The Effects of Multilingualism on the Grade Point Averages of College Students

Gina Tabbot, Jg Bradner, Carlos Figueroa, Taylor Burghardt

Portland State University
November 2014

Abstract
Many studies show that there is a beneficial correlation between multilingualism and
cognitive ability. Highly developed cognitive functions improve intelligence, and in a university
setting, high Grade Point Averages (GPAs) reflect academic success. Our goal was to find
whether or not being multilingual aids in college success. We tested this by surveying 91
Portland State University students with questions regarding their GPAs and language
capabilities. We separated the data into two groups: monolingual and multilingual. After
analyzing the data, we concluded that within our study, multilingualism does not affect GPAs.
The p-value the probability that a student would earn a high GPA without being
multilingual ending up being 0.28, meaning that the multilingual group fell within the 72nd
percentile. Because of the relatively low percentile, we cannot reject the following null
hypothesis: multilingualism does not positively affect grade point averages.
Introduction
Multilingualism affecting cognitive functions is important to know. If research shows
multilingualism directly leads to educational achievement, then there is good reason to
incorporate the study of language into curricula at an early age. Additionally, preliminary

The Effects of Multilingualism on the Grade Point Averages of College Students

research suggests a multilingual learning process would enhance the minds of future generations.
Learning an additional language early on changes the brain, and therefore could potentially
determine lifelong academic success.
Kovalik (2012) conducted a similar observational study as our research team: the effect
of multilingualism in college students. The researcher provided undergraduate sociology students
a ~15 minute survey consisting of 118 questions. Some of the questions pertained to drug and
alcohol use, sexual activities, and political views, to take in account possible confounding
variables. Three hundred fifty-three surveys were returned. She found that 88% of the students
did not identify as multilingual. Kovalik came to the conclusion that within her sample, there
was no correlation between multilingualism and GPA scores. However, her sample was not
randomized enough to give a result that represented the university, as the researcher herself
stated (Kovalik, 2012).
The anthropologist Jared Diamonds article in Science discusses several cognitive
benefits of multilingualism. Diamond references an experiment by Kovcs and Mehler in which
they evaluated the mental adaptation of monolingual infants versus crib bilingual infants.
Seeing as infants cannot speak, crib bilingual infants are those that from birth hear and
eventually speak two languages due to having parents speaking separate languages to them. The
experiment was as follows: a meaningless trisyllable, lo-lo-vu would sound and then a puppet
would appear on the left side of the screen. After nine trials, both monolingual and bilingual
infants had learned to look at the left side of the screen upon hearing the trisyllable. Then,
Kovcs and Mehler changed the rules as to a puppet would appear on the right side of the screen
after a different trisyllable sounded, something like lo-vu-lo. After an average of six trials, the
bilingual infants were able to unlearn the previous condition and now looked to the right side of

The Effects of Multilingualism on the Grade Point Averages of College Students

the screen upon hearing lo-vu-lo. Even after nine trials, the monolingual infants were unable to
learn the new response. Diamond deduces that this is due to bilingual infants normally having to
shift erratically between two parental languages. This led the bilingual infants to adapt more
easily with the unpredictable rule change than the monolingual infants. This skill seems to
contribute to something termed executive function. Executive function is the overall control of
cognitive functions, like attention, planning, and categorizing. It is highly developed within the
first five years of life, and multilingual infants develop it further, sooner. Multilingual persons
are more cognitively developed than monolingual persons because of having to apply their
attention to the differences of two or more languages. While partaking in a multilingual
conversation, multilingual persons must instinctively switch between phonemes and meanings
from their different stocks or sets of phonemes/meanings. This advanced skill is useful in
intellectual games, but the question remains if this skill can be adequately applied to real life
situations.
Diamond writes that if this experiment with infants is insufficient to his argument
multilingualism is beneficial, then look at an observational study conducted by Canadian
scientists Bialystok, Craik, and Freedman. Bialystok reports that multilingual patients showed
their first onset of symptoms of Alzheimers disease four years later than monolingual patients
(Bialystok, Craik, Freedman, 2007). Diamond elaborates by saying using the mind is the best
way to preserve it, and multilingualism is one of the best ways to use the mind.
Diamond concludes the article by posing several questions: does knowing three or more
languages have an even greater effect than knowing two? Will learning a second language in
school help one catch up with crib bilinguals? Finally, will these mental advances be beneficial
in real life scenarios? (Diamond, 2010)

