Professional Documents
Culture Documents
BY ORDER OF THE
SECRETARY OF THE AIR FORCE
1 July 2006
AIR FORCE TACTICS,
TECHNIQUES, AND PROCEDURES
COMBAT
FUNDAMENTALS
GUARDIAN ANGEL and
Special Tactics Forces (U)
UNCLASSIFIED // FOUO
3-3.8
NOTICE: AFTTP 3-1 and 3-3 volumes are available on-line via SIPRNET at the following web
site: http://www.nellis.af.smil.mil/units/JASTC/default.htm.
OPR:
PURPOSE: The Air Force Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures (AFTTP) 3-3 series publications
are the primary aircraft fundamental reference document for the USAF This series provides
considerations to be used in planning and execution for effective mission accomplishment. These
recognized best practices are presented as the foundation of employment and standardization for
all USAF weapons systems.
APPLICATION: This publication applies to all regular, Air Force Reserve, and Air National
Guard personnel. In accordance with AFI 33-360 V1 TTP and TTP(I) publications are not
directive. The tactics, techniques, and procedures in this document are still authoritative;
deviations require sound judgment and careful consideration. In cases where this publication and
AFIs conflict, the applicable AFI will take precedence. The following joint publication
definitions apply:
TacticsThe employment and ordered arrangement of forces in relation to each other.
(JP 1-02)
TechniquesNon-prescriptive ways or methods used to perform missions, functions, or
tasks. (JP 1-02)
ProceduresStandard, detailed steps that prescribe how to perform specific tasks.
(JP 1-02)
SCOPE: This manual addresses basic weapon system tasks. AFTTP 3-3 provides information
and guidelines on basic procedures and techniques used for standardization. It presents a solid
foundation on which effective tactics can be executed.
SERIES: The series of AFTTP 3-3 volumes includes the following:
Volume 3
Volume 4
ii
Volume 8
Volume 15
Volume 17
Volume 18
Volume 19
Volume 20
Volume 22A
Volume 22B
Volume 24
Volume 25A
Volume 25B
Volume 30
Volume 31
Volume 33
Volume 34
Volume 35A
Volume 35B
AUTHORS: The following people assisted in writing and preparing this volume:
Maj Scott Shepard
HQ AFSOC/DOXJ
720 OSS
347 OSS/OSKW
AFSOC/DOXF
308 RQS
HQ AFSOC/DOXJ
131 RQS
HQ ACC/A3TOP
HQ AFSOC/DOTW
131 RQS
48 RQS
iii
123 STS
HQ AFSOC/DOV
563 OSS/SERE
16 OSS/OSTS
38 RQS
212 RQS
720 OSS
563 OSS/SERE
103 RQS
103 RQS
58 RQS
720 OSS
CENTAF A3 DOOR
720 OSS
58 RQS
131 RQS
720 OSS
38 RQS
23 STS
58 RQS
LEAD PRODUCTION TEAM. The following individuals prepared, edited, and published this
volume:
Capt Lisa Kruger
USAFWC/DOTW
Volume Manager
Mr Dale Mitcham
USAFWC/DOTW
Technical Editor
Mr Dave Foote
USAFWC/DOTW
Layout Editor
Mr Mike Davis
USAFWC/DOTW
MM/VI Specialist
DISTRIBUTION: The AFTTP 3-3 series is distributed worldwide to the USAF and the combat
forces of the other US services. These volumes are for official use only (FOUO) and are not
releasable to non-US government agencies or contractors, in any form, without
USAFWC/DOTW approval as coordinated through AFSOC/A-3.
iv
MICHAEL W. WOOLEY
Lt General, USAF
Commander, Air Force Special Operations Command
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Paragraph
Page
CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION
1.1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1
1.1.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1
1.1.2
Specifics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1
1.2
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-2
1.3
Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-2
1.4
1-2
1.4.1
Commanders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-2
1.4.2
1-2
1.4.3
Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-2
Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-2
1.5.1
Distribution X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-3
1.5.2
Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-3
Change Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-3
1.5
1.6
General
......................................................
2-1
2.2
Operational Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1
2.2.1
Predeployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1
2.2.2
2-13
2.2.3
Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-15
2.2.4
2-72
2.2.5
Postdeployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-73
2-74
2.3.1
2-74
2.3.2
2-74
2.3.3
2-74
2-87
2.4.1
2-88
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.4.2
Control/Coordination Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-88
2.4.3
Notification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-88
2.4.4
Recovery Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-89
2.4.5
2-89
2.4.6
Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-89
2.4.7
Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-89
2.4.8
Authentication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-89
2.4.9
Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-89
2.4.10
Mission Termination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-89
2-89
2.5.1
2-90
2.5.2
2-90
2.5.3
2-92
2.5.4
2-92
2.5.5
2-94
2.5.6
2-95
2.5.7
2-96
2.5.8
Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-97
2.5.9
Make Reconnaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-98
2.5.10
2-98
2.5.11
2.5.12
Briefback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-105
2.5.13
2.5.14
2.5.15
Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-106
2.6.2
2.6.3
2.6.4
2.6.5
2.6.6
vi
2.6.7
2.6.8
2.6.9
2.6.10
2.6.11
Airmanship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-1
3.2
General
......................................................
3-1
3.2.1
Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-1
3.2.2
Crew Coordination/Duties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-1
3.2.3
Aircraft Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-1
3.2.4
Interphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-1
3.2.5
3-3
3.2.6
Voice Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-3
3.2.7
3-6
3-6
3.3.1
3-6
3.3.2
Restraining Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-6
3.4
Aircraft Marshalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-6
3.5
Aircraft Egress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-6
3.6
Pararescue/CRO Duties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-7
3.6.1
En Route Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-8
3.6.2
3-8
3-8
3.7.1
Pre-Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-8
3.7.2
3-8
3.7.3
3-9
3.7.4
3-9
3.7.5
3-9
3.3
3.7
vii
Individual/Team Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-9
3-15
3.8.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-15
3.9
3-16
3.10
Aerial Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-16
3.10.1
Special Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-16
Airland Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-16
3.11.1
3-16
3.11.2
Combat Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-17
3.11.3
3-18
3.11.4
Patient Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-18
3.11.5
3-19
3-19
3.12.1
3-19
3.12.2
3-21
3.8
3.11
3.12
General
......................................................
4-1
4.2
Alternate Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1
4.2.1
Restraining Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1
4.2.2
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1
4.3
4-1
4.4
4-2
4.4.1
Time Calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2
4.4.2
Rope Deployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2
4.5
AIE Master . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2
4.6
4-2
4.7
Rope Ladder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3
4.7.1
4-4
4.7.2
Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4
4.7.3
Etrier Assist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4
viii
4.7.4
Caving Ladder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4
4.7.5
Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4
4.7.6
Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4
Rappel
......................................................
4-4
4.8.1
4-4
4.8.2
Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4
4.8.3
Rope Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-5
4.8.4
Deployment Bag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-5
4.8.5
Personal Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-5
4.8.6
Deployment Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-5
4.8.7
Hook Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-6
4.8.8
Rope Deployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-6
4.8.9
Rope Retrieval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-6
4.8.10
4-6
4.8.11
Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-6
4.8.12
Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-6
Short Haul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-6
4.9.1
4-6
4.9.2
Execution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-6
4.9.3
4-7
4.9.4
Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-7
4.9.5
Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-7
Fast Rope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-7
4.10.1
4-9
4.10.2
Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-9
4.10.3
Time Warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-9
4.10.4
4-10
4.10.5
4-10
4.10.6
Night Deployments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-11
4.10.7
4-11
4.10.8
Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-11
4.10.9
Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-11
4.8
4.9
4.10
ix
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15
4-11
Hoist Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-12
4.11.1
4-12
4.11.2
Climbing Harness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-12
4.11.3
Forest Penetrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-12
4.11.4
Rescue Seat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-14
4.11.5
Stokes Litter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-15
4.11.6
Tag Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-15
4.11.7
Rescue Basket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-17
4.11.8
Rescue Net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-17
4.11.9
4-17
4.11.10
Quick Strop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-19
4.11.11
Execution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-19
4.11.12
4-28
4.11.13
4-29
4.11.14
Predeployment Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-29
4.11.15
Aircraft Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-30
4.11.16
Deployment Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-30
4.11.17
Safety Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-31
4-31
4.12.1
Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-31
4.12.2
4-31
4.12.3
Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-32
4.12.4
4-34
4-34
4.13.1
4-34
4-39
4.14.1
4-39
4-43
4.15.1
4-43
4.15.2
Delivery Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-43
4.15.3
Safety Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-43
4.17
4.18
4-43
4.16.1
4-44
4.16.2
CRRC Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-44
4-46
4.17.1
4-46
4.17.2
4-47
4.17.3
Deployment Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-48
4.17.4
4-48
4-48
4.18.1
Preparation/Infiltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-48
4.18.2
Preparation/Exfiltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-49
5.2
General
......................................................
5-1
5.1.1
5-1
5.1.2
Recovery Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-1
5.1.3
5-1
5.1.4
Insertion Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-2
5.1.5
Exit Altitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-2
5.1.6
5-2
5.1.7
Surface Winds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-2
5.1.8
5-3
5.1.9
Parachute Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-3
5.1.10
5-4
5.1.11
5-16
5.1.12
Free-Fall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-16
5.1.13
5-34
5-46
5.2.1
Prepare to Land.
......................................
5-46
5.2.2
Landing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-46
5.2.3
5-46
...........................
xi
Delivery Containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-46
5-54
5.3.1
5-55
5.3.2
General Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-55
5-57
5.4.1
.............................
5-57
5.4.2
5-58
5.4.3
5-58
5.4.4
5-58
5.4.5
5-58
5.4.6
5-58
5-59
5.5.1
Sight Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-59
5.5.2
Head Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-59
5.5.3
Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-59
5.5.4
Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-59
5.5.5
Jumpmaster Release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-59
5.5.6
5-59
5.5.7
5-60
5.6
5-62
5.7
5-62
5.8
5-62
5.8.1
HH-60 Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-63
5.8.2
C-130 Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-64
5.8.3
HC-130 Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-65
5-67
5.9.1
C-130 Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-67
5.9.2
H-1 Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-67
5.9.3
H-60 Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-67
5.9.4
Other Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-68
5.9.5
5-68
5.9.6
Deployment to a Vessel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-68
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.9
5.11
xii
5-69
5-71
5.10.1
DZ Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-71
5.10.2
Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-71
5.10.3
Altitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-71
5-72
5.11.1
Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-72
5.11.2
Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-72
5.11.3
Deploying/Exit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-72
5.11.4
Watercraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-72
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-1
6.2
Types of Airdrops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-1
6.2.1
Low-Velocity Airdrop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-1
6.2.2
High-Velocity Drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-1
6.2.3
6-1
6.2.4
Free-Fall Airdrops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-1
6.2.5
6-1
Methods of Airdrops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-2
6.3.1
Door Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-2
6.3.2
Wing Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-2
6.3.3
Gravity-Release Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-2
6.3.4
Extraction Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-2
6.3.5
6-2
Cargo Parachutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-2
6.4.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-2
6.4.2
Routine Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-2
6.4.3
Parachute Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-3
6.4.4
6-3
6.4.5
6-4
6.3
6.4
xiii
6-4
6.6
6-4
6.6.1
6-5
6.6.2
6-5
6.6.3
6-5
6.7
6-5
6.8
6-8
6.8.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-8
6.8.2
Airdrop Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-9
6.9
6-9
6.10
6-9
6.11
6-9
6.11.1
Rope Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-9
6.11.2
Knot Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-9
6.11.3
Remaining Rope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-9
6.11.4
Running Ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-9
6.12
Crew Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-9
6.13
6-10
6.13.1
Comm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-10
6.13.2
Reference Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-10
6.13.3
Release Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-10
6.13.4
Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-10
6.13.5
6-10
6.13.6
6-10
Fuel
......................................................
6-10
6.14.1
One-Gallon Cans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-11
6.14.2
Small Cans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-11
6.14.3
Shipping Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-11
6.14.4
Labelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-11
6.14.5
Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-11
6.14
xiv
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1
7.2
General
......................................................
7-1
7.3
Safety
......................................................
7-1
7.4
Mindset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1
7.5
7-2
7.6
Moving Targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-2
7.7
Terminal Ballistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-2
7.7.1
7-2
7.7.2
M-16 Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-3
7.7.3
Better Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-3
7.7.4
Special Ball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-3
7.7.5
7-3
Training Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-5
7.8.1
Marksmanship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-5
7.8.2
Rifleman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-5
7.8.3
7-5
7.8.4
Designated Marksman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-5
7.8.5
Marksmanship Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-5
7.8.6
Arms Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-5
7.8.7
DM Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-6
7.8.8
Target Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-6
7.8.9
Long-Range Anti-Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-6
7.8.10
7-6
7.8.11
Night Shooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-9
7.8.12
Sighting in IR Lasers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-10
7.8.13
7-10
7.8
8-1
8.1.1
8-1
Environmental Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xv
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.1.2
Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1
8.1.3
Life Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1
8.1.4
8-2
8.1.5
8-2
8.1.6
8-3
8.1.7
Driving Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-4
8.1.8
Driving Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-4
8.1.9
Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-5
8-6
8.2.1
Environmental Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-6
8.2.2
8-19
8-21
8.3.1
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-21
8-35
8.4.1
Environmental Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-36
8.4.2
8-36
8.4.3
Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-44
8-45
8.5.1
Mountain Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-45
8.5.2
Alpine Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-45
8.5.3
Environmental Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-45
8.5.4
8-46
8.5.5
Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-47
8-48
8.6.1
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-48
8.6.2
8-48
8.6.3
8-51
8-61
8.7.1
NBC Warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-61
8.7.2
Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-61
Environmental Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-61
8.8.1
8-61
Urban Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xvi
8.8.2
Desert Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-62
8.8.3
8-62
8.8.4
Mountain Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-62
8.8.5
Jungle Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-63
8.8.6
8-63
8.8.7
8-64
8.8.8
8-65
8.8.9
Atmospheric Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-65
8.8.10
Deployment Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-66
8.8.11
Potential Threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-66
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-1
9.2
9-1
9.2.1
9-1
9.2.2
9-5
9.2.3
9-16
9.2.4
9-18
9.2.5
9-19
9.2.6
9-20
9.2.7
Surf Rescue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-21
9-23
9.3.1
Load Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-23
9.3.2
Equipment Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-26
9.3.3
9-28
9.3.4
9-34
9.3.5
9-42
9.3.6
9-47
9-51
9.4.1
9-51
9.4.2
Diving Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-75
9.3
9.4
xvii
9-78
9.4.4
Search Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-80
9.4.5
9.4.6
9.4.7
9.4.8
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10-1
10.2
Physics Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10-1
10.2.1
Intended Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10-1
10.2.2
Historical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10-1
10.2.3
Technical Merit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10-1
Safety
......................................................
10-1
10.3.1
Rescuer Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10-1
10.3.2
Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10-1
10.3.3
Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10-1
10.3.4
10-1
10.3.5
Rescue Necessities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10-2
10.3.6
Safety Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10-2
10.3.7
10-6
10.3.8
Deprecated Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10-6
10.3.9
Rope in Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10-6
10.3.10
Fall Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10-6
10.3.11
10-6
Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10-7
10.4.1
10-7
Control
......................................................
10-8
10.5.1
Individual Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10-8
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-11
10.6.1
10.7
10.8
xviii
10.6.2
10.6.3
10.7.8
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-16
10.7.9
10.7.10
10.7.11
10.7.12
10.7.13
10.7.14
10.7.15
10.7.16
10.7.17
10.7.18
10.7.19
10.7.20
10.7.21
10.7.22
Pulleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-42
10.7.23
Carabiners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-42
10.7.24
Descenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-43
10.7.25
10.7.26
10.7.27
10.7.28
10.7.29
10.7.30
10.7.31
10.8.2
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-121
10.8.3
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-121
xix
10.9
10.8.4
10.8.5
10.8.6
10.8.7
10.8.8
10.8.9
10.8.10
10.8.11
Trigger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-129
10.8.12
10.8.13
Whoompf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-130
10.8.14
10.8.15
Windward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-131
10.8.16
10.8.17
10.8.18
10.8.19
10.8.20
10.8.21
10.8.22
10.8.23
10.8.24
10.8.25
10.9.2
10.9.3
10.9.4
10.9.5
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-190
10.10.2
10.10.3
xx
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-198
10.11.2
10.11.3
10.11.4
10.11.5
10.11.6
10.11.7
10.11.8
10.11.9
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-231
10.13.2
10.13.3
10.13.4
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-1
11.2
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-1
11.3
11-1
11.4
Tactical Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-1
11.5
11-1
11.5.1
11-1
11.5.2
Fighting Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-1
11.5.3
11-1
11.5.4
Rucksack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-2
11.5.5
Sleep Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-3
11.5.6
11-3
xxi
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
11.5.7
Communications Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-3
11.5.8
11-4
11.5.9
Influencing Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-5
11.5.10
11-5
11.5.11
Essential Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-6
11-6
11.6.1
11-6
11.6.2
Natural Concealment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-6
11.6.3
11-6
11-7
11.7.1
Desert Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-7
11.7.2
Urban Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-7
11.7.3
Mountain Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-8
11.7.4
11-8
11.7.5
Jungle Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-9
Fundamentals of Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-9
11.8.1
11.8.2
11.9.2
11.10.2
11.10.3
11.11.2
11.11.3
11.11.4
11.11.5
11.11.6
Weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-16
xxii
Fording . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-18
11.12.2
Swimming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-18
11.12.3
11.12.4
11.12.5
11.12.6
11.12.7
Boats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-19
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-19
11.13.2
Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-19
11.13.3
Watches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-19
11.13.4
11.13.5
11.13.6
11.13.7
11.13.8
11.13.9
11.14.2
11.14.3
11.14.4
11.14.5
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-26
11.15.2
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-26
xxiii
General
......................................................
12-1
12.1.1
Reintegration Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12-1
12.1.2
Planning Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12-1
12.1.3
12-6
12.1.4
12-7
12.1.5
12.1.6
After-Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-13
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A1-1
A1.2
A1-2
A1.3
Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1-19
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A2-1
xxiv
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.2
Figure 2.3
Figure 2.4
Figure 3.1
Figure 4.1
Figure 4.2
Figure 4.3
Figure 4.4
Figure 4.5
Figure 4.6
Figure 4.7
Figure 4.8
Figure 4.9
Figure 4.10
Figure 4.11
Figure 4.12
Figure 4.13
Figure 4.14
Figure 4.15
Figure 4.16
Figure 4.17
Figure 4.18
Figure 4.19
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2
Figure 5.3
Figure 5.4
Figure 5.5
Figure 5.6
Figure 5.7
Figure 5.8
Figure 5.9
Figure 5.10
Figure 5.11
Figure 5.12
Figure 5.13
Figure 5.14
Figure 5.15
Figure 5.16
Figure 5.17
Figure 5.18
2-41
2-42
2-43
2-44
3-20
4-8
4-9
4-13
4-14
4-15
4-16
4-18
4-18
4-19
4-23
4-24
4-25
4-28
4-32
4-33
4-33
4-45
4-45
4-47
5-14
5-18
5-20
5-21
5-22
5-23
5-24
5-25
5-27
5-28
5-28
5-29
5-30
5-31
5-32
5-33
5-33
5-34
xxv
Figure 5.19
Figure 5.20
Figure 5.21
Figure 5.22
Figure 5.23
Figure 5.24
Figure 5.25
Figure 5.26
Figure 5.27
Figure 5.28
Figure 5.29
Figure 5.30
Figure 5.31
Figure 5.32
Figure 5.33
Figure 7.1
Figure 7.2
Figure 7.3
Figure 7.4
Figure 7.5
Figure 7.6
Figure 7.7
Figure 7.8
Figure 7.9
Figure 7.10
Figure 7.11
Figure 7.12
Figure 7.13
Figure 7.14
Figure 7.15
Figure 7.16
Figure 7.17
Figure 7.18
Figure 7.19
Figure 7.20
Figure 7.21
Figure 7.22
Figure 7.23
Figure 8.1
Figure 8.2
Figure 8.3
Figure 8.4
Figure 8.5
Figure 8.6
Figure 8.7
5-35
5-35
5-36
5-37
5-37
5-38
5-38
5-39
5-40
5-41
5-41
5-42
5-42
5-44
5-50
7-2
7-3
7-4
7-4
7-9
7-12
7-13
7-13
7-14
7-14
7-15
7-15
7-16
7-16
7-17
7-17
7-18
7-18
7-19
7-21
7-23
7-26
7-28
8-7
8-9
8-13
8-14
8-22
8-22
8-23
xxvi
Figure 8.8
Figure 8.9
Figure 8.10
Figure 8.11
Figure 8.12
Figure 8.13
Figure 8.14
Figure 8.15
Figure 8.16
Figure 8.17
Figure 8.18
Figure 8.19
Figure 8.20
Figure 9.1
Figure 9.2
Figure 9.3
Figure 9.4
Figure 9.5
Figure 9.6
Figure 9.7
Figure 9.8
Figure 9.9
Figure 9.10
Figure 9.11
Figure 9.12
Figure 9.13
Figure 9.14
Figure 9.15
Figure 9.16
Figure 9.17
Figure 9.18
Figure 9.19
Figure 9.20
Figure 9.21
Figure 9.22
Figure 9.23
Figure 9.24
Figure 9.25
Figure 9.26
Figure 9.27
Figure 9.28
Figure 9.29
Figure 9.30
Figure 9.31
Figure 9.32
8-24
8-25
8-25
8-26
8-27
8-27
8-28
8-31
8-37
8-38
8-38
8-40
8-40
9-3
9-6
9-7
9-8
9-10
9-11
9-12
9-14
9-15
9-16
9-27
9-29
9-35
9-36
9-37
9-38
9-39
9-40
9-44
9-48
9-49
9-49
9-52
9-54
9-57
9-58
9-59
9-60
9-61
9-69
9-72
9-73
Mangrove Swamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Palm Swamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Savanna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bamboo Forest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rice Paddies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plantations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Small Farms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Leech Straps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typical Urban Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
City Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Core Periphery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Outlying Industrial Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Urban Battlespace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tri-SAR Harness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rescue Stroke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Underwater Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Front Surface Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cross-Chest Carry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equipment and Collar Tow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Front Head Hold Release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Front Head Hold Escape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rear Head Hold Release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rear Head Hold Escape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Navigation Board with Knot Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Johnson 30-Horsepower Military Two-Stroke OBM . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Search Planning Work Slate (1 of 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Search Planning Work Slate (2 of 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Search Object Drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Expanding Square Search Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sector Search Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Creeping Line Search Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PIW Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hoisting from CRRC Underway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CRRC Bow Line Attachment Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CRRC CRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Protective Helmet with Divator FFM and Underwater Communications
EXO BRMS FFM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
EGS Bottle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dive Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Contingency Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hardwired Underwater Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wireless Underwater Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Diving Harness with Cutting Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Line Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Contingency Strap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xxvii
Figure 9.33
Figure 9.34
Figure 9.35
Figure 9.36
Figure 9.37
Figure 9.38
Figure 9.39
Figure 9.40
Figure 9.41
Figure 9.42
Figure 9.43
Figure 9.44
Figure 9.45
Figure 9.46
Figure 9.47
Figure 9.48
Figure 9.49
Figure 9.50
Figure 9.51
Figure 9.52
Figure 9.53
Figure 9.54
Figure 9.55
Figure 9.56
Figure 10.1
Figure 10.2
Figure 10.3
Figure 10.4
Figure 10.5
Figure 10.6
Figure 10.7
Figure 10.8
Figure 10.9
Figure 10.10
Figure 10.11
Figure 10.12
Figure 10.13
Figure 10.14
Figure 10.15
Figure 10.16
Figure 10.17
Figure 10.18
Figure 10.19
Figure 10.20
Figure 10.21
9-74
9-74
9-82
9-83
9-88
9-88
9-90
9-92
9-92
9-94
9-95
9-96
9-98
9-98
9-101
9-107
9-110
9-111
9-113
9-114
9-115
9-116
9-118
9-124
10-4
10-15
10-18
10-19
10-19
10-20
10-21
10-22
10-22
10-23
10-25
10-26
10-27
10-29
10-29
10-30
10-30
10-32
10-32
10-34
10-35
xxviii
Figure 10.22
Figure 10.23
Figure 10.24
Figure 10.25
Figure 10.26
Figure 10.27
Figure 10.28
Figure 10.29
Figure 10.30
Figure 10.31
Figure 10.32
Figure 10.33
Figure 10.34
Figure 10.35
Figure 10.36
Figure 10.37
Figure 10.38
Figure 10.39
Figure 10.40
Figure 10.41
Figure 10.42
Figure 10.43
Figure 10.44
Figure 10.45
Figure 10.46
Figure 10.47
Figure 10.48
Figure 10.49
Figure 10.50
Figure 10.51
Figure 10.52
Figure 10.53
Figure 10.54
Figure 10.55
Figure 10.56
Figure 10.57
Figure 10.58
Figure 10.59
Figure 10.60
Figure 10.61
Figure 10.62
Figure 10.63
Figure 10.64
Figure 10.65
Figure 10.66
10-38
10-39
10-40
10-42
10-43
10-44
10-45
10-45
10-46
10-47
10-49
10-50
10-52
10-53
10-54
10-55
10-56
10-57
10-58
10-59
10-60
10-61
10-62
10-63
10-64
10-65
10-66
10-67
10-69
10-70
10-71
10-72
10-73
10-73
10-74
10-75
10-75
10-76
10-77
10-79
10-80
10-80
10-81
10-82
10-83
Leg Tensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ropes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Accessory Cord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types of Webbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pulleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Carabiners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Descenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Test Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
540 Belay Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rigging Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Knot Cartoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Definition Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Double Fishermans Knot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure Eight Knot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Water Knot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bowline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Round Turn Two Half Hitches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure Eight Retraced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Butterfly Knot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Directional Figure Eight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bowline-On-a-Bite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Two-Loop Figure Eight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure Eight On a Bight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Middle-of-the-Rope-Prisik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
End of Rope Prusik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bowline-on-a-Coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Frost Knot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Munter Hitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wrap Three Pull Two . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Two-Point Distributive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
High Strength Tie Off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Focal Point Utilizing Snow Anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Focal Point Utilizing Three Rock Anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Standard Anchor Focal Point for a Mainline Lowering Package . . . . .
