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Chapter 7: Membrane Structure and Function

Concept 7.1 Cellular membranes are fluid mosaics of lipids and proteins
1.

Phospholipids are amphipathic. Explain what this means.

Amphipathic means that the phospholipid has both a hydrophilic region and a hydrophobic region.

2.

In the 1960s, the Davson-Danielli model of membrane structure was widely accepted. Describe this
model and then cite two lines of evidence that were inconsistent with it.
The Davson-Danielli model of membrane structure suggested that the membrane might be coated on
both sides with hydrophilic proteins, with a phospholipid bilayer between two layers of proteins.
First, inspection of a variety of membranes revealed that membranes with different functions differ in
structure and chemical composition. A second, more serious problem became apparent once
membrane proteins were better characterized. Unlike proteins dissolved in the cytosol, membrane
proteins are not very soluble in water because they are amphipathic. If such proteins were layered on
the surface of the membrane, their hydrophobic parts would be in aqueous surroundings.

3.

The currently accepted model of the membrane is the fluid mosaic model. Who proposed it? When?
Describe this model.
S. J. Singer and G. Nicolson proposed the fluid mosaic model in 1972. In this model, the membrane
proteins reside in the phospholipid bilayer with their hydrophilic regions protruding.

4.

What is meant by membrane fluidity? Describe the movements seen in the fluid

membrane.

A membrane is held together primarily by hydrophobic interactions, which are much weaker than
covalent bonds. Most of the lipids and some of the proteins can shift about laterallythat is, in the
plane of the membrane. The lateral movement of phospholipids within the membrane is rapid,
occurring about 107 times per second.
5.

Describe how each of the following can affect membrane fluidity:

a. decreasing temperature: A membrane remains fluid as temperature decreases until finally the
phospholipids settle into a closely packed arrangement and the membrane solidifies. The temperature
at which a membrane solidifies depends on the types of lipids it is made of.
b. phospholipids with unsaturated hydrocarbon chains: The membrane remains fluid to a lower
temperature if it is rich in phospholipids with unsaturated hydrocarbon tails. Because of kinks in the
tails where double bonds are located, unsaturated hydrocarbon tails cannot pack together as closely as
saturated hydrocarbon tails, and this makes the membrane more fluid.
c. cholesterol: At relatively high temperaturesat 37C, the body temperature of humans, for
examplecholesterol makes the membrane less fluid by restraining phospholipid movement.

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6.

Membrane proteins are the mosaic part of the model. Describe each of the two

main categories:

integral proteins: penetrate the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer

peripheral proteins: appendages loosely bound to the surface of the membrane, often to exposed
parts of integral proteins
7.

Study Figure 7.10 in your text. Use it to briefly describe the following major functions of membrane
proteins.

Function
Transport

Enzymatic activity

Signal transduction

Cell-cell recognition
Intercellular joining
Attachment to cytoskeleton
and ECM

8.

Description
A protein that spans the membrane may provide a hydrophilic
channel across the membrane that is selective for a particular solute.
Other transport proteins shuttle a substance from one side to the
other by changing shape. Some of these proteins hydrolyze ATP as
an energy source to actively pump substances across the membrane.
A protein built into the membrane may be an enzyme with its active
site exposed to substances in the adjacent solution. In some cases,
several enzymes in a membrane are organized as a team that carries
out sequential steps of a metabolic pathway.
A membrane protein (receptor) may have a binding site with a
specific shape that fits the shape of a chemical messenger, such as a
hormone. The external messenger (signaling molecule) may cause
the protein to change shape, allowing it to relay the message to the
inside of the cell, usually by binding to a cytoplasmic protein.
Some glycoproteins serve as identification tags that are specifically
recognized by membrane proteins of other cells.
Membrane proteins of adjacent cells may hook together in various
kinds of junctions, such as gap junctions or tight junctions.
Microfilaments or other elements of the cytoskeleton may be
noncovalently bound to membrane proteins, a function that helps
maintain cell shape and stabilizes the location of certain membrane
proteins. Proteins that can bind to ECM molecules can coordinate
extracellular and intracellular changes.

Membrane carbohydrates are important in cell-cell recognition. What are two examples of this?
Two examples include the sorting of cells into tissues and organs in an animal embryo, and the
rejection of foreign cells by the immune system.

9.

