SUBMITTED BY :SOJIL JAIN

Mechanical properties of soil are not adequate.

Swelling and shrinkage
Collapsible soils
Soft soils
Organic soils and peaty soil
Sands and gravelly deposits, karst deposits with sinkhole
formations
Foundations on dumps and sanitary landfills
Handling hazardous materials in contact with soil.
Use of old mine pits

Ground Improvement refers to a technique that improves

the engineering properties of the soil mass treated.
Usually, the properties that are modified are shear
strength, stiffness and permeability. Ground improvement
has developed into a sophisticated tool to support
foundations for a wide variety of structures. Properly
applied, i.e. after giving due consideration to the nature of
the ground being improved and the type and sensitivity of
the structures being built, ground improvement often
reduces direct costs and saves time.

GROUND
IMPROVEMEN
T
TECHNIQUES

MECHANICAL
MODIFICATION

HYDRAULIC
MODIFICATION

PHYSICAL &
CHEMICAL
MODIFICATION

MODIFICATION
BY INCLUSIONS
&
CONFINEMENT

The choice of a method of ground improvement for a particular object

will depend on the following factors.
Type and degree of improvement required
Type of soil , geological structure, seepage conditions
Cost
Availability of equipment and materials and the quality of work
required
Construction time available
Possible damage to adjacent structures or pollution of ground water
resources
Durability of material involved ( as related to the expected life of
structure for a given environmental and stress conditions)
Toxicity or corrosivity of any chemical additives .
Reliability of method of analysis and design.
Feasibility of construction control and performance measurements

NOTE : If soil is moist, freezing is applicable to all type of soil.

 Increase shear strength.

Reduce compressibility.
Increase Bearing Capacity.
Reduce Settlement.
Reduce permeability.
Reduce liquefaction potential.
Control of swelling and shrinking.
Prolong durability.

Soil density is increased by the application of mechanical

force, including compaction of surface layers by static
vibratory such
as compact roller and plate vibrators.
TYPES OF
COMPACTIO
N

SHALLOW
SURFACE
COMPACTIO
N

DEEP
SURFACE
COMPACTIO
N

SHALLOW SURFACE COMPACTION

Achieved by static pressure and or dynamic pressure caused by
rollers , impact or vibration.

STATIC ROLLERS

IMPACT OR VIBRATORY
EQUIPMENTS

Smooth steel rollers

Pneumatic tired rollers
Sheepfoot rollers
Grid rollers

Tamper or rammers
Plate compacters
Vibrating rollers
Impact rollers

S.NO.

EQUIPMENTS

MOST SUITABLE SOIL

Smooth wheel roller

Well graded sand, gravel

mixtures, asphalt

Rubber tired rollers

Coarse grained soils with

fines

Sheepfoot rollers

Clayey soil

Grid rollers

Weathered rock well graded

coarse soils

Vibrating plate

Course grained soils 4 to 8%

fines

Tamper and rammers

All type

Impact roller

Wide range of moist and

saturated soil

2-3 smooth metal rollers

useful in compacting base layers and paving mixtures
also used to provide a smooth finished grade
generally are self-propelled, i.e. has an engine
compaction is provided by the weight of the machine

TAMPER :
Tampers are devised that compact soil by delivering a
succession of light, vertical blows
They are held in place and operated by hand
Tampers are powered pneumatically (compressed air) or by
gasoline engines
They are limited in scope and compacting ability - good for small
jobs and tight spaces
Layers are limited to 6" or 150mm with a tamper

 PRECOMPRESSION :
Pre loaded by means of a surcharge on the surface in an array of
Boreholes, causing a ground to consolidate.

 Precompression is a process in which a soil mass to be used

as foundation bed is preloaded to improve its properties and
then design loads are applied. It is normally used in improving
properties of cohesive soils.

The preloading results settlement to soil before construction

process starts. Preloading is applied with a mass of earth fill
which is left above area for a long period. The period is
determined by the adequate settlement or desired settlement

Deep compaction Techniques:

EXPLOSION:
Explosives are detonated on the surface in an array of boreholes causing a
loose soil structure to collapse.

The explosive charges generally contain 30% gelatin dynamite of special types
having ammonite and 60% dynamite. Normally the charges place at 2/3 of the
thickness of required stratum to be densified for founding building structure.

The charges should be placed at (3-8) m interval and for a particular location 3-5
blasts are usually generated to have required compaction.
Now we will know the mechanism of compaction. This method of compaction is
suitable for cohesionless soil of fully saturated condition. Shock waves generated
by explosion results liquefaction to sand resulting a densification of the
surrounding depositions. But in case of partial saturated soil capillary action
obstruct the densification tendency by preventing soil particles to come close. So
this method is not useful for partial saturated soils.