Pretensioned Back-Tie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pretensioned Front-Tie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Edge Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Improvised Soft Edge Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
System Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Purcell Prusik System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Knot Bypass Lower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Knot Bypass Raise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Components of a Rescue System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tying of Brake Rack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Edge Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xxix
Figure 10.67
Figure 10.68
Figure 10.69
Figure 10.70
Figure 10.71
Figure 10.72
Figure 10.73
Figure 10.74
Figure 10.75
Figure 10.76
Figure 10.77
Figure 10.78
Figure 10.79
Figure 10.80
Figure 10.81
Figure 10.82
Figure 10.83
Figure 10.84
Figure 10.85
Figure 10.86
Figure 10.87
Figure 10.88
Figure 10.89
Figure 10.90
Figure 10.91
Figure 10.92
Figure 10.93
Figure 10.94
Figure 10.95
Figure 10.96
Figure 10.97
Figure 10.98
Figure 10.99
Figure 10.100
Figure 10.101
Figure 10.102
Figure 10.103
Figure 10.104
Figure 10.105
Figure 10.106
Figure 10.107
Figure 10.108
Figure 10.109
10-83
10-84
10-85
10-87
10-88
10-89
10-89
10-90
10-91
10-91
10-93
10-94
10-95
10-96
10-97
10-97
10-98
10-98
10-100
10-101
10-102
10-103
10-104
10-105
10-105
10-106
10-107
10-109
10-111
10-112
10-113
10-115
10-116
10-119
10-119
10-123
10-124
10-124
10-125
10-125
10-126
10-126
10-127
Moraines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hanging Glacier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Snow Covered Crevasse Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Collapsed Snowbridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Avalanche Sequence Part (1 of 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Avalanche Sequence Part (2 of 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Avalanche Sequence Part (3 of 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sit Harness Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Traveling with a Sled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Back Pack Set-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crossing the Crevasse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Step 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Step 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Step 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Step 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Step 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Step 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Step 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Step 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Step 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Step 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vertical Confined Space Entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vertical Confined Space Post-Entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hand-Held Gas Monitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Anchor Tripod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Circular Masonry Saw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gas Powered Saws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crash-Axe Extended . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Miscellaneous Entry Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Remote Microphone-Communications System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flex-Scope Camera System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flex-Scope LCD Camera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T-Shore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vertical Shore Diagonal Brace Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Window Frame Brace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mechanical Jack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Trench for Jack 4 x 4 Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jack Supporting Cross Beam Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Move Concrete Slab On Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Move Concrete Slab Over Object (1 of 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Move Concrete Slab Over Object (2 of 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Move Concrete Slab Over Object (3 of 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Concrete Entry 1 (1 of 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Concrete Entry 1 (2 of 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Concrete Entry 1 (3 of 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xxx
10-127
10-128
10-128
10-129
10-131
10-132
10-133
10-134
10-139
10-141
10-143
10-145
10-146
10-147
10-148
10-149
10-150
10-151
10-152
10-153
10-154
10-157
10-157
10-158
10-161
10-164
10-164
10-165
10-166
10-169
10-169
10-170
10-171
10-172
10-173
10-175
10-176
10-177
10-178
10-179
10-180
10-181
10-182
10-183
10-184
xxxi
Figure 10.155
Figure 10.156
Figure 10.157
Figure 10.158
Figure 10.159
Figure 10.160
Figure 10.161
Figure 10.162
Figure 10.163
Figure 10.164
Figure 10.165
Figure 10.166
Figure 10.167
Figure 10.168
Figure 10.169
Figure 10.170
Figure 10.171
Figure 10.172
Figure 10.173
Figure 10.174
Figure 10.175
10-184
10-185
10-186
10-186
10-187
10-188
10-189
10-189
10-192
10-193
10-194
10-194
10-196
10-196
10-202
10-205
10-208
10-208
10-212
10-218
10-219
xxxii
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 2.1
Table 2.2
Table 2.3
Table 2.4
Table 2.5
Table 2.6
Table 2.7
Table 2.8
Table 2.9
Table 2.10
Table 2.11
Table 2.12
Table 2.13
Table 2.14
Table 2.15
Table 2.16
Table 2.17
Table 2.18
Table 2.19
Table 2.20
Table 2.21
Table 2.22
Table 2.23
Table 2.24
Table 2.25
Table 2.26
Table 2.27
Table 2.28
Table 2.29
Table 2.30
Table 2.31
Table 2.32
Table 2.33
Table 2.34
Table 2.35
Table 2.36
Table 2.37
Table 2.38
Table 2.39
Table 2.40
Table 2.41
Table 2.42
2-3
2-4
2-5
2-6
2-10
2-11
2-12
2-17
2-21
2-23
2-24
2-25
2-27
2-30
2-31
2-32
2-33
2-34
2-35
2-36
2-37
2-38
2-39
2-40
2-45
2-46
2-47
2-48
2-50
2-53
2-54
2-56
2-58
2-59
2-60
2-61
2-62
2-63
2-64
2-65
2-66
2-67
xxxiii
Table 2.43
Table 2.44
Table 2.45
Table 2.46
Table 2.47
Table 2.48
Table 2.49
Table 2.50
Table 2.51
Table 2.52
Table 2.53
Table 2.54
Table 2.55
Table 2.56
Table 2.57
Table 2.58
Table 2.59
Table 2.60
Table 2.61
Table 2.62
Table 2.63
Table 2.64
Table 2.65
Table 2.66
Table 2.67
Table 2.68
Table 2.69
Table 2.70
Table 2.71
Table 2.72
Table 2.73
Table 3.1
Table 3.2
Table 3.3
Table 3.4
Table 3.5
Table 3.6
Table 3.7
Table 3.8
Table 3.9
Table 3.10
Table 4.1
Table 4.2
Table 4.3
2-69
2-70
2-71
2-75
2-76
2-77
2-78
2-79
2-80
2-81
2-82
2-83
2-84
2-85
2-86
2-87
2-90
2-93
2-94
2-101
2-111
2-112
2-113
2-114
2-115
2-116
2-117
2-118
2-119
2-120
2-121
3-2
3-4
3-5
3-7
3-10
3-11
3-12
3-13
3-14
3-15
4-3
4-29
4-31
xxxiv
4-38
4-39
5-2
5-2
5-3
5-3
5-7
5-10
5-11
5-12
5-13
5-14
5-15
5-16
5-17
5-26
5-30
5-43
5-45
5-46
5-47
5-48
5-49
5-51
5-52
5-53
5-54
6-3
6-4
6-6
6-7
6-8
6-8
7-7
7-8
7-11
7-12
7-24
7-25
8-19
8-42
9-28
9-41
9-78
xxxv
Table 9.4
Table 9.5
Table 9.6
Table 9.7
Table 9.8
Table 10.1
Table 10.2
Table 10.3
Table 10.4
Table 10.5
Table 10.6
Table 10.7
Table 10.8
Table 10.9
Table 10.10
Table 10.11
Table 10.12
Table 10.13
Table 10.14
Table 10.15
Table 10.16
Table 10.17
Table 10.18
Table 10.19
Table 10.20
Table 10.21
Table 12.1
Table 12.2
Table 12.3
Table 12.4
Table 12.5
Table 12.6
Table 12.7
Table A2.1
Table A2.2
Table A2.3
Table A2.4
Table A2.5
Table A2.6
Table A2.7
Table A2.8
Table A2.9
Table A2.10
Table A2.11
Table A2.12
9-79
9-79
9-84
9-117
9-117
10-5
10-5
10-10
10-12
10-13
10-14
10-16
10-36
10-37
10-47
10-48
10-51
10-68
10-85
10-92
10-120
10-122
10-130
10-163
10-197
10-198
12-2
12-3
12-4
12-5
12-8
12-9
12-11
A2-1
A2-2
A2-3
A2-4
A2-5
A2-6
A2-7
A2-8
A2-9
A2-10
A2-11
A2-12
xxxvi
Table A2.13
Table A2.14
Table A2.15
Table A2.16
Table A2.17
Table A2.18
Table A3.1
Table A3.2
Table A3.3
Table A3.4
Table A3.5
Table A3.6
Table A3.7
Table A3.8
Table A3.9
Table A3.10
Table A3.11
Table A3.12
Table A3.13
Table A3.14
Table A3.15
Table A3.16
Table A3.17
Table A3.18
Table A3.19
Table A3.20
Table A3.21
Table A3.22
Table A3.23
Table A3.24
Table A3.25
Table A3.26
Table A3.27
Table A3.28
Table A3.29
Table A3.30
Table A3.31
Table A3.32
Table A3.33
Table A3.34
Table A3.35
Table A3.36
Table A3.37
Table A3.38
Table A3.39
A2-13
A2-14
A2-15
A2-16
A2-17
A2-18
A3-2
A3-3
A3-4
A3-5
A3-6
A3-7
A3-8
A3-9
A3-10
A3-11
A3-12
A3-13
A3-14
A3-15
A3-16
A3-17
A3-18
A3-19
A3-20
A3-21
A3-22
A3-23
A3-24
A3-25
A3-26
A3-27
A3-28
A3-29
A3-30
A3-31
A3-32
A3-33
A3-34
A3-35
A3-36
A3-37
A3-38
A3-39
A3-40
xxxvii
Table A3.40
Table A3.41
Table A3.42
Table A3.43
Table A3.44
Table A3.45
Table A3.46
Table A3.47
Table A3.48
Table A3.49
Table A3.50
Table A3.51
Table A3.52
Table A3.53
Table A3.54
Table A3.55
Table A3.56
Table A3.57
Table A3.58
Table A3.59
Table A3.60
Table A3.61
Table A3.62
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..........
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..........
..........
..........
..........
.........
..........
..........
..........
..........
A3-41
A3-42
A3-43
A3-44
A3-45
A3-46
A3-47
A3-48
A3-49
A3-50
A3-51
A3-52
A3-53
A3-54
A3-55
A3-56
A3-57
A3-58
A3-59
A3-60
A3-61
A3-62
A3-63
1-1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview. The mission of GUARDIAN ANGEL is the recovery of personnel and sensitive
material. GUARDIAN ANGEL is a human/equipment weapon system that provides airborne and
ground based capability to prosecute each of the five tasks assigned to personnel recovery
operations. The Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Instruction (CJCSI) 3270.01A, dated July 2004,
defines personnel recovery (PR) as the sum of all military, diplomatic, and civil efforts to effect
recovery and return of US military, DoD civilians, and DoD contractor personnel who are isolated
or missing while participating a United States government-sanctioned military activity, or
missions in an uncertain, or hostile environment. AFDD 2-1.6, Personnel Recovery Operations
(PRO), describes the specific tasks performed by Air Force units to recover isolated personnel (IP)
throughout the entire spectrum of conflict. Emerging threats in an asymmetrical battlespace have
identified the requirement to execute five specific tasks of PR: (1) report, (2) locate, (3) support,
(4) recover, and (5) reintegrate. The lead command for USAF PRO, Air Force Special Operations
Command (AFSOC), has expanded the PR mission area to include recovery operations (RO) as
the return of sensitive material.
1.1.1 General. This document is designed to provide the fundamental tactics, techniques and
procedures which form the foundation for combat employment of the GUARDIAN ANGEL
weapon system. GUARDIAN ANGEL is composed of personnel from three specific Air
Force specialties with the core skills and equipment required to provide the warfighting
commander with a full spectrum capability to accomplish PR/RO. The combat rescue officer
(CRO), pararescue (PJ) personnel, and survival, evasion, resistance, escape (SERE) specialists
represents three distinct elements of a weapon system capability. The TTP addressed in this
volume are a baseline for these operators to utilize and improve upon when employed to
conduct personnel recovery and recovery operations.
1.1.1.1 Combat Rescue Officer. These officers lead and command GUARDIAN
ANGEL as direct combatant ground force commanders during tactical mission scenarios
as required during surface operations, high value target recovery, and bilateral operations
with other weapon systems and tactical forces. CROs provide subject matter expertise to
the command and battle staff; performing duties as mission planners and advocates for
pararescue and SERE operations.
1.1.1.2 Pararescue. PJs are the only DoD specialty specifically trained, equipped,
organized, and employed to conduct conventional or unconventional PR operations
(AFPD 16-12, Pararescue) They are the USAF force of choice for assisted evasion and
recovery of isolated personnel.
1.1.1.3 SERE Specialist. SERE Specialists are the only DOD specialty specifically
trained, equipped, organized, and employed to conduct SERE operations for the duration
of their career (AFPD 16-13, Survival, Evasion, Resistance and Escape). They are the
USAF force of choice to train and support isolated personnel.
1.1.2 Specifics. This volume does not address classified tactics, techniques, or procedures.
Additionally, there are many specific missions not covered in this volume which
1-2
1.2 Purpose. This volume is a primary reference document for GUARDIAN ANGEL assets in
the combat air force (CAF) and special operations forces (SOF). It addresses basic flight
requirements and ground operation considerations for planning purposes. When used with other
directives, publications, and formal/continuation training, it provides a solid foundation upon
which effective TTP can be developed to meet the demands of current USAF aerospace roles and
missions. This volume is not directive in nature and provides no authority or sanction to depart
from established procedure or directives. No manual can substitute for common sense and sound
judgement based on actual factors encountered in a given situation. During combat operations, the
mission commander/pararescue team leader will decide the specific tactics and modifications to
be employed.
1.3 Contents. This volume uses the non-standard format identified in AFTTP 3-1.1, General
Planning and Employment Considerations.
1.4 Responsibilities and Discipline. Commanders are responsible for the dissemination of the
information in this manual. Weapons and tactics personnel must have a clear understanding of the
principles and considerations for combat fundamentals of this weapon system. Operators should
be intimately familiar with the tactics, techniques, and procedures addressed in this manual.
Rescue and special operations exist in a dynamic environment, it is impossible to dictate specific
tactics for each and every scenario. Demonstrated proficiency allows basic TTP to be modified
when adjusting for terrain, weather, target, and enemy actions in specific tactical situations.
1.4.1 Commanders. Wing, group, and squadron commanders should continually evaluate
unit/training programs to ensure proficiency levels support combat readiness requirements.
Tactics deficiencies should be identified and reported through the appropriate chain of
command.
1.4.2 Weapons and Tactics Personnel. Unit personnel identified as weapon system experts
should actively manage training of this manual to assigned operators. Questions by
inexperienced as well as seasoned operators should be answered by the expert, rather than left
open to interpretation. Weapons and tactics personnel should be available and fully prepared
to explain the specific application of individual TTP applied in any situation.
1.4.3 Operators. Every operator in the GUARDIAN ANGEL weapon system should
clearly understand the mission and how roles may change during the execution of PR/RO
missions. During combat operations, the mission commander or pararescue team leader
decide the specific tactics and modifications that will be employed.
1.5 Security. This manual is sensitive but unclassified with Distribution X restrictions. It is not
releasable to foreign nationals (including NATO countries) without written authorization under
the provisions of the National Disclosure Policy, DoD Directive 5230.11, Disclosure of Classified
1-3
Military Information to Foreign Governments and International Organizations, and AFI 31-401,
Managing the Information Security Program.
1.5.1 Distribution X. Distribution is authorized to DoD and only US DoD contractors to
protect technical or operational data or information from automatic dissemination under the
international exchange program or by other means. This protection covers publications
required solely for official use or strictly for administrative or operational purposes. This
statement may be applied to manuals, pamphlets technical orders, technical reports, and other
publications containing valuable technical or operational data. Date of determination 05
August 2005. Requests for this document shall be referred to USAFWC/DOTW in
coordination with the lead command, AFSOC/DOTW. Distribution restrictions are IAW AFI
61-204, Disseminating Scientific and Technical Information.
1.5.2 Reproduction. Portions of this document may be reproduced to meet command
requirements. Agencies not on the distribution list will not reproduce any portion of this
document without written permission of the office of originUSAFWC/DOTW in
coordination with the lead command, AFSOC/DOTW. Copies of training materials should be
sent to MAJCOM training directorates.
1.6 Change Procedures. Operational experience, training evaluation, and equipment
modernization will dictate changes to this text. The previous TTP should not be disregarded
simply because these TTP have existed for several years. Safety inputs will be incorporated as
soon as possible. Other inputs will be included during the 24-month review cycle. New ideas are
encouraged and should be submitted through respective MAJCOM tactics channels for
coordination/action by the lead command. Tactics improvement proposal (TIP) submissions
should use IMT 4326, IAW AFI 11-260, Tactics Development Program, and AFSOCI 11-207,
AFSOC Tactics Program.
1-4
2-1
CHAPTER 2
MISSION PREPARATION
2.1 General. This chapter outlines the operational cycle. It provides GUARDIAN ANGEL
unit-level personnel with a step-by-step guide for the mission preparation from predeployment
through postdeployment and provides information for component level, Air and Space Operations
Center (AOC), or other weapons system planners seeking information regarding planning
considerations for GUARDIAN ANGEL.
2.2 Operational Cycle. The operational cycle construct begins with the predeployment period
and concludes with postdeployment actions. Each phase of this cycle contains actions that are
taken to ensure effective tactical mission planning and employment. These phases are as follows:
Predeployment.
Deployment and stand-up.
Employment.
Stand-down and redeployment.
Postdeployment.
2.2.1 Predeployment. The predeployment phase begins with initial notification and
includes a number of predeployment actions by unit sections and individuals. This phase ends
when the main body departs for the area of operations (AO). Although units are structured to
internally support tactical operations, they do require resources and support for sustained
operations. Required support includes intelligence resources, communications infrastructure,
and base operating support (BOS) functions. Effective planning in the predeployment phase
will set the conditions for the successful tactical employment of forces.
2.2.1.1 Initial Notification. Initial notification is provided through the chain of command
in the form of a planning order (PLANORD), operations order (OPORD), other official
tasking, or notification through official channels of likely/potential tasking. The tasking
may or may not be linked to a theater operations plan (OPLAN) or concept plan
(CONPLAN).
2.2.1.1.1 Initial Briefing. A briefing should be conducted as soon as possible after
initial notification. Carefully weigh operational security (OPSEC) and
communications security (COMSEC) considerations when determining the
appropriate unit personnel for the initial briefing. At a minimum the unit commander,
director of operations, superintendent of operations, team officer-in-charge
(OIC)/noncommissioned officer-in-charge (NCOIC), SERE specialist, intelligence
chief, logistics chief, and necessary section chiefs should be included. This forum
should act as the vehicle to establish an initial common understanding of the mission
task and the projected operating environment. Ultimately, the commander uses the
briefing to disseminate preliminary information, receive initial input from key staff
members, and establish direction and guidance for subsequent actions in the
2-2
2-3
2-4
2-5
2-6
2-7
2.2.1.2.1.3.3 Storage. If storage areas are available, units will require secure
storage for weapons, ammunition, medical supplies, and classified material.
They will need parking space for tactical vehicles and boats, as well as storage
space for additional equipment. They will also require climate controlled
storage space for parachutes and medical supplies.
2.2.1.2.1.3.4 Billeting. If hard billets or tents are not provided, units will
require space to set up tents and living areas.
2.2.1.2.1.3.5 Intelligence. Specific intelligence support requirements vary
with respective unit capabilities. Individual organizations should refer to unit
designed operational capability (DOC) statements, established UTCs, SOPs,
and commanders guidance for unique requirements. At minimum, planning
personnel, ADVON, and/or lodgement teams will consider the following:
Adequate space for adequate intelligence personnel, equipment, and
informational displays.
Proximity to key operations centers/functions and plans personnel.
Dedicated organic provisional secure and nonsecure communications
platforms capable of voice and data transfer such as international maritime
satellite (INMARSAT) terminals.
Dedicated organic UNCLASSIFIED and SECRET/COLLATERAL
automated information systems (AIS).
Convenient and uninterrupted access to TOP SECRET/SCI, and
applicable special category (SPECAT)/special access program (SAP) AIS
and information channels.
Ability to monitor applicable radio communications suites and field data
transfer mediums such as high performance waveform (HPW) terminals.
Access to near-real-time data (NRTD) feeds/displays and combined
operational picture (COP) displays.
Adequate climate controls to operate and maintain automated systems.
Sufficient external/internal power and wiring configuration to maintain
uninterrupted operations.
Organic secure telephone unit (STU-III) connectivity.
Ready integration with a multi-discipline analytical capability.
Adequate facilities to implement appropriate security measures required
in multi-national operating environments.
Ready access to satellite television for open source media coverage.
Secured internet protocol router network (SIPRNET)/mIRC chat
connectivity
2-8
2-9
shortfalls and requirements for waivers and/or augmentation and forward this
information to operations for coordination and action. Formulate a packing list of
individual and team equipment and distribute to team members. Team members will
begin preparation of individual gear and team equipment. Team leaders will
coordinate directly with intelligence personnel immediately following initial
notification to address estimated battlefield impact on friendly force operations; threat
force considerations; and survival, evasion, resistance, and escape (SERE)
requirements.
2.2.1.2.3 Support. Unit support sections, particularly logistics, will work closely
with operations to prepare necessary equipment for deployment. Operations and team
sections will specify the required equipment and support. Support sections identify
internal unit shortfalls and forward the information to operations. Consider anticipated
deployment location, environmental conditions, and duration of deployment.
2.2.1.2.3.1 Intelligence. Upon notification of potential or impending deployment,
unit intelligence operations will begin the intelligence preparation of the
battlespace (IPB) process. The IPB process gives consideration to staging bases,
insertion and exfiltration routes, and forward operating locations within the
targeted area of interest (AI) and area of operations (AO). Intelligence sections
will execute the IPB process in close coordination with the unit commander and
director of operations (DO) to ensure appropriate focus and scope and to facilitate
the timely dissemination of pertinent intelligence information. The IPB process is
continuous in nature and spans all phases of operations. Refer to FM 34-130,
Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield, for detailed information on the IPB
process. Familiarity with a given area must take all factors into consideration to
include aspects in the social, economic, and political fields. (See Table 2.5 through
Table 2.7, Area of Operations Essential Elements of Information.) Each must be
weighed as military consideration. (For a detailed listing of factors to consider, see
AFTTP 3-1.8, Chapter 6, Intelligence Support to GUARDIAN ANGEL Forces.)
2.2.1.2.3.2 Admin/Commanders Support Staff. Unit section chiefs and
commanders support staffs should identify pending or required administrative
actions on deploying personnel. Project for suspense for the duration of the
deployment.
2-10
2-11
2-12
2-13
2-14
2-15
2-16
2-17
2-18
2-19
2-20
2-21
2-22
2-23
C. General Instructions:
1.
Name
2. Chain
3. General
4. Spec Org
5.
of Command Organization
(teams)
Duties
6. Arms,
Ammo, And
Equipment
7. Gear
Common
To All
8. Time Schedule
A.
B.
C.
When What Where
D.
Who
2-24
2-25
2-26
2-27
2-28
2-29
2-30
Steps
Command/control
Method of insertion
Primary/secondary routes
Threats and actions in response to threats
Insertion
Infiltration
2-31
Steps
Supporting forces
Communications
Go/no-go criteria
Contingencies
Command/control
Method of exfiltration
Primary/secondary routes
Threats and actions in response to threats
Exfiltration
Extraction
2-32
2-33
2-34
2-35
2-36
2-37
2-38
Date
BMNT
(LOC)
SR
(LOC)
SS
(LOC)
EENT
(LOC)
MR
(LOC)
MS
(LOC)
1 June 2003
0458
0603
2025
2130
0656
2207
2 June 2003
0457
0602
2025
2131
0745
2300
3 June 2003
0457
0602
2026
2131
0840
2348
15
4 June 2003
0456
0602
2026
2132
0940
**
15
23
5 June 2003
0456
0602
2027
2133
1044
0030
23
32
6 June 2003
0456
0601
2027
2133
1149
0107
32
43
7 June 2003
0455
0601
2028
2134
1255
0140
43
54
8 June 2003
0455
0601
2029
2135
1401
0211
54
65
9 June 2003
0455
0601
2029
2135
1509
0240
65
75
10 June 2003
0455
0601
2029
2136
1619
0310
75
85
11 June 2003
0455
0601
2030
2136
1731
0343
85
92
12 June 2003
0454
0601
2030
2137
1846
0419
92
98
13 June 2003
0454
0601
2031
2137
2002
0502
98
100
14 June 2003
0454
0601
2031
2138
2113
0553
100
99
15 June 2003
0454
0601
2032
2138
2217
0653
99
96
16 June 2003
0454
0601
2032
2139
2310
0759
96
90
17 June 2003
0454
0601
2032
2139
2354
0907
90
83
18 June 2003
0455
0601
2032
2139
**
1014
83
74
19 June 2003
0455
0601
2033
2139
0030
1119
74
64
20 June 2003
0455
0601
2033
2140
0100
1220
64
55
21 June 2003
0455
0602
2033
2140
0127
1318
55
45
22 June 2003
0455
0602
2033
2140
0152
1415
45
35
23 June 2003
0455
0602
2034
2140
0217
1511
35
27
24 June 2003
0456
0602
2034
2140
0242
1607
27
19
25 June 2003
0456
0603
2034
2141
0309
1704
19
12
26 June 2003
0456
0603
2034
2141
0338
1803
12
27 June 2003
0457
0603
2034
2141
0413
1902
28 June 2003
0457
0604
2034
2141
0453
2000
29 June 2003
0458
0604
2034
2141
0540
2055
30 June 2003
0458
0605
2034
2140
0634
2145
2-39
Observed Summary
Forecast Summary
Solar Activity
Observed GREEN.
Forecast GREEN
23 through 26 June Flare
Probabilities: M:25 percent X:
05 percent.
Observed GREEN.
Forecast GREEN
23 through 26 June.
Geomagnetic
Observed YELLOW
23 June for minor
geomagnetic storming.
Forecast GREEN
23 through 26 June.
HF Comm
Observed YELLOW
23 June for minor
geomagnetic storming.
Forecast GREEN
23 through 26 June.
UHF SATCOM
Observed YELLOW 23
Forecast YELLOW
June for localized moderate 23 through 26 June for
scintillation.
localized moderate
scintillation.
Satellite Operations/Health
Observed YELLOW
23 June for minor
geomagnetic storming.
Forecast GREEN
23 through 26 June.
Forecast GREEN
23 through 26 June.
Altitude Flight
Observed GREEN.
Forecast GREEN
23 through 26 June.
Radar Interference/False
Returns
Observed GREEN.
Forecast GREEN
23 through 26 June.
2-40
OVERALL NOTE:
* This table provides a generalized situation awareness of past and future space environment
impacts to warfighters and weapon systems. The severity of the impacts due to the space
environment may be more or less than indicated by the color-coded assessment in a particular
area. The impact variability is dependent on a variety of factors including but not limited to
system location, geometry, and operating frequency. Contact the AFWA Space Weather
Forecaster at DSN 272-8087 or 272-4317 (commercial 402-323-8087 or 402-232-4317) to
arrange mission-specific support or to report conditions experienced by your system that may be
related to space weather disturbances.
2.2.3.2.5.6.4 Actions at the Objective. Analyze actions at the objective in
chronological sequence identifying critical tasks and the personnel responsible
for accomplishing these tasks.
2.2.3.2.5.6.5 Threats and Actions in Response to Threats (Actions Upon
Enemy Contact). Review the insert through extract phases to include E&R
and compare the teams routes to the enemy disposition reflected within order
of battle displays. Coordinate with intelligence operations to receive all
pertinent information regarding recent, current, and projected enemy activity
surrounding infiltration/exfiltration routes, insertion/extraction points,
objective areas, and E&R areas. (See Table 2.25 through Table 2.28, Enemy
Force Essential Elements of Information, for enemy considerations.)
