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EFFECTS OF HEAT TREATMENT

ON CRUCIFEROUS VEGETABLES
FOS 4041

BRITTANIE SULLIVAN

MARCH 13, 2014


FOOD SCIENCE AND COMPOSITION
PROFESSOR SHANK

Introduction
There are many ways to cook vegetables and a wide variety of vegetables. People often
talk about the loss of nutrients when preparing vegetables in various cooked methods. The
vegetables of most concern to me are the ones that contain the most healthful components,
the cruciferous vegetables. My question I chose to research is will the phytochemicals and
nutrients in cruciferous vegetables differ when they are subjected to various cooking
methods? I want to begin by introducing what cruciferous vegetables are. This group of
vegetables are also termed the cabbage family of vegetables. These can include broccoli,
cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, kale, cabbage, bok choy, cauliflower, mustard greens, arugula,
watercress, radishes and so much more. The reason these are termed cruciferous vegetables is
from the Latin root word cruciferae which means cross bearing. The term refers to these
vegetables because the shape of the flowers from the plants resemble a cross with their four
petals.1 Usually, vegetables tend to be cooked when served with a meal but to reap the benefits
from all these amazing plants have to offer it would be best served fresh and in their natural
raw state. These plants have an abundance of health benefits and have been proven to fight
against cancer along with many other health conditions such as blood pressure, heart disease,
and diabetes.2
Phytochemicals
Cruciferous vegetables, also known as leafy greens, contain phytochemicals, vitamins,
minerals, and fiber which are vital to a healthy life. Phytochemicals are a class of compounds
that are made from plants which affect human health. They come from all sorts of plant based
foods such as fruits, vegetables, legumes, and grains and thousands of phytochemicals have
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been identified. Some common names phytochemicals are synonymous with include
antioxidants, flavonoids, flavanols, flavanones, isoflavones, catechins, anthocyanins,
anthocyanidins, isothiocyanates, carotenoids, polyphenols, phenolic acids, allyl sulfides, and
among many others. The more common phytochemical compounds include beta carotene,
ascorbic acid, vitamin E and folic acid. Phytochemicals can be classified into several major subgroups: polyphenols- flavonoids and antioxidants, carotenoids, and allyl sulfides. Most
importantly, cruciferous vegetables are high in antioxidants and carotenoids which are known
to rid the body of harmful substances called free radicals. These free radicals damage cell DNA
and trigger inflammation as well as cancer.3
Vegetable Analysis
The class of cruciferous vegetables contain roughly the same nutrients and
phytochemicals but they do differ in the amounts presented in each of them. The vitamin C
content for 100 grams of raw spinach is 89 milligrams and the vitamin C content of raw lettuce
is about 21 milligrams for every 100 grams. Broccoli, a common cruciferous vegetable, contains
106 milligrams of vitamin C for every 100 grams of raw broccoli.4 There are many bioactive
compounds in broccoli that are effected from the process of cooking of the plant. Some of the
bioactive compounds include glucosinolates, sulforaphane, and polyphenols. Glucosinolates
and sulforaphane are powerful anticarcinogenic compounds once hydrolyzed in the body.
Sulforaphane is a major isothiocyanate found in broccoli which are termed the mustard oils
for being the hot and bitter compounds. The anticarcinogenic effects of sulforapahane act by
modifying the detoxification routes which ultimately increase the excretion of carcinogens
while activating procarcinogens. This phytochemical acts as an indirect antioxidant for its
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neutralizing effect on free radicals and helps with the detoxification enzymes. Sulforaphane
concentration in broccoli varies in the different processing methods and in the time from post
harvesting.5 Polyphenols are defensive against pathogens and ultraviolet radiation. They are
antioxidants that can reduce oxidative stress and rid the body of free radicals. These
polyphenols are metabolized in the body the same way as endogenous hormones. This acts to
inhibit the enzymes involved in the metabolism of neurotransmitters and human hormones
which can prevent neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular disease and hormone related
cancers. Other beneficial properties of broccoli include vasodilation properties and anti-platelet
coagulating activity.6 The total polyphenol content in broccoli is around 2.7 mg per gram of dry
weight. The total glucosinolates in raw broccoli is 60.05 mg in 100grams, the total
glucoraphanin content is 47.8mg for every 100 grams, sulforaphane totals 49.4 mg per 100
grams and the free radical scavenging capacity in fresh broccoli amounts to 40.3%. These are
some of the phytochemicals that are common throughout cruciferous vegetables that will be
examined in nutrient retention after various heat treatments.7
Cabbage Heat Treatment
Usually, cruciferous vegetables are subjected to different heat treatments before eating
with a meal. Common methods used to prepare vegetables include microwaving, boiling and
steaming and stir frying. These are the investigative heat treatments I will use to further
research the nutrient retention in cruciferous vegetables.
The article The Effect of Thermal Processing of Cruciferous Vegetables on Their Content
of Dietary Fiber and its Fractions researched different cabbages and their fiber content. The
purpose of this study was to determine the effect from heat treatments on the dietary fiber in
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leafy green vegetables. The different cabbages included common cabbage, red cabbage and
savoy cabbage. The cabbages were washed prior to treatments but after the removal of the
first few outer leaves. Two methods of heat exposure: steaming and boiling were applied to the
cabbage heads, leaves and stumps. The boiling method used on cabbage was kept at 100
degrees Celsius for 17 minutes- once it was completely soft, and the cabbage to water ratio was
2:1. The steam treatment occurred in a Rational Combi-Steamer convection oven which created
steam for 13 minutes at 100 degrees Celsius. The NDF- neutral detergent fiber, ADF- acid
detergent fiber, and the ADL- acid detergent lignin , were determined in a method by Van Soest
to ultimately differentiate the hemicellulose and celluloses, from the difference between the
NDF and ADF. Van Soest method included extracting the samples using detergent solutions in
heat, drying and combustion and then weighing expressed in g/100g. The results demonstrate
the different types of cabbage reflect different results depending on the thermal process. The
steam process determined an increase of hemicellulose of 5% in common cabbage and 46% in
savoy cabbage as well as an increase of lignin from 16% in savoy cabbage to 124% in common
cabbage. However, the cellulose content decreased from 11% in savoy cabbage and up to 34%
in common cabbage. The boiling method determined increases of hemicellulose from 14% in
red cabbage to 85% in common cabbage, increases in cellulose from 82% in savoy cabbage to
101% in red cabbage and increases in lignin from 52% in savoy cabbage to 221% in red cabbage.
These percentages were taken from comparison of the cabbages in their raw state. From this
experiment the fiber contents increased due to polysaccharides and proteins and phenolic
compounds forming complexes that contribute to dietary fiber. This phenomena could also be
explained for the leaching of soluble components into the liquid.8
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Effected Antioxidants on Heat Treated Cruciferous Vegetables