Now we have to know the zone of influence of explosion densification. Up to 25m

depth is considered effective in blast operation. Uppermost soil up to 1 m depth is
displaced in random manner leading improper densification. This random
densified zone is compacted by usual compaction method (roller).

The following
influence(R):

expression

gives

an

idea

about

radius

Where
M=mass of explosive charges (kg)
C=constant (considered 0.04 in case of 60% dynamite)

of

 HEAVY TAMPING:
A large mass is dropped in to the ground surface, causing compaction and
possibly long term consolidation.

Soil densification by dynamic compaction (DC), also called "heavy

tamping" is a well-known compaction method. The method was
"rediscovered" by Menard, who transformed the crude tamping
method into a rational compaction procedure. Soil is compacted by
repeated, systematic application of high energy using a heavy weight
(pounder). The imparted energy is transmitted from the ground
surface to the deeper soil layers by propagating shear and
compression waves types, which force the soil particles into a denser
state. In order to assure effective transfer of the applied energy, a 1 to
2 m thick stiff layer usually covers the ground surface. Pounders can
be square or circular in shape and made of steel or concrete. Their
weights normally range from 5 to 25 tons and drop heights of up
to 25 m have been used. Heavier weights and larger drop heights
have been used for compaction of deep soil deposits, but are not
very common.

 VIBRATION PILES:
Densification is achieved by a vibratory probe or piles.

A loose soil or non-homogeneous granular fill can be compacted to

depth by the penetration of vibrating probes or vibroflots. The main
purpose of Vibrocompaction is to increase the density of the insitu
soils by vibration.

Hydraulic Modification:
Free pore water is forced out of soil via drains or wells.
Course grained soils; it is achieved by lowering the
ground water level through pumping from boreholes, or
trenches.
In fine grained soils the long term application of
external loads (preloading) or electrical forces
(electrometic stabilization)
Techniques involved in hydraulic modification are:
Sand drains
Dewatering by electro-osmosis
Well point drainage

SAND DRAINS
Sand drains is a process of radial consolidation which increase rate of
drainage in the rate of drainage in the embankment by driving a casing
into the embankment and making vertical bore holes. These holes is
back filled with suitable grade of sand.

Process of construction of drains

The driven casing is withdrawn after the sand has been filled. A sand
blanket is placed over the top of the sand drains to connect all the
sand drains. To accelerate the drainage, a surcharge load is placed on
the sand blanket. The surcharge is usually in the form of dumped soil.
Mechanism of consolidation
The pore water pressure is increased by the applied surcharge load in
the embankment. The drainage occur in the vertical and horizontal
directions. The horizontal drainage occure because of sand drains.
The sand drains accelerate the the process of dissipation of excess
pore water created by the surcharge.
Spacing of drains
The drains are generally laid either in a square pattern or a triangular
pattern. The spacing (s) of the drains is kept smaller than the thickness
of the embankment (2H) in order to reduce the length of the radial
drainage path.

Zone of influence

The zone of influence of each drain in a triangle pattern is hexagonal in

plan, which can be approximated by an equivalent circle of radius R,
where R = 0.525 S. In case of a square pattern, the radius of circle of
influence R is equal to 0.554 S. The radius of the sand drain is
represented by rw.

Dewatering by Electro-Osmosis :
Electro-Osmosis is a method of drainage of cohesive soils in which a
direct current is used. When a direct current Is passed through a
saturated soil between a positive electrode (anode) and a negative
electrode (cathode), pore water migrates to the cathode.
The cathode is a well point which collects the water drained from the soil.
The water collected is discharged, as in a conventional well point system.

The phenomenon of electro-osmosis can be explained with the help

of the electrical double layer. Cations are formed in pore water when
the dissolved minerals go into solution. These cations move towards
the negatively charged surface of clay minerals to satisfy the
electrical charge. As the water molecules acts as dipoles, the
cations also attract the negative end of dipoles. When the cations
move to the cathode, they take with them the attracted water
molecules.
In fact, the entire outer part of the diffuse double layer which is loosely
adsorbed to the soil particles gets sheared along a plane.

Anodes are in the form of steel rods located near the toe of the slope of
the excavation. Cathodes are in the form of perforated pipes, resembling
well points, installed in the soil mass about 4 to 5m away from the slope of
the cut.
The electrodes are so arranged that the natural direction of flow of water
is reversed and is directed away from excavation. This arrangement is
required to prevent sloughing of the slopes. In many cases, mere
reversing of the direction of flow helps in increasing the stability of the
slope even if there is no significant decrease in the water content of the
soil.
The system requires about 20 to 30 amperes of electricity per well at a
voltage of 40 to 180. The consumption of energy is between 0.5 to 10
kWh/m3 of soil drained. Because of specialised equipment and high
electricity consumption, drainage by electro-osmosis is expensive
compared with other methods. The drain water in a cohesive soil of low
permeability (k=1x10-5 to 1x10-8m/sec)
Electro-osmosis also helps in increasing the shear strength of the
cohesive soil.