Determine vulnerable periods and potential enemy assets that could contact the
team; modify the routes as necessary. Determine the teams actions on enemy
and civilian contact for the areas with the highest potential of compromise.
2-41
10
20
21
22
Today
O F
3-Day
Forecast
24 25 26
Solar
See Discussion
and Events Slide
for Details
Charged Particle
Geomagnetic
Quiet
Active
Very Active
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
3-Day
Forecast
Today
20
21
22
24
25
26
HF Comm
UHF SATCOM
Satellite Ops
Space Obj Track
High Alt Flight
Radar Interference
Low
09
10
Moderate
11
Severe
20
21
22
Today
O
HF Comm
See Impacts
Slide for Details
UHF SATCOM
Satellite Ops
Space Obj Track
High Alt Flight
Radar Interference
None
Moderate
Severe
No Report
UNCLASSIFIED
Tarras/Davis
Issued 23/1800Z
2-42
Additional Comments:
UNCLASSIFIED
2-43
Additional Comments:
Ionoshperic Impact HF
UNCLASSIFIED
2-44
GPS Error
Forecast Valid: 23/1800Z June 03
Marginal
UHF operations
Errors between
15-50 meters
Severely degraded UHF operations
Additional Comments:
Additional Comments:
UNCLASSIFIED
AFWA/XOGX
(402)
232-8087
AFWA/XOGXDSN
DSN272-8087
272-8087COM
COM
(402)
232-
2-45
2-46
2-47
2-48
2-49
phase time windows and drop-dead times. Conduct backward planning from
the specified time window to ensure adequate time is giving to each phase of
the mission. The requirements for the actions at the objective can drive
constraints of other phases. This may require planning actions at the objective
first and working outward in both directions. Calculate the earliest and latest
times for beginning each phase. Calculate the earliest and latest times for
completing each phase. Calculate the drop-dead times (no-go criteria) for each
phase. Examine the earliest and latest beginning and completion times to
determine whether the mission can be completed in the allotted time. If the
time windows in the tasking make the probability of mission success
unacceptably low, this should be addressed with the operational commander,
along with a viable alternative.
2.2.3.2.5.6.8 Supporting Forces. Identify required supporting assets and
their intended employment during each phase. It is imperative that the team
leader is aware of the actions and disposition of all supporting forces
throughout the operation. Ensure all the assets listed in the force list have been
used according to their capabilities. Identify any excess or deficient assets.
Modify the support request, if required. Also identify the location and mission
of friendly forces of additional friendly forces. (See Table 2.29, Friendly Force
Information Requirements, for friendly force considerations.)
2.2.3.2.5.6.9 Communications. Identify communications requirements for
all phases of the operation.
2.2.3.2.5.6.10 Go/No-Go Criteria. Using the phase diagram to determine
mission-stopping criteria. Consider drop-dead times, weather minimums,
minimum forces, supporting forces, or enemy/civilian contact. These issues
must be addressed with the operational commander who bears responsibility
for communicating the level of acceptable risk to the team leader.
2.2.3.2.5.6.11 Contingencies (What Ifs). For each phase extract the three
most likely problems and determine a solution to correct or circumvent the
problem. Only three potential problems per phase should be briefed during the
briefback and team leader brief. However, the team leaders must still plan for
other potential problems and be prepared in the event one is encountered in the
field. Keep it simple. Do not dilute briefs with long lists of contingencies and
lose focus on the mission.
2-50
2-51
and field resupply. Re-supply bundles must be packed and ready for upload. A
location and time window for resupply must be specified along with
communications and marking procedures.
2.2.3.2.5.8 Command and Signal. Verify the current joint communications
electronic operating instructions (JCEOI), ATO, ACO, SPINS, frequencies and call
signs, crypto and change dates, computer settings, and addresses. Build a
communications bubble diagram that includes airborne
command/control/communications integration. Develop a no-comm plan by phase
and identify required communications reports and execution checklist calls.
Research supporting/supported asset comm capabilities. Within the team
determine challenge and reply, number combo, running password, duress word,
near/far recognition signals, hand/arm signals, and pyrotechnics. Coordinate for
communications checks with all players prior to execution.
2.2.3.2.5.8.1 Execution Checklist. Using an execution checklist minimizes
transmission time in a restrictive communications environment. From the list
of phase events, extract execution checklist requirements that enhance
command and control through communication. These execution checklist
items should identify critical decision points, notify when mission essential
events are complete. The purpose is to make sure these events are identified
and chronologically placed into the execution checklist format. Deviation
checklist items are by exception calls established to notify when there are
deviations to the plan that adversely affect successful mission execution or
require a contingency response (time delay, or maintenance abort). Efforts
should be made to minimize the number of mandatory calls on the list. When
making an execution checklist call, pass (your call sign) IS (code word) AT
(time). Do not pass the time if the event is a hard time and occurs within 2
minutes of that hard time. If the event is a soft time, the time will be in
parentheses and you should always pass the time. Refer to an event by line
number prior to its completion. After its completion, refer to an event by the
code word. Never use the code word prior to an event occurring. This prevents
confusion as to whether an event has taken place or not. Forward execution
checklist inputs to the MPA for inclusion in the overall execution checklist for
the mission.
2.2.3.2.5.9 Annexes. The planning cells assigned during the warning order are
essential to detailed planning and should correspond to sections and annexes in the
team leader brief. Designated personnel should accomplish detailed planning for
their assigned sections and annexes.
2.2.3.2.5.10 Coordinating Instructions. Plan team movement formations and
actions at rally points, halts and danger areas. Plan procedures for actions on
enemy contact (e.g., chance or near/far ambush) as well as departure/re-entry of
friendly lines. Within the team determine POW/captured equipment procedures.
Keep in mind the five Ss: silence, search, separate, speed, and safeguard.
Develop WIA/KIA/MIA procedures as well as procedures for the protection and
accountability of special equipment and sensitive items.
2-52
2-53
2-54
2-55
2-56
Date:
Potential
Hazards
Risks Level
Circle Overall
Rating
Controls
Residual Risk
Level
APPROVED
Date:________
BY:______________
Low (L)
Medium (M)
High (H)
Extremely High (EH)
PAGE_______________OF______________
2.2.3.2.5.11.8 Briefback. The detailed planning process culminates with the
backbrief given to the tasking authority commander for inputs and approval. It
also provides the team leader with a platform to bring up issues about the
mission and discuss limiting factors. This brief should demonstrate that the
plan is complete, well conceived, and will accomplish stated mission
objectives. Capabilities and vulnerabilities of the enemy have been evaluated.
The effects of weather and terrain have been considered. Mission essential
elements have been identified and incorporated into the plan. The members of
the patrol are familiar with the plan and understand their role in the operation.
The operational commanders staff understands the plan and support
requirements (deconfliction and coordination). A briefback is given near the
end of the planning cycle, after the entire plan has been developed. It should be
given before the operations order so that any changes mandated by the
operational commander can be incorporated into the OPORD. If the OPORD
is briefed first, the team must then be re-briefed on any changes directed in the
briefback. This sequence could add an unnecessary element of confusion.
2-57
2-58
2-59
2-60
2-61
2-62
2-63
2-64
2-65
2-66
2-67
2-68
2-69
2-70
2-71
2-72
2.2.4 Stand-Down and Redeployment Planning. The redeployment phase begins with
initial notification and ends when the main body departs the AO.
2.2.4.1 Initial Notification. Initial notification is provided through the chain of
command and can come in the form of a redeployment order, other official tasking, or
notification through official channels.
2.2.4.2 Analysis. Unit leadership will analyze the redeployment tasking and determine
whether the redeployment will be phased or complete. Applicable unit personnel and
equipment might be required to remain in the AO to support continuing operations.
2.2.4.3 Stand-Down and Redeployment Actions. Following analysis each unit section
has a number of responsibilities during the stand-down and redeployment phase to ensure
that the unit departs the AO.
2.2.4.3.1 Build Departure Schedule. Each section should establish a schedule of
events required to prepare for redeployment. Ensure schedules are synchronized with
higher units to support requirements for information, products, and representation at
meetings.
2.2.4.3.2 Final SITREPs/AARs. Determine the requirements for final SITREPS
and/or AARs owed to higher units. Establish a format, process, and suspense for these
products.
2.2.4.3.3 Formulate Load Plan and Pack-Out. Designated personnel should
formulate appropriate UTCs based on redeploying personnel and equipment. Provide
inputs through appropriate channels for UTC load plans. Plan and organize the
systematic pack-out, transportation, and marshaling of personnel and equipment for
deployment. Ensure completion of declarations for hazardous materials (HAZDECS)
and coordinate for joint air inspection (JAI) times and locations.
2.2.4.3.4 Withdrawal of Forces. Establish a plan for the withdrawal of unit
personnel from supported forces. Build the plan so that it creates minimal impact to
supported force operations.
2.2.4.3.5 Inspect Individual/Section Equipment. Each section should conduct an
inventory and inspection of individual and section equipment as soon as possible after
notification of redeployment. Shortfalls should be noted immediately.
2-73
2.2.4.3.6 Turn Over Host Base Facilities. Arrange for the inspection and turnover
of all facilities and equipment provided by the BOS or other agencies. Consider
workspace and staging areas, storage areas, billeting rooms/areas, and vehicles.
2.2.4.3.7 Discontinue Communications. Notify all associated agencies prior to
discontinuing communications. Implement provisional secure and/or nonsecure
communications platforms, (e.g., INMARSAT) as required to adequately support
ongoing operations and facilitate the redeployment process.
2.2.4.3.8 Intelligence Debrief. Intelligence operations will de-brief the deployed
element on all applicable intelligence considerations and classified material
disposition/destruction requirements for the redeployment phase. Re-affirm any
security classification directives for the deployment. Include any and all information
regarding special instructions on releasable or non-sensitive information. Collect any
intelligence-issued classified or sensitive materials from deployed personnel,
appropriately annotate hand receipts or other tracking documents and secure for
redeployment or destruction.
2.2.4.3.9 Decompression Brief. Schedule psychology/chaplain/mental health/
family support briefings as required.
2.2.4.3.10 Security Measures. Physical security of equipment, munitions, classified
material, controlled medications, and high value items must be maintained until they
can be secured in the homestation facilities.
2.2.4.3.11 Main Body Departure. Ensure accurate tracking of deployment line
numbers, load plans, and show times. Plan for transportation for personnel and
equipment to the departure location. Conduct a final check of required personal
deployment items.
2.2.4.3.12 Main Body Arrival and Reception. Unit representatives should
coordinate with the arriving main body to assist in the download and transportation of
equipment and personnel.
2.2.5 Postdeployment.
2.2.5.1 Accountability. Ensure accountability of all personnel and equipment.
Download, clean, repair, and store equipment as necessary.
2.2.5.2 Replacement Requirements. Identify replacement requirements and submit
necessary requests.
2.2.5.3 Complete and Catalogue Lessons Learned/AARs. Ensure completion of all
AARs. Establish a filing system for hard and soft copies so that reports can be easily
accessed for future reference. Compile unit AARs and submit to higher as required.
Identify OPRs for AAR action items, set suspense, and track progress.
2.2.5.4 Build Training Plan. Examine currency and proficiency of unit personnel. Build
a training plan base on expired currencies, identified deficiencies during mission
execution, and expectations for future operations.
2-74
2.3 Specific PR/RO Planning Guides and Considerations. Combat rescue officers are
personally responsible to ensure the planning and preparation needed to accomplish the five tasks
of PR are accomplished IAW the commanders intent, IAW Joint Publication 3-50.2, Doctrine of
Joint Combat Search and Rescue. There are several different positions in which the CRO will be
assigned in order to accomplish the overall PR mission. The first is tactical command of direct
combatant forces during recovery operations. Second, the CRO will direct, plan and execute
strategic and operational level control of PR operations when assigned to operations center at the
combined, joint, component, and task force levels (JSRC/JPRC, PRCC/RCC, COAC, JAOC,
AOC, JOC, and STOC). The CRO may also be attached to battlestaff and liaison elements as a
subject matter expert for PR operations. The CRO must analyze the commanders intent to
determine what the scope of the PR tasking is prior to mission planning. In general, the CRO will
need to develop all the same guidance prior to planning for both the tactical and operational levels
of war. However, it is not advised that the CRO conduct both tactical and operational level PR
mission execution simultaneously
2.3.1 Mission Commander Planning. Combat rescue officers can act as the mission
commander for pararescue forces or perform as a member of the pararescue recovery team to
facilitate the mission success. The CRO does not supplant normal pararescue team
composition. The role of the CRO is to execute recovery command and control in the
air/ground mission capacity. (See Table 2.46 through Table 2.54, Combat Search and Rescue
Planning.)
2.3.2 Personnel Recovery Coordination Center Planning. C o m b a t r e s c u e o f f i c e r s
assigned to the JPRC/PRCC can provide overall direction or be assigned to the strategic and
operational elements. Mission planning considerations for these positions are provided in
AFTTP 3-1.1, General Planning and Employment Considerations. Table 2.55 through Table
2.57, JPRC/PRCC Planning Guide describes JPRC/PRCC planning guidelines.
2.3.3 Battlestaff and Liaison Planning. Combat rescue officers (CRO) assigned to
battlestaff and liaison elements as subject matter experts (SME) will not have specific mission
planning factors. Rather, this CRO must be well versed in the full spectrum of PR operations.
This knowledge should not be specific to the TTP of the air- and ground-recovery task. The
CRO will provide both commander and staff with SME for the entire PR mission. A working
knowledge of the joint and service specific operational support programs is necessary to
ensure isolated personnel are reported, located, supported, and recovered during a PR event.
The PR operation is not complete until the fifth and final task, reintegration is complete. The
CRO in a battlestaff or liaison position will have the responsibility to ensure the reintegration
program is applied to all isolated DoD personnel. Table 2.58, Personnel Recovery Reference
Material, provides an overview of the specific publications that provide instruction and
guidance in the joint arena of theater level PR missions.
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requiring deliberate planning such as extended surface operations, refer to AFTTP 3-1.8, Chapter
3, Mission Planning Considerations.
NOTE: The successful conduct of PR/RO operations requires meticulous pre-planning,
preparation, and training. PR/RO mission procedures will be initiated as soon as awareness and
notification is received, the position of the IP is known, it is verified the IP is still alive, and the
threat will allow or can be reduced to affect a successful recovery.
2.4.1 Opportunity for Success. The best chance of success is immediately after the need
for PR has been declared. Extensive mission planning may be required for specific objectives.
PR by its very nature implies justification of risk. PR planning should focus on a single
catastrophic event conducted under worst case circumstances. PR coverage is defined by the
capability and risk involved in the delivery and recovery of the recovery team in a reasonable
period. For casualties with severe medical complications or located in high risk environments
of urban, water, extreme weather and non-permissive environments, the response time should
be less than 1 hour if possible.
2.4.2 Control/Coordination Agencies. T h e t h e a t e r u n i f i e d c o m m a n d e r d e l e g a t e s
responsibilities for coordinating rescue and recovery to the joint personnel recovery center
(JPRC) or (PRCC.) The JPRC is a collateral function and requests needed Air Force resources
from approving authority. When other service resources are needed, the JPRC has the
authority to coordinate directly with the Army tactical operations center (TOC), Marine
tactical air control center, and the Navy combat information center (CIC) or the joint
operations center (JOC). The units operations staff and pararescue team leader (PJTL) direct
all requests for coordination and support through command channels to the JPRC/PRCC.
2.4.3 Notification. GUARDIAN ANGEL will receive notification of isolated personnel via
the theater or joint task force command and control structure. A PR/RO mission could involve
an aircrew bailout over hostile territory, crash landing, ditching at sea, foundering naval
vessels, or ground forces cut off from friendly lines. Typical operations might include the
following:
Awareness and notification.
Assessing the situation.
Planning the mission.
Launching the recovery vehicles.
Refueling at a forward operating location or air refueling prior to ingress.
Ingressing enemy territory to locate isolated personnel.
Locating the isolated personnel.
Authenticating the isolated personnel.
Recovering the isolated personnel.
Egressing enemy territory.
Conducting air refueling (as required).
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feasibility and duration must consider the worst probable circumstances and be mutually
understood by both the commander and the deploying PJTL. Long before mobility actions, and
before combat operations are conducted, the PJ NCOIC will establish the requirements necessary
for safe and effective operations.
2.5.1 Team Leader Checklist. The PJTL should use a checklist in planning and preparing
for a mission. (See Table 2.59, Team Leader Checklist.) The TL considers all the checklist
items but accomplishes only those items which the operational situation requires.
Table 2.59 Team Leader Checklist (Example).
Team Leader Checklist
1. Study the mission.
2. Plan use of time.
3. Study terrain and situation.
4. Organize the team.
5. Select men, weapons, and equipment.
6. Issue warning order.
7. Coordination (continuous throughout).
8. Request reconnaissance/study intelligence.
9. Complete detailed plans.
10. Issue operations order.
11. Briefback (to the tasking authority).
12. Supervise (at all times), inspect, rehearse.
13. Execute the mission.
NOTE: Considering all, accomplish those necessary in any order.
2.5.2 Receive and Study the Operation.
2.5.2.1 Operations Order. The overall outline for the tasking and planning for an
operation is titled the recovery team operations order. When completed, the operations
order provides in sequence, information, instructions and guidance followed by a complete
detailed plan on how to accomplish the assigned objective. The tasking order contains the
necessary information and instructions from which to develop a comprehensive plan for
execution. When initial tasking is set forth by the tasking authority, the intelligence
section and operations section are responsible for compiling the information necessary to
complete the operations order. The operations officer will ensure sufficient copies are
available in the operations section. These standard outlines provide concise and
standardized information for issuance of the tasking order to the PJTL.
2.5.2.2 Capabilities. When operations or the threat conditions exceed aircraft
capabilities, recovery teams may be tasked to perform ground operations necessary to
extract the IP. Another concept is employed when mechanized rescue is impracticable or
impossible. The primary considerations for this type of employment are that the
transportation resource must be afforded ample standoff in order to avoid an enemy
threat/that the geographic and climatological features in the OA create a situation that is
beyond the capability of the rescue vehicle. Depth and duration for the later concept of
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operations is limited only by the transportation resources used to deliver the recovery team
to the operational objective.
2.5.2.3 Information. The type of situational information about the enemy that the
intelligence and operations sections must attempt to provide for the PJ team leader is listed
below.
2.5.2.3.1 Terrain. Detailed knowledge of the terrain and climatology of the area of
operations is essential. The location of the existing road net and railroads, if any, must
be determined. Information regarding soil trafficability, vegetation, water routes and
expected ice thickness, snow conditions, wind velocity and direction, and average
snow depth should be available to the PJTL. The PJTL should also know the general
features of the terrain from the viewpoint of cross-country movement. For summer
operations in barren lands, it will be necessary to determine water routes suitable for
transportation and dry ground routes. Occasionally, maps may be unreliable or even
nonexistent. Therefore, the requirement for timely aerial photographs must be used as
a source of terrain information. Does the terrain offer passive security because of its
ruggedness? How would the area lend itself to a survival situation? Are there any
cultivated areas?
2.5.2.3.2 Identification. A description of physical features, mannerisms, and types of
clothing is essential for both civilian and military. Special unit recognition by attire and
function should be addressed.
2.5.2.3.3 Location. The PJTL needs to be briefed about the location of enemy within
the periphery of the designated area of operations (AO) and the expected response time
and type of support the enemy may have from contingents outside the AO. In
particular, the PJTL needs an assessment of enemy strength within close proximity to
the OA.
2.5.2.3.4 Activity. The assessment of activity must address whether the enemy is
mobile or static and the type of enemy forceconventional, unconventional or
guerrillas. What is the enemy known to be doing in the AO? Does the enemy patrol
the AO regularly and what routes are usually taken? Are there any established
observation posts or secured areas?
2.5.2.3.5 Strength. Strengths include both population density and military order of
battle or troop strength. Relative quantities of loyalists, conventional, unconventional,
and specialized search and destroy elements must be identified.
2.5.2.3.6 Sociological Summary. Outline any significant political, economical and
cultural aspects of the indigenous enemy within the periphery of the AO to include the
overall influence of the military and the possibility of indigenous sympathizers. State
of health and especially the possibility of incapacitating disease affecting those within
the AO should be noted.
2.5.2.3.7 Equipment Types/Abilities.
Air Forces. Fixed/rotary wing aircraft?
General air defense?
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2.5.3 Plan Use of Time. Combat situations seldom allow the PJTL as much time for
planning and preparation as desired. Plan the proper use of available time. Pre-plan as much
of the operation as-possible.
2.5.3.1 Schedule Preparation. As soon as mission study is completed, quickly make a
mental or written time schedule. (See Table 2.60, TL Time Schedule [Reverse Planning]
and Table 2.61, PJTL Time Schedule [Chronological Planning] which allots time for each
action of the team.)
2.5.3.2 Time Schedule. Plan the PJTL time schedule around any times specified in the
tasking order (i.e., time of departure, time to make reconnaissance, or time of return). Use
reverse planning. This method plans from the last action for which a time is specified and
works back to the receipt of tasking orders. This allocates time for all necessary actions.
In planning use of time, the PJTL ensures subordinate leaders and team members are
allowed time necessary to prepare for the mission.
2.5.4 Study Terrain and Situation. The PJTL studies the terrain over which the team will
operate and the friendly and enemy situations, relating these to the study of the operation and
identification of essential tasks to be accomplished.
2.5.4.1 Terrain. If available, make a detailed study of the map and of aerial photos, if
available. Note fields of fire and observation, cover, concealment, obstacles, key terrain
features, and avenues of approach and withdrawal. Study the OA very closely. Consider
the influence of terrain on execution of the operation. Terrain may influence the recovery
teams size, organization, and equipment. For example, a stream or lake to be crossed may
require personnel/equipment flotation. Team formations while moving depend on the
terrain, that is, for difficult terrainclose formations, for open terrainextended
formations. Terrain will effect speed of movement. Terrain in the OA helps determine
security needed, positioning of fire support, manner of conducting the leaders
reconnaissance, and the plan of action at the objective.
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Time/(Zulu)
Activity
19
0200
18
2330/0200
Movement en route
18
2300/2300
18
2230/2300
Leaders recon
18
2000/2230
Movement en route
18
2000/
18
1945/2000
18
1930/1945
Final inspection
18
1845/1930
Night rehearsals
18
1800/1845
Day rehearsals
18
1745/1800
Inspection
18
1700/1745
Supper meal
18
1630/1700
18
1530/1630
18
1430/1530
Make reconnaissance
18
1415/1430
18
1330/1415
Preliminary planning
- Coordinate
- Select team, weapons, equipment
- Organize the team
- Study terrain and situation
- Plan use of time
- Study the operational tasking
18
1330
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Time/(Zulu)
Activity
18
/0900
18
0900/1230
18
1230/1300
Noon meal
18
1300/1330
Operation order
18
1330/1430
18
1430/1630
TL inspects
- Daylight rehearsals
- Element rehearsals
- Team rehearsals
18
1630/1730
Rest
18
1730/1800
Evening meal
18
1800/1900
Final inspection
- By subordinate leaders
- Spot checks by TL
- Questions on plans, signals, use of equipment
18
2000/2030
Aircraft briefing
18
2030/2100
Aircraft on load
18
2100/2130
18
2200/
Depart
2.5.4.2 Situation. Study the strengths, locations, dispositions, and capabilities of both
friendly and enemy forces that may affect the teams operation.
2.5.5 Make Tentative Plan. From the study of the operation, terrain, and situation, the PJTL
formulates a tentative plan of action for accomplishing the operation. This plan includes the
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number of people needed and how they will be organized, the weapons and equipment needed,
and the manner in which they will be employed. Manner of employment or scheme of
maneuver is the concept of operation. The tentative plan is later developed into the complete
and detailed plan of operation.
2.5.6 Select and Organize the Recovery Team, Weapons, and Equipment.
2.5.6.1 Select the Team. Selection of recovery team members should be based on
knowledge of the individuals performance as certified in the AF Form 623, On-the-Job
Training Record. More personnel than necessary are not taken merely to maintain unit
integrity.
2.5.6.1.1 Personnel Readiness. Personnel with poor health/physical condition are not
taken. For example, an individual with a cold may endanger security by coughing or a
person with foot trouble may slow-down the team.
2.5.6.1.2 Grub Down. Establish a grub down period, this is essential to team
survivability. For PJ combat operations this period begins approximately 72 hours
prior to deployment but may be longer as the operational situation dictates. Grub down
is the reduction and control of shaving, haircuts, using scented soaps, after shaves,
shampoos, lotions, colognes, deodorants, mouthwashes and toothpaste; and wearing
clothing that has been starched or scented by softeners. During periods of perpetual
immediate response in the combat environment, PJs will maintain a continuous state of
grub down. Good hygiene is still essential. This will be achieved using an
unscented cleaning agent for bathing (i.e., Ivory soap, Phisoderm, and sodium chloride
[table salt] for brushing teeth). Shaving waivers and haircut waivers (not necessary for
most mission situations) will be coordinated with the host base commander by the
senior deployed combat rescue officer/pararescuemen.
2.5.6.2 Organize the Recovery Team. Organization consists of determining the
individual responsibilities required to accomplish essential tasks, selecting the right person
for each responsibility, and determining the weapons and equipment the team will need.
Organization is a two-step process: (1) general organization and (2) special organization.
2.5.6.2.1 General Organization. A basic recovery team consists of three
pararescuemen, with one being the overall PJTL. A three or four man movement, with
a simple operation, is not organized into elements. Instead, the entire team becomes a
single reconnaissance and security element. A larger team with a more complex
operation requires a reconnaissance element and a security element or a combination
thereof.
2.5.6.2.2 Special Organization. The team is further organized when needed to
perform essential tasks.
2.5.6.2.2.1 Elements. The recovery team should be organized into smaller
elements corresponding to unique duties such as communication, search, IP
contact, and medical.
2.5.6.2.2.2 Weapons of Support. More than one support element may be
required when the support element leader or the PJTL cannot directly control the
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2.5.7 Issue a Warning Order. The time a team needs to prepare depends on such factors as
the nature of the operation, the proficiency of the recovery team, and the preparations made (if
any) when the PJTL received the tasking order and made a tentative plan. The PJTL provides
team members the maximum preparation time possible by issuing a warning order as soon as
a tentative plan is made. The warning order should be issued to all team members. If this is
not feasible, the order is issued to subordinate leaders, in turn, they issue warning orders to
their elements.
2.5.7.1 Situation. Minimum details are given to include only the information the
recovery team needs to prepare while the PJTL plans in detail. The complete situation is
given in the operations order.
2.5.7.2 Mission. This is a brief but clear statement of what the recovery team is to
accomplish and the location or area in which it is to be done.