A different study on Antioxidant activity of selected cruciferous vegetable subjected to
aquathermal processing was conducted to determine how active the antioxidant properties
would be after processing. The chosen vegetables included kale, broccoli, Brussels sprouts,
along with white and green cauliflower which were prepped by removal of inedible sections,
washed and then dried. The vegetables went onto further processing once analyzed before
heat treatments which included boiling for 12- 15 minutes, blanching for three minutes at 80
degrees Celsius, freezing after blanching at -22 degrees Celsius, and boiling after freezing for
ten minutes. The studied nutrients included vitamin C and carotenoids using Tillmans method.
The polyphenol content was determined by methanol extracts of 3g of raw or 5g of processed
vegetables in 80cm3 of 70% methanol solution. The antioxidant activity was established from
the ability to extinguish an ABTS free radical. The results of the study determined reduced
vitamin C content among all the vegetables, blanching caused the least reduction and boiling
causing the greatest reduction. There was a range of 7% in the white cauliflower to 20% in kale
of decrease in the vitamin C content from blanching. The green cauliflower lost 24% and the
kale lost the most at 80% vitamin C from the boil method. After studying the carotenoids from
the different vegetables kale seemed to be the only one that contained a significant amount in
the form of Beta carotene and lutein. The amounts of carotenoids present in vegetables after
aquathermal processes was around 70-80%. The polyphenols were found to decrease in
comparison to the raw state of the vegetables. The most destructive cooking methods were
boiling fresh and boiling previously frozen vegetables. The broccoli, cauliflower, and Brussels
Sprouts lost from 30-40% polyphenol content and kale experienced the greatest loss by 70Sullivan 5