The Effects of Multilingualism on the Grade Point Averages of College Students

The Economics of Education Review journal published an article by Devin Pope in which
he writes about an experiment conducted by Brigham Young University, a university owned and
operated by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. The researcher sent two groups on
separate missions to determine if learning a second language would be beneficial to college
students. One randomly selected group spent two years on a mission in which they would learn a
foreign language. The second group was sent on a mission in which they would only need to
speak English. When the subjects returned, they were gradually tested for an increase in GPAs.
The results were null. However, this could be due to the limited variability of the sample. There
was a significant difference in the amount of missionaries sent on the bilingual mission and the
monolingual mission, all of the missionaries were 19-21 year old Mormons, and they only spent
two years learning the foreign language. This study shows that sample size and variability is very
important when conducting an observational study (Pope, 2006).
Hugo Baetens Beardsmore published an article in the International CLIL Research
Journal titled Multilingualism, Cognition, and Creativity. In his article Beardsmore argues
against multilingualism negatively affecting ones mind and processes. Some say that
multilingualism stifles creativity, and see it as a handicap. Recently, studies have changed that
opinion. Beardsmore states that something to keep in mind is the amount of historical figures,
scientists, and creative writers that were multilingual (Beardsmore, 2008). Historical figures, like
Henry VIII, Catherine the Great, Elisabeth I spoke multiple languages. Nobel prize winner Ilya
Prigogine (Chemistry, 1977) was asked to estimate how many of his contemporaries were
multilingual, to which he responded the majority (Beardsmore, 2008). And many famous
authors like Joseph Conrad, Goethe, and Nabokov were multilingual. Beardsmore uses these
facts to diminish the idea that speaking multiple languages hinders scientific and creative

The Effects of Multilingualism on the Grade Point Averages of College Students

processes. He notes that although this does not prove causation between multilingualism and
outstanding achievements, it dampers the idea multilinguals causes lack of ability
(Beardsmore, 2008). Throughout the remainder of the article, Beardsmore reviews studies
conducted that have yet to be fully explored, but suggest at a multilingual advantage. For
example, Gajo & Serra (2002) conducted a study in Italy in which mathematics was taught via
both Italian and French. One class operated on a bilingual structure, and the other monolingual.
The results showed bilinguals and monolinguals use different strategies in solving mathematical
concepts (Beardsmore, 2008). The monolinguals were stronger learning the facts, informational
knowledge, and the bilinguals were stronger learning the mathematical operations, operational
knowledge. Beardsmore concludes that this path of research will become more important as
people realize the multilingual learning structure is beneficial in subjects other than linguistics,
such as mathematics and sciences (2008).
The European Commission appointed a research team led by David Marsh and Richard
Hill to find if there was a direct causation between multilingualism, creativity, and innovation.
Although their results could not establish a concrete link between multilingualism and the mind,
the evidence gathered suggested the former plays an important role within the latter, and is likely
to cultivate creativity that will expand societal opportunity. They conducted this experiment with
two methods: examining the available scientific evidence, and gathering anecdotal evidence
through an online survey, telephone survey, and case study. Hill and Marsh (2009) report
multilingualism affects the mind in six main categories: the flexible mind, the problem-solving
mind, the metalinguistic mind, the learning mind, the interpersonal mind, and the ageing mind.
Hill and Marsh write that the flexible mind is an adaptable mind, or the expanding of the
capacity of thought. The researchers claim that a monolingual that has the knowledge of his or