2.5.7.3 Organization. General and special organization are prescribed and explained.
2.5.7.4 Uniform and Equipment Common to All. This includes clothing, personal
equipment, rations and water to be carried, camouflage measures to be taken, and the
means of identification the recovery team will carry. Prohibited items are also stated, (i.e.,
wallets, letters, and personal papers, which might reveal information if lost or captured).
2.5.7.5 Chain of Command. Individuals are assigned a place in the chain of command.
In larger teams, subordinate leaders are assigned relative positions and required to
establish chains of command within their elements.
2.5.7.6 Times and Places for Inspection and Rehearsal. The PJTL announces the
times and places to inspect the team. If known at the time, the time and place of rehearsal
for the full team is given. Complete uniform and equipment are worn and carried at all
such inspections and rehearsals.
2.5.7.7 Specific Instructions. Specific instructions are given to/for:
Subordinate leaders for obtaining, checking, and distributing rations, water,
weapons, ammunition, and equipment.
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Return to friendly areas/extraction point. This may differ from time required
to reach the objective. IP(s) may slow the team. The use of a different return
route may change the time required.
2.5.10.2.3.2 Advantage. Advantage is taken of light and weather conditions
which will aid departure and return (e.g., greater darkness before moonrise and
after moonsetdarkness and noise of wind and rain during stormy periods).
2.5.10.2.4 Specific Individual Responsibilities. Essential tasks are identified and
assigned. These are the tasks whose successful performance enables the team to reach
the objective and return. Such tasks as navigation, team security, security during halts,
survivor contacts, as well as the authentication procedures are to mention a few.
2.5.10.2.5 Organization for Movement. Formations must be planned for movement
of the team to and from the OA. Location of elements and individuals in the various
formations used must be planned.
2.5.10.2.5.1 Ground Movement. Ground movement formations should be
adaptable to any size team. Each formation has its advantages and disadvantages.
They may be varied to fit the terrain and situation. For example, a situation may
require some sacrifice of control in order to achieve greater dispersion. Another
situation may require great stealth at the expense of speed in movement.
2.5.10.2.5.2 Factors Influencing Movement.
2.5.10.2.5.2.1 Enemy Contact. The most important consideration is the plan
of action to take if the team makes enemy contact.
2.5.10.2.5.2.2 Tactical Integrity. As far as possible, organization for
movement maintains element and team integrity. This helps in control, security,
employment at the objective, and on enemy contact.
2.5.10.2.5.2.3 Employment At Objective. Consistent with other
considerations, organization for movement permits quick and easy
employment at the objective.
2.5.10.2.5.2.4 Control. How important is control in relation to other factors?
The size of the team is always an important consideration.
2.5.10.2.5.2.5 The Enemy Situation. Where is the enemy? How strong is
he? What/where are ambush dangers?
2.5.10.2.5.2.6 Speed of Movement. When must the team reach the objective?
When must it return? Rate of movement is governed by the threat, terrain,
mission equipment, and security. A pace consideration is where to place the
slowest team member.
2.5.10.2.5.2.7 Stealth. Can the team move quietly? Does the formation force
the flanks to move through noisy underbrush? Which is most important, stealth
or speed?
2.5.10.2.5.2.8 Security. From which direction is contact with the enemy most
likely to come? Will the team have a 360-degree security? Will speed or
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Aircraft
Activity
Reconnaissance
Insertion operations
Electronic warfare
Defense suppression
Ordnance delivery
Re-supply
Extraction operations
Insertion/extraction
operation
Ground
Maritime
Example
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2.6.1 Documents. Refer to AFPD 16-13 Survival, Evasion, Resistance, and Escape (SERE)
Program Directive, JP 3-50.2, Doctrine for Joint Combat Search and Rescue, JP 3-50.21,
Joint Tactics, Techniques and Procedures for CSAR, JP3-50.3, Joint Doctrine for Evasion and
Recovery, DoDI 1300.7, Training and Education to Support Code of Conduct, DoDI 1300.21,
Code of Conduct Training Instruction, CCR 525-21.
2.6.2 Qualification and Training. SERE specialists will be qualified IAW their career field
education and training plan (CFETP), MAJCOM master task list, and unit level training
requirements. Operations supported may dictate additional training.
2.6.3 Concept of Employment. SERE support to PR operations covers the spectrum of
engagements from regional conflict to small-scale contingencies (SSC) and consists of three
mission areas which form the SERE triad. These include (1) initial training, (2)
refresher/continuation training, and (3) deployed operations supporting high-risk-of-capture
(HRC)/high-risk-of-isolation (HRI) personnel. Deployed responsibilities include: assignment
to the joint personnel recovery center (JPRC), personnel recovery coordination cell (PRCC) or
equivalent; unit level positions in operational flying units, rescue squadrons, sister service or
allied units, and SOF/OGA elements as requested. Actions taken prior to mission execution
are designed to facilitate planning and preparation for possible IP events and the ensuing PR
mission. SERE specialists will assist in all facets of PR mission planning by ensuring
incorporation of all available and pertinent SERE information. Actions taken after recovery
facilitate reintegration and ensure lessons learned are documented and forwarded. Procedures
for the mission areas may overlap and each specific operating location may have collateral
support requirements identified and supported by the assigned SERE specialist.
NOTE: In SSC situations a single SERE specialist may be required to perform the functions of
both mission areas.
2.6.4 PR Operational Support Duties at Home Unit. Provide oversight, manage, and
conduct operations and training activities supporting PR operations IAW AFPD 16-13,
Survival, Evasion, Resistance, and Escape (SERE) and MAJCOM requirements.
2.6.5 PR Duties while Deployed.
Provide oversight and conduct theater specific PR briefings to HRC/MRC
personnel (i.e., environmental, cultural, HRC/HRI, and STEP briefings).
Serve as PR LNO to JPRC/PRCC director/coordinator.
Conduct reintegration debriefings of recovered personnel to extract and integrate
lessons learned IAW Chapter 12, Reintegration Operations.
Assist in development and update PR SPINS.
In cooperation with unit intelligence personnel, evaluate suitability/availability of
selected areas for evasion (SAFE), designated areas for recovery (DAR), and other
designated PR areas to determine suitability for mission requirements. Communicate
new requirements through appropriate channels.
2.6.6 SERE Program Manager. The senior ranking or designated SERE specialist in the
JPRC/PRCC will act as the SERE program manager (PM) and has final responsibility for the
theater SERE program. The SERE program manager (PM) may delegate tasks and duties as
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2.6.7 Sere Specialist Assigned to a Unit Other Than the JPRC/PRCC (i.e., flying unit,
joint ground unit, coalition unit, rescue squadron, or SOF/OGA). Responsibilities may
include some or all of the tasks listed in the JPRC/PRCC if the SERE specialist is the only
GUARDIAN ANGEL asset assigned during a SSC. The primary responsibilities for the
SERE specialist are as follows.
2.6.7.1 SERE specialists recommend and evaluate designated evasion areas to determine
suitability for mission requirements and communicate new requirements through
appropriate channels. To provide SME, policy guidance, oversight, and management of
the units EPAs, ISOPREPs, EVCs, blood chits, pointee-talkies, and PR kits. The specialist
may be required to provide specific guidance for integrating theater specific SERE
information and resources into SOF/OGA planning. In-depth evasion planning will be
done in conjunction with relevant intelligence resources. Planning considerations may
include the development and evaluation of evasion corridors, evasion rally points, evasion
re-supply points, and recovery points, as well as unit-level PR SPINS.
2.6.7.2 SERE specialists provide operational level SME to the JPRC/PRCC or equivalent
organization to develop PR JTTP. The specialist may be tasked to develop, review, update,
and make input to E&R procedures contained in SPINS, E&R annexes, and other
documents for RC or SSC.
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2.6.7.3 SERE specialists prepare assigned units for combat operations by conducting
theater specific SERE indoctrination briefings that include, as a minimum; environment
(climate, terrain, and life forms), customs and culture of indigenous people, theater PR
capabilities and procedures, legal status of isolated personnel, theater-mandated-level
CoCT, and appropriate level resistance training refresher.
2.6.7.4 SERE specialists provide subject matter expertise to identify and incorporate
appropriate survival equipment required for successful PR. During OT&E of new survival
equipment, SERE specialists offer a unique capability based on first hand knowledge of
both survival skills and the threats facing the isolated personnel. When evaluating new
SERE-related items use the following guidelines: ensure interoperability with current
systems, safety for the isolated personnel, durability, ease of maintenance, bulk and
weight, availability and cost. Forward the item recommendation through appropriate
channels.
2.6.7.5 SERE specialist act as the units focal point for PRX planning and execution.
Conduct observe/controller (OC) for the IP during the PRX. Compile data to assess
whether objectives are being met and formulate lessons learned for after-action reports
(AAR). Provide AAR to all players and/or JPRC as directed. As a minimum, the AAR
should include the following: IPs use of issued equipment, interaction between IP and
rescue assets, interaction between CSARTF assets, limiting factors (i.e., terrain or line of
sight for radios), and recommendations for future operations/exercises.
2.6.7.6 During PR operations, unit-level SERE personnel may be required to forward
ISOPREPs and EPAs to the JPRC/PRCC. Information will be passed via secure means
(i.e., MIRC/CSARnet/TAC/STE). The SERE specialist may be tasked to provide a SME
to the JPRC/PRCC or equivalent organization during recovery of isolated personnel or
may be tasked to identify PR unique intelligence requirements. SERE specialists may also
function as a liaison to isolated personnels unit and a survivor equipment/capability SME.
2.6.7.7 SERE specialists assist the theater SERE PM and CRO in establishing and
executing a comprehensive plan for reintegration operations IAW Chapter 12,
Reintegration Operation. SERE specialists may be assigned to the medical facility or to
the rescue/SOF/OGA unit that executed the PR mission and may by virtue of location have
to initiate the reintegration process. If a CRO is not available, the SERE specialist will
provide guidance and assistance to the command level designated to execute the theater
reintegration plan, and ensure the theater plan is followed. The SERE specialist will
extract, document and forward lessons learned IAW Chapter 12, Reintegration
Operation.
2.6.8 Evasion Plan of Action Guide. Evasion plan of action (EPA) is a guide developed to
standardize explanations pertaining to the evasion plan of action blocks. An EPA should be
filled out and used by aircrew, ground teams, and HRC/MRC personnel (i.e., convoys, AFOSI,
and personnel leaving a controlled area) that could find themselves isolated. Some areas
need not be changed if day-to-day mission does not change; however, it still must be reviewed
before each mission launch along with ISOPREPs. Potential isolated personnel must realize
and maintain mind set that an EPA is designed for use by rescue forces. This form is the only
avenue the IP uses to inform rescue personnel of their intentions and assist in their recovery. It
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Remarks
Date prepared
Actual date the form was filled in. Change the date when any
changes are made.
Mission date
Date and day the EPA will be used on an actual mission launch.
This is important due to SPINS changes, crew reassignment, and
numerous other variables.
Mission number
Call sign
Identifies the aircraft within the system verified against the ATO.
Call sign is one of the first bits of information passed during any
aircraft incident. Ensure call sign listed on EPA is the assigned
tactical callsign.
Aircraft
Departure base/location
Unit
AC initial
EPA POC
Review by SERE/Intel
Intel/Unit DSN TAC e-mail Contact point for ISOPREP/EPA information. Quick reference to
those who can provide more information on the crew, mission,
passengers, and so forth. This contact should be manned and
accessible while aircraft are in flight.
Crew identification
Rank
2-112
Remarks
Name
Crew position
Self-explanatory.
Radio type
PLS ID code
The PLS ID code shall be based upon the numeric portion of the
radio serial number located on the radio. Ignore any leading
zeros and any Alpha designators in the serial number. If the
remaining numeric portion of the radio serial number has less
than six digits, enter zeros for the last numbers.
Allergies
Authentication
- SARNEG
- SARDOT
2-113
Remarks
Items listed in the SPINS for communication and identification
between isolated personnel and recovery forces.
Signal procedures
NOTE:
(1) All authentication material should be memorized.
(2) Authentication procedures will be tailored specifically to the AOR, utilizing current TTPs.
(3) Can be addressed as an alphabetic word (e.g., P would be PAPA).
(4) When deployed, one can depict where one is awaiting recovery in relation to the signal (e.g.,
I WILL BE 50 METERS TO NORTH OF THE RAS.)
2-114
EPA POC
Contact DSN/STU/STE/TAC:
AC Review
Departure
Base/Location
SERE/Intel Review
E-mail:
Crew Identification
Call Sign
Rank
Identifier
Aircrew
Position
Name
Radio
Type
PLS or
CSEL ID
Authentication
CSAR Letter
CSAR Word
CSAR Number
CSAR Color
GTAS
Blood
Allergies
Chit
and Blood
Number
Type
Challenge/Response
Location
SARNEG
SARDOT
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Radio
PRC-90-2
CSEL UHF
SATCOM
Primary-
Ch A
Ch A
Ch 1
Alternate-
Ch B
Ch B
Ch 2
Ch C
Ch D
Ch C
Ch D
Ch 3
Ch 4
Ch E
Ch E
Ch 5
Ch F
Ch F
Ch 6
PRC-112B1
CSAR A
CSAR B
2-115
Alternate
Day
Night
Signals
Day
Night
2-116
Individual KIT: ML-4 Kit (1 man life raft plus the following items.)
2-117
Extended Evasion Intentions: NOTE: Due to the unknown minefield situation throughout
the AO, movement will be kept to a minimum.
2-118
Mission Date /
Day
Mission
Number
Unit
Call Sign
EPA POC
Means of
Travel
Departure Base/
Location
Contact Information
DSN/STU/STE:
NIPR:
TAC/Other:
SIPR:
mIRC:
Staging Location
Team Identification
Call Sign
Identifier
Rank
Name
Team
Position
Radio
Type
PLS/
Blood
Allergies
MBITR/
Chit
&Blood Type
CSEL ID Number
Authentication
CSAR Number
CSAR Color
CSAR Letter
GTAS
CSAR Word
Challenge/Response
Location
Primary SARDOT
Identifier:
Location:
SARNEG
2-119
VOICE:
UPLINK:
DOWNLINK:
CSEL Frequencies
Voice
CSEL Frequencies
UHF SATCOM
CSEL Frequencies
LPE
Ch A:
Ch A:
Ch 1:
Ch B:
Ch B:
Ch 2:
Ch C:
Ch C:
Ch 3:
Ch D:
Ch D:
Ch 4:
Ch E:
Ch E:
Ch 5:
Ch F:
Ch F:
Ch 6:
2-120
Alternate
Day
Night
Signal Procedures:
Day
Night
Challenge Response -
Signaling Equipment
Evasion Intentions
Immediate Actions:
Rally Points:
GTH (Go-to-hell point)
Injured:
First 48 Hours/Uninjured
2-121
Legal Guidance
Other
Level of SERE Training:
Clothing and Shoe Size:
2.6.10.2 During operations, ISOPREPs should be stored with or in close proximity to the
individual evasion plans of action.
2.6.11 SERE Specific Mission Planning/Execution Tools Terminology. This section is
designed to give the operator a basic understanding of some of the tools used to support
mission planning and operations and the correct terminology for those tools. The intent here is
to clear up any common misconceptions about what SERE can and cannot provide, as well as
give the operator a better understanding of what to ask for to meet his particular needs. The
definitions here are not going to be all inclusive. For example, there is only one short
2-122
paragraph on FalconView. Anyone that is ever used FalconView knows that you could spend
several days in a classroom learning all the ins and outs of the system. Mission planning tools
include, but are not limited to:
2.6.11.1 Geospatial Information and Services. This is the term used to describe all the
products and services that fall into the realm of geospatial information. Examples of
geospatial information and services (GI&S) products are maps (both hard and soft copies)
and imagery (again, both hard and soft).
2.6.11.1.1 FalconView. This is a computer program that is part of the portable flight
planning system (PFPS) suite of software. Much in the way that Microsoft Word is a
member of the MS Office suite of software, FalconView is a large part of the PFPS
suite. It allows users the ability to take mapping, image, and elevation data, which is
all geo-corrected, and use it to mission plan in a digital environment. The maps and
imagery are layered by scale, so you can start out viewing the entire world, and then
zoom into the country, AOR, or AO that you are specifically interested in.
2.6.11.1.2 Digital Terrain Elevation Data. This is elevation data that covers a
specific geographic area. It can be displayed graphically to show relief; however, the
data is more commonly used to compliment other digital GI&S data. In FalconView
(e.g., if DTED is loaded for the same area that have digital map coverage, you will be
able to pull the estimated elevation of any given point on the map), DTED is also used
in the production of 3-dimensional images. SERE specialist will use this to show a RT
the terminal area from a ground level point of view. Can also digitally walk evasion
corridors.
2.6.11.1.3 mIRC Chat. (M)icrosoft (I)nternet (R)elay (C)hat, is a web-based
(SIPRNET) collaborative tool used to disseminate secure information quickly and
widely. A written log is produced. This typically is used to pass SARIR, SARSIT and
mission coordination to include attaching a digital copy of EPA and ISOPREP.
2.6.11.1.4 Imagery. There are several types of imagery that might come across in the
mission planning process. Some will be more helpful than other at different times.
These products will typically be acquired from intelligence. Examples of the different
types of imagery available through intelligence are as follows:
2.6.11.1.5 National Technical Means. There are actually three types of images that
come from the NTM. They are electro-optical (EO), infrared, and radar. Each has its
own strengths and weaknesses.
2.6.11.1.5.1 Electro-Optical. Electro-optical is basically a greyscale image. A
simplified explanation of EO imagery is a 35mm camera in space with a really big
zoom lens. Its strength is that it is easy to use and interpret. The weaknesses of
EO imagery are that it is daytime only and can be defeated by weather (rainy
days = no good imagery), it is susceptible to denial and deception techniques (use
of camouflage and or dummy aircraft and vehicles), and it only captures on
moment it time (it does not necessarily show intent; for this you would need
multiple images shot over a period of time).
2-123
2-124
3-1
CHAPTER 3
GENERAL AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS
3.1 Airmanship. This chapter contains information involving general aircraft operations. It
addresses tactics, techniques and procedures enabling CRO/PJs to perform aircrew duties on
vertical-lift (VL) and fixed-wing (FW) aircraft.
3.2 General. Pararescuemen may function as crew members on rescue-tasked aircraft. Crew
members are those personnel who enable the aircraft to accomplish the mission. In this role, PJs
are an integral part of the rescue crew and require knowledge of aircrew procedures and aircraft
systems. They must be able to communicate effectively with the aircrew, integrate team tactics
with aircrew tactics, and coordinate deployment/employment of the team/aircrew. Airmanship is
a critical skill PJs bring to the fight and proficiency must be maintained.
3.2.1 Responsibilities. General responsibilities of a qualified PJ functioning as a mission
crew member are outlined in Table 3.1, Mission Crew Member Responsibilities.
3.2.2 Crew Coordination/ Duties. Crew coordination is essential to all flying. PJs must
know what their aircraft responsibilities are and how they relate to the rest of the crew. They
must also have an awareness of other crew members functions and duties, to increase their
own situational awareness (SA).
3.2.3 Aircraft Communications. GUARDIAN ANGEL members must refer to the specific
MDS-1 series TO for instructions on proper use of the internal communications system (ICS).
In aircraft with limited ICS connection ports, to facilitate the passage of critical information,
recommend the PJTL have the team come up as required on their interteam radios or monitor
constantly during the entire flight.
NOTE: Team members should utilize a PRC-148 MBITR 5590 adapter or carry additional
batteries for this option.
3.2.4 Interphone. Keep unnecessary interphone conversation to a minimum. When
speaking, talk in short bursts and half sentences. This allows breaks in which other radios may
be heard or necessary interruptions can be added.
3.2.4.1 Interphone discussions are prioritized by aviate (fly the plane), navigate (in the
right direction), and then communicate (talking to other airplanes or agencies). This
implies, for example, it is okay to interrupt a pilot talking about navigation waypoints
(navigate) to say STOP LEFT (aviate).
3-2
3-3
3.2.4.2 Clear and concise communications are imperative for safe and effective aircraft
operations. Effective communication happens when the receiver responds with desired
information and/or action. Situational awareness is dependent on good communications.
The following are techniques for good communications.
Make verbal, tone, and nonverbal cues express the same message.
Avoid emotion.
Listen to the message, not what you think the message will be.
3.2.5 Common Crew Terminology. To enhance communication and crew coordination, use
words or phrases that are understood by all participants. Use clear, concise terms that can be
easily understood and complied with in an environment full of distractions. Avoid multiple
terms with the same meaning. The DoD flight information publication (FLIP) contains
standard terminology for radio communications. AFTTP 3-1.1, General Planning and
Employment Considerations, contains standard terminology for tactical operations. (Table
3.2 and Table 3.3, Common Terminology, list standard words and phrases that crew members
should use.)
NOTE: Ensure the proper use/definitions of ROGER, WILCO, AFFIRMATIVE, and CLEARED
are thoroughly understood. COPY is not listed in the pilot-controller glossary, except when
confirming a list of items such as, I COPY N350201.
3.2.6 Voice Procedures. The scanners direct the pilot flying (PF) over the survivor or hover
point using standard terminology. Instructions should be clear, concise, and directive (versus
descriptive) for approach and hover operations. The scanners can aid the PF with airspeed
control during the approach by describing the reduction of distance, in a numerical sequence,
from a given point from the survivor, to a hover point over the survivor. The frequency of
numerical calls made should indicate the speed of the helicopter toward the survivor or the
closure rate. A closure rate is not necessarily given in a preset distance of feet, yards, or
meters. An example would be SURVIVOR AT TWELVE FOR 100, 75, 50, 40. The faster
the call, the more rapid the closure (e.g., 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 STOP). If the approach is too fast and
the helicopter cannot be safely slowed down in time, call GO-AROUND, GO-AROUND,
3-4
Meaning
CLEAR FORWARDLEFT/RIGHT
CLEAR LEFT/RIGHT
CLEAR UP RIGHT/LEFT
CLOSURE FAST/SLOW
DESCENDING/CLIMBING
DRIFTING FORWARD/BACK/
LEFT/RIGHT
LEFT/RIGHT TURN
LOADS HOOKED/RELEASED The cargo sling and load is attached to/released from the
cargo hook
ON THE APPROACH
ON THE GO
ROPES
DEPLOYED/RELEASED
SLIDING FORWARD/BACK/
LEFT/RIGHT
NOTES:
(1)
Informative terms are not directive in nature and indicate the intent to perform a maneuver,
provide trend information, or provide information necessary to safely perform a maneuver.
(2)
3-5
Meaning
Closure/descent/climb seems excessive and may need
correction
Initiate a go-around
HOLD
PILOT/COPILOT CABLE
DOWN/UP
POWER UP/DOWN
ROLLOUT/STOP TURN
Roll wings-level
SLOW FORWARD/BACK/
LEFT/RIGHT/UP/DOWN
SLOW/INCREASE CLOSURE
STEEPEN/SHALLOW TURN
STOP FORWARD/BACK/LEFT/
RIGHT/UP/DOWN
SWIMMERS, SWIMMERS,
SWIMMERS
TURN LEFT/RIGHT
NOTES:
(1)
Directive terms indicate that immediate action is required because of the possibility of contact with
obstacles, injury to deploying/enplaning personnel, or mission requirements.
(2)
(3)
Use pitch, tone, inflection, and repetition, as necessary, to indicate the urgency of the directive
terms.
3-6
3.3 Alternate Loading Operations. The primary method of restraining personnel in all aircraft
is via the troop seats. The primary means of inserting or recovering personnel is landing. The
following techniques are used to restrain a team or survivor when it is impractical or impossible to
use normal seating arrangements.
3.3.1 Alternate Loading Methods. These methods are normally used during contingency
operations and tactical training missions when standard passenger seating reduces the crews
ability to accomplish the mission effectively. The cabin floor itself is defined as the seat and
either a seatbelt or personal restraint device restrains the occupants. Alternate loading
expedites team deployment and recovery, maximizes cabin space, and allows maneuverability
of the team during mission execution. Restrain all personnel by the safest means possible for
the type mission being flown. Restraints may be removed upon landing in the landing zone
(LZ), when cleared by the aircraft commander (AC), or while taxiing to the off-load point. For
hover operations (including water operations), restraint devices are removed as required.
3.3.2 Restraining Devices. The primary alternate load method used by most teams use the
gunners belt or personal restraint device (alternate load belt/sit harness with cows tail). The
secondary alternate load method is fastening the troop seatbelts to the floor tie-down rings.
The least desirable alternate load method uses a cargo tie-down strap. The tie-down strap is
fastened to the floor tie-down rings and runs across the lap. When using this method, have
passengers face forward to absorb the most common displacement forces of aircraft
maneuvering or a crash landing.
3.4 Aircraft Marshalling. CRO/PJs may direct and control movement of aircraft during air land
operations (e.g., transload, FARP, EROs, and so forth). Because of to these situations, it is
important to know and practice standard hand and arm signals to direct aircraft on the ground.
Standard marshalling signals for Air Force operations are outlined in AFI 11-218, Aircraft
Operations and Movement on the Ground.
3.5 Aircraft Egress. GUARDIAN ANGEL members must be familiar with egress procedures
for the aircraft that they are going to be operating on. For egress procedures, members must refer
to the specific MDS-1 series TO for that aircraft. (See Table 3.4, Aircraft Egress, Familiarization,
and Destruction Briefing Guide, for general information.)
3-7
Ground evacuation.
b. Crash landing.
c.
Ditching.
d. Bailout.
13. Danger areas.
a.
Engines.
GTC/APU.
f.
g. Hydraulic systems.
h. Wave guide.
i.
Oxygen vents.
j.
Pitot tubes.
3.6 Pararescue/CRO Duties. Aircrew duties may include flight following, providing en route
emergency medical care, operating aircraft defensive systems, equipment
preparation/configuration and scanning as required during flight. They serve as the essential
3-8
surface to air link when employed in the terminal area (TA) via airland, hover, rope insertion and
extraction, hoist, and free-fall swimmer, to locate, contact, secure, assist, and recover IPs. PJ
surface employment is a tactic used to decrease time in the TA by expediting IP preparation and
extraction. They provide a reliable and experienced command, control, and communications (C3)
link between the aircrew and IP. Limited size and firepower dictates the recovery teams attempt
to avoid enemy contact, suppress enemy fire to the extent required, withdraw, evade, or revert to
an avoidance posture as necessary.
