Nutrition and Cancer 1

Running Head: Nutrition and Cancer

Effectiveness of Nutrition On
Prevention and Treatment of Various Cancers
Megan Campbell
Ohio University

Nutrition and Cancer 2

Cancer is a group of diseases characterized by uncontrolled growth and spread of

abnormal cells (Ades, 2012). Today cancer is one of the worlds top killers second only to heart
disease in the United States. There are many causes of cancer, some of which can be considered
controllable, while others are uncontrollable. Uncontrollable risk factors of cancer include
genetics, hormones, immune conditions, and more internal factors. Controllable risk factors
include, diet, exercise, tobacco use, radiation, and more (Ades, 2012). The burden that obesity
and poor diet bring upon our country is enormous. It is estimated that if current trends continue
in America, 500,000 additional cases of cancer will appear by the year 2030 ("National cancer
institute," 2004). In the present paper, the role nutrition plays in the formation and prevention of
cancer is investigated. It is hypothesized that there is a strong correlation between lifestyle
factors such as diet and exercise, and the formation of several cancer types. The following pieces
of literature attempt to demonstrate and either support or deny the previous hypothesis.
The first piece of literature is a study done to compare adolescent diet and the associated
risk of breast cancer in adult years. The research was done through a cohort study among 47,355
participants who provided answers in a 131 questionnaire about diet during their high school
years. The participants were all between 34 and 51 years of age thus a recall of past dietary
behaviors was necessary to complete the questionnaire and being the time past results may be
skewed. Food items on the questionnaire were examined to determine their relation to risk of
breast cancer. The results of the study showed that dairy products, fruits, vegetables, and meat
were all unrelated to risk of developing breast cancer. The study did find however, that total
bread intake had a positive connection with the chance of breast cancer as well as high total
caloric intake. It was determined that foods with a relatively high glycemic index, or foods that
have a large impact on blood glucose levels, were also associated with increased risk. This study

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found that higher intakes of vegetable fats and vitamin E had a negative association with the risk
of breast cancer (A. Lindsay Frazier).
Another piece of literature written by Walter C. Willett examines past studies on diet,
nutrition, and cancer prevention. In a 1998 study, it was estimated that about 35% of all cancer
deaths were potentially unavoidable by modification of diet. The first cancer analysis in the
review is colon cancer. Past studies indicate that there is a very strong relationship between diet
and colon cancer. Research shows that fat consumption is known to significantly increase a
persons risk but this does not include vegetable fat. Meat consumption is known to have an even
stronger relationship with the chances of developing this type of cancer as well as total energy or
caloric intake. Overtime, several studies have shown this association with colon cancer and meat
consumption, many of which has indicated even stronger correspondence with red meat intake
such as beef and pork. Willett also examined intake of fiber from fruits and vegetables and the
claim that these elements are protective against colon cancer, resulting in the claim that plant
fiber is indeed protective (Walter C. Willett).
Another form of cancer examined was breast cancer. There is popular belief that a diet
that is high in fat has a positive association with development of breast cancer. However, by
examining past studies which compared high and low fat intakes, there were no significant
evidence that fat intake increases a persons risk. In contrast to fat intake, evidence is strong that
consumption of less overall calories has a protective factor against developing breast cancer.
Prostate cancer is the next variation analyzed. According to Willets findings, there is strong
correspondence between consumption of red meats and prostate cancer risk. Steady findings
show that high fat intake, especially animal fat, has a positive impact on the possibility of
developing this cancer (Walter C. Willett).

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In a research article by M. Tandon, et al. (2008), the role of nutrition in cancer prevention
is examined. The elements of diet that are of main concern in this article are total caloric intake,
red meat intake, fat intake, low fiber diets, and alcoholic beverages. Once again there is
consistent evidence that an over consumption of energy very much increases a persons risk of
developing cancer. With over consumption comes weight problems and obesity. It is estimated
that 90,000 cancer deaths could be avoided annually if patients maintained normal body weight.
There is plenty of evidence that suggests that high estrogen levels in women caused by excess
body fat are a main contributor to cancer development, especially breast cancer. Findings from
this piece of literature compare to that of A. Lindsay Frazier, et al (2004), when examining the
effects of foods with particularly high gylcemic indexes. Many case controlled studies have
shown association between development of endometrial, ovarian, colon, and colorectal cancers
and high intake of high glycemic index foods (Tandon, M.).
Research has time and again has shown that red meat and processed meat consumption
has a strong affect on ones probability of forming colorectal cancer. However, there is no
evidence suggesting that white meat consumption plays a role in this risk. When examining the
effects of fat intake on cancer risks, it was concluded that high fat diets not only increase ones
chances of getting colorectal cancer as well as other forms, but also highly increases chances of
mortality after a person is diagnosed. When it comes to intake of fruits and vegetables, it has
become increasingly clear that dietary fiber is a protective factor of many types of cancer. It is
proposed that about 5 servings of vegetables a day is necessary to reduce cancer risks. It is no
surprise that Tandons research found alcohol to have negative effects on cancer patients and that
it is associated with higher cancer incidence. Heavy alcohol consumption statistically increases