The Effects of Multilingualism on the Grade Point Averages of College Students

her language and uses it with another cognitive framework, such as mathematics, has a more
flexible mind. The researchers conclude that multilingualism offers a like cognitive framework,
and therefore supports the adaptability of the mind. Multilingualism also is an advantage in the
problem-solving part of the mind. Hill and Marsh write that the management of two or more
languages contributes to this superiority, resulting in multilinguals having advanced problem
solving, multitasking, and focusing skills. The third category in which multilingualism affects is
the metalinguistic mind. Hill and Marsh state, Metalinguistic awareness is essentially about
linguistic processing, leading to skills in analysing how language is used, and using language to
achieve desired goals (2009). Being multilingual in this sense gives the metalinguistic mind
another language or system to work with, developing it rather than taking from it. The fourth
category of the mind is the learning mind. Hill and Marsh write that many view the learning
process as a creative process, and many learn most through interaction. Learning also has much
to do with memory, and multilinguals having advanced cognitive function, are presumed to have
complex memory capacity. Because of the possibility of an advanced memory (retaining,
organizing, storing, and retrieving information), multilinguals may have a more useful approach
to the learning process. The next part of the mind affected by multilingualism is the interpersonal
mind. The influence of multilingualism on the interpersonal mind is generally reported as
enhanced skills with context and communication, reflecting greatly on interpersonal interaction
(Hill and Marsh, 2009). The final category is the ageing mind. Hill and Marsh simply write that
preliminary research shows being multilingual may slow down the natural deterioration of the
mind and its cognitive functions. This is thought to be due to multilinguals having multiple
cognitive frameworks, and therefore more cognitive reserve. Hill and Marsh conclude that
although they did not establish causation, being multilingual is beneficial, as it affects many parts

The Effects of Multilingualism on the Grade Point Averages of College Students

of the mind, and adds to creativity. They insist that society needs creativity and innovation, and a
solution for a widespread contribution may be multilingualism (Hill and Marsh, 2009).
There is an abundance of research being conducting on multilingualism and its effects.
The science accompanying these studies has revealed unknown secrets of the mind, and
continues to do so. The knowledge gaps that exist are mostly within neuroscience, but our study
may continue to establish the possible benefit of being multilingual. Although GPAs are not an
accurate measurement of intelligence, they are in most cases an indication of it. If
multilingualism increases GPAs, we hypothesize to find a higher GPA amongst students who are
fluent in two or more languages. Furthermore, we may discover other multilingual factors affect
GPAs, like the amount of languages known or the country of origin for a person, seeing as some
countries put a higher priority on education. We expect to find multilingualism causes higher
GPAs.
Methods
Our study sample was Portland State University undergraduates, and our population was
college students in general. We collected data from a sample of 91 students by anonymously
asking their GPAs, whether or not they are fluent in additional languages, and their country of
origin. To determine a conclusion, we used statistical equations to calculate the p-value, followed
by displaying the results in a histogram.
Our study was observational since we solely interviewed students as opposed to
conducting an actual experiment. It was a retrospective study because we asked for the most
recent GPA as well as languages already known. Our explanatory variable was multilingualism,
and our response variable was the GPA scores. We assembled the sample by an online survey as

The Effects of Multilingualism on the Grade Point Averages of College Students

well as surveying around campus. The survey asked the student whether or not they were
multilingual, their GPA, the amount of fluent language known, and their country of origin. See a
copy of the survey in the Appendix.
Results
The study included 91 Portland State students. 61.5% of students reported to be
monolingual, while 38.5% of students reported to be fluent in two or more languages (Table 1).
The average GPA for monolingual students was 3.47, with a standard deviation of .5, and the
average GPA for multilingual students was 3.39, with a standard deviation of .7 (Table 3). The
GPA range for the monolingual group was 2.1 - 4.0. The GPA range for the multilingual group
was 1.0 - 4.0. Table 2 shows the frequency of GPAs amongst monolingual and multilingual
students. As one would notice, the most frequent GPAs for both groups occurred in the 3.76 - 4.0
range. Figure 1 demonstrates the data in Table 2 in the form of a histogram.
Table 1: Fluency

Number of Languages Fluent

In
1

Number of Students

Percentage

56

61.5%

28

30.8%

2.2%

3.3%

2.2%

Table 1 shows the total amount of students, 91, broken down into the amount of languages fluent in, and the
corresponding percentage.

The Effects of Multilingualism on the Grade Point Averages of College Students

Table 2: Frequency of GPAs

Monolingual

Multilingual

1.0-2.0

>2.0-2.5

>2.5-3.0

>3.0-3.25

>3.25-3.50

>3.50-3.75

>3.75-4.0

23

11

Total Student Responses

56

35

Table 2 shows the frequency of students GPAs. The majority of each group score higher than 3.75.