3.6.1 En Route Operations. Immediately after aircraft launch and during the ingress/egress
of the objective area (OA), CRO/PJs follow route progress of the aircraft on designated,
sanitized maps or other electronic/manual flight following aids, and confirm way point
passage as applicable. They should scan the sky and surface for the presence of air-to-air and
ground-to-air threats. Suspected threats are called out to the aircrew in accordance with
MDS-specific AFTTP 3-1. Preparations for aircraft evasive actions commence immediately
upon sighting a suspected threat. They continue to visually monitor the location and actions of
the suspected threat until a no-threat condition is determined. A confirmed threat is reacted to
IAW rules of engagement (ROE) for the OA and mission design series (MDS) aircraft tactical
doctrine.
3.6.2 Objective Area Threat Assessment and Control. The function of assessing the OA
threat situation is based primarily on the ability to recognize the threat. A second factor is
based largely on ability to quickly associate the type of threat with its correct characteristics
and capabilities. From these two factors, a determination can be made regarding the safety or
danger to the rescue aircraft and aircrew.
3.6.2.1 OA Threat Control. OA threat control is the responsibility of all personnel
involved in the combat search and rescue (CSAR). It is a function of location, recognition,
communication and action or reaction. There are several methods for assisting with or
effecting typical OA threat control measures. Specific guidance can be found in
MDS-specific AFTTP 3-1 Volumes.
3.7 Vertical Lift Operations. This section presents TTPs for employment and aircrew duties of
GUARDIAN ANGEL recovery teams on-board vertical lift aircraft. Vertical lift (VL) operations
will primarily be conducted from HH-60G and MH-53J aircraft. However, these TTPs can be
modified to employ teams from any DoD or foreign service aircraft.
3.7.1 Pre-Mission. A successful rescue mission must start with a through PJTL brief to the
recovery vehicle (RV) aircrew. Detailed coordination and planning are key to success in the
terminal area. PJTLs should brief a primary, alternate and contingency plan. The primary
plan is based on knowledge of the anticipated threat, IP location and condition for the most
efficient recovery possible. The alternate and contingency plan should be based on how to
deal with an increased threat or a decrease in assets. If operating in the joint SOF
environment, discuss criteria concerning the employment of an attached SAR security team
(SST). (See AFTTP 3-1.8, Chapter 17, Special Tactics Mission Profile.)
3.7.2 Pararescue Minimum Force. CRO mission planner and the PJTL will determine the
correct team composition to complete the mission. Testing by the 60 CTF (formerly known as
the 422 TES) shows advantages in the TA with the three-man PJ team concept over the
two-man PJ team. Furthermore, consistent employment of pararescue personnel during USAF
3-9
Weapons School terminal area sorties confirms the tests done by the 60 CTF in relation to
having a third PJ per aircraft which makes teams of three and three. During the insertion and
extraction phase, testing has demonstrated little difference, in terms of time, by adding one PJ
per aircraft. The additional PJ gives the team the ability to perform critical tasks
simultaneously such as communicating with the CSARTF, constant 360-degree security,
reacting to enemy fire, treating/packaging the litter bound patient, directing ICAS, extraction
from trees, cliffs, and aircraft wreckage, and assisting a wounded team member. Additionally,
GUARDIAN ANGEL recovery team composition considerations are discussed in various
chapters of AFTTP 3-1.8, Tactical Employment GUARDIAN ANGEL.
3.7.2.1 The PJTL and mission planners must remember that additional team members
reduce loiter time in the terminal area and recovery capability. For example, in the
MH-53M, each additional team member reduces the loiter time by 6 minutes. Because of
the complexities of working PR/RO in the joint environment of SOF, PJ team employment
with a SST will be covered in a separate section.
3.7.3 Time Warnings and Alternate Insertion Extraction Preparation. N o r m a l t i m e
warnings for alternate inspection extraction (AIE) operations and infiltrations may not be
practical in the PR/RO environment. The particular insertion method will not normally be
determined until immediately prior to PJ team employment. Upon entering the terminal phase
of the operation, it is recommended that all team members are ready to employ by all AIE
techniques.
3.7.3.1 Time Calls. The PF should keep the crew/team informed of position and distance
to the LZ. Standard announcements at the 20-, 10-, 5-, and 1-minute-out points greatly aid
in preparation. Employ these calls regardless of the specific type of AIE. (Time calls may
be modified to meet the situation when the crew is unable to comply with normal methods;
deviations/required time calls should be briefed prior to the operation.) The scanners
should keep the pilots informed of the status of AIE equipment prior to and throughout the
operation (e.g., THE H/FRIES-BAR IS EXTENDED AND PINNED).
3.7.4 Vertical Lift Transload Procedures. (See paragraph 3.11, Airland Operations.)
3.7.4.1 Patient Treatment. (See paragraph 3.11.4, Patient Treatment.)
3.7.5 Combat Search and Rescue Terminal Area Operations. The goal is to build an
in-depth foundation of the most current terminal area tactics for PR/RO. (See specific aircraft
MDS TTPs, 3-1 and 3-3)
3.7.6 Individual/Team Equipment. Pararescue equipment should be tailored to the
minimum necessary, mission dependent, to prosecute the operation. (See Table 3.5 and Table
3.6, Pararescue Individual Equipment Requirements; Table 3.7, Pararescue Team Equipment
Requirements; Table 3.8, Team Equipment RequirementsLogistics Requests; Table 3.9,
Individual Equipment RequirementsWeapons, Munitions, and Pyrotechnics; and Table
3.10, Individual Equipment RequirementsHelicopter Configuration.)
3-10
Quantity Location
Remarks
Carbine (M4)
Body
Camouflaged
IR strobe
A/R
Chemlights
A/R
Watch
A/R
Wrist compass
A/R
Lip/finger light
A/R
Flashlight
A/R
A/R
A/R
GLINT tape
AN/PEQ-2/4 or equivalent
Optics
A/R
Holster
Thermal scope
A/R
As required
Magazine, 5.56mm
LBE
Magazine, 9mm
LBE/
holster
Grenade, fragmentation
A/R
LBE
Grenade, smoke, HC
A/R
LBE
LBE
1 set
A/R
A/R
1 set
A/R
Extra batteries
A/R
Head
Extra batteries
LBE
Helmet, ballistic
Head
Body armor
A/R
METT-T dependent
Grenade, nonlethal
Pengun flares
Flare, MK-124/MK-13
NVG
LEGEND:
A/Ras required
45 rounds minimum
3-11
Quantity
Location
Remarks
Uniform/flop hat/flight
gloves/boots
Body
METT-T
Compass
A/R
Body
Body
PJ med ruck
Body
METT-T dependent
1 set
Food
A/R
LBE/body/
rucksack
Water
A/R
A/R
Extra batteries
A/R
A/R
A/R
Wet gear
Weapons cleaning kit
1 set
1
LBE/body Complete
1 set
Body
Survival kit
LBE
GPS
A/R
A/R
AIE gear
LEGEND:
A/Ras required
3-12
Quantity
Location
A/R
A/R
Oxygen
1 per
airframe
A/R
Miller board
1 per
airframe
A/R
Hypothermia kit
A/R
A/R
METT-T
A/R
A/R
METT-T
Extrication kit
AR
A/R
METT-T
Stokes litter
A/R
Israeli litter
1 per
airframe
A/R
A/R
A/R
METT-T
1 per
airframe
A/R
Fast rope
A/R
Rope ladder
A/R
Tag line
A/R
REDS kit
Rappel ropes
Poleless litter
A/R
Remarks
Easily accessible
A/R
Designated medic
A/R
Maps
A/R
A/R
IAW specific AO
A/R
A/R
Special weapons
A/R
A/R
T-Duck
A/R
A/R
METT-T
RAMZ
A/R
A/R
METT-T
LEGEND:
A/Ras required
3-13
Quantity
Remarks
Survival radio
Thermal scope
KYK-13
IR pointer
GPS
Headsets
Bench stock
A/R
IAW UTCs
Chemlights
5 boxes of
10 each:
IR, red, Consider mass casualty
green, blue,
yellow
5590,
1574, 9
Based on mission and weather
volt, AA,
5800, 1372
NVG
KED board
A/R
Medical resupply
A/R
IAW UTCs
Hypothermia kit
LEGEND:
A/Ras required
A/R
3-14
Individual issue
M-9
Individual issue
ACOG/CQB site/INWS
A/R
As required
5.56mm ball
10,000 rounds
5.56mm tracer
2,000 rounds
9mm ball
4,000 rounds
9mm subsonic
200 rounds
40mm HEDP
200 rounds
40mm M663/M664
24 each
Grenade, fragmentation
72
Flare, MK-124
36
Grenade, thermite
18
Grenade, smoke, HC
36
Grenade, nonlethal
36
A/R
A/R
A/R
Demolitions
A/R
METT-T
LEGEND:
A/Ras required
3-15
Quantity
3 x PJ recovery team
3
LBE, weapon, rucksack
3
PJ rucksack
1
Wet gear (if water rescue is possible)
3
Miller board package
1
Hypothermia kit (as required based on environments)
1
Fast rope (may be supplied by aircrew if coordinated)
1
Specialized equipment
1
Weight (pounds)
3 x 200 equals 600
3 x 100 equals 300
75
3 x 40 equals 120
50
40
60
200
Cube
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.75
0.5
0.5
0.5
3.8 Fixed-Wing (FW) Operations. This section presents TTPs for employment and aircrew
duties of GUARDIAN ANGEL teams on-board fixed-wing aircraft. FW operations will primarily
be conducted from HC-130 and MC-130E/H/P aircraft. However, these TTPs can be modified to
employ teams from any DoD or foreign service aircraft.
3.8.1 General. FW operations can be accomplished in permissive to high-threat
environments based on specific aircraft, crew capabilities, and supporting assets. Missions
can be flown single or multi-ship or as part of a larger force package (day or night) in variable
weather conditions from low altitudes (surface to 5,000 feet AGL), moderate altitudes (5,000
to 25,000 feet AGL), and from high altitudes (25,000 feet AGL and above). These operations
provide a multitude of benefits to GUARDIAN ANGEL operations. They can fly faster,
farther, and more direct than VL assets; typically have considerably longer endurance times;
and can carry large amounts of mission gear to include large parachute aerial delivery
packages and pallet loads. They provide excellent standoff loiter capabilities outside the threat
area for CSAR airborne alerts. Known as a Duckbutt, a FW aircraft can position itself along
an overwater route as a low threat, overwater precautionary SAR procedure. The airdrop and
airland employment of a team is used when IPs require immediate assistance and are not
accessible by VL aircraft or other modes of recovery and time and distance is a factor. FW
teams may also augment VL teams who are in need of additional support. Accessibility
limitations of VL aircraft are range, air refueling support, and transit time to the IP. Airborne
teams provide a rapid response capability for on-scene assistance, assisted evasion and
medical treatment in an overland or maritime environment until recovery is possible. They
can insert by parachute (military free fall or static-line A/R) from FW aircraft, operate
independently of the delivery aircraft for limited or extended periods of time, and be recovered
by vertical lift aircraft, link up with friendly ground forces, or navigate to a maritime coastal
extraction. To increase mobility, teams can employ specialized vehicles. They can also insert
into openwater and recover by helicopter, surface vessel, or movement to a coastal area. To
facilitate multiple IP/E recoveries and extended operations, teams employ bundles containing
additional medical and rescue equipment. MC-130E/H/P crews may conduct landing
operations to unimproved airfields and roads in austere locations. The overall goal is to
minimize the time from launch to recovery of an objective. (For additional information, see
AFPD 16-12, Pararescue; AFI 16-1202, Pararescue Operations, Techniques, and
Procedures; and JP 3-50.21, Joint Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for CSAR.)
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3.9 Fixed-Wing Airborne Operations. During airborne operations, PJ/CRO provide critical
expertise to and from the terminal area via flight following, threat identification, and real-time
on-scene evaluation using visual and electronic means. PJ/CROs should be involved in planning
fixed-wing CSARTF operations. When a tactical situation or IPs medical condition dictates,
fixed-wing assets can utilize tactical airdrops or airland to deploy, teams, vehicles, and other
equipment as required in advance of the VLs. Factors include the threat level, IP or objective
exploitation potential, IP injuries, IP protection, time considerations, and the recovery plan. These
factors can change in real-time tactical environments and require experienced re-evaluation. A
non-deploying CRO or PJTL on board a fixed-wing asset can enhance mission effectiveness by
mediating real-time mission dynamics, assisting in pre-deployment activities, and providing post
deployment support to the team and aircrew. Once on scene, the deployed team will stabilize and
protect the IPs, secure objectives, assist in evasion, and prepare the IPs for recovery.
3.9.1 Fixed-wing aircraft launched on rescue operations may carry flight surgeons to act as a
medical control element in support of GUARDIAN ANGEL assets. The nature of the
survivors injuries may require the flight surgeon to be in direct radio contact with the PJTL.
3.9.2 As an operational support tasking, SERE specialists may be part of the aircrew to
operate the Quick Draw and/or participate on a repatriation team.
3.10 Aerial Delivery. HC/MC-130 aircrews are specially trained in procedures for airdropping
GUARDIAN ANGEL resupply equipment by viable rescue aerial delivery tactics (free fall,
parabundle, rigging alternate method zodiac, and all-terrain vehicles airdrop). See Chapter 6,
Aerial Deployment Equipment, for deployment altitudes and limitations.
3.10.1 Special Equipment. The (HC/MC-130) MA-1/MA-2 sea rescue kit consists of five
cylindrical shaped bundles connected by four 210-foot long ropes. Bundles 1 and 5 are life
rafts and bundles 2, 3, and 4 are waterproof supply containers. The MA-1 kit employs 6- or
7-person rafts and the MA-2 uses 20-person rafts. Equipment packed in the supply containers
can be tailored to meet the survivor's needs.
3.11 Airland Operation. Fixed-wing airland operations is the use of aircraft operating in and
out of assault landing zones for the delivery and or recovery of personnel, supplies and equipment.
Assault landings are normally made on short, unprepared fields in a low-threat environment.
Consider fast, lightweight, mechanized modes of surface transportation (e.g., ATV and RATTV)
for surface employment conducted in support of fixed-wing assault landing operations. Greater
mobility can provide for quicker recovery of the mission objectives and enhance the ability to
provide physical security of the aircraft.
3.11.1 Engine Running On-Load/Off-Load. The purpose of engine running on-load (ERO)
is to expedite ground operations when mission handling equipment (MHE) is in short supply
or the threat to an aircraft on the ground is a factor. EROs are an entirely different type of
operation than combat loading, and should not be confused or incorrectly interchanged.
Ensure ground support personnel and aircrew members understand the method and proper
operating procedures to use. EROs may be necessary when the time or capability to shut down
and restart engines is not available.
3.11.1.1 ERO Requirements. Most on-loads/off-loads at improved fields are conducted
with MHE using normal procedures. An unusually busy airflow and weather
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considerations are examples of the requirement for EROs. Planners and aircrews should
determine which type of on-load or off-load support is required for operations. Size,
composition, and qualifications of load teams, combined with the type and amount of
MHE available, determine the type of on-loads and off-loads that can be performed and
how quickly they are completed. Good communication links through CCT/STT, airfield
operations control nets, and tanker airlift control element (TALCE) Mobility Air
Reporting and Communication System (MARCS) will enhance the flow and increase
safety.
3.11.2 Combat Loading. Combat loading is comprised of three types of operations: (1)
combat off-load, (2) passenger combat loading, and (3) rapid infiltration. Some aircraft cargo
compartments are modified with NVG-compatible lighting.
3.11.2.1 Rapids. Rapid infiltration is a tactically sound method to on-load or off-load
dedicated unconventional forces under covert conditions. Spring-loaded, latch-activated,
folding ramps (canary slides) or ground loading ramps are used to off-load and on-load
vehicles and personnel in a matter of minutes. Fixed-wing and vertical-lift assets may be
used to insert PJ teams with or without vehicles to airfields, assault zones, roads, or any
suitable landing area. Rapids are a viable means to insert PJs where threats, terrain,
weather, or other factors do not allow for insertion by parachute or require a stand off
capability. The PJ team may be recovered by the insertion platform or by other means.
Planning and crew coordination should include team and aircrew intentions if attacked,
recall procedures as required, communication and signaling, and team actions on and
around the aircraft.
3.11.2.2 Preparation. All restraint devices except one forward and one aft (opposite
corners) may be removed during taxi to the off-load point. Self-propelled vehicles must
have drivers in place with brakes set prior to removing restraints. Exceptionvehicles
will not be started in flight.
3.11.2.2.1 Fuel Tanks. Vehicle fuel tanks will not exceed 3/4 full when positioned on
the cargo floor. Fuel tanks for vehicles transported on the ramp will not exceed 1/2 full.
3.11.2.2.2 Prohibited Maneuvers and Procedures.
Motorcycle, quad, and mini-bike drivers will not be on their vehicles for
takeoffs and landings.
Vehicles will not be onloaded/offloaded while the center anchor cable supports
are in the installed position.
Vehicle IR lights will not be used in or around aircraft.
Personnel will not loiter between vehicles while on the aircraft.
Personnel will not extend arms or legs under vehicles.
The cargo ramp will not be lowered below horizontal until the aircraft comes to
a complete stop at the offload point.
Vehicles will not be started in-flight.
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3.11.3 Recovery and Transload. Circumstances may warrant using fixed-wing aircraft for
recovery or transload operations in situations where greater range and speed are essential to
the timely recovery of critically wounded personnel from the area of conflict to a location
where proper medical attention can be provided. The most common tasking for these
operations is during noncombatant evacuation operations (NEO). Aircrews may conduct
short-field operations to unimproved airfields or roads in austere locations.
3.11.3.1 Transload operations are normally conducted at secure airfields where a security
element is present to provide ground aircraft security or remote sites where ground
security is assessed as unnecessary.
3.11.3.2 Vertical lift transloads normally have the aircrafts landing close behind each
other, normally one rotor disc away (perpendicular or tail to tail as appropriate), to
facilitate quick off-loading and on-loading of IPs and allow possible egress avenues for
both aircraft should the area come under attack. Ideal locations are runway hammerheads
and ends of runways. Procedures should take place with the aircraft as close together as
possible.
3.11.3.3 During transload execution, the PJTL will assign aircraft security elements and
litter bearers as situation dictates. Normally, PJs from the helicopter and PJs from the
transload aircraft will act as litter bearers. Additional PJs can provide security as required.
Patient information will be transferred as required prior to landing.
3.11.3.4 To maintain crew, aircraft will not swap PJs during the transload process in most
circumstances. This requires a thorough, but concise information exchange between the
airframe PJTLs and CROs.
3.11.3.5 Information is relayed to JPRC by PJTL/CRO, in turn, to aeromedical evacuation
(AE) flight surgeon from medical/transload facility; rotary-wing will relay NLT 30
minutes out, and fixed-wing will relay NLT 60 minutes out.
3.11.3.6 Relay number of casualties by triage category: immediate, delayed, minimal, and
expectant. Report the following information for immediate category patients only:
injuries, to include mechanism of injury (MOI), stable or unstable, and treatment
performed.
3.11.3.7 The JPRC/PRCC will determine the real-time status of available medical
facilities and will coordinate with closest suitable facility to receive the patients. The
JPRC/PRCC will arrange with the recovery force for transport to and reception at this
facility. In the event the patients are translated from vertical lift to fixed-wing aircraft, the
JPRC/PRCC will also arrange for a vehicle and qualified reception team at the final
destination airfield to move the patients from runway to the treatment facility.
3.11.4 Patient Treatment. It is imperative for the PJ/CRO to coordinate all mission
restrictions and requirements to ensure the safety and success of the patient treatment. At
times, a crew of three aeromedical personnel may augment the flight crew. Items of
coordination should include a crew briefing at showtime with the medical crew (to establish a
plan of action and minimize confusion in the aircraft); the number of patients, passengers, and
cargo carried; any special requirements, aircraft configuration, medical and aircrew leaders,
interphone and communication procedures while airborne.
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3.11.4.1 The aircraft commander, PJ/CRO, and loadmasters need to ensure the aircraft
configuration is correct, establish any flight restrictions (cabin altitude, temperature,
mixture with other cargo and passengers), and facilitate patient on-load.
3.11.4.2 Ensure litter stations are prepared and secured. Consider a privacy/blackout area
near a communication station.
3.11.4.3 Litters are loaded feet first, front to back, top to bottom and left to right. Critical
patients are loaded in the most advantageous position to facilitate on going treatment.
3.11.5 Forward Arming and Refueling Point. The forward arming and refueling point
(FARP) is a tactical ground refueling and possible arming operation primarily performed by
MC-130 and special operations forces (SOF) attached DoD aircraft. An MC-130, with its
large fuel capacity and ability to land at unimproved sites, lends itself well to this mission.
FARP may be used to extend the combat radius of receiver aircraft. Combat radius should not
only be considered in terms of distance but also in terms of time. FARP is normally conducted
clandestinely at night in austere environments with engines running. Fuel can be carried in
palletized rubber bladders or pumped directly from the aircraft fuel tanks. FARP provides fuel
necessary for highly mobile and flexible vertical lift or fixed-wing operations. The size of the
FARP site varies with the mission and the planned number of receivers refueled. FARPs are
normally temporary facilities and established for a specific duration and mission. (See Figure
3.1, FARP Refueling Site Layouts.) FARP required equipment and personnel lists are
contained in AFI 11-235, Forward Arming and Refueling Point Operations.
NOTE: Be aware of aircraft separation, turning radius, and rotor distances when marshalling
aircraft around a FARP site.
3.12 Aircraft and Airfield Security. The PJ team provides security for themselves, the IP, and
in certain situations, the aircraft on the ground. The size of the PJ team and equipment required is
mission dependent. Refer to mission planning for factors effecting PJ team selection and security
requirements. The PJTL will assign security responsibility based on team composition and threat.
During fixed-wing assault landing operations, the team may be tasked to provide or assist with
providing aircraft security. Minimum equipment for security personnel loading out of the aircraft
will include necessary items for survival and evasion should the aircraft be disabled or committed
to an expedient departure. The security element must be large enough to provide 360-degree
coverage for the aircraft. Primary crew members have specific responsibilities on the aircraft and
should not be considered as part of the security element for planning purposes.
3.12.1 Security Element Procedures. When committed to airland, the PJ team must load
out of the aircraft rapidly. Any delay could unnecessarily expose the aircrew and aircraft to a
threat and would compromise the position of the employed PJ team.
3.12.1.1 Load out will be accomplished after the appropriate signal is received from a
designated crew member.
3.12.1.2 PJ team members will charge and safe weapons prior to load out of the aircraft to
provide immediate defense of the aircraft when required.
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FAM Cart
UNCLASSIFIED
3.12.1.3 The PJTL should be the last team member off headset and the last to load out in
order to facilitate an immediate team recall if necessary. At a minimum, the PJTL, at the
minimum, should have radio contact with the aircraft crew. Having the security element
on an inter-team radio frequency is highly recommended.
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3.12.1.4 An exit may be used during assault landing operations, provided it can
accommodate the personnel and equipment to be loaded in or out. The ramp is usually the
safest and most expeditious exit and entrance route.
3.12.1.5 The PJ team may be responsible for suppressing enemy ground fire and initiating
a recall when it is determined to be necessary or in the best interest of the employed forces.
3.12.1.6 The PJTL may implement a recall at the airfield if resistance is encountered or if
the PJTL believes the operation has been compromised. Compromise might result from an
unexpected visual or physical contact with a nearby enemy force. The absence of an
expected reception party could also signal eminent compromise or the presence of a threat.
3.12.1.7 The team members will move to a predetermined assembly point to orient
themselves or to pre-designate security positions and observe for enemy activity. If a
reception party is anticipated, contact will be made according to the contact plan outlined
by the PJTL in the operational plan.
3.12.2 Basic Plan for all Fixed-Wing Aircraft. 3.12.2.1 The below plan identifies four
security positions for the HC-130-/MC-130-series aircraft but can be utilized as a basic
plan for all fixed-wing aircraft. Areas of security and observation responsibility are
recommended as follows:
3.12.2.2 Number One Position. This team member will be positioned in the forward
overhead escape hatch. Number one is responsible for the 9 through 3 oclock position.
3.12.2.3 Number Two Position. This team member is positioned in the left paratroop
door or outside the left wing tip. Number two is responsible for the 6 through 12 oclock
position.
3.12.2.4 Number Three Position. This team member is positioned in the right paratroop
door or outside the right wing tip. Number three is responsible for the 12 through 6
oclock position.
3.12.2.5 Number Four Position. This team member is positioned on the ramp or aft of
the aircrafts tail. Number four is responsible for the 3 through 9 oclock position.
3.12.2.6 Security Element Extraction. A voice recall will not be audible over running
engines or during an engagement. Maximum use of interteam radios will be utilized to
implement a recall. Actions upon recall include the following:
Number one positionremains in place as long as possible, secures hatch, and
takes seat prior to take off roll.
Number two positiontakes position in left paratroop door, secures door, and takes
seat prior to take off roll.
Number three positiontakes position in right paratroop door, secures door, and
takes seat prior to take off roll.
Number four positionenters through ramp or designated door, assists load master
with accounting for personnel, and takes seat prior to takeoff roll.
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4-1
CHAPTER 4
INSERTION/EXTRACTION OPERATIONS
4.1 General. Insertions and extractions are normally accomplished via air-land. When mission
enemy terrain time troops available, and civilians (METT-TC) precludes air-land
insertion/extraction, other methods of insertion and extraction should be considered; these other
methods are referred to as alternate insertion/extraction (AIE). The fundamentals discussed in this
chapter may be performed day or night. The information contained in this chapter is not
all-inclusive and may be adapted; following realistic and sound safety principles.
4.2 Alternate Loading. The primary method of restraining personnel in the helicopter is via the
troop seats; however, during contingency operations and tactical training missions when standard
passenger seating reduces the crews ability to accomplish the mission effectively, alternate
loading should be considered. During alternate loading the cabin floor is defined as the seat, and
either a seat belt or personal restraint device restrains the occupants. Alternate loading expedites
team deployment and recovery, maximizes cabin space, and allows team maneuverability during
mission execution. Restraints may be removed upon landing in the landing zone (LZ), when
cleared by the aircraft commander (AC), or while taxiing to the off-load point. For hover
operations (including water operations), restraint devices are removed as required.
4.2.1 Restraining Devices. The primary alternate load method is the gunners belt or
personal restraint device (alternate load belt/sit harness with cow tail). The secondary alternate
load method is fastening the troop seat belts to the floor tie-down rings. The least desired
alternate load method uses a cargo tie-down strap. When using this method, it is best to face
forward to absorb the most common displacement forces of aircraft maneuvering or a crash
landing.
4.2.2 Equipment. The team leader/AIE master is responsible for coordinating with the
mission support aircraft/crew on installation and inspection of the equipment necessary to
conduct the operation. Aircraft space requirements must be pre-coordinated to facilitate the
removal of aircraft seats or equipment.
