Hill 1

FATS AND OILS: MELTINGPOINTS, PLASTICITY,

EVALUATIONS, EFFECTS OF COOKING TEMPERATURES
AND TIMES, AND COATING SYSTEMS

Sarah Hill
Nutrition 2200 Lab
W 5-8
October 22, 2014

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PURPOSE
The purpose of this lab was to learn and understand the content and properties of different
available fats. The fats were evaluated for the plasticity, melting point and composition, effects
of cooking temperature and time, and the effects of different coatings for cooking had on the
absorption of fats. After the tests, the fried products were evaluated with different available
coating systems.

METHODOLOGY
For the melting point and composition of solid fats, the student had to pack the assigned fat into
a 1/3-cup metal measuring cup and level it off with a rubber spatula. Then, the student
transferred it to a 1-cup metal measuring up and placed it in a frying pan and placing the frying
pan on the range without, without the range on. Next, water was poured into the pan around the
metal cup without getting any water on the fat. After the water, the student turned on the range
and began to heat the fat slowly and took the initial temperature when the edge of the fat began
to melt. The student continued to heat the fat and recorded the temperature at which all the fat
was melted. Once the fat was completely melted, the student transferred the fat from the metal
cup to a 100 milliliter graduated cylinder and recorded the volume. The graduated cylinder then
was set aside to cool and recorded any notable temperatures and layering that occurred and the
volume of the layers. The final temperature was recorded when the fat lost its ability to flow
freely. Lastly, the appearance of the solid fat was recorded (Brannan).

In the plasticity of fats experiment, the student packed a 1/3 measuring cup with the assigned fat
and leveled it off with a rubber spatula. The student had to make sure that the fat was at room
temperature. Then, the student used a penetrometer and tested the penetration of the fat; recorded
the penetration and the temperature. Next, the student smoothed the fat and placed it in the

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refrigerator for an hour. After the hour, the student then retested the penetration using the
penetrometer; recorded the penetration and the temperature. Again, the student smoothed the fat
and placed it in the freezer for an hour. Then retested the penetration; recorded the final
penetration and temperature (Brannan).

In the evaluation of different types of fat, the student had to taste each fat for the flavor,
appearance, spreadability, and other. Then, recorded the results (Brannan).

In the effects of cooking temperature on fat absorption, the cut 2 biscuits into 8 equal pieces,
weighed and recorded the weight of each pair of biscuits. With the deep fat fryer around 225
degrees Fahrenheit, the temperature was recorded. The student then fried group one of the
biscuits for one and a half minutes, 45 seconds on each side and drained on a paper towel. The
weight was recorded along with weight gain; percent weight gain, doneness, appearance, and
oiliness. Then the fryers temperature was increased to 275 degrees Fahrenheit, the temperature
was recorded. Group two was then fried for a minute and a half, 45 seconds on each side and
drained on a paper towel. The results were recorded (same as above). The fryers temperature
was increased to 325 degrees Fahrenheit, temperature recorded. Group three was fried for a
minute and a half, 45 seconds on each side, drained on a paper towel. The results were recorded
(same as above). The fryers temperature was increased to 375 degrees Fahrenheit, temperature
recorded. The last group was fried for a minute and a half, 45 seconds on each side, drained on a
paper towel. The results were recorded (same as above). Each group was reweighed in order to
calculate the weight gain or loss and the percentage of weight gain or loss. All weights were
recorded in grams (Brannan).

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In the effects of cooking time on fat absorption, the student had to cut 2 biscuits into 8 equal
pieces and recorded the weight of each pair. The student made sure that the fryer was at 375
degrees Fahrenheit before frying. Group one was fried for 30 seconds, 15 seconds on each side
and evaluated for weight gain, percentage of weight gain, doneness, appearance, and oiliness.
Group two was fried for one minute, 30 seconds on each side, results recorded (same as above).
Group three was fried for a minute and a half, 45 seconds on each side; results were recorded
(same as above). Group four was fried for two minutes, a minute on each side; results were
recorded (same as above). Each pair was reweighed and recorded to calculate the weight gain or
loss and percentage weight gain or loss. All weights were recorded in grams (Brannan).