80%. The antioxidant activity measured after the heat treatments revealed there was range of
reduction between blanching at 50% to boiling at 82% for the loss of antioxidant activity.9 These
losses occur because of the dilution of polyphenols and antioxidants into the water. Freezing
the vegetables caused an increase in the antioxidant activity resulting from an increase in
phenol compounds.10 In conclusion, kale is the most sensitive to aquathermal processing which
may be because it contains the most vitamin C which contributes to its high antioxidant
activity.9
Phytochemical Analysis of heat treatments
A different study called Effects of different cooking methods on health-promoting
compounds of broccoli was used to investigate the phytochemical compounds and nutrients
after various cooking methods on broccoli. The different cooking methods included boiling for
five minutes in a 1:2 ratio of broccoli to water, steaming above boiling water for five minutes
with a lid, microwaving at full power for five minutes with 10 mL of water. Another method was
stir frying in soybean oil at 140 degrees Celsius for five minutes and the last method was
combined stir frying in soybean oil at 140 C in a wok and then 50mL of water was added to the
wok and covered with a lid for three minutes. All samples used 200 grams of broccoli and were
conducted in random order three times for each cooking method. Vitamin C was immediately
analyzed but the rest of the materials were frozen with N2 and retained in polyethylene bags at
-70 C. To determine the glucosinolates, some of the frozen samples were freeze-dried. For
chlorophyll determination a spectrophotometer was used after the samples of broccoli were
grinded and extracted in 10mL of 80% acetone and then centrifuged. The results demonstrated
boiling lost the most chlorophyll by 27% reduction and microwaving experienced a 16%
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reduction of chlorophyll although steaming virtually lost none of its chlorophyll content. The
total soluble protein was determined from the samples by grinding, homogenizing and
centrifuging, and then using the bovine serum albumin method of Bradford to determine from
the supernatant. The total soluble protein was significantly reduced by all the heat treatments
but the steaming process experienced the least reduction and the greatest loss was due to
boiling and the stir fry/boiling method. Carotenoids were determined on the bases of grinding,
extraction from an acetone and petroleum mixture using a mortar and pestle and the top part
was analyzed. This part was combined with extracts and washed with water then recorded
absorbance from a spectrophotometer. Stir frying, steaming, and microwaving were able to
retain most of the carotenoids while stirfrying/boiling and boiling experienced losses of 28%
and 13%, respectively. Glucosinolates were determined from extraction and conversion to
desulphoglucosinolate and subjected to chromatography analysis. The results from the
spectrophotometer were converted to molar amounts at 226nm. The results demonstrate
effects on glucosinolates of total aliphatic and indole glucosinolates in broccoli. The aliphatic
glucosinolates were dramatically reduced from 60% in the microwaving method to 41% from
boiling, steaming virtually remained unaffected in total aliphatic glucosinolates. The loss of total
indole glucosinolates was more significantly reduced compared to aliphatic glucosinolates
excluding the microwaving method. Steaming experienced the least reduction of 36.8% while
stir frying experienced the greatest lost at 67% reduction of total indole glucosinolates. Overall,
the heat treatments affected the broccoli by making the vegetable less nutritional but the best
method to retain most nutrients was steaming.11