4.3 Contingencies and Emergency Procedures. When unsafe conditions are encountered, use
pre-briefed hand signals to stop any additional team members from exiting the aircraft. Avoid
physically stopping a person in the act of deploying because this may cause the person to lose
control of the rope and increases the possibility of injury to the team member. If the helicopter
experiences an engine malfunction or other critical emergency during any AIE operation, the team
members on AIE devices should descend as rapidly as possible and move from beneath the
helicopter. Normally, personnel move away from the deploying side of the helicopter (terrain
permitting). The helicopter should move away from the team. If the aircraft gains altitude or
starts to fly away, the team should dismount immediately. If the team cannot dismount the device,
they should stop their descent and lock-in. (This is very difficult during fast rope operations and
should not be an option except in the most critical circumstances.) When terrain does not
permit flying out with the team attached, the AC should make the call whether to cut the ropes free
or, if able, lower them to the ground. If the aircraft comes under fire while performing a rope
ladder, the deploying team may consider securing themselves to a rung of the ladder. Team
members must maintain positive hand and foot placement on the rungs of the ladder so the aircraft
4-2
can depart the immediate area. If flight characteristics and power requirements allow, the aircraft
will accomplish slow, forward flight to a safe area.
NOTE: The rope ladder was not designed to support personnel while in forward flight. Use of the
rope ladder for emergency personnel extraction should only be attempted if the threat to personnel
remaining on the ground is higher than the risk associated with in-flight rope ladder failure
WARNING: This particular contingency method is for real world operations only and will not be
used in a training environment.
WARNING: The TL should thoroughly brief the aircrew on team security procedures to prevent
individuals manning aircraft defensive systems from inadvertently firing on the team.
NOTE: Comm-out and non-standard comm-in procedures for recalling the team should be
pre-briefed and understood by all members of the crew and team.
4.4 Alternate Insertions and Extractions. Performing an AIE requires additional power,
demands greater crew coordination, increases exposure time, and is more hazardous and difficult
for the survivor and recovery team. The team leader (TL) should determine if the increased
difficulty of performing an AIE is justified when compared with the risks or benefits of an offset
air-land insertion; or moving to an extraction site that permits an air-land. Consider team member
training and overall competence on the intended AIE prior to execution. All the AIE methods
discussed in this chapter are considered acceptable means of insertion and extraction for most
situations. Aircrew/Recovery Team coordination and communication are essential in performing
any air-to-ground function quickly and safely.
4.4.1 Time Calls. The pilot flying (PF) should keep the crew/team informed of position and
distance to the LZ. Time calls should be made at 20-, 10-, 5-, and 1-minute-out points
(regardless of the AIE type). Time calls may be modified to meet the situation when the crew
is unable to comply with normal methods; deviations/required time calls should be briefed
prior to the operation. The TL or scanners should keep the pilots informed of the status of AIE
equipment prior to and throughout the operation.
4.4.2 Rope Deployment. The PF should call ROPES, ROPES, ROPES when the aircraft
is within the correct parameters for the intended AIE. The scanners should give the
appropriate signal for the rope deployment (point down and out with hand or chemlight), at
which time the team is cleared out. After the scanner gives the signal for rope deployment, it
is at the discretion of the rope master to deploy ropes and send the team.
NOTE: Because the PF is the only one who knows precisely when the nose should be rolled over,
the PF should be the individual who initiates the ROPES call.
4.5 AIE Master. The AIE master is responsible for making the final determination on the safety
of the deployment. As a minimum, the AIE master should brief the AIE type, intended hover
height, emergency procedures, safety man responsibilities/designation and AIE device length.
During operations where the AIE master cannot safely determine operational parameters (aircraft
altitude, drift, obstacles, and rope position), the AIE master will coordinate with the crew for
assistance.
4-3
4.6 General Setup and Preparation. Cabin configuration is the key to safe and effective AIE
operations. Ensure intercom cords are clear of deployment and recovery pathways and AIE
devices. Crew members may route the cords up the walls, along ceilings, and down to the
deploying team leader. The team leaders cord should only be long enough for necessary
movements. Ensure gunner belts are clear of personnel and paths of travel. The V-blade knife or
other similar tool should be readily available if the ropes need to be cut during emergencies or
rope entanglement. To facilitate night operations, configure devices with chemlights. Brief
chemlight requirements prior to the operation. See Table 4.1, Chemlight Configuration, for
recommended configuration.
Table 4.1 Chemlight Configuration.
Operation
Cabin
Cockpit
Fast rope
4-4
4.8 Rappel. Rappelling has historically proven to be a successful backup for insertion if the
hoist fails. Deploying personnel are responsible for aircraft rigging and proper hookup of
rappellers and may be responsible for providing the safety man. Rappelling allows the user to
control descent into uncertain terrain and obstacles; however, it requires more specialized
equipment and preparation than a fast rope.
4.8.1 Setup and Preparation. Pad or tape any sharp edges that could damage ropes. Ensure
a V-blade or sharp knife is available in the event the rope becomes entangled and endangers
the aircraft.
4.8.2 Installation. Ropes may be anchored to any attachment point capable of holding the
weight of the team. The primary anchor points for the HH-60G are the cabin rappelling fittings
or the H/fast rope insertion and extraction system (H/FRIES)-bar. When using the cabin
rappelling rings as the primary anchor point, a cargo net ring may be used as a secondary
4-5
safety attachment point. During training, all ropes should be attached to the anchor points
using locking carabiners.
4.8.3 Rope Diameter. Rappel ropes should be static, with a minimum diameter of 9mm. If
used in conjunction with heavy equipment, single 11mm will suffice; 9mm should be doubled.
4.8.4 Deployment Bag. Rappel ropes are best deployed from the aircraft with a deployment
bag. Back coil the rappel rope into the deployment bag until 2 to 3 feet are left. Close the
deployment bag in a manner that contains the rope yet allows the rope to feed out freely. Use
the 2 to 3 feet left out of the bag to attach to the anchor point in the aircraft. As the bag is
deployed, the rope will feed out only the amount needed to reach the ground. This method
keeps positive control of the rope in the aircraft, during deployment, and on the ground. If not
using a deployment bag, the rappel rope should be daisy chained and weighted to prevent
possible contact with the rotors.
4.8.4.1 Leg Bag. The deployment bag may be worn attached to the operators leg. This
procedure is recommended because positive control of the rope is maintained at all times.
It also facilitates rappelling through obstacles. When using a leg bag, the rope should be at
least 50 feet longer than the deployment hover height.
WARNING: To facilitate rappelling through obstacles (i.e., trees, ship masts), rappels may be
accomplished using rappel deployment bags attached to the lower leg of the rappeller. If this
procedure is used, a stitch plate style descender (air traffic controller/Petzl Reverso) should be
used to minimize rope twist. Twist associated with leg bag use can be dangerous as the running
end (bottom) of the rope does not have the full length to accommodate twisting effects. This is
especially true when using a figure eight or rescue eight rappel device with a leg bag. Twist may
result in friction knots causing a loss of the break hand. Descent rate should be slow and controlled
to manage any friction knots that may appear and to more easily navigate through obstacles. In
addition, the rope should be at least 50 feet longer than the intended deployment altitude. The rope
will be secured to the inside of the rope bag using a figure eight knot to ensure the rappeller cannot
rappel of the end of the rope.
4.8.4.2 Throw Bag. The bag may be weighted when not attaching to leg. Weighting the
bag assists the rope in penetrating dense forest or jungle canopy and prevents the bag from
being blown around by rotor wash. Do not tie the weight directly to the rope. The weight
should be tied to the bag or rope with a weak link.
4.8.5 Personal Equipment. Operators intending to insert via rappel should use a sit harness
(commercial or improvised), heavy leather gloves worn over flight gloves, eye protection, and
a descending device.
NOTE: The improvised sit harnesses must be properly tied, with the correct safety knots, and
inspected prior to deployment.
4.8.6 Deployment Preparation. Rappellers should be ready for deployment prior to the
5-minute time call. The safety man (normally the scanners) relays communications, monitors
the deployed ropes to ensure ground contact is maintained, and recovers or releases the ropes
when rappelling is complete.
4-6
NOTE: During training, carabiners should not be dropped with the rope.
4.8.10 Contingencies and Emergency Procedures. If the helicopter gains altitude above
the length of the rope, the rappeller should immediately brake, lock-in, and wait for the
helicopter to descend to a safe rappelling altitude.
4.8.11 Advantages. Rappelling equipment is light and small. The teams descent is easier to
control. Deploying personnel stay secured to the device while deploying. Personnel can
deploy with more equipment.
4.8.12 Disadvantages. Rappelling requires more time than fast roping. Rappellers may
have difficulty connecting to the rope in the aircraft and/or disconnecting from the rope once
on the ground.
4.9 Short Haul. The short haul is used as an alternate method of recovery for short distances
when no other recovery devices are available and the immediate recovery of rescue personnel is
required. It is not a recommended method of recovery for untrained personnel. When rescue
personnel are available, the rescuers, as well as a stokes litter may be recovered using this
technique. The equipment required to perform a short haul consists of a climbing rope and a
minimum of two carabiners.
4.9.1 Setup and Preparation. Tie one figure eight knot approximately 5 feet from the end
of the rope and another figure eight at the end of the rope. Attach a single 5,000-pound
locking carabiner through the open end of each knot. Normally one carabiner is attached to a
rappel ring and the carabiner at the tail of the rope is connected to a cargo net ring. It is
recommended that the rope be deployed using a rope bag in which the rope has been back
coiled (to prevent fouling) and secured. A 5-pound weight is used to prevent excess slack
from coming in contact with the rotor blades. During training, two cross-connected ropes
should be used for additional safety.
4.9.2 Execution. Normally the short-haul technique should not be used unless the hoist fails.
It may be necessary for the helicopter to move away from the deployed team and configure the
ropes for deployment. The helicopter should communicate intentions to the deployed team by
radio if possible. If radio communications are not possible, the team may have to rely on
intuition once the rope is deployed. The helicopter will move over the team/survivor and
deploy the rope at a height which reduces the amount of rotor wash over the team or offset
4-7
from them. It may be necessary to wait a short period of time while the team readies the rope
for extraction of personnel. The team attaches themselves to the rope into the figure eight
knots by their sit harness and chest harness. Once the team is ready, they give a thumbs up.
Tension will slowly be placed on the rope and the helicopter will transition to forward flight as
soon as the team is clear of the ground and/or obstacles. As airspeed increases above 20 knots,
the team should begin to stabilize and stop oscillating. Aircraft should stay below 60 knots
forward airspeed.
4.9.3 Contingencies and Emergency Procedures. Short Haul emergency procedures are
the same as those discussed for SPIES/FRIES.
4.9.4 Advantages. The advantages of the short-haul system are the length of the rope, ease
of flying for the team, and the ability to recover a survivor using the stokes litter. Weight is
limited only by rope strength. It is faster and safer than using a hoist in adverse terrain
environment
4.9.5 Disadvantages. Few are trained in this technique. The short haul cannot be set up in
flight.
4.10 Fast Rope. Fast roping is used to quickly lower personnel and equipment from a hovering
helicopter. Fast ropes are made of interwoven hemp, approximately 2 inches in diameter, with an
aircraft hook-up point on one end. (See Figure 4.1, Fast Rope Eyesplice, and Figure 4.2, Fast
Rope Metal Sleeve.) Lengths vary, depending on the needs of the mission, but usually are found
to range between 60 and 120 feet. Fast ropes are typically used for hovers up to 50 feet and do not
provide the same descent control as rappels. Normally, the deploying team is responsible for
providing and inspecting the ropes.
4.10.1 Setup and Preparation. Coil and secure fast ropes with a cargo tie-down strap or
seat belt next to the deployment location to be used. Coil the ropes toe-to-head with the
attachment point (head) on top. This method of securing the ropes should provide trouble-free
deployment.
4.10.1.1 If using a G-12 clevis with the eye splice rope, the rope master must ensure the
bolt end is drilled and the castle nut is retained using a cotter pin or safety wire.
4.10.1.2 To prevent the screws in the metal sleeve assembly from vibrating loose, water
hose clamps should be securely fastened over the screw heads. The hose clamps should
then be taped to prevent snagging.
4.10.2 Installation. The fast rope can be installed on a large variety of aircraft using basic
principles of attachment and safety. Reference the appropriate MDS Tech Order for
installation specifics.
4-8
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 4.2 Fast Rope Metal Sleeve.
UNCLASSIFIED
4-9
4.10.3 Time Warnings. Because fast rope operations are designed to be tactical infiltrations,
timing is critical to optimize the success of the mission (speed and surprise). When the aircraft
arrives at the insertion point, the deploying team needs to be prepared to exit immediately. To
accomplish this, standard time warnings are used to ensure both the deploying team and the
crew are ready. Standard time warnings of 20, 10, 5, and 1 minute are announced by the
aircrew based upon their calculated arrival, time on target (TOT).
4.10.3.1 The rope master may require more than the minimum time calls and should be on
intercom until at least the 5-minute call. The 20- and 10-minute time warnings are
designed to inform the crew of the approaching TOT; usually no actions are required.
4.10.3.2 At the 20-minute call, all personnel should begin preparations for deployment
and receive final instructions from the team leader.
4.10.3.3 At the 10-minute call, personnel inspect equipment and complete final
preparations for deployment.
4.10.3.4 At the 5-minute call, move to the exit point. The safetyman or designated team
member disconnects the fast rope from its storage point and prepares it for deployment by
handing it to the first man out of each stick or by setting it up on the edge of the exit.
Ensure it is back-coiled and held secure. Activate chemlights for night deployments.
4.10.3.5 At the 1-minute call, the safetyman checks should be done and all team
members move into position for deployment at the door or ramp. It is recommended the
team not disconnect from their alternate loading device until the aircraft is on short final
(50 feet/50 knots).
4.10.3.6 At the command ROPES or the signal (the designated crewmember pointing
out the exit), the first man of each team kicks out the rope, determines the rope is on the
ground (a minimum of 10 feet of rope on the ground is recommended), then exits the
aircraft. Off the aft ramp, deploy the rope at a 45-degree angle away from the rear of the
aircraft.
4.10.4 Unsafe Drift or Premature Lift Off. If the helicopter gains altitude so that the fast
rope no longer touches the ground, or if the helicopter drifts off the target, The rope master
must initiate the following procedures.
4.10.4.1 The rope master with a clenched fist, directs fast ropers already descending to
brake and await helicopter descent. The ground crew will relay this command.
4.10.4.2 The rope master directs additional fast ropers to hold to prevent any additional
descents.
4.10.4.3 Once back on target/altitude the Rope master may continue with approval from
the aircraft commander.
4.10.5 Fastroping With Combat Equipment. Combat equipment will be worn in the
normal manner. Use caution when placing equipment on or near the fast ropers legs to
prevent injury during landing. Fast ropers must not wear sharp devices that will come in
contact with the fast rope.
4-10
NOTE: Ensure that there is either a quick release system or V-blade knife at the belay end of the
rope. The system must be able to be disconnected from the helicopter if the rucksacks get
snagged or the helicopter is unable to maintain hover while the team disconnects the rucksacks
from the rope.
4.10.6 Night Deployments. Procedures are the same as day deployment. Use chemlights to
identify ropes and exits. Use a minimum of four chemlight on each fast rope. Tape two at the
bottom, one 10 feet from the bottom and one at the top of the rope to identify where to place
hands. The chemlight 10 feet from the bottom ensures at least 10 feet of rope is on the ground.
A chemlight may also be taped horizontally just above the crew entrance door in line with the
rope. Tape over the chemlights to provide enough light for the team to ensure the rope is on
the ground.
4.10.7 NVG Overwater Operations. With the exception of the final approach, the fast
rope pattern is the same as the hoist pattern for the aircrew. On final, the aircraft descends to
intended hover height while decelerating to the deployment ground speed. The fast rope is
deployed as the aircraft enters the insertion zone. Depending on the mission profile, a slow
forward movement of the aircraft may be requested. This can assist deploying personnel by
spacing them apart upon water entry. When fast roping into the water, wet/dry suit material
may be vulnerable to damage from rope friction. Duct tape wet/dry suit on locations where
rope may come in contact with suit.
4.10.8 Advantages. Fastroping is preferred over rappelling for helicopter insertion because
of the speed and ease of execution. The fast rope is fast, simple, and easy to release from the
aircraft.
4.10.9 Disadvantages. The main disadvantage of using a fast rope is that once deployed,
there is no expedient method for immediate extraction unless the crew is using the fast rope
insertion and extraction system (FRIES) rope. Extraction loops integral to the FRIES rope
allows the team to be lifted and moved to an alternate location. Equipment is heavy, takes up
cabin space, serves one purpose, and is limited in length. Preparation can be time consuming;
descent is uncontrolled; deploying personnel are susceptible to injury; personnel are not
tethered to the device; deploying personnel are limited on equipment; and stable hover is
crucial in confined LZs.
4-11
4-12
Cable
Cable Stop
Bumper
Assembly
Safety
Latch
Personnel
Hook and
Rescue
Device
Safety
Latch
Equipment
Hook
Equipment Ring
UNCLASSIFIED
4-13
4.11.3 Forest Penetrator. The forest penetrator is used for single or multiple recoveries
from land or water. The forest penetrator may be attached to the rescue hook assembly for
land and sea rescue operations. The unit is bright yellow for high visibility. The forest
penetrator is 34 inches long and 8 inches in diameter with the three seats retracted. Each seat
is approximately 12 inches long and is spring loaded in the retracted position. A spring-loaded
retaining latch under each seat secures the seat in the extended position. To release the seat
from the extended position, push down on the seat and pull down on the latch. The seat will
then snap back into the retracted position. Three webbing safety straps are provided to secure
survivors. The straps terminate with a yellow fabric marked Tighten. Yellow webbing tabs
marked Pull Out, are sewn to the safety straps and extend from one of three stowage
openings. Attachment of a flotation collar allows the forest penetrator to float during air-sea
rescue operations. The collar is made of bright orange foam rubber for high visibility. When
the flotation collar is installed, the diameter of the penetrator is 9 inches. (See Figure 4.4,
Forest Penetrator for details.)
4.11.4 Rescue Seat. The rescue seat is a compact, lightweight, and simple to use rescue
device. Equipped with two friction-controlled folding seats that can be positioned for use
within seconds. The device is suitable for both land and marine rescue operations as it
incorporates a flotation collar. Each fold-down seat is equipped with a safety strap and printed
instructions with pictorials, located on two opposite sides of the float collar. Patterned after
the forest penetrator, the rescue seat has been designed for simple operation, ease of
maintenance, and is ideal for confined area rescues requiring a narrow profile (such as through
tree canopies). Because of this devices ease of use, weight (18 pounds), and cost, the forest
penetrator is rapidly being replaced by this device by all services. (See Figure 4.5, Rescue
Seat.)
4.11.5 Stokes Litter. The stokes litter is constructed of mesh and lightweight steel tubing
that holds a survivor immobile in a supine position. The sides of the litter protect the survivor
from bumping against obstructions or the side of the helicopter during retrieval. The stokes
litter should be configured with sling, flotation devices (if required), and three restraining belts
when stowed on the aircraft. A tag line should be used during live stokes operations. (See
Figure 4.6, Stokes Litter with Floatation.)
4.11.6 Tag Line. The tag line (trail line) is a rope of varied construction and length used by
surface personnel to prevent oscillation and/or spinning of hoist rescue devices. It may also be
used to guide the rescue device or survivor to or from confined areas, such as ships, trees, or
canyon areas. The tag line may aid the pilot during water operations by reducing time required
to hover directly over small watercraft without a reference. The tag line should not be attached
directly to the rescue device; a weak link should be used. A weight should be attached to the
tended end of the tag line. This keeps it from being blown about by the rotor wash and gives
the crew member better control delivering the line to a confined or restricted surface position.
The weak link end of the tag line may be fastened to the hoist hook or the rescue device, before
the device goes out the door.
4-14
Forest Penetrator
UNCLASSIFIED
4-15
Rescue Seat
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 4.6 Stokes Litter with Floatation.
UNCLASSIFIED
4-16
NOTE: The weak link is created using a single loop of gutted 550 cord or two wraps of
80-pound test tape between the rope end and carabiner
NOTE:
Leather work gloves should be provided for tag line tenders other than the team.
NOTE: Reconsider using a tag line if the likelihood of entanglement with tenders, trees, or
aircraft skis is greater than the anticipated benefits thereof.
4.11.6.1 To deliver the tag line to a large vessel with a restricted pickup area, the tag line
should be lowered after the helicopter is in a hover over the vessel.
4.11.6.2 Once the tag line is on the ground/vessel and the team/boat crew is tending it, the
hoist operator will direct the pilot clear of the survivor/vessel while paying out slack in the
tag line. The tag line weak link will be attached to the rescue device. When the pilot can
again see the survivor/vessel, the hoist operator begins to lower the hoist. At this point the
team/shipboard personnel use the tag line to guide the rescue device into the desired
location.
4.11.6.3 When the rescue device is on the ground/vessels deck and the survivor is ready
for hoisting, the hoist operator gives directions to position the helicopter back over the
survivor/deck. Retrieving the rescue device vertically may not always be possible. Be
prepared to recover the rescue device at any angle. When conditions permit, recover the
rescue device vertically. As soon as the survivor is clear of the deck or obstructions, the
hoist operator clears the helicopter away from the obstacles/vessel, usually left or back.
The crew maintains this position until the survivor is in the cabin and the tag line is either
retrieved or discarded and the crew member has reported ready for forward flight.
4.11.6.4 The tag line may be used in lieu of the hoist cable to lower small items to a boat.
The item to be lowered will be attached to the snap link with a weight. Use the same
procedure for delivery of the tag line to small and large vessels. The weak link end of the
tag line will be attached to a cabin tiedown ring.
4.11.6.5 For aircraft with skis installed, attach the tag line to the head of litter, as opposed
to the foot. This allows the tag line attendant to avoid the worst of the helicopters rotor
wash. When PJs utilize the Barrelman technique for survivor rescue and recovery, they are
able to ensure the tag line does not become entangled with the skis.
4.11.6.6 When rappelling, the PJs in prior to the stokes litter, the rappel rope can then be
quickly used as a tag line provided, a carabiner with a weak link has been attached to the
foot or head end of the stokes litter.
4.11.7 Rescue Basket. The compact rescue basket has been selected as standard equipment
aboard all US Coast Guard rescue helicopters. It is also in service with the US Air Force, US
Navy and foreign governments. The rescue basket is mostly constructed of stainless steel. The
bail assembly folds into the basket for compact stowage. The basket weighs 39 pounds. The
rescue basket is particularly useful for recovery of personnel not familiar with the forest
penetrator or rescue strop. Because entry is easier and more rapid for a survivor than a forest
penetrator, it may be one of the best devices for recovery of survivors from frigid waters. The
disadvantage is the size of the device. (See Figure 4.7, Rescue Basket.)
4-17
UNCLASSIFIED
4.11.8 Rescue Net. The rescue net is constructed of stainless steel tube framing and
5/16-inch polypropylene netting. The net weighs approximately 20 pounds. A sea anchor
drogue is provided to position and stabilize the net and allow for flight path corrections. The
sea anchor drogue may be replaced by a 10-foot line with a 3- to 5-pound bag of shot for
stability. The rescue net is a collapsible, buoyant device designed to accommodate two
survivors. A lifting ring for hoisting is located at the top or upper portion of the net, along with
flotation collars and locking support rods. These rods incorporate sliding sleeves to prevent the
net from collapsing when it is occupied and to make it easy for storage when not in use. The
rescue net is particularly useful for recovery of personnel not familiar with the forest
penetrator or rescue strop. Because entry is easier and more rapid for a survivor than a forest
penetrator, it may be the best device for recovery of survivors from frigid waters. The
disadvantage is the size of the device.
4.11.9 Rescue Strop (Horse Collar). The rescue strop is used to hoist uninjured personnel
during helicopter operations. The strop is placed under the arms and across the back; the safety
strap located on the outside is pulled loose, placed over the arms, under the front of the strop
and attached across the front of the chest and adjusted to a snug fit. The arms must remain
down to prevent possible slippage during hoisting. Pictorials are printed on the strop.
Personnel must be trained in the proper and safe use of this item. The rescue strop is designed
to be unaffected by repeated use in the marine environment; constructed of nylon, closed-cell
foam and stainless steel hardware. A weight may be attached to the strop to aid in stability.
The rescue strap is useful in all environments except the forest or jungle where it can get
snagged on branches. (See Figure 4.8, Rescue Strop.)
4-18
Rescue Strop
UNCLASSIFIED
4.11.10 Quick Strop. Originally designed for the US Coast Guard, the quick strop is now
available to all rescue activities. (See Figure 4.9, Quick Strop.) Constructed of military
specification webbing and stainless steel hardware, the quick strop provides a quick, safe
means of hoisting uninjured personnel. The quick strop is smaller and lighter than the rescue
strop and is replacing the rescue strop in most services. The strop can be placed under the
arms, around the back, or over the head of the survivor in one quick motion. To prevent the
survivor from slipping out, a slide buckle is slid down the strop and attached to an adjustable
crotch safety strap which is stored in a zipper pocket on the rear of the strop. Instructions and
pictorials are printed on the strop. A weight may be attached to the strop to aid in stability. A
pararescue man may ride the hoist with the survivor using another strop or by directly hooking
in with his harness. The quick strop is useful in all environments except the forest or jungle
where it can get snagged on branches.
4-19
Quick Strope
UNCLASSIFIED
4.11.11 Execution. Optimally, the pilot flying should establish a right-hand rectangular
pattern with the final approach oriented into the wind. This aids in keeping the survivor in
sight while preparing for pickup. The pilot should keep the crew informed of the helicopters
position in the pattern and the hoist operator advises the pilot when ready to deploy smokes or
accomplish the pickup.
4.11.11.1 Hoist retrievals from trees must be slow enough to allow survivors to fend off
branches and prevent cable entanglement. Radio communication or pre-briefed signals for
lost visual procedures should be briefed prior to deployment. It may be possible for a crew
member on the hoist to recover the survivor without disconnecting from the device.
Maximum loading of the hoist cable should not occur unless critical to mission
accomplishment.
4.11.11.2 Crew briefings should include actions to be taken in the event of equipment
malfunctions or impending failures. During training missions, terminate live hoisting
immediately at the first indication of equipment malfunction. Existing circumstances will
dictate actions to be taken, if required, the individual may be returned to the surface by
lowering the aircraft.
4.11.11.3 Ensure cable slack is held to the minimum necessary to perform the recovery.
Excessive slack can be especially dangerous during water recovery when the hoist
operator cannot see the cable.
4-20
NOTE: Exercise caution to keep from anchoring the hoist hook or cable around an immovable
object.
4.11.11.4 Cable shock loading can occur when the cable is subjected to a sudden heavy
loads (i.e., entanglement, stokes litter being caught by waves, or weights being rapidly
applied). The effects of shock loading are worse when the device is close to the full up
position when the loading occurs.