In the evaluation of different coating systems, the students were directed to follow the
instructions on their assigned coating packages. The chicken was then fried until internal
temperature reached 160 degrees Fahrenheit (Brannan).

RESULTS
In the melting point and composition of solid fats, the fat for shortening was Crisco allvegetable shortening. It had a serving size of 1 tablespoon, 110 calories per serving, 3 grams of
saturated fat, 0 grams of trans fat, 6 grams of polyunsaturated fat, and 2.5 grams of
monounsaturated fat. The shortening had an initial temperature of 78 degrees Fahrenheit, final
temperature of 155.5 degrees Fahrenheit, and a range of 77.5 degrees Fahrenheit. It had a total
volume of 66 ml with 0 ml of water; it solidified at 72.5 degrees Fahrenheit. For the margarine,
Kroger brand was used. It had a serving size of 1 tablespoon with 100 calories per serving. It
contained 3.5 grams of saturated fat, 0 grams of trans fat, 3.5 grams of polyunsaturated fat, and 4

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grams of monounsaturated fat. It had an initial temperature of 88 degrees Fahrenheit, final
temperature of 138 degrees Fahrenheit, and a range of 50 degrees Fahrenheit. The total volume
was 64.5 ml with 0 ml of water recorded and solidified at 74 degrees Fahrenheit. Country Crock
had a serving size of 1 tablespoon with 70 calories per serving. It contained 2 grams of saturated
fat, 4 grams of polyunsaturated fat, and 1.5 grams of monounsaturated fat. The initial
temperature was 85 degrees Fahrenheit; final temperature was 148 degrees Fahrenheit, and a
range of 63 degrees Fahrenheit. Its total volume was 66 ml with 26 ml of water, and solidified at
73 degrees Fahrenheit. Palm oil had a serving size of 1 tablespoon with 120 calories were
serving. It contained 6.7 grams of saturated fat, 1.3 grams of polyunsaturated fat, and 5 grams of
monounsaturated fat (Sparkpeople). The palm oil had an initial temperature of 75.5 degrees
Fahrenheit, a final temperature of 165.5 degrees Fahrenheit, and a range of 91 degrees
Fahrenheit. Its volume was 62 ml with 0 ml of water and solidified at 78 degrees Fahrenheit.
Blue Bonnet had a serving size of 1 tablespoon with 70 calories per serving. It contained 1.5
grams of saturated fat, 1.5 grams of trans fat, 2.5 grams of polyunsaturated fat, and 2 grams of
monounsaturated fat (Blue Bonnet). Its initial temperature was 80 degrees Fahrenheit, a final
temperature of 116 degrees Fahrenheit, and a range of 36 degrees Fahrenheit. The total volume
was 76 ml and contained 26 ml of water; it solidified at 74 degrees Fahrenheit. The vegetable
spread had a serving size of 1 tablespoon with 50 calories per serving. It contained 1.5 grams of
saturated fat, 0 grams of trans fat, and a total of 5 grams of fat. Its initial temperature was 75
degrees, a final temperature at 112 degrees Fahrenheit, and a range of 37 degrees Fahrenheit. It
had a total volume of 60 ml with 34 ml of water; it solidified at 74 degrees Fahrenheit. The butter
was Kroger unsalted butter, it had a serving size of 1 tablespoon with 100 calories per serving. It
contained 7 grams of saturated fat, 0 grams of trans fat, and a total of 11 grams of fat. Its initial

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temperature was 87 degrees Fahrenheit, a final temperature of 165 degrees Fahrenheit, and a
range of 78 degrees Fahrenheit. Its total volume was 77 ml with 4 ml of water; it solidified at 73
degrees Fahrenheit. The lard was Armour lard and hydrogenated lard. It had a serving size of 1
tablespoon with 120 calories per serving. It contained 6 grams of saturated fat, 0 grams of trans
fat, and a total of 13 grams of fat. It had an initial temperature of 76 degrees Fahrenheit, a final
temperature of 147.5 degrees, and a range of 71.5 degrees Fahrenheit. It had a total volume 67
ml with no water recorded; it solidified at 78 degrees Fahrenheit (Culley). All values are
presented below in Tables 1 and 2.