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risks of several cancers. These cancers include oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, esophagus, liver,
breast and colorectal (Tandon, M.).
Other problems associated with the risk of developing cancer come from the way food is
handled and processed in America. It is clear to most people that toxins such as environmental
pollution and tobacco smoke, contribute to compromised health and an increase in the likelihood
of cancer formation. What some people do not know however is that certain diets can contribute
to exposure of toxins and increased risk of cancer formation. A research review by Leo Horrigan,
et al. (2002), focuses on the effect that large industrial farms have on the environment as well as
human health. There is growing concern with the effects of synthetic chemical pesticides and
fertilizers that the majority of farmers use on their crops today. Consumption of foods treated
with these various chemicals is thought to have an association with the development of
cardiovascular disease as well as some cancers (Tandon, M.).
In comparison to what the latest research is telling us about the relationship between diet
and cancer risks, many cancer patients and survivors do not have the same beliefs or knowledge
as to why they developed cancer in the first place. A research study by Kimberly S. Wold, et al.
(2005), was done to determine what cancer survivors believe causes cancer. The methodology
used was and opinion survey of beliefs of cancer causes given to 670 cancer survivors. Among
the participants were survivors of breast, colorectal, and prostate cancers (Kimberly S. Wold).
The survey conducted was a list of 19 possible causes of cancer where participants had to
choose either (1) definitely causes cancer, (2) probably causes cancer, (3) uncertain, (4) probably
does not cause cancer, and (5) definitely does not cause cancer. The results of this study showed
that regardless of type of cancer, or gender, 75% of cancer survivors contributed their cancer to

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be caused primarily by genetics or uncontrollable factors. The top three believed causes chosen
by patients were genetics, environmental factors, and stress. The study found that younger cancer
survivors were more likely to attribute their disease to be caused by insufficient intakes of fruits
and vegetables in their diets (Kimberly S. Wold).
According to the research of these authors, up to one third of breast and colon cancers
can be attributed to excess body weight. Also, dietary habits, alcohol use, and smoking are
determined to be risk factors for the development of colon cancer. Dietary habits such as heavy
alcohol use have been recognized as a risk factor for breast cancer among women. There is
general agreement that cancer can be caused by both genetic and behavioral factors. However, it
is likely that environmental factors and stress and among the more unlikely causes of cancer.
This study found considerable differences in beliefs among survivors and belief among experts
(Kimberly S. Wold).
In another study, a survey conducted by G. Maskarinec, et al. (2001), was given to 143
cancer survivors in order to determine dietary changes after diagnosis. Recommendations given
to cancer patients concerning diet are similar to general recommendations for healthy eating.
Among the participants, breast cancer was the most common form followed by prostate and
gastrointestinal cancers. Results of the study showed that less than half of the participants
showed any change in diet after diagnosis of their disease. Researchers found that breast cancer
patients were the most likely patients to make any changes in their diets after learning about their
disease. Among those who did show a change in diet, the most common change made was an
increase in their intake of vegetables. Other items that were increased in diets include fruit,
purified water, fish, grains, and soy. Food items most commonly reduced included meat, fat,
sugar, caffeine, and alcohol (Maskarinec).

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According to the latest findings on the relationship between nutrition and cancer
formation, there is strong evidence suggesting the importance on healthy diet and avoidance or
treatment of cancer. Research consistently suggests that control of healthy body weight along
with a plant based diet is likely to be an effective treatment and prevention of cancer. The
consistent factors that seem to be associated with high risk include consumptions of red meats,
heavy alcohol use, high glycemic index foods, and animal fats.
When considering the study concerning what cancer patients believed to have caused
their disease, and the study discussing dietary changes after diagnosis, the general public should
become more informed about cancer facts and safety in order to eliminate the existing
differences.

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References
Ades, T. (2012). cancer.org. Retrieved from
http://www.cancer.org/acs/groups/content/@epidemiologysurveilance/documents/docum
ent/acspc-031941.pdf
A. Lindsay Frazier, Lisa Li, Eunyong Cho, Walter C. Willett and Graham A. Colditz Cancer
Causes & Control , Vol. 15, No. 1 (Feb., 2004), pp. 73-82
Kimberly S. Wold, Tim Byers, Lori A. Crane and Dennis Ahnen Cancer Causes & Control ,
Vol. 16, No. 2 (Mar., 2005), pp. 115-123
Maskarinec, G. G., Murphy, S. S., Shumay, D. M., & Kakai, H. H. (2001). Dietary changes
among cancer survivors. European Journal Of Cancer Care, 10(1), 12-20.
doi:10.1046/j.1365-2354.2001.00245.
National cancer institute. (2004, 03 17). Retrieved from
http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/obesity
Tandon, M. M., Siddique, R. A., Arvind, Singh, N., Ambwani, T., & Rai, S. N. (2008). ANTICANCER DIET: REVIEWING THE ROLE OF NUTRITION IN CANCER
PREVENTION. Current Topics In Nutraceutical Research, 6(2), 67-82.
Walter C. Willett Environmental Health Perspectives , Vol. 103, Supplement 8 (Nov., 1995), pp.
165-170