Well point drainage

The wellpoint system is one of the most versatile of pre-drainage methods
which can pump a few gallons per minute in fine sandy silts or many
thousands of gallons per minute in coarse sands and gravels.

A wellpoint system consists of a number of wellpoints spaced along a

trench or around an excavation site, all connected to a common header,
which is attached to one or more wellpoint pumps.
Wellpoint systems are most suitable in shallow aquifers where the water
level needs to be lowered no more than 15 or 20 feet. Due to the
vacuum limitation of the pump, excavations that are deeper will require
multiple stages of wellpoint systems.
When designing a wellpoint system, it is necessary to give first
consideration to the physical conditions of the site to be dewatered.
Things to consider include:

The physical layout

Adjacent areas
Soil conditions
Permeability
The amount of water to be pumped
Depth to imperviousness
Stratification

Physical and chemical modification:

Stabilization by physical mixing adhesives with surface layers or
columns of soil.
Adhesive includes natural soils industrial byproducts or waste.
Materials or cementations or other chemicals which react with
each other and/or the ground.

When adhesives are injected via boreholes under pressure into voids
within the ground or between it and a structure the process
is called grouting.
Soil stabilization by heating and by freezing the ground is considered
thermal methods of modifications.

The physical properties of soils can often economically be improved

by the use of admixtures. Some of the more widely used admixtures
include lime, Portland cement and asphalt.

Soil-lime Stabilization
Lime stabilization improves the strength, stiffness and durability of fine
grained materials. In addition, lime is sometimes used to improve the
properties of the fine grained fraction of granular soils. Lime has been
used as a stabilizer for soils in the base courses of pavement systems,
under concrete foundations, on embankment slopes and canal linings.
Quicklime is the most commonly used lime; the followings are the
advantages of quicklime over hydrated lime
higher available free lime content per unit mass
denser than hydrated lime (less storage space is required) and
less dust
generates heat which accelerate strength gain and large reduction
in moisture content according to the reaction equation below

CaO+H2O

Ca(OH)2 + HEAT

Soil-Cement Stabilization:
Soil-cement is the reaction product of an intimate mixture of pulverized
soil and measured amounts of Portland cement and water, compacted to
high density. As the cement hydrates, the mixture becomes a hard,
durable structural material. Hardened soil-cement has the capacity to
bridge over local weak points in a sub grade. When properly made, it
does not soften when exposed to wetting and drying, or freezing and
thawing cycles.

Bituminous Soil Stabilization:

Bituminous materials such as asphalts, tars, and pitches are used in
various consistencies to improve the engineering properties of soils.
Mixed with cohesive soils, bituminous materials improve the bearing
capacity and soil strength at low moisture content. The purpose of
incorporating bitumen into such soils is to water proof them as a
means to maintain a low moisture content.

FlyAsh
Fly ash is a byproduct of coal fired electric power generation facilities;
it has little cementitious properties compared to lime and cement.
Most of the fly ashes belong to secondary binders; these binders
cannot produce the desired effect on their own. However, in the
presence of a small amount of activator, it can react chemically to
form cementitious compound that contributes to improved strength of
soft soil. Fly ashes are readily available, cheaper and environmental
friendly.

Blast Furnace Slags

These are the by-product in pig iron production. The chemical
compositions are similar to that of cement. It is however, not
cementitious compound by itself, but it possesses latent hydraulic
properties which upon addition of lime or alkaline material the
hydraulic properties can develop.

GROUTING
Among other technique of stabilization techniques, the grouting is one
of the most expensive methods where some kind of stabilizing agent
inserted into the soil mass under pressure. The pressure forces the
agent into the soil voids in a limited space around the injection tube.
The agent reacts with the soil and /or itself to form a stable mass. The
most common grout is an admixture of cement and water, with or
without sand.

The principle of grouting is to introduce a substance into rock fissures

or into soil by pumping fluid (called grout) down a small diameter tube
in the required location.

VARIOUS FUNCTIONS INVOLVED IN SOIL & ROCK GROUTING

The three basic functions involved in soil and rock grouting are as
follows:
Permeation or penetration
In this situation the grout flows freely with minimal effect into the soil
voids or rock seams.
Compaction or controlled displacement
In this case the grout remains more or less intact as a mass and exerts
pressure on the soil or rock.
Hydraulic fracturing or uncontrolled displacement
In this condition the grout rapidly penetrates into a fractured zone
which is created when the grouting pressure is greater than the tensile
strength of the soil or rock being grouted.

It has a large number of applications such as:

Control of water problems by filling cracks and pores.
Prevention of sand densification beneath adjacent structures due to
pile driving.
Underpinning using compaction (displacement) grouting.
Reducing vibrations by stiffening the soil.
Reducing settlements by filling voids and cementing the soil
structure more firmly.