Table 1: Type of fat with melting points, volumes, and temperature of solidification.
Melting Point (F)
Volume (ml)
Solidification Temperature (F)
Type of Fat Initial Final Range
Total Water
Shortening
78
155.5 77.5
66
0
72.5
Margarine
88
138
50
64.5 0
74
Country
Crock
85
148
63
66
26
73
Palm Oil
75.5 165.5 91
62
0
78
Blue Bonnet 80
116
36
76
26
74
Vegetable
Spread
75
112
37
60
34
74
Butter
76
165
78
77
4
73
Lard
76
147.5 71.5
67
0
78

Table 2: Nutrition Facts for the fats.

Type of Fat Serving Size Calories Saturated(g) Trans(g) P. Unsat.(g) M. Unsat.(g)
Shortening
1 Tbsp.
110
3
0
6
2.5
Margarine
1 Tbsp.
100
3.5
0
3.5
4
Country
Crock
1 Tbsp.
70
2
0
4
1.5
Palm Oil
1 Tbsp.
120
6.7
0
1.3
5
Blue Bonnet 1 Tbsp.
70
1.5
1.5
2.5
2
Vegetable
Spread
1 Tbsp.
50
1.5
0
-*
-*
Butter
1 Tbsp.
100
7
0
-*
-*
Lard
1 Tbsp.
120
6
0
-*
-*
*not given on the nutrition facts panel.
P. polyunsaturated; M.- monounsaturated

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In the plasticity of fats experiment, the same fats as above were tested at different temperatures
for penetration (mm), using a penetrometer, and temperatures at which the penetration occurred.
Shortening at room temperature was 75.5 degrees Fahrenheit and a penetration on 18.9 mm.
Refrigerator temperature was 55.5 degrees Fahrenheit and a penetration of 17.5 mm. Frozen
temperature was 27.5 degrees Fahrenheit and a penetration of 13.4 mm. For margarine, room
temperature was 70.5 degrees Fahrenheit and a penetration of 16.0 mm. Refrigerator temperature
was 56.5 degrees Fahrenheit and a penetration of 13.3 mm. Frozen temperature was 26.5 degrees
Fahrenheit and a penetration of 5.3 mm. Country Crock at room temperature was 71.5 degrees
Fahrenheit and a penetration of 18.1 mm. Refrigerator temperature was 56 degrees Fahrenheit
and a penetration of 34.1 mm. Frozen temperature was 24.5 degrees Fahrenheit and a penetration
of 12.3 mm. Palm oil had a penetration of 19.9 mm at room temperature of 72.5 degrees
Fahrenheit. Refrigerator temperature was 57.5 degrees Fahrenheit and a penetration of 11.6 mm.
Frozen temperature was 37.5 degrees with a penetration of 22.5 mm. Blue Bonnet had a room
temperature of 63 with a penetration of 10.2 mm. Refrigerator temperature was 60 degrees
Fahrenheit with a penetration of 8.5 mm. Frozen temperature was 34 degrees Fahrenheit with a
penetration of 18.4 mm. Vegetable Spread had a room temperature of 70 degrees Fahrenheit and
a penetration of 26.5 mm. Refrigerator temperature was 63.5 degrees Fahrenheit with a
penetration of 20.6 mm. Frozen temperature was 15 degrees Fahrenheit with a penetration of 3.0
mm. Butter had a room temperature of 71 degrees Fahrenheit with a penetration of 11.5 mm.
Refrigerator temperature was 47 degrees Fahrenheit with a penetration of 2.2 mm. Frozen
temperature was 13 degrees Fahrenheit with a penetration of 1.3 mm. Lard had room temperature
of 72 degrees Fahrenheit with a penetration of 11.1 mm. Refrigerator temperature was 36.5
degrees Fahrenheit with a penetration of 4.5 mm. Frozen temperature was 7.5 degrees Fahrenheit

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with a penetration of 1.0 mm (Culley). Table 3 shows the values of each fat at room temperature,
refrigerated temperature and frozen temperature.