Distinguish between glycolipids and glycoproteins.

Glycolipids: Membrane carbohydrates covalently bonded to lipids
Glycoproteins: Membrane carbohydrates covalently bonded to proteins

10.

Label the following components of an animal cell membrane on the figure that follows:
See page 127 in your text for the labeled figure.

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glycolipid
glycoprotein
integral protein
peripheral protein
cholesterol
phospholipid
ECM fibers
cytoskeleton microfilaments
integrins (go back to Chapter 6)
Concept 7.2 Membrane structure results in selective permeability
11.

Distinguish between channel proteins and carrier proteins.

Channel proteins function by having a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or atomic ions use
as a tunnel through the membrane.
Carrier proteins hold on to their passengers and change shape in a way that shuttles them across the
membrane.

12.

Are transport proteins specific? Cite an example that supports your response.
Yes. A transport protein is specific for the substance it translocates, allowing only a certain substance
to cross the membrane. For example, a specific water carrier protein in the plasma membrane of red
blood cells transports glucose across the membrane.

13.

Peter Agre received the Nobel Prize in 2003 for the discovery of aquaporins. What are they?
Aquaporins are channel proteins that facilitate the passage of water molecules through the membrane
of certain cells.

14.

Consider the following materials that must cross the membrane. For each, tell how it is moved across.

Material

Method

CO2

simple diffusion

Glucose

transport proteins

H+

transport proteins

O2

simple diffusion

H2O

simple diffusion and protein channels (aquaporins)

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Concept 7.3 Passive transport is diffusion of a substance across a membrane with no energy investment
15.

Define the following terms:

diffusion: The movement of molecules of any substance so that they spread out evenly into the
available space
concentration gradient: The region along which the density of a chemical substance increases or
decreases
passive transport: Diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane; cell does not have to
expend energy to make it happen
osmosis: The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane
isotonic: A solution with the same concentration of solutes as the cell it surrounds. There will be no
net movement of water across the plasma membrane. In an isotonic environment, the volume of the
animal cell is stable.
hypertonic: A solution with more solutes than the cell it surrounds. The cell will lose water, shrivel,
and probably die.
hypotonic: A solution with less solutes than the cell it surrounds. The cell will swell and lyse (burst).
turgid: Very firm
flaccid: Limp
plasmolysis: Phenomenon during which the plant cell shrivels, and its plasma membrane pulls away
from the wall.

16.

Use as many words from the list above to describe why a carrot left on the counter overnight
would become limp. Underline or highlight each word you use.
The cells of the carrot contain more water than the surrounding air, and therefore water will leave the
carrot cells. The cells are hypotonic to the surrounding air. As water leaves the carrot cells, they will
become flaccid as plasmolysis occurs. The water is leaving the cells by osmosis; the solutes remain in
the cells.

17.

What is facilitated diffusion? Is it active or passive? Cite two examples.

Facilitated diffusion is the phenomenon during which polar molecules and ions impeded by the lipid
bilayer of the membrane diffuse passively with the help of transport proteins that span the membrane.
Facilitated diffusion is considered passive transport because the solute is moving down its
concentration gradient, a process that requires no energy.

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Examples include the movement of water through aquaporins, movement of sugars through protein
channels, sodium ion gated channels in nerve cells, and any other example that requires a transport
protein.
18. In the figure below, label the hypotonic solution, isotonic solution, and hypertonic solution. What is
indicated by the blue arrows? Label them. Which cell is lysed? Turgid? Flaccid? Plasmolyzed? Apply
all these labels.
See page 134 in your text for the labeled figure.
19. Why does the red blood cell burst when placed in a hypotonic solution, but not the plant cell?
Plant cells have a cell wall and animal cells do not. Plant cells are turgid (firm) and generally healthiest
in a hypotonic environment, where the uptake of water is eventually balanced by the wall pushing back
on the cell.
Concept 7.4 Active transport uses energy to move solutes against their gradients
20.

Describe active transport. What type of transport proteins are involved, and what is the role of ATP
in the process?
Active transport is a type of membrane traffic during which the cell must expend energy. The transport
proteins involved are called carrier proteins. ATP supplies the energy for most active transport.

21.