Figure 1: Frequency of GPAs Histogram

25

Frequency

20

15
Monolingual

10

Multilingual

0
1

1.5

2.25 2.5 2.75 3 3.25 3.5 3.75

Grade Point Averages

Figure 1 shows the distribution of GPAs amongst Monolingual (blue) and Multilingual (red) students. The lowest
reported Monolingual GPA was 2.1, where the lowest reported Multilingual GPA was 1.0.

The Effects of Multilingualism on the Grade Point Averages of College Students

10

Table 3 shows the two data sets. The difference between the means of the two groups was .08.
The Standard Error of the Mean (SEM) for the monolingual group was .067, and the SEM for the
multilingual group was 0.12. The 95% Margin of Error for the monolingual group was .134, and
for the multilingual group .24.
Table 3: Data Results for Each Group
Monolingual GPAs

Multilingual GPAs

Mean

3.47

3.39

Median

3.64

3.55

Range

2.1 - 4.0

1.0 - 4.0

Standard Deviation

0.504

0.695

Standard Error of the Mean

0.067

0.12

68% Margin of Error

0.067

0.12

95% Margin of Error

0.134

0.24

98% Margin of Error

0.201

0.36

Table 3 shows the average GPA scores for each group, the median of each set of scores, the range of the scores, the
standard deviation, the Standard Error of the Mean, and the Margins of Error.

Table 4 shows confidence intervals. The 95% confidence interval for the monolingual group was
3.34 to 3.60. The 95% confidence interval for the multilingual group was 3.15 to 3.63. This is an
estimate that suggests in 95% of all samples, the population mean will be within two standard
deviations of the sample mean. Figure 2 shows the 95% confidence interval for both data groups.
The large overlap between the groups suggests an insignificant difference between the
population means.

The Effects of Multilingualism on the Grade Point Averages of College Students

11

Table 4: Confidence Intervals

Monolingual Interval

Multilingual Interval

68% Confidence Interval

3.40 to 3.54

3.27 to 3.51

95% Confidence Interval

3.34 to 3.60

3.15 to 3.63

98% Confidence Interval

3.27 to 3.67

3.03 to 3.75

Table 4 shows the confidence intervals, or the interval estimate of the population mean.

Figure 2: 95% Confidence Interval

3.7

Grade Point Average

3.55

3.4

3.25

3.1

Monolingual

Multilingual

Figure 2 shows the 95% confidence interval for both Monolingual and Multilingual Data Groups.

We determined the test statistic to see how probable it would be to observe the evidence given
the hypothesis is null. Table 5 shows the test statistic is 0.58. The percentage of the population
that falls below our test statistic is 72%. We calculated the one-tailed p-value to determine the
likelihood of scoring high GPAs without language being a factor, and that is 0.28, or 28%. With
this p-value being substantially higher than 5%, we cannot reject the null hypothesis. Therefore
this study does not prove a causation of multilingualism and high GPA scores.

The Effects of Multilingualism on the Grade Point Averages of College Students

12

Table 5: Statistics
Difference in Means

0.08

Standard Error of the

Difference between the Means
of the two Samples:

0.137

SEMDIFF =

Test Statistic= DIFF/SEMDIFF

0.584

Percentile

72

One-tailed p-value

0.28

Table 5 shows the difference in the two means, the standard deviation of the distribution of all possible sample
means deduced from our population, the measure of how odd the data is under the null hypothesis, the percentile of
the population that is lower than that test statistic, and the probability the GPAs were affected by multilingualism.