Table 3: Fats penetration values at room, refrigerated, and frozen temperatures.

Room Temperature
Refrigerator Temperature
Frozen Temperature
Type of Fat Penetration Fat Temp
Penetration Fat Temp
Penetration Fat Temp
(mm)
(F)
(mm)
(F)
(mm)
(F)
Shortening
18.9
75.5
17.5
55.5
13.4
27.5
Margarine
16.0
70.5
13.3
56.5
5.3
26.5
Country
Crock
18.1
71.5
34.1
56
12.3
24.5
Palm Oil
19.9
72.5
11.6
57.5
22.5
37.5
Blue Bonnet 10.2
63
8.5
60
18.4
34
Vegetable
Spread
26.5
70
20.6
63.5
3.0
15
Butter
11.5
71
2.2
47
1.3
13
Lard
11.1
72
4.5
36.5
1.0
7.5

For the evaluation of different types of fats, the students had to try each fat and describe the
appearance, aroma, spreadability, mouthfeel, and flavor. Since each student did this, the results
were subjective. The students had to choose 8 different fats and then recorded the results. For the
shortening, it was solid, white, thick, and creamy. It had a smell of cooked vegetables and
buttery. It was easily spread at room temperature. It had a smooth and creamy texture and did not
taste like anything besides oil. Margarine was a light yellow color, very soft at room temperature
and creamy. It smelled like old oil that was starting to go rancid. It was very easily spread. It
melted very quickly, was soft, and had a creamy texture that left oil residue in the mouth. This
also did not have a strong taste of anything. The Earth Balance organic coconut spread was off
white and very soft. It smelled just like coconuts. It was easily spread at room temperature and
had an oily layer. It melted quickly and had a soft, creamy texture that tasted like coconut. Olivio
original spread had a light yellow color that smelled like olives. It spread easily and melted

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quickly with a creamy texture. It did not taste like anything at first, but it had a salty aftertaste.
Country Crock was light yellow in color, it smelled like vegetable oil but sweeter. It spread
easily and melted quickly with a salty taste. Smart Balance was yellow with a shiny, oil layer on
top. It smelled like butter but sharper and more distinct. It spread moderately with a smooth,
creamy texture and a salty taste. Yogurt butter was light yellow without any oily layer. It had a
faint plain yogurt smell and did not spread easily. It had a dense, but smooth texture and was
really salty. Vegetable spread was deep yellow with a shiny, oily layer and had a strong
vegetable, buttery smell. It spread easily and had a sticky texture. It did not taste like much
besides oil and had no aftertaste.

For the effects of cooking temperature on fat absorption, the student had to deep fry biscuit
dough at varying temperatures for one and a half minutes. The initial weight, weight after frying,
weight gain/ loss, percent weight gain, doneness, appearance, and oiliness were recorded for
each pair of dough balls. Group one was fried at 225 degrees Fahrenheit and had an initial weight
of 7 grams. After frying, its weight was recorded at 5 grams; it had a weight loss of 2 grams with
no percentage of weight gain. The dough balls were hardly cooked, had a very light golden crust,
that was slightly oily, and the dough was still semi- raw in the center. The fryers temperature
was increased to 275 degrees Fahrenheit. Group two had an initial weight of 7 grams and after
frying the weight remained the same; leading to 0 grams of weight gain and 0 percent weight
gain. It had a medium golden brown crust, light, fluffy center, and was a little oilier than group
one. The temperature of the fryer was increased to 325 degrees Fahrenheit. Group three had an
initial weight of 4 grams and after frying weighed 5 grams. It had a weight gain of 1 gram and 25
percent weight gain. The crust was a dark golden brown and hard and the center was denser then

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the previous group with more oil as well. The fryer was increased to 375 degrees Fahrenheit.
Group four had an initial weight of 3 grams and after frying weighed 5 grams. It had a weight
gain of 2 grams and 67 percent weight gain. Its crust was medium brown and hard, and the center
was very dense with a lot more oil then the previous group. Table 4 gives the values of weight
before and after frying.

Table 4: Weight values before and after frying at various temperatures.