Generally grout can be used if the permeability of the deposit is greater

than 10 -5 m/s. one of the principal precautions with grouting is that the
injection pressure should not be sufficient to lift the ground surface. In
using compaction grouting where a very stiff displacement volume is
injected into the ground under high pressure, however, lifting of the
ground surface as a grout lens forms is of minor consequence.

Modification by inclusions and confinement:

Reinforcement by fibers, strips bars meshes and fabrics imparts tensile
strength to a constructed soil mass.
In-situ reinforcement is achieved by nails and anchors. Stable earth
retaining stucture can also be formed by confining soil with
concrete, Steel, or fabric elements

Vibroflotation is a ground improvement technique used at considerable

depth that by using a powered electrically or hydraulically probe, it
strengthens the soil. The vibroflotation will compact the soil making it
suitable to support design loads. It involves the introduction of granular
soil to form interlocking columns with surrounding soil. The technique is
used to improve bearing capacity and reduce the possibility of
differential settlements that might be allowed for the proposed loads.

The vibroflot is inserted into the

ground and typically can be used to
improve soil up to depths of 150 feet.
Vibroflotation utilizes water and the
mechanical vibrations of the vibroflot
to move the particles into a denser
state. Typical radial distances
affected range from 5 to 15 feet .

The vibroflot is suspended from a crane and seats on the surface of the ground
that is to be improved. To penetrate the material, the bottom jet is activated and
the vibration begins.
The water saturates the material to create a quick sand condition (i.e.
temporarily liquefying the material), which allows the vibroflot to sink to the
desired depth of improvement.
At that point, the bottom jet is stopped and the water is transferred to the upper
jet. This is done to create a saturated environment surrounding the vibroflot,
thereby enhancing the compaction of the material.
The vibroflot remains at the desired depth of improvement until the material
reaches adequate density. The density of the soil is measured by using the
power input (via the electric current or hydraulic pressure) as an index. As the
material densifies, the vibroflot requires more power to continue vibrating at
which point an ammeter or pressure gauge displays a peak in required power.
Once this point is reached, the vibroflot is raised one lift (generally ranging from
1 to 3 feet) and compaction ensues until the peak amperage or hydraulic
pressure is reached once again. The peak power requirement can be correlated
to the density of the soil, so an accurate measurement of the in situ density can
be recorded

STEPS OF VIBRO-FLOTATION

ADVANTAGE OF VIBROFLOTATION
When the process is done properly, it will reduce the possibility of
differential settlements that will improve the foundation condition of
the proposed structure.
It is the fastest and easiest way to improve soil when bottom layers
of soil will not provide good load bearing capacity.
It is a great technology to improve harbor bottoms
It can be done around existing structures without damaging them .
It does not harm the environment
No excavations are needed, reducing the hazards, contamination of
soils and hauling material out from the site
No need to manage table water issues, neither the permits required
to manage water discharge and dewatering issues.
When vibroflotation is performed at a site, it will reduce the possibility
of liquefaction during an earthquake

Vibro Stone Columns are designed to improve the load bearing

capacity of insitu soils and fills and to reduce differential settlements
of non-homogeneous and compressible soils, allowing the use
of shallow footings and thinner base slabs.

Stone Columns are formed by inserting a vibrating probe to incorporate

granular aggregate into the ground via the resulting void. This is followed by the
re-compaction of granular aggregate. Both Top and Bottom feed techniques are
available, depending on the stability of the insitu soils and water level. The
Stone Columns are typically installed under uniformly loaded structures, such a
building slabs and embankments, on a regular grid spacing. A load transfer
platform can then be designed to spread the load from the structure to
the improved ground.
This technology is well suited for the improvement of soft soils such as
silty sand, silts, clays and non homogeneous fills. Due to their lack of lateral
confinement organic soils, peat and very soft clays are not suitable for this
method, and other ground improvement methods need to be considered.

METHODS OF STONE
COLUMN

WET/TOP
FEED
METHOD

DRY/BOTTO
M FEED
NETHOD

WET / TOP FEED METHOD

STEP 1 : Penetration of probe

STEP 2 : Backfilling of aggregate and compacting
STEP 3 : Consolidation of granular fill and finishing the column

DRY/BOTTOM FEED METHOD

STEP 1 : Penetration of probe

STEP 2 : Installation of aggregate through separate duct along
the vibro probe.
STEP 3 : Consolidation of granular fill and finishing the column

ADVANTAGE OF STONE COLUMN

Technically and potentially economical alternative for deep

compaction.
Alternative for dynamic compaction, deep blasting etc.
Quicker than preloading the site.
It increases the bearing capacity, reduces the settlement,
liquefaction potential.