Discussion
From our collected data, multilingualism does not have an affect on GPAs of students at
Portland State University. The differences between the control group (monolingual students) and
the experimental group (multilingual students) are not statistically significant. The null
hypothesis cannot be rejected, unless the p-value falls less than or equal to .05. The p-value of
.28 is too large in comparison to .05. The data from our experiment showed monolingual
students accumulating high GPAs. We believe our experiment failed to reject the null hypothesis
because of various factors. To begin with, grade point averages are not an accurate way to
measure cognitive ability. As aforementioned, GPAs can indicate intelligence, but do not always
do so. Other possible factors include varying credit loads, majors, whether or not someone is
working in addition to classes, and background education. We also believe our hypothesis failed
because of uneven distribution of surveys. As noted, there were 56 monolingual respondents, and

The Effects of Multilingualism on the Grade Point Averages of College Students

13

35 multilingual respondents. If our sample size had been larger, our results would have differed.
Our experiment could be improved with more time. It is agreed that controlled experiments and
neurological studies, like those conducted by Bialystok (2006) and Hill and Marsh (2009), are
the best methods of understanding multilingualism and cognitive effects.
In comparison with Kovaliks (2012) university experiment, our conclusions were the
same. Within the study samples, multilingualism could not determine higher GPAs. Kovaliks pvalue was .07, to which she concluded multilingualism might actually be negatively affecting
GPA. The major difference between the two studies was Kovalik surveyed one department at
one university in one Northeastern state (2012). She also remarks that the school is not very
diverse, whereas Portland State University is quite diverse. Our surveys were also randomly
handed out, in various places at the university. It is not surprising that the two conclusions are
the similar seeing as the study samples were small, but it is interesting that Kovalik concluded a
possible negative impact.
Conclusion
Our study does not suggest multilingualism affects GPAs in a positive or negative way.
There are many stresses involved in college, and many factors that affect a persons academic
endurance. Although research suggests multilingualism develops the brain in intricate ways, our
study did not provide like results. It is important that research continues on multilingualism,
because the majority of the research supports the benefits of multilingualism. Multilingualism
affects the brain in different areas, and sharpens communicative and problem solving skills. Our
study does not advance results in favor of multilingualism, but a study with a larger sample size

The Effects of Multilingualism on the Grade Point Averages of College Students

might. In the next like experiment conducted, a sample size of hundreds of students will better
estimate results for a large population, such as that of Portland State University.

14

The Effects of Multilingualism on the Grade Point Averages of College Students

15

Reference
Beardsmore, H. (2008). Multilingualism, Cognition, and Creativity. International CLIL
Research Journal, 1(1).
Bialystok, E., Craik, F., & Freedman, M. (2006). Bilingualism As A Protection Against
The Onset Of Symptoms Of Dementia. Neuropsychologia, 459-464. Retrieved
http://www.psych.yorku.ca/gigi/documents/Bialystok_Craik_Freedman_2007.pdf
Diamond, J. (2010, October 14). The Benefits of Multilingualism. Science, 332-333.
Gajo, L. & Serra, C. (2002). Bilingual teaching: Connecting language and concepts in
mathematics. In: So, D. & Jones, G. (eds) Education and Society in Plurilingual Contexts.
VUB Brussels University Press, Brussles. 75-95.
Hill, R. & Marsh, D. (2009). Study on the contribution of multilingualism to creativity.
Final Report. Brussels: European Commission (Report No. EACEA/2007/3995/2).
Retrieved http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/llp/studies/documents/study_on_the_contributi
on_of_multilingualism_to_creativity/compendium_part_1_en.pdf
Kovalik, A. (2012). The Impact of Multilingualism on Grade Point Average among
College Undergraduates. Perspectives. University of New Hampshire.
Pope, D. (2006). Benefits Of Bilingualism: Evidence From Mormon Missionaries.
Economics of Education Review, 234-242. Retrieved
http://faculty.chicagobooth.edu/devin.pope/research/pdf/Website_Bilingualism.pdf

The Effects of Multilingualism on the Grade Point Averages of College Students

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Appendix
Survey
Thank you for taking our survey! This is part of a research project for our Freshman Inquiry class (Ways of Knowing).
We are interested in learning more about the language ability of PSU students.
This survey is ANONYMOUSyour name will not be recorded. Please answer honestly, so that we can get the most
accurate results. If you dont want to answer a question, let us know. Feel free to ask us if you need any clarifications.
1. What is your most recent GPA? _________
2. Are you monolingual (speak only one language) or multilingual (speak multiple languages)? Make
sure that these are languages you consider yourself to be FLUENT in.
Monolingual Multilingual
3. If multilingual, which languages do you speak?
______________________________________________________________________
4. Did you spend most of your childhood in America? If not, where?
Yes No: _______________________