Temp (F)
Initial Wt. (g)
After Wt. (g)
Wt. Gain (g)
225
7
5
-2
275
7
7
0
325
4
5
1
375
3
5
2

% Wt. Gain (g)

0
25
67

In the effects of cooking time on fat absorption, the student had to deep fry dough balls at
varying time intervals at a temperature of 375 degrees Fahrenheit. The initial weight, weight
after frying, weight gain/ loss, percent weight gain; along with doneness, appearance, and
oiliness were recorded for each group. Group ones dough balls were fried for 30 seconds. The
initial weight was 11 grams and after frying weighed 11 grams; there was no weight gain. It had
a light golden brown crust with a soft flaky center and was very oily. Group two was fried for 1
minute. It had an initial weight of 13 grams and after frying weighed 15 grams. It had a weight
gain of 2 grams and a percentage weight gain of 15 percent. It had a dark golden brown crust
with a soft white inside and was also very oily. Group three was fried for 1.5 minutes. It had an
initial weight of 8 grams and after frying weighed 12 grams. It had a weight gain of 4 grams and
a percentage weight gain of 50 percent. It had a dark brown crust with a dense center and was
very oily. Group four was fried for 2 minutes. It had an initial weight of 12 grams and after
frying weighed 9 grams. It had a weight loss of 3 grams and no percentage of weight gain. It had
a very dark brown crust with a dense, soft yellow center and was very oily. Table 5 shows the

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values of the initial weight, after weight, weight gain, and percentage of weight gain at the
varying times.

Table 5: Weight values before and after frying at various time intervals.
Time (min) Before Wt. (g)
Wt. After (g)
Wt. Gain (g)
.5
11
11
1
13
15
2
1.5
8
12
4
2
12
9
-3

% Wt. Gain
15
50
-

In the evaluation of different coating systems, the student coated chicken with different coatings
and deep-fried the chicken. The students followed the instructions on their assigned coating and
recorded the appearance, flavor, mouthfeel, and others. Panko breadcrumbs had a golden brown
appearance with an oily, chicken flavor. The crust was crunchy, but the chicken was chewy and
dry. Plain breadcrumbs had a dark brown crust with black spots. The crust had an oily, burnt
taste and the chicken was chewy and oily. Batter had a medium golden brown crust with an oily,
chicken flavor. The crust was crunchy and the chicken was oily and chewy. Breadcrumbs and
batter had a dark brown with black spots crust. It tasted like burnt oily chicken. The crust was
crunchy and the chicken was chewy and dry. Panko breadcrumbs and batter had a dark golden
brown crust and tasted like oily chicken. The crust was crunchy and the chicken was oily and
tender. Flour had a light golden brown color and tasted like oily chicken. The crust was softer
and oily and the chicken was moist, tender, and oily. Seasoned flour had a medium brown color
and tasted like oily chicken. Its crust was crunchy and the chicken was oily, moist, and tender.
Frying Magic was brown in color and also tasted like oily chicken. Its crust was crunchy and the
chicken was not as oily as the others, moist and tender.

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DISCUSSION
The melting point and solidification of different fats are related to the composition of the fat.
Fatty acids are made up of fatty acids that contain glycerol, polyhydric alcohol containing three
carbon atoms, each of which is joined to a hydroxyl group (McWilliams). These fatty acids can
be saturated, fatty acids containing all of the hydrogen atoms they can possibly hold; or
unsaturated, either monounsaturated or polyunsaturated, fatty acids with one or two or more
double bonds (McWilliams). Depending on how saturated or unsaturated the fatty acids are
influences the fats melting point, the temperature at which the crystals of a solid fat melt; and
the length of their chain (McWilliams). The longer the chain, the more solid the fat is at room
temperature and the higher the melting point. Also influencing the melting point is the degree of
saturation. Fats that are more saturated have higher melting points. For example, stearic acid, a
saturated, 18 carbon fatty acid, has a melting point of about 157 degrees Fahrenheit, while oleic
acid, a monounsaturated acid with 18 carbons and one double bond has a melting point of about
57 degrees Fahrenheit; a polyunsaturated fatty acid, linoleic acid, with 18 carbons and two
double bonds has a melting point of about 23 degrees Fahrenheit (McWilliams). Whether the
fatty acid is cis, the hydrogens attached to the carbon atoms on either end of the double bond are
from the same orientation and cause a lower melting point; or trans, the hydrogens attached to
the carbon atoms on either end of the double bond are from opposite directions and cause a
higher melting point (McWilliams). In this case, after melting the fats and letting them set, those
fats that solidified almost completely were fats that were mostly made up of saturated fatty acids,
while those fats that separated were mostly unsaturated fatty acids.

