43 C - maximum, 90%

Color

Working Properties

Green or black

Smooth, glossy surface on

flaming
Pliable at 21 C; retains shape
at 35 C
Seals easily to plaster with hot
spatula

Orange or dark red

Pliable at 21 to 24 C
Tacky at 21 to 24 C; sufficient
adhesion to build up
Sticky when melted
Adheres closely
Not more than 0.2% residue on
burnout
Not more than 0.5% shrinkage
from 43 to 28 C

Dark or vivid

Adapted from Federal Specification No. U-W-138, May 1947, for boxing wax; Federal Specification U-W-156, August
1948, for utility wax; Federal Specification U-W-00149a (DSA-DM), September 1966, for sticky wax

Seating of the framework on the cast

Crown try-in on prepared molar teeth

Fig. 3.8. Products and applications of Sticky Wax

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The literature contains several formulas for sticky wax, representing both a high and a low
resin content. In addition to rosin and yellow beeswax, which are the usual major
constituents, coloring matter and other natural resins such as gum dammar may be present.
Differential thermal analysis and penetration curves for a typical dental sticky wax are shown
in Fig. 3.5.
3.7. CORRECTIVE IMPRESSION WAX
Corrective impression wax is used as a wax veneer over an original impression to contact and
register the detail of the soft tissues. It is claimed that this type of impression material records
the mucous membrane and underlying tissues in a functional state in which movable tissue is
displaced to such a degree that functional contact with the base of the denture is obtained.
Fig. 3.9.

Differential thermal analysis and penetration

curves for a dental corrective impression
wax. The stresses for TMA-1 and TMA-2 are
0.015 and 0.25 MPa, respectively. Observe
that the solid-solid transition temperature
occurs below 37" C

Corrective waxes are formulated from hydrocarbon waxes such as paraffin, ceresin, and
beeswax and may contain metal particles. There are no ANSI/ADA or federal specifications
for corrective impression waxes. The flow of several corrective waxes measured by
penetration at 37C is 100%. Differential thermal analysis and penetration curves for a typical
corrective impression wax are shown in Fig. 3.10. These waxes are subject to distortion
during removal from the mouth.

Fig. 3.10. Products of Corrective Impression Wax

3.8. BITE REGISTRATION WAX

Bite registration wax is used to accurately articulate certain models of opposing quadrants.
The wax bite registration for the copper-formed die must provide proximal and occlusal
relations.
30

Bite registrations are often made from 28- gauge casting wax sheets or from hard baseplate
wax, but waxes identified as bite waxes seem to be formulated from beeswax or hydrocarbon
waxes such as paraffin or ceresin. Certain bite waxes contain aluminum or copper particles.
There are no ADA or federal specifications for bite waxes. The flow of several bite waxes as
measured by penetration at 37 C ranges from 2.5% to 22%, indicating that these waxes are
susceptible to distortion on removal from the mouth

Fig. 3.11. Products and application in dentistry of Bite Registration Wax

IV. Bibliography
1. Craig, R.G., Powers, J.M., Restorative Dental Materials, ed. 11, London, 2002, Mosby, Inc.
2. McCabe, J.F., Walls, A.W.G., Applied Dental Material, ed. 9, Oxford, 2008, Blackwell
Publishing.
3. Darvell, B.W., Materials Science for Dentistry, ed. 9, Cambridge, 2009, Woodhead Publishing.
4. Powers J.M., Craig R.G., Thermal analysis of dental impression waxes, J Dent Res , 1996.
57:37, 1978.

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