WARNING: Cables suspected of shock loading will be reported to the crew and replaced IAW
published directives.
4.11.11.5 The hoist should be grounded prior to pickup to discharge static electricity.
WARNING: The hoist should not be grounded near spilled fuel; the static electricity could ignite
it.
4.11.11.6 Severe oscillations/pendulum may occur when the hoist cable is raised and
lowered without a weight attached. Be prepared to be lowered or the aircraft to transition
to forward flight to correct.
4.11.11.7 When pulling the survivor into the helicopter, the easiest method is to turn the
survivors back to the helicopter and pull in. This reduces the possibility of semiconscious
or injured survivor fighting the hoist operator.
4.11.11.8 Forest Penetrator/Rescue Seat. Fold the seat paddles and stow safety straps
before lowering the penetrator through trees or dense foliage.For water recoveries, install
the flotation collar before lowering the penetrator. Place at least one seat paddle in the
down position and remove one safety strap from the stowed position. Do not unhook the
safety strap fastener from the penetrator. If the penetrator is left to assist the survivor, fold
the seat paddles and stow the safety straps so they will not snag on obstructions if the
helicopter moves or the hoist cable has to be retrieved.
WARNING: The aircraft may depart the area with the PJ/survivor still suspended on the cable.
When conducting hoist operations using the forest penetrator, keep arms down, elbows locked
against the body, and do not attempt to grab the cable or weighted snap link above the device.
NOTE: If the penetrator strap is not used (will not fit around bulky equipment), use an alternate
means of securing (e.g., chest strap, or alternate load belt.)
4.11.11.9 Stokes Litter. To lower the stokes litter, attach the stokes litter to the cable,
maneuver it outside the aircraft foot end first and then parallel to the side of the helicopter.
The FE/PJ may be required to lean out of the door to maneuver the stokes litter.
NOTE: An alternate method of lowering the stokes litter is to connect the hook to the head of the
stokes litter so it hangs vertical during lowering.
NOTE: It is common practice to place a locking steel carabiner between the stokes cable
attachment rings and the rescue hook. This is an acceptable practice only when a safety pin is
installed on the rescue hook.
CAUTION: Services other than US Air Force usually do not have a safety pin installed on the
rescue hoist hook. If a hook is encountered without a safety pin, do not use a carabiner between
the cable rings on the stokes and the hook. A carabiner is large enough that it can rotate out of the
4-21
hook. Place the rings directly into the rescue hook. These rings were specifically designed and
sized to be used in this manner.
4.11.11.9.1 Lower the stokes litter to the survivor after the helicopter is established in
a hover. When raising or lowering an empty stokes litter for water recoveries, the use
of the cable safety/retaining pin is not required.
4.11.11.9.2 Once the stokes litter is on the surface, the hoist operator should provide
slack in the hoist cable allowing it to be disconnected from the stokes litter. The aircraft
can then move to a holding position while securing the patient or hover above the site.
In a low-threat environment, it is advisable to have the helicopter move away so the PJ
can complete a patient assessment and secure the patient in the stokes litter without the
added burden of noise and rotor wash.
4.11.11.9.3 After the survivor is secured in the stokes litter and ready for hoisting, the
team reconnects the hoist cable ensuring the rescue hook safety pin and carabiner
locking sleeves are properly positioned/secured. Ensure the survivor is securely
strapped in the stokes litter prior to hoisting. For small patients, the belt can be routed
directly across the patient. For large patients, the belt can be routed outside and over
the top bar before securing the patient to the stokes litter.
4.11.11.9.4 Consider tag line procedures to prevent or control common problems
during hoisting like pendulum, spinning, and oscillation. After the patient is secured in
the stokes litter and is ready for hoisting, reconnect the hoist cable and reinstall the
rescue hook safety pin. A stokes litter attendant may be required. The stokes litter
attendant will hook directly into the cable hook. PJs should always move to the far
side of the stokes litter from the helicopter so it is not pulled into them when it is lifted
off the ground. Signal the aircraft for the pick-up.
NOTE: Installation of the snow shield on the stokes litter may result in uncontrollable spinning.
Consider using a tag line when the snow shield is installed.
4.11.11.10 Rescue Net. The rescue net will be lowered to the water short of the survivor
at an approximate ground speed of 3 to 5 knots and raised as soon as the last person enters.
There is no requirement for hand signals. Due to the size of the net, the survivor must be
removed from the net before bringing the net into the helicopter.
WARNING: The rescue net must be secured against the helicopter while the survivor or PJ
departs the net to prevent falling.
4.11.11.11 Rescue Basket. The basket is designed for only one person. It will be lowered
to the water short of the survivor at an approximate ground speed of 3 to 5 knots and raised
as soon a thumbs up is given by the PJ in the water, or it looks like the survivor is safely in
the basket. The basket may be brought entirely inside the helicopter.
4.11.11.12 Rescue Strop/Horse Collar/Quick Strop. The procedures for the use of the
rescue strop are the same as those described for the forest penetrator with the exception of
the obvious differences between the two devices. Up to three slings may be lifted at one
time, not to exceed hoist weight limitations.
4-22
WARNING: Improper donning of the rescue strap may result in a fall. Before use, consult
manufacturer operating instructions for type device used.
4.11.11.13 Barrelman Hoist Technique. The Barrelman Hoist Technique is a method for
trained PJ personnel to attach directly to the hoist hook using a climbing harness and sling
with carabiner. This method was first developed and used by civilian SAR agencies,
primarily for having a litter attendant ride up the hoist with a stokes litter. The climbing
harness and Barrelman Technique can be used for both land and water. When selecting a
harness for water use, the simpler the better. Continuous loop harnesses remain strong
even with a single point failure. The sit harness should ride high on the waist area and be
adjustable to fit over bulky clothing or wet/dry suits. This allows the harness to handle the
bulk of the load and is the primary attachment point for the retaining strap. A chest
harness may be used, but is not always necessary. The chest harness prevents the PJ from
slipping into a head-down attitude when carrying a pack or other equipment that makes
him top-heavy. The chest harness functions primarily as a balance point, as most of the
load is on the sit harness. A carabiner through the front load bearing equipment or pack
straps is an alternative to wearing a commercial chest harness. A retaining strap is the
primary anchor line used to attach the PJ from the sit harness to the hoist hook. The type of
retaining strap, method, or combination of retaining strap/chest harness used, will depend
on the availability of equipment and type of pick-up operation that will be performed.
NOTE: The retaining strap may be used as an alternate loading belt provided a separate pelican
hook is attached to one end.
WARNING: Do not use snap shackles (pelican hooks), non-locking carabiners, or similar
quick release devices on the primary anchor line/retaining strap.
4.11.11.13.1 Simple Nylon Strap. This retaining strap is constructed of one-inch
tubular nylon (or equivalent) and locking carabiners (auto-lock recommended).
Running the tubular nylon strap through a carabiner attached to the LBE, chest
harness, or backpack provides a balance point for stokes litter pick-ups when the
backpack is worn.
4.11.11.13.2 Daisy Chain Strap. A daisy chain may be used instead of a tubular
nylon strap. The main advantage of using a daisy chain strap is the ability to quickly
size the strap for the operation involved. Additionally, the daisy chain strap provides a
fixed loop for a chest area carabiner when performing stokes litter pick up while
wearing a backpack. Attach the daisy chain strap to the sit harness either with a looped
bight through itself or a locking carabiner in one end. (See Figure 4.10, Daisy Chain
to Hoist Cable Attachment.)
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UNCLASSIFIED
4.11.11.13.3 Rope Strap (Kernmantle/Perlon/Dynamic or Mountain-Lay/
Hawser-Laid/Gold Line/Static) with Ascender. The rope strap with Jumar ascender
is more complicated than daisy chain straps or the tubular nylon strap, but may be
useful if daisy chain and tubular nylon straps are in short supply or movement inside
the helicopter is desired. The ascender also facilitates quick strap length sizing in
situations where proper static sizing could not be accomplished prior to the operations
commencing. The rope strap may be used with or without the Jumar/ascender instead
of a tubular nylon or daisy chain straps. The method of attachment is the same for the
rope strap as the tubular nylon, however a separate line is necessary for hoists when the
chest sling is required. The ascender is attached to the same carabiner on the sit harness
as the rope strap. The ascender may quickly be disconnected once inside the
helicopter, while still allowing the PJ to be connected to the aircraft via the hoist hook.
This allows greater freedom of movement once inside to assist in strapping the stokes
and securing oneself or others prior to forward flight. (See Figure 4.11, Rope Strap
with Jumar Ascender.)
4.11.11.13.4 Prusik Strap. Method and use of the prusik strap is the same as for the
rope strap. Other types of friction knots may be utilized (e.g., climb heist, or double
Prusik). (See Figure 4.12, Prusik Strap.)
4-24
UNCLASSIFIED
4-25
Prusik Strap
UNCLASSIFIED
4.11.11.13.5 Typically, the ends of the strap are connected to the sit harness by
carabiner leaving a short loop from between the chest to chin level depending on the
PJs body size. This allows the strap to be placed onto the hook end of the hoist using a
carabiner, or by itself, while maintaining the proper distance once the sit-harness slack
is pulled up. The strap must be adjusted to place the PJ approximately belly button
level to the stokes litter. This is the desirable distance as the length of the strap is
normally fixed and it is a comfortable distance for using the strap as an alternate
loading belt. The PJ may not have time to re-adjust the length.
4.11.11.13.6 Ensure the strap is the correct length prior to the operation being
conducted. If the strap is too long, the PJ may be below the level of the cabin floor. If
the strap is too short, the PJs legs will be unable to reach the floor underneath the
stokes litter. Size the strap on a static aircraft with the stokes litter on the ground first.
If necessary, the strap may need to be adjusted after the first hoist mission to find a
better position for comfort and control.
4.11.11.14 Barrelman Procedures. Hoisting using the climbing harness is relatively
simple. Place the strap/carabiner through the rescue hoist hook. Ensure the pin is in the
hook and the gates are locked on the carabiners. The rescue hoist hook should have a
chemlight secured to it for night/NVG operations to facilitate the FE/crew knowing where
it is. Use standard signals and detach once reaching the ground.
4.11.11.14.1 One-Man Pick-Up. Hoisting one man using the Barrelman Technique is
the simplest and fastest method for hoist retrieval. Perform the pick-up using the
4-26
NOTE: PJ/FE should ensure the combined pick-up weight of PJs and survivor do not exceed the
hoist up maximum weight.
4.11.11.15.2 Vertical Stokes Litter Deployment. An alternate method is to deploy
the stokes litter vertically. This method may be useful for deployment into wooded
4-27
areas and is a better method to control the litter during the descent. The PJ attaches to
the rescue hoist hook in the normal manner. Place a carabiner on the head (or foot) end
of the stokes litter; then attach a large snap shackle (pelican hook) to the carabiner.
The snap shackle is then attached to the rescue hoist hook. The pelican hook gives the
PJ the ability to cut the litter away should be needed during the descent. The FE then
(using the hoist) pulls the PJ and the litter toward and out the cabin door. Because
there is no tag line, it is possible uncontrolled spinning, pendulums, and oscillations
could occur. Unless the situation warrants, consider rappelling the PJs in first and then
using the rappel rope as a tag line for the hoist.
CAUTION: Use care when using this method from altitudes higher than 25 feet AGL.
4.11.11.15.3 Stokes Litter Pick-up. When using the stokes litter, ensure the patient
is securely strapped into the litter prior to hoisting. Ensure the carabiner locking
sleeves are positioned towards the inside of the stokes litter. After the patient is
secured in the stokes litter and is ready for hoisting, reconnect the rescue hoist hook to
the stokes litter cables and reinstall the rescue hoist hook safety pin.
4.11.11.15.4 Pararescue Barrelman on the Outside. Outside is the normal position
for the Barrelman and is the only method allowable for aircraft with skis installed. PJ
should always move to the far side of the stokes litter from the helicopter so it is not
pulled into them when lifted off the ground. PJs with short legs may have to adjust their
retaining straps lower than the belly button. When nearing the aircraft, the PJ
maneuvers to place the stokes litter towards the inside. The PJ should place feet on the
hoist bumper. If aircraft has skis installed, the PJ should use the forward foot to
maneuver the stokes litter outside the skis. The PJ may place a foot on the ski, tire, or
bumper as necessary to clear the stokes litter from the aircraft. (See Figure 4.13, Foot
Placement.) As the FE raises the hoist cable, the PJ will maneuver the head of the
stokes litter inside the helicopter (overhead straps greatly facilitate the hoist entry).
After the PJ has his feet on the cabin floor, the FE will begin to lower the hoist while
the PJ pulls/pushes the litter inside. If done correctly, the FE should not have to assist
the PJ in pulling the litter inside the aircraft.
4.11.11.15.5 Pararescue Barrelman on the Inside. This may be necessary, for
example, on a hoist pick-up over water when the PJ has not been able to removed his
fins. The disadvantages are the PJ is actually coming up under the floor of the
helicopter and the stokes litter must be turned to the outside. Patient and PJ individual
size are the primary considerations when using this technique. Always move to the far
side of the stokes litter from the helicopter so it is not pulled into you when lifted off
the ground. When nearing the aircraft, the barrelman, or to place the stokes litter
towards the outside, enters the aircraft first and then maneuvers the stokes litter inside.
The hoist operator may assist by turning both the stokes litter and the barrelman
sideways in order to maneuver them into aircraft. The stokes litter is pulled inside and
secured (normally head first). The hook is then sent down to retrieve the other PJ.
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Foot Placement
UNCLASSIFIED
4.11.12 Water Hoist Operations. Because of heavy rotor wash, the PJs should never swim to
a device that has been lowered to them. Instead the pilot should deliver the device to the PJs,
placing the PJs and survivor in the sweet spot underneath the helicopter where there is little
rotor wash. This greatly reduces the amount of time the helicopter needs to be in a hover. This
also greatly reduces the PJs and survivors time in the water connecting to the device. A
pararescuemans excellent physical condition is not a substitute for poor crew coordination
and pilot skills. The PJ also should not swim to a cable while tending to a survivor.
4.11.12.1 Day Water Hoist. While in the water, prepare a signaling device to assist the
aircraft in locating the rescue position and don a facemask to shield eyes from the rotor
wash. After sighting the PJ, the aircraft will maneuver to approximately 100 feet
downwind and make a low reconnaissance pass over rescue position. Once past the site,
the pilot may initiate a climbing right turn and deploy a sea dye or smoke marker to act as
a hover reference during the hoist operation. The pick-up will normally be on the
following pass, depending on the hover reference device.
4.11.12.2 Night Water Hoist. The aircraft may deploy chemlights to mark survivor/PJ
location and provide them an approach pattern and hover references. This will also ensure
the rescue position can be reacquired if the hoist pattern is flown wider than intended. The
PJ can also mark the position with an IR strobe, chemlights, or a flashlight. NVG water
operations are more difficult for the aircrew to accomplish than other hoist operations
because of reduced light, lack of hover references, and reduced field of vision from NVGs.
PJs may have difficulty seeing because of the darkness and rotor wash. Be on alert for the
4-29
hoist devices to prevent injury to the PJ or the survivor. Be aware of the hoist cable around
the PJ and the survivor in the water to prevent entanglement.
4.11.12.3 Signals from Swimmer to Helicopter. For successful night water extraction,
pre-brief swimmer to helicopter signals that indicate ready for pickup and for immediate
emergency extraction. One method used in night operations is for the PJs to turn on strobe
lights when ready for pickup. Once the rescue device starts its decent, the PJs turn off their
strobes. Another method used during heavy seas or periods of low visibility is for the PJs
to leave their strobe lights on once deployed. This aids the crew in maintaining rescue
position. Indicate ready to be picked up by turning off the strobes for a brief period, then
follow the procedures listed above.
4.11.13 Free-Fall Swimmer Deployment. Free-Fall swimmer deployments, also known as
low and slow, provide an effective method of delivering PJs, stokes litter, or equipment (boat
delivery) to a defined objective in the water by flying the aircraft low and slow enough to
allow PJs to deploy from the aircraft into the water. (See Table 4.2, Standard and
Recommended Equipment.)
Table 4.2 Standard and Recommended Equipment.
Standard equipment.
Alternate loading belt.
Carabiner.
Mask.
Fins.
Snorkel.
Emergency signaling device.
Lighting (as required).
Knife.
Personal flotation device.
Wet/dry suit (as required).
Stokes litter with flotation/tag line (as required).
Recommended equipment.
Helmet.
Sit harness/improvised harness.
Single para-scuba utility deployment system (SPUDS).
Fanny pack.
4-30
4.11.14 Predeployment Considerations. The flight path of the aircraft should not pass
directly over the survivor until the hoist pickup phase to reduce rotor wash over the objective.
Determine the wind direction prior to delivery. Set up for a delivery downwind and downdraft
of the survivor allowing the survivor to drift into position. At the intended insertion point, the
aircraft should be flying at a maximum of 10 KIAS and 10 feet above water level (AWL).
When mission circumstances warrant, the PJ may be delivered upwind or off-wind. If this is
the case, the PJ should be prepared to swim hard to reach survivor. In heavy winds/seas or
during low-light conditions, delivery away from the survivor may complicate procedures
because of team separation and/or loss of contact with the survivor.
4.11.15 Aircraft Procedures. Deployment procedures vary depending on the airframe,
number of personnel, and special equipment being deployed. The H-60 or a similar platform
can allow the deploying team members to sit in the door in the order of deployment. Because
the aircraft is in forward flight, the order of deployment starts at the rear of the aircraft and
moves forward. This should limit the chance of team members deploying on top of one
another. When deploying from a larger airframe like the H-53, the team lines up as if it is
performing a static line parachute deployment and everyone follows the first person out.
Spacing should be 1 second between team members. If the team is deploying from both the
aircraft crew entrance door and the ramp simultaneously, deploy all ramp team members first.
This avoids deploying teams on top of each other. Last minute corrections of the flight path
are made by the FE/PJ team leader. The PJ team leader passes hand signals for aircraft up,
down, left, and right, by moving the open palm of the hand in the direction desired. Continue
signals until reaching intended deployment location. During high seas, the aircraft flies 10
feet above the wave crests. Time PJ exit to land on or near the wave crest. Team deployments
in high seas usually require deploying no more than two team members per wave crest in order
to avoid some members deploying the additional distance into the trough of the wave. During
high sea states consider using the fast rope for deployment.
4.11.16 Deployment Procedures. The team leader should be in a position to view the
objective area at approximately 50 feet AWL. All deploying exits will be open at 50 feet AWL
and below. Deploying personnel will be secured until final approach. The thumbs up from
the safetyman to the deploying team on final approach indicates 10 feet AWL and 10 knots is
confirmed, and the team is cleared to deploy at the team leaders discretion. Deploying at night
with non-NVG equipped crew members may require a non-IR chemlight attached to each
individual deploying. Personnel exit the aircraft in a manner that reduces possibility of
entanglement and expedites delivery of personnel and equipment. The exit maneuver should
not be forceful. Exit by stepping off or pushing away from the aircraft. After the exit, bring
legs together with the fins pointed upward so the heels contact the water first. Recommend
taking/wearing a facemask with snorkel for water operations. When wearing a facemask
during deployment, use one or both hands to prevent the mask from coming off, hold it in
hand, or secure it in a cargo pocket. Once in the water, deploying team members surface with
raised clinched fist over head and immediately locate other team members. Team members
indicate a thumbs up signal after water entry to indicate they are okay and have not
sustained injuries. Deploying with scuba tanks can provide a tremendous advantage for search
and recovery operations. If deploying with scuba tanks, grab the tanks support strap just
behind the hip and hold it firmly down and against the back. This technique prevents the tank
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manifold from rising and striking the head. Holding the tank tight against the back also
prevents a water surge between the tank and the back that could cause injury or damage
equipment. When deploying to an injured survivor, always consider deploying with a stokes
litter. This saves time and keeps the helicopter, with its rotor wash, away until the survivor is
packaged and ready for the pick up. To ensure the PJ maintain control of the stokes litter,
deploy the litter between PJ number one and PJ number two with number 2 deploying stokes
litter. PJ number two must ensure PJ number one is clear before deployment.
4.11.17 Safety Considerations. When deploying from the H-53 crew entrance door,
exercise caution to avoid contacting main landing gear. When you deploy from the ramp of
the H-53 be cautious of the tail rotor after water entry.
4.12 Special Patrol Insertion/Extraction System. The special patrol insertion/extraction
(SPIE) system was developed to rapidly insert or extract team members from an area where
landing is not possible. However, it is relatively slow and impractical compared to fast rope and
rappelling techniques. SPIE has gained applicability for extracting personnel from water. Thus, a
SPIE operation can either be a dry or wet operation. This system can pick up 1 to 10 personnel at
a time. The rope and personnel are treated as an external load so airspeeds, altitudes, and
oscillations must be closely monitored. (See Table 4.3, Standard Equipment.)
Table 4.3 Standard Equipment.
Standard equipment.
SPIES rope.
SPIES harness (commercial/improvised) with safety sling.
Two 9-foot, Type 13 cargo suspension slings.
Type IV links.
Leather work gloves.
Eye protection.
Helmet (as required).
4.12.1 Planning. Although SPIE is an expedient method of extraction, the need for special
equipment such as the SPIE harness necessitates deliberate planning. In preparing for an
operation, planners must determine if the tactical situation suggests the possible need to
extract personnel using SPIE.
4.12.2 Setup and Preparation. The SPIE system consists of the SPIE rope, a harness, and
a safety line. The SPIE rope assembly (NSN: 1670-01-065-0851) is approximately 120 feet in
length and consists of a doubled tapered eye splice at each end. The top tapered eye is
encapsulated in polyurethane to protect it from abrasions. The rope is one inch in diameter
and is coated with a nylon solution protecting the core of the rope. D rings are located in pairs
on opposite sides of each other, spaced 1 foot apart and 7 feet from center of one set to center
of the succeeding set. Four additional D rings can be added to the rope to provide a total
carrying capacity of 14 personnel. The rope assembly has a tensile strength (dry) of 24,000
pounds and a recommended maximum load of 5,000 pounds. (See Figure 4.14, SPIE Rope
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for details.) The SPIE harness is a parachute type harness. A 20-inch looped strap is
connected to the crossover portion of the back straps. This serves as the primary anchor
device when secured to a SPIE rope D ring with a locking carabiner. (See Figure 4.15,
Commercial SPIE Harness.) The safety line consists of a standard 12- to 15-foot sling rope.
The safety line serves as the secondary anchor device and is worn underneath the harness.
Figure 4.14 SPIE Rope.
SPIE Rope
Lower Eye
D-Ring
Label
Encapsulated Eye
(aircraft Attachment
Point)
UNCLASSIFIED
4.12.3 Installation. Two 9-foot, Type 13 nylon cargo suspension slings (NSN:
1670-00-856-0266) are routed through the top tapered eye of the rope assembly and secured to
t h e f o u r r a p p e l l i n g r i n g s o f t h e H - b a r w i t h Ty p e I V l i n k s ( N S N :
1670-783-5988/MIL-L40085). (See Figure 4.16, Cargo Suspension Sling with Type IV
Connector.)
4.12.3.1 Pad the entire left edge of the cargo hook well with appropriate material (e.g., two
thickness of 0.5-inch felt pads, carpet, and fire hose) to prevent damaging the SPIE rope.
If the cargo hook is installed, the rope assembly should be routed through the hook during
deployment.
4.12.3.2 For night operations, attach chemlights to the SPIE rope assembly. Using three
chemlights; tape two chemlights at the bottom of the rope and one chemlight 3 feet above
the first set of D ring attachment points.
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Steel Locking
Carabiner
Attaching
Strap
Pile
Tape
Chest
Strap
Adopter
Chest
Strap
Hook
Tape
Label
Pile
Tape
Ejector
Snap
V-Ring
Leg
Strap
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 4.16 Cargo Suspension Sling with Type IV Connector.
Keeper
UNCLASSIFIED
4-34
WARNING: The tensile strength of the SPIE rope is reduced when wet.
4.12.4 Land Operating Procedures. Once established over the LZ, the pilot will call
ROPES, ROPES, ROPES. At the ropes call, the scanners will deploy the rope through the
cargo hook bay or cargo doors and call ROPES DEPLOYED (ensure rope is not entangled
with personnel or equipment). As soon as the ropes reach the ground, the team members hook
into the D rings. When all members are secure and ready, the team leader will give the aircrew
thumbs up (at night, prearranged light signals may be used). If possible, the radio man will
hookup close to the bottom of the rope and maintain radio contact with the helicopter in order
to provide a verbal backup for the extract, clearing of obstacles, and descent into the LZ. Upon
receiving the thumbs up from the team, the scanners inform the pilot they are ready to lift.
The aircraft should ascend once the SPIE rope is clear of all obstacles and slowly accelerate to
40 to 60 knots (do not exceed 70 knots in clear weather or 50 knots in cold weather)
proceeding to a secure area. Scanners inform the pilot when the last person is off the ground
and once 100-foot clearance is reached, clear the pilot for forward flight. A minimum of
100-foot clearance should be maintained between the bottom of the SPIE assembly and
ground obstacles, tactical situation permitting. During the flight, the scanners should advise
the pilot of team status and check rigging frequently.
4.13 Rapid Equipment Delivery System and Equipment. The insertion techniques discussed
to this point have all dealt with insertions of personnel. Many missions require the additional
support of equipment that would not be practical or possible to carry during personnel
deployments. The rapid equipment delivery system (REDS) technique was developed to provide
insertion of mission essential equipment. REDS uses the traditional mountaineering skill of
belaying in an untraditional environment.
4.13.1 REDS Container/Contents Inspection/Storage Requirements. Proper inspection,
storage, and setup is critical to proper usage. REDS kits and associated components are stored
in the rescue equipment storage room. Ensure REDS kits and components have been
inspected before and after each use, are controlled by hand receipts, and are returned in
serviceable condition. Ensure any equipment maintenance/repair discrepancies are reported to
the appropriate personnel in order to replace kit contents when necessary.
4.13.1.1 REDS Container Inspection.
4.13.1.1.1 REDS Container. The REDS container should be smooth on the outside to
avoid getting hung-up during the deployment, and rigid to provide protection of its
contents during deployment. Inspect corners, bottom, and lid/lid attachments for any
cracks, bending, or bowing.
4.13.1.1.2 Lowering Harness. Inspect for any tears or excessive wear and ensure all
hardware is present and operational. If the harness looks as if it wont withstand
another deployment, replace it.
4-35
4.13.1.1.3 Belay Rope/Equipment. Belay rope should be inspected prior to each use
for serviceability. Units should establish a shelf-life for ropes used to belay REDS
based on manufacturers specifications for rope strength/use. All belay/lowering
hardware must be inspected for metal fatigue, cracks, unusual bends, and friction
burns.