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The degree of penetrations is also related to the degree of saturation of the fats and the
temperature the fats are cooled at to form the crystals. Most industries put the fats through a
process of tempering, removing heat resulting from crystallization of fats and maintaining a
selected temperature to promote the formation of stable, desirable crystals (McWilliams). By
altering the temperature of which the fats are stable, effects the crystal formation. As the crystal
formations change, based on the temperature, the amount of force thats needed to penetrate the
fats is also altered. As the penetration levels decrease, it shows that more force is required to
fully penetrate the fat, resulting in more lower penetration levels at different temperatures. Fats
that contained less water required more force to penetrate the fats at decreasing temperatures due
to the altered forms of the crystals, while fats that were more saturated needed less force.

When deep- frying foods it is best to keep the oil at a temperature of about 350 degrees
Fahrenheit (McWilliams). The temperature of the oil and the food being cooked influences fat
absorption. If the temperature is too low, it takes longer for the food to cook, resulting in more
fat absorption. If the temperature is too high, the outer part of the food will cook too quickly; and
the inside is not fully cooked. With temperatures on the lower end, below 350 degrees
Fahrenheit, the fat is more easily absorbed. Also depending of the composition of the dough,
more fat may be absorbed. If the dough contains a high amount of sugar and fat, more fat
absorption will occur (McWilliams).

The cooking time will affect the amount of fat absorbed depending on the time interval and the
temperature at which the food is being cooked. The longer it takes to cook the food more fat is
absorb (Kikel). When the dough balls lost weight, it was most likely due to the loss of water.

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When the dough balls gained weight, it was due to the fat absorption because of the long
exposure time to the oil (Kikel). To maintain the weight, it is best to cook the food at the optimal
time and temperature; the fat absorbed replaces the water lost.

As for the type of coating system, the composition of the system will affect the amount of fat that
is absorbed. The coating systems that contained a high amount of fat and sugar will increase the
amount of fat absorbed (McWilliams). The coating systems that used only breadcrumbs and flour
resulted in a lower fat absorption because they contained low amounts of fat and sugar before
frying.

CONCLUSION
When testing different fats melting points, the results were influenced by the degree of
saturation and the overall composition of the fat. The more saturated the fat, the higher the
melting point will be and the more solid it is at room temperature. Plasticity maybe affected
depending on the formation of the crystal structures at different temperatures. With decreasing
temperatures, the crystals are larger; this requires more force to be used in order to penetrate the
fats. Also, the more saturated the fat, more force it required. Tasting different fats is subjective,
so depending on the person who is trying the fat; it will all have a different flavor and aroma.
When deep frying foods, the lower the temperature, the more fat that will be absorbed. Fat
absorption is also influenced by the dough composition, more sugar and fat results in more fat
absorption. With cooking time, the longer the dough is exposed to the oil, the more fat will be
absorbed. Cooking the dough until the inside is fully cooked is the optimal time. Depending on
the type of coating system used will influence the fat absorption. Systems with high amounts of

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fat and sugar will absorb more fat and result in a greasier product. Overall, fat is influenced by
the degree of saturation and the fatty acid composition.

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REFERENCES
Blue Bonnet. 2014. Nutrition Facts Panel.
Brannan, R.G. 2013. Laboratory Manual for NUTR 2200. Pp. 67- 74.
Culley, Amanda. 2014. Fats and Oils Data. PPT.
Kikel, Alex. N/A. Effect of Cooking Time on Fat Absorption.
McWilliams, Margaret. 2012. Foods: Experimental Perspectives ed. 7. Pp. 237-240, 273-274.
SparkPeople. 2014. Calories in Palm Oil.