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Conclusion
Now to conclude with answering my question from the beginning will the
phytochemicals and nutrients in cruciferous vegetables differ when they are subjected to
various cooking methods? From the studies presented it is valid to declare that cruciferous
vegetables after cooked differ in their nutrient and phytochemical content. The study on the
different cabbages confirmed that steaming increases hemicellulose and lignin content while
decreasing the cellulose content. After boiling the cabbages, it was determined that increases in
all components measured in this experiment were increased such as the hemicellulose, the
cellulose, and the most dramatic increase experienced with lignin content. It is clear to say that
cabbage is indeed a cruciferous vegetable that benefits from the cooking process. The study on
the antioxidants in various cruciferous vegetables subjected to different aquathermal processes
concluded the vitamin C, the carotenoids, polyphenols, and antioxidant activity all undergo a
change. The vitamin C content of all vegetables was reduced, kale experiencing the most loss
from boiling and blanching, and cauliflower retaining the most vitamin C. Kale also
demonstrated the most retention of carotenoids after all the aquathermal processes including
boiling, blanching, blanching then boiling, and boiling after frozen. All the vegetables
experienced losses in the polyphenol components but the aquathermal processes that
destroyed the most were the boiling when fresh and boiling after frozen, again kale
experiencing the greatest reduction. The antioxidant activity of the different cruciferous
vegetables was negatively affected the most from boiling and blanching resulting in the least
effect. From this study its clear to determine that kale is the most affected cruciferous
vegetable after different aquathermal processes except in the carotenoid content. The health
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compounds of broccoli, the chlorophyll, total soluble protein, carotenoids, and glucosinolates,
were all proven to be less effective after heat treatments. The chlorophyll was reduced most
from boiling and the least from microwaving. The total soluble protein reduced the most after
boiling along with the stir-fry combined with boiling method and the least reduction occurred
from steaming. The carotenoids survived the most between all the heat treatments except stir
frying and boiling lost 28%. The glucosinolate content was reduced the most from microwaving
and stir frying although steaming showed relatively no effect on the glucosinolate content.
After reviewing multiple studies the facts show most cruciferous vegetables should be
consumed in their raw state to extract the most nutrition with a few exceptions. Cabbage is one
of the exempt cruciferous vegetables that will retain the most and even may enhance the
nutritional content as well as kale retaining the carotenoid content after various cooking
methods.
Application to Dietetic Practice
After discussing these results, dietitians can be aware of what to inform their patients
on regarding questions concerning cooking cruciferous vegetables. The best way to reach this
information to the public would be to educate and inform key gate keepers in nutrition
information. Another application would be to demonstrate the effects on different methods of
cooking from observing the change in chlorophyll content of different vegetables in food
demonstrations. This could easily be observed by before and after versions of the cruciferous
products. Creating awareness around people, communities, and other persons interested in
health and nutrition can easily be accomplished from social media or other internet means. To
experience a change for people that traditionally cook their vegetables before eating, recipes
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with the cruciferous vegetables in their raw form should be readily available. To make sure the
vegetables will be of highest nutritional content before consumption, the public should be
aware that buying locally and in season will help to ensure the best quality.

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References
1. WebMD Web site. http://www.webmd.com/food-recipes/features/super-veggiescruciferous-vegetables?page=1. Accessed on March 1, 2014.
2. Natural News Website.
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March 1, 2014.
3. American Cancer Society Website.
http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativeme
dicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/phytochemicals. Accessed on March 1, 2014.
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Nutrition & Food Science [serial online]. August 2013; 43(5):438-443. Available from: Academic
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5. Mahn A, Reyes A. An overview of health-promoting compounds of broccoli and the effect of
processing. Food Science and Technology International. 2012.
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affect the preservation of glucosinolates, phenolics and vitamin C. Food Research International
[serial online]. n.d.;43:1455-1463. Available from: ScienceDirect, Ipswich, MA. Accessed
February 6, 2014.

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8. Komolka P, Grecka D, Dziedzic K. The Effect of Thermal Processing Of Cruciferous


Vegetables On Their Content Of Dietary Fiber And Its Fractions. Acta Scientiarum Polonorum.
Technologia Alimentaria [serial online]. October 2012;11(4):347-354. Available from: Academic
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cruciferous vegetables subjected to aquathermal processing. Food Chemistry [serial online].
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10. Mukherjee S, Lekli I, Ray D, Gangopadhyay H, Raychaudhuri U, Das D. Comparison of the
protective effects of steamed and cooked broccolis on ischaemia-reperfusion-induced cardiac
injury. British Journal Of Nutrition [serial online]. March 28, 2010;103(6):815-823. Available
from: CINAHL Plus with Full Text, Ipswich, MA. Accessed February 6, 2014.
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broccoli. J Zhejiang Univ Sci B. 2009; 10(8): 580588. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2722699/. Accessed on February 5, 2014.

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