The sodium-potassium pump is an important system for you to know. Use the following diagram to
understand how it works. Use these terms to label the figures, and briefly summarize what is
occurring in each: extracellular fluid, cytoplasm, Na+, K+, ATP, ADP, P, and transport protein.
See page 136 in your text for the labeled figure.

Summary
1. Na+ binds to the sodium-potassium pump.
2. This stimulates phosphorylation of the pump.
3. The pump changes shape and releases Na+ to the outside.
4. The new pump shape now has an affinity for K+, and binds them. This triggers the dephosphorylation of
the pump
5. This causes the pump to change shape again, and release K+ to the inside.
6. In the new shape, the pump will now bind Na+ again.

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22.

On the diagram below, add these labels: facilitated diffusion with a carrier protein, facilitated
diffusion with a channel protein, active transport with a carrier protein, and simple diffusion. For
each type of transport, give an example of a material that is moved in this manner.
See page 136 in your text for the labeled figure.

Examples
facilitated diffusion with a carrier protein: glucose through glucose transporters
facilitated diffusion with a channel protein: aquaporins transporting water
active transport with a carrier protein: sodium-potassium pump
simple diffusion: movement of oxygen
23.

What is membrane potential? Which side of the membrane is positive?

Membrane potential is the voltage across a membrane, which ranges from about
50 to 200 millivolts (mV). The minus sign indicates that the inside of the cell is negative relative to
the outside.

24.

What are the two forces that drive the diffusion of ions across the membrane? What is the
combination of these forces called?
Two forces drive the diffusion of ions across a membrane: a chemical force (the ions concentration
gradient) and an electrical force (the effect of the membrane potential on the ions movement). This
combination of forces acting on ions is called the electrochemical gradient.

25.

What is cotransport? Explain how understanding it is used in our treatment of

diarrhea.

Cotransport is the coupling of the downhill transport of one substance to the uphill transport of
another substance against its own concentration gradient.
Normally, sodium in waste is reabsorbed in the colon, maintaining constant levels in the body, but
diarrhea expels waste so rapidly that reabsorption is not possible, and sodium levels fall
precipitously. To treat this life-threatening condition, patients are given a solution to drink containing
a high concentration of salt (NaCl) and glucose. The solutes are taken up by sodium-glucose
cotransporters on the surface of intestinal cells and passed through the cells into the blood.
Concept 7.5 Bulk transport across the plasma membrane occurs by exocytosis and
endocytosis
26.

Define each of the following, and give a specific cellular example.

Exocytosis: The cellular secretion of biological molecules by fusion of vesicles containing them with
the plasma membrane

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Endocytosis: Cellular uptake of biological molecules and particulate matter via formation of vesicles
from the plasma membrane
receptor-mediated endocytosis: The movement of specific molecules into a cell by the inward
budding of vesicles containing proteins with receptor sites specific to the molecules being taken in;
enables a cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances
phagocytosis: A type of endocytosis in which large particulate substances or small organisms are
taken up by a cell. It is carried out by some protists and certain immune cells of animals.
pinocytosis: A type of endocytosis in which the cell ingests extracellular fluid and its dissolved
solutes
27.

What is a ligand? What do ligands have to do with receptor-mediated

endocytosis?

A ligand is a molecule that binds specifically to another molecule, usually a larger one. Human cells
use receptor-mediated endocytosis to take in cholesterol for membrane synthesis and the synthesis of
other steroids. Cholesterol travels in the blood in particles called low-density lipoproteins (LDLs),
each a complex of lipids and a protein. LDLs bind to the LDL receptors on plasma membranes and
then enter the cell by endocytosis. The LDLs thus act as ligands.
28.

Are the processes you described in question 23 active or passive transport? Explain your response.
Passive transport. With regard to membrane potential, because the inside of the cell is negative
compared with the outside, the membrane potential favors the passive transport of cations into the
cell and anions out of the cell.

Testing Your Understanding Answers

Now you should be ready to test your knowledge. Place your answers here:
1. b

2. c

3. a

4. d

5. b

Reproduce the diagram for question 6, and draw arrows as instructed.

6b.

The solution outside the cell is hypotonic to the cell. It has less sucrose, which is not able to move
across the membrane.

6d.

The artificial cell will become more turgid as it gains water.

6e.

Eventually, the two solutions will have the same solute concentrations. Even though sucrose cant
move through the membrane, water flow (osmosis) will lead to isotonic conditions.

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