4.13.1.2 REDS Equipment Inspection/Storage Requirements.
4.13.1.2.1 Ryobi Saws. When saws are stored with blades installed, the blades must
be protected with a rigid covering to prevent blade breakage. PVC pipe works well for
this purpose. Include extra blades in the REDS maintenance kit. Ensure the tool kit for
the Ryobi saw is included in the REDS kit. Ryobi saws need a mixture of gas and oil
to operate properly. Include extra oil in the REDS maintenance kit for fuel mixture.
4.13.1.2.2 Hydraulic Pump. Hydraulic pumps may be stored with fluid in the tank.
Fluid in connected hydraulic hoses should only be non-flammable hydraulic fluid or
mineral oil. Ensure the generator hydraulic pressure switch is in the tank position to
take the pressure off the system while not in use. If hoses are disconnected, any
exposed hose fittings should be covered with dust caps to keep dirt out of the fittings.
Keep extra fluid for the generator with the REDS maintenance kit. Ensure the throttle,
hydraulic, and choke levers are working properly. Clean the spark plug to prevent plug
failure.
4.13.1.2.3 Rescue Combination Tool (Jaws). Must be kept clean and free of dirt
and rust. The recommended procedure for storage is to close the tool fully, then open
the tips approximately one half inch. Next, release the pressure at the pump/tank and
disconnect fittings as required. Hydraulic connections can remain connected while in
storage, although it is not recommended for extended periods of time. Any
disconnected coupler fittings on the jaws need to be kept covered with dust caps to
keep those fittings free of dirt. Inspect jaw blades for warping. If any discrepancies are
found with the tool, it should be replaced immediately.
4.13.1.2.4 Air Bags. Air bags should be stored to keep them relatively free of
petroleum products. The recommended inspection procedure is to inflate each bag and
keep inflated for at least 3 hours.
4.13.1.2.5 REDS Maintenance Kit. Maintenance kits can be any suitable container
that will accommodate the extra fluids and hardware needed for normal REDS
maintenance. The maintenance kit need not be deployed unless recurring use of the
REDS is anticipated.
4.13.1.3 Packaging for Deployment.
4.13.1.3.1 The entire REDS deployment system consists of a belay system and the
REDS kit in a lowering harness. Additional equipment, depending on the mission,
may be added to the package with optional rigging configurations. For example, a
stokes litter or me/SAR gear may be integrated and deployed with the kit.
NOTE: If a stokes litter is used, the footend is the attachment point to lower the stokes litter
with REDS attached.
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4-37
surface. If a stokes litter is used, the lowering point for the pelican hook will be at the
foot end of the litter.
4.13.1.5.3 Select a belay point on a ceiling tiedown ring, floor ring (closest to exit), or
the FRIES bar. Insure belay system does not interfere with fast rope operations. System
can be connected on the same side as the fast rope. Monitor rope for contact with edge
of door.
4.13.1.5.4 Clip locking steel carabiner with snap shackle and belay device to the belay
point.
4.13.1.5.5 Route rope through belay device and snap shackle to make a quick release
system.
4.13.1.5.6 For safety of flight, the REDS package will be secured using a tether or
cargo strap and positioned away from the door and removed 2 minutes prior to
deployment. The rope bag (or bird-nested rope) will be stored overhead in the cabin,
or on top of package, whichever position allows the easiest access and use.
4.13.1.5.7 During night operations the kit should be marked with blue chemlights on
top and two sides.
4.13.1.6 Deployment Sequence and Belay Duties. Belayer should position himself to
monitor descent of REDS kit while maintaining full control of the belay. Belayer is last to
exit the helo.
4.13.1.6.1 At the 1-minute call, position the REDS kit halfway out the helo door.
Maintain enough control on the kit to ensure it can be retrieved in case of a go-around
or mission abort.
4.13.1.6.2 On the command ROPES, deploy the REDS. REDS and fast rope can be
deployed simultaneously.
4.13.1.6.3 Belayer needs to maintain positive control while lowering the kit. The kit
should reach the surface before the first fast rope.
4.13.1.6.4 Once the surface is determined clear, the belayer releases the pelican hook
and deploys any excess line from the aircraft. Jettison may also be accomplished from
the FRIES bar, if so equipped.
4.13.1.7 Surface Personnel Duties for REDS Deployment.
4.13.1.7.1 Ensure all events are pre-briefed and personnel have rehearsed assigned
duties as much as possible.
4.13.1.7.2 A team member should be assigned to disconnect the REDS belay system
from the kit once the kit is on the surface. At least two team members also should be
assigned to take the REDS to the choke point.
4.13.1.7.3 PJs are dispatched from the choke point to the downed aircraft to conduct
initial casualty sweep, casualty marking, and scene assessment. Aid and litter (A&L)
teams may be dispatched to the downed aircraft to assist PJs in area sweep.
4-38
Item
REDS container
O-cutters
Spreader
Hydraulic pump
Set of chains
Crash ax
Hacksaws
Spare blades for hacksaw
Fire blanket
Reciprocating saw
Spare blades for reciprocating saw
Air pump
Airlift bag, 12-ton
Airlift bag, 24-ton
Airlift bag, 36-ton
Ram, small with extensions
Crosshead for ram tip
Flat base plate
Pulling heads
Extension pipe, 6-inch
Extension pipe, 13-inch
4-39
Item
REDS container
Lowering harness2-inch nylon webbing with hardware and
risers.
Generator (hydraulic pump)
Combo tool
Hose extension (for extraction tools)
Crash ax
Hack saw (double blades)
Tool kit for saw
Ryobi saw with extra blades taped to saw
1-ton lift bag
7-ton lift bag
10-ton lift bag
Air pump
One-way valve hose for lift bags
Fire blanket (2- x 3-foot)
Chains (1 long/1 short)
Set tip pins
REDS maintenance kit(1)
Oil for gas mixture, mineral oil for generation, saw tool kit, Ryobi saw blades, hacksaw
blades, and hose caps.
4.14 Tethered Duck Operations. The tethered duck (T-duck) is the deployment method for a
deflated and rolled combat rubber raiding craft (CRRC). The CRRC is an F-470 Zodiac weighing
280 pounds empty. T-Duck consists of deploying a deflated CRRC and personnel from the cabin
of a helicopter.
4.14.1 Set Up and Preparation. The CRRC is prepared by the team. A harness holds the
boat in its deflated and rolled configuration. This harness is equipped with a single-point
quick release, which also serves as the attaching point for the rope lowering the boat. The
CRRC is loaded through the opposite door planned for deployment, usually loaded through the
left door and pushed to the edge of the right door. CRRC is placed on the left side of the ramp
on a H-53 series aircraft. The motor should face the door and be the first part to exit the
aircraft. Normally, the CRRC is positioned at the right door of the H-60 with the engine
4-40
protruding over the edge of the door. Coil fast rope and secure it out of the way on fuel tank
(60) or side-wall of aircraft. Activate one red chemlight at inflation handle (prior to takeoff in
case the team cannot reach it during the time warnings sequence). Before conducting
operations, personnel unfamiliar with T-Duck operations should see an actual CRRC installed
on the aircraft. Preparation of the aircraft cabin is accomplished by the team under the
supervision of the cabin NCOIC. Ensure anchor points are capable of suspending the weights
of personnel/equipment and do not interfere with deployment procedures. Normal equipment
is a standard H-bar, two carabiners, chemlights (for night), brake device, and a rope. The rope
should be compatible with the intended hover height and the weight of the load. It is stored in
a deployment bag. One carabiner is attached to the left forward rappelling ring on the H-bar.
If the load does not exceed 600 pounds, extend and use the H-bar. The second carabiner is
attached to the 3,500-pound top cargo tiedown ring on the left forward cabin wall and is the
primary anchor. The running end of the rope is routed through the carabiner on the rappel ring
or fast rope connection point. A brake device is established at the anchor point or a friction
knot is used on the anchor carabiner and all slack is pulled in. The brake device or friction
knot allows the designated belayman to control the boats rate of descent.
4.14.1.1 FRIES Bar Alternate Lowering Configuration. The FRIES bar is configured
with a carabiner and pulley to act as a high directional. The lowering rope is then routed
from the T-Duck harness up and through the pulley and down to a floor ring where a belay
device controls the lowering of the package. The team has two options of release.
4.14.1.1.1 Let the lowering line run through the belay device and pulley ensuring it
does not get into the tail rotor by throwing it into the water.
4.14.1.1.2 Attach a snap shackle to the belay device to allow the belayer to release the
friction device from the floor ring, release the pulley and carabiner and then allow the
hardware and rope excess to be thrown in the water. This technique is only
recommended for use when the loss of equipment is not an issue.
NOTE: If the CRRC is placed in the right door, the fast rope can be recovered and coiled in the
left door without affecting hoist/penetrator operations. However, the pilot cannot see the team
deploy by fast rope. There are no requirements for location, coordinate with the aircrew, and use
mission, enemy, terrain, troops available, and time (METT-T).
4.14.1.2 Inspections.
C02/compressed air assembly.
Inspect bottle.
Teflon tape threads on all male connectors for high-pressure hoses.
Check for proper washers for high-pressure hoses.
NOTE: All washers should be replaced every time the tank is changed.
4.14.1.3 Harness.
Check stitching for fraying and tearing.
Check harness webbing to ensure serviceable.
4-41
4-42
WARNING: Ensure belay rope is slack prior to releasing from the CRRC to avoid springing back
up to the aircraft fuselage
4.14.1.7 Procedures in the Water. First swimmer to the CRRC stabilizes the CRRC and
places one hand on the inflation handle. The second swimmer to the CRRC stabilizes the
CRRC; confirms someone has the inflation handle in-hand prepared to inflate. Once
handle in hand is confirmed, release the quick releases one at a time. Ensure the inflation
valve is in hand prior to harness release. This must be a synchronized event. Release one
side of the harness; swimmer re-positions to release the second side of the harness; calls
for inflation, and release the second side of the harness once the inflation begins.
NOTE: Do not release quick releases until inflation has begun. Climb into CRRC, pull in all
equipment, pull in and stow harness, connect fuel, dewater engine. Get underway (same as
RAMZ procedures).
4.14.1.8 Emergency Procedures. Brief all personnel involved in the deployment
concerning the actions required of them in case of an emergency. The AIE master should
be on interphone during equipment deployment. The rope master must understand the
pre-briefed hand signals and emergency procedures. A V-blade knife will be available in
the cabin area during equipment deployments. The weight of the CRRC or any other load
to be lowered from the fast rope bar must not exceed 600 pounds.
4-43
4.14.1.9 Considerations. The belayman will maintain control of belay rope until the first
swimmer has control of the CRRC. In high seas, the belayman should maintain control of
the CRRC until de-rigging has begun. The Stokes litter and additional gear can be
attached to package/rope or deployed to the team upon completion of inflation sequence.
Pre-planned procedures will be briefed with crew as part of pre-deployment briefing.
4.15 Helicopter Freefall Equipment Delivery. PJ teams are require to deploy with additional
equipment to prosecute their mission that would be unsafe/unmanageable to deploy with directly.
Equipment should be packaged in order to withstand the forces of being dropped. Utilizing the
helicopter freefall equipment delivery method allows PJ teams to deploy safely with the required
equipment. Seven- or Twenty-Man Life Raft. It is not recommended to use any aircraft
emergency equipment intended to be used by the crew for the rescue of others except in
emergencies. Mission planning should provide the information needed to elect carrying extra
equipment for deployment to survivors.
4.15.1 Preparing Raft for Drop. Remove the raft inflation D ring from its pocket and leave
the pocket unsnapped. Securely tie a 14-inch piece of web tape through the D ring to form an
approximate 5-inch loop. Secure the raft near the appropriate exit. Attach a 10-foot lanyard to
the tiedown ring that is located by the forward most part of the side cargo door. Attach the
other end to the 5-inch loop of web tape. Snap the carrying handles together beneath the raft.
Attach chemlights to the raft at night prior to deployment.
4.15.2 Delivery Procedures. The aircraft makes a shallow approach in order to establish
level flight at 40 knots and 75 feet altitude on final approach. Two crew members should work
together, one to control the raft and one to monitor the survivor and signal the other crew
member when to deploy the raft. After the crew drops the raft, call RAFT AWAY and
immediately recover the lanyard. To aid the survivor, drop the raft upwind. This allows the
wind/drift to push the raft towards the survivor. Use a smoke device on all life raft drops to
assist in determining the exact wind direction and a drop reference. Use normal traffic pattern
airspeeds and altitudes. Establish the final approach into the wind and delay the drop 1 second
for every 5 knots of wind over 10 knots.
4.15.3 Safety Procedures. When conducting raft deployments, all personnel should wear the
safety harnesses to preclude accidental exit from the helicopter. It may be necessary to use
two crewmen to deploy the 20-man life raft. A V blade knife must be available to cut the raft
if it should become entangled. Do not hold the 10-foot lanyard after the raft is deployed.
4.16 Kangaroo Duck Operations. Kangaroo Duck (K-Duck) operations are used when cargo
space in the H-60 cannot support a T-Duck or the mission requires such speed and surprise that an
already inflated CRRC is necessary. The fully inflated CRRC is placed on a canvas harness and
then the H-60 (with its lower main landing gear struts inflated to the rapid deployment force
[RDF] extension) hovers over the CRRC and lands on top of it. The CRRC is then cradled to the
belly of the H-60 by attaching the harness to the 4,000-pound rappelling rings on the
H/FRIES-bar. The team is carried inside the H-60 cabin. The teams equipment, to include the
motor for the CRRC, is securely stowed inside of the CRRC. These procedures are for delivering
a fully inflated CRRC and a team (approximately eight people) during day or night operations.
Once the H-60 is at 5 KIAS and 10 feet, the shear strap of the harness is cut, the CRRC is deployed
and the team exits the helicopter.
4-44
4.16.1 Equipment Installation and Configuration. Normally the aircrew will provide and
install the necessary equipment for conducting K-Duck operations. The PJ team is responsible
for proper configuration of the CRRC.
4.16.2 CRRC Preparation. The following procedures are for preparing and rigging the
CRRC for the double-door K-duck. (See Figure 4.17, Harness System for Double-Door
K-Duck, for illustration of the harness system.) Install the floor (also the wooden bow floor)
and fully inflate the CRRC. The optional CRRC floor extension is required when transporting
the K-duck at airspeeds greater than 130 knots. The required materials are listed in the
equipment paragraph above. (See Figure 4.18, Optional CRRC Floor Extension for Double
Door K-Duck, for an illustration when following the constructing procedures.) The following
are procedures for construction and installation into the CRRC. Cut the plywood so that it
will fit into the nose of the CRRC. Cut an access hole for the skeg inflation. Be sure to bevel
the edges of the plywood to avoid damage to the CRRC. Drill the required four holes in the
aluminum plate and boat wood floor base. The boat wood floor base is located in front of the
removable boat floor. Drill the required eight holes in the plywood. Place the plywood
cutout in place. Assemble the floor using the four socket head cap screws, washers, and tee
nuts to connect the aircraft rails, aluminum plate, and boat wood floor together. Use the eight
flat socket head cap screws and tee nuts to connect the aircraft rails to the plywood. Lay the
harness cradle flat on the ground. Place the CRRC on the cradle so that the bow is at the
triangular end of the harness. Lines 1 and 2 should be at the rear handles. Prepare and stow
the motor with the motor arm down and strap the engine in place near the transom. Use
suitable padding between the motor and floor, and pad the prop. Ensure the paddles and gas
tanks are placed in their positions and tied down. Accompanying payload will be put into the
CRRC as close to the center as possible. Do not store more than 50 pounds in the bow, even
with the wooden bow floor installed. All items must fit completely inside the CRRC. Only the
CRRC will touch the H-60. If payload items are large, (e.g., rucks or water cans) tie capsize
line of 1-inch tubular nylon to the front towing ring. Run the line through each large item and
tie off the line on the last item making sure the free end of the line can reach the transom. All
small items will be snap linked to the floor or tied to a larger item. Pad all items that need it.
Route line 1 and line 2 through the front handles. Attach together, tighten, and then fold/tape
excess line to the ejector. Route line 3 and line 4 through the rear handles. Route line 5
through the front towing ring, over the bow, then under line 1 and line 2. Route line 6 over the
transom and line 3 and line 4. Attach line 5 and line 6 with the ratchet and then fold/tape
excess line to the ratchet. Route the nose strap (line 20) through the loop located on line 5 at
the nose of the CRRC and below the front towing ring. There should be an even length of nose
strap (line 20) on each side of the loop. Place the free ends of the nose strap (line 20) inside
the CRRC so that they can be easily accessed during hookup to the aircraft.
WARNING: Externally transporting the CRRC without the floor installed could cause the
CRRC to fold up and possibly make contact with the rotors. Do not transport the CRRC without
the floor installed. The optional floor extension is only necessary if it is desired to travel in excess
of 130 KIAS.
4-45
Rachet
Nose Strap
Rachet
Connector Link
Crows Feet
Quick-fit
Ejector
Loop for
Nose Strap
Rachet
D-Ring
CRRC Cradle Harness
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 4.18 Optional CRRC Floor Extension for Double-Door K-Duck.
Plywood
Aluminum Plate
Boat Wood
Floor Base
(Not to Scale)
UNCLASSIFIED
CRRC Floor
4-46
4.17 Soft Duck Procedures. The soft duck insertion method involves attaching a semi-inflated
CRRC, pre-loaded with equipment, to a wooden platform. Two CRRCs can be stacked opposite
each other on the same platform. The out board motor (OBM) can be attached to the transom
during insertion for quick de-rigging. Because of the size of the soft duck, a helicopter with a
ramp (e.g., H-46, H-47, or H-53) is required for insertion. Larger aircraft, such as the H-53, allow
the CRRC to be fully inflated during the cast. Fully inflated CRRC loads are called hard ducks.
The helicopter proceeds to insert point and deploys the soft duck followed by the personnel from
a 10 foot at 10 knot flight profile. This method allows more equipment to be inserted with the
CRRC as compared to the other cast insertion methods.
4.17.1 Construction of the Soft Duck and Platform. The soft duck platform can be made
of any type of smooth material that provides protection to the CRRC underside and allows the
soft duck to easily move on the aircraft roller rails.
4.17.1.1 The H-53 and H-47 are rigged similar to the H-46; however, H-53 and H-47
hard ducks can be fully inflated because of the size of the aircraft cabin. Additionally, the
platform can be a full-sized sheet of plywood with the 4 inch x 4 inch runners spaced to
properly fit the roller rail system used.
4.17.1.2 Figure 4.19, Soft Duck Platform Configured for H-46 with Internal Roller Rails,
shows the platform for a H-46 soft duck. The recommended construction of the H-46
platform and soft duck is as follows (deviations to the procedures are noted in bold italic
for a stacked soft duck):
Cut a sheet of 0.75 inch, 4- x 8-foot plywood to 44 x 96 inches.
Drill four pairs of holes, equally spaced on each long side of the plywood. Drill one
pair of holes centered in each short side. The holes that make up a pair are three inches
apart and 1.5 inches from the edge.
Place a 45 degree beveled cut on the end of two 120-inch, 4- x 4-inch pieces of
wood. Place the 4- x 4-inch rails on the ground parallel to each other and spaced 40
inches apart (measured from the outside edge) with the beveled edge facing down.
4.17.1.3 Place the 44 inch x 96 inch sheet of plywood on the 4- x 4-foot rails aligning the
long side of the plywood with the rails. The leading edge of the plywood is even with
beveled end. Secure the plywood with screws or nails.
4.17.1.4 Cut two plywood 4- x 40-inch braces from the scrap wood remaining. Attach the
braces perpendicular to the rails at the open end of the rails. The braces are spaced 9
inches apart with the first brace starting 2 inches from the end of the rail. Secure using
screws or nails. The brace is used to secure the lower unit of the OBM.
4.17.1.5 Girth hitch a 14-foot length of 0.5-inch tubular nylon through one of each pairs of
side holes and a 20-foot length through one of each pair of end holes.
4.17.1.6 Mount the OBM to the transom temporarily locked in tilt position. Place two
layers of cut honeycomb on the platform braces to cushion the lower OBM unit. Unlock
from the tilt position and secure the lower unit to the honeycomb and platform using
0.5-inch tubular nylon.
4-47
NOTE: Ensure the OBM is free floating (unlocked) when mounted to the transom to prevent
damage to the transom.
Figure 4.19 Soft Duck Platform Configured for H-46 with Internal Roller Rails.
Soft Duck Platform Configured for H-46 with Internal Roller Rails
UNCLASSIFIED
4.17.1.7 The equipment in the CRRC is secured in a similar fashion as the hard duck (see
Army FM 10-542) using 0.5-inch tubular nylon.
4.17.1.8 Partially deflate the CRRC prior to securing it to the platform. Bring the 14-foot
side and 20-foot end tiedowns up to meet and tie off in the center using a donut ring as
outline in the Hard Duck manual (Army FM 10-542). Keep the sides square when securing
the tiedowns by pulling equally from all sides. The limiting factor of the soft duck is that it
can be no wider than 60 inches for H-46 helicopters.
4.17.1.9 Additional 0.5-inch tubular nylon can be used to help keep the load square and
within the maximum 60-inch width.
4.17.1.10 For stacked soft duck procedures, refer to Naval Special Warfare Air
Operations Manual, COMNAVSPECWARCOMINST 3000.3A.
4.17.1.11 Sand bags may be placed on the platform to sink the platform and minimized
floating debris after the CRRC is de-rigged.
4.17.2 Loading the Soft Duck in the Aircraft. The boat may be loaded bow or stern first;
two boats may be loaded if loaded bow first in the H-53/H-47. Secure the boats with at least
two cargo tiedown straps per boat, with a short bow or stern line attached to the aircraft. The
load is positioned partially on the ramp. The 4- x 4-inch runners on the platform will sit on top
4-48
of the aircrafts internal roller rail system. If rollers are not available in the helicopter, portable
roller rails or a field expedient roller assembly can be rigged in the aircraft. A field expedient
roller assembly can be rigged using lengths of PVC cut to 2.5 feet and placed under the
CRRC.
4.17.3 Deployment Procedures.
4.17.3.1 At the 5-minute call, team members who will deploy from the front, if this
method is used, will move to the front of the cabin area. The team members who will
deliver the boat will prepare for exit in the aft.
NOTE: The H-53 must have the tail skid retracted prior to drop.
4.17.3.2 At the 1-minute call, the team members and crew members will prepare the
boat for drop by removing tiedown straps except bow or stern line.
4.17.3.3 The pilot will approach a 10-foot wheel height above the waves while slowing to
10 knots ground speed. The hover coupler may be used. The pilot not flying or flight
engineer will call out radar altimeter readings to the pilot.
4.17.3.4 When cleared to drop, the pilot will say BOATS, BOATS, BOATS. When
cleared, the designated crew member or team member will release the bow or stern line
from the aircraft and push the boat out.
NOTE: The team may exit the aircraft from either the door, ramp, or both. If both are used,
execute the ramp delivery first. These measures will reduce adverse pitch oscillations during
deployment.
4.17.3.5 The delivery team leader will remain on intercom until the 1-minute call. A
pre-briefed crew member on intercom will relay the clear to drop signal to the team.
4.17.4 De-Rigging the Soft Duck. The first two personnel out of the helicopter are
designated as the de-riggers. The de-riggers can cast with their fins carabinered inside the
boat. The de-riggers must be thoroughly briefed on the de-rigging procedures of the soft duck.
A hook knife works best for cutting lines and preventing damage to the CRRC.
4.18 Vehicle On/Off Loading. The primary rotary-wing aircraft used for transporting vehicles
are the H-53, H-47, and H-46 series. Virtually any vehicle that will fit inside the aircraft can be
transported for tactical operations. For purposes of this document only all-terrain vehicles (ATV)
will be discussed. The principles remain the same for all other vehicles.
4.18.1 Preparation/Infiltration. Vehicle should be backed in to allow for quick offloading
at the offload point. All restraint devices except one forward and one aft (opposite corners)
may be removed during taxi to the offload point (large vehicles requiring multiple tiedown
straps). ATVs only require a single cargo strap placed over the seat. Self-propelled vehicles
must have drivers in place with brakes set prior to removing restraints. Vehicles will not be
started in flight.
4.18.1.1 Execution. Use standard pre-briefed time calls. At the 1 minute call the driver
may mount the ATV and prepare to disconnect the cargo strap. When the helicopter lands
and comes to a complete stop, the driver may release the cargo strap and start the engine.
4-49
When the ramp is lowered to the ground and a crew member has cleared the exit, the driver
may immediately drive out of the back of the helicopter.
4.18.1.1.1 H-53 Helicopters. The driver must immediately turn left after leaving the
ramp in order to avoid the tail rotor.
4.18.1.1.2 H-47/H-46 Helicopters. The driver may drive straight out the back.
4.18.1.1.3 Aircraft Departure. The drivers must drive far enough away from the
aircraft to allow other vehicles room to exit the aircraft and for the aircraft to depart.
4.18.2 Preparation/Exfiltration. Cargo straps should be pre-positioned in the helicopter to
allow the vehicles to be quickly secured prior to takeoff.
4.18.2.1 Execution. Vehicles are driven directly onto the helicopter and secured after a
crew member has cleared the team to board.
4.18.2.1.1 H-53 Helicopters. The team should approach the helicopter from the right
side of the tail between the tail rotor and the ramp being careful not to drive under or
near the tail rotor.
4.18.2.1.2 H-47/H-46 Helicopters. The team may approach these helicopter directly
from the tail.
4.18.2.1.3 Vehicle Placement. Place the vehicles according to a crew members
direction to allow for CG.
4-50
5-1
CHAPTER 5
PARACHUTE OPERATIONS
5.1 General. This chapter supports the recover task of PR/RO by providing GUARDIAN
ANGEL forces the ability to infiltrate personnel and equipment to isolated, time-sensitive, or
augmented missions via parachute operations. Parachute operations can be conducted in hostile
sensitive and denied areas; day and night in all environmental disciplines. For most missions, the
reason for using parachute deployments is because of the lack of available assets to insert via AIEs
or airland or the time involved in getting assets or aircraft is such that there is a high probability
that the objective will be compromised, further damaged, dead, or destroyed. For general
purposes and mission planning specifically for non-preplanned missions, if the insertion can be
accomplished 1 hour prior to the extraction asset time over target (TOT), then it pays to execute
the jump operations. The 1-hour rule is not a firm number, rather a planning guide. If the team is
already prepared for the jump, then it may be possible to reduce the time to 45 minutes; the idea is
that there will be enough time for the jump team to insertion and have time to perform their
required duties prior to the insert of the helicopter or other asset arrival. There are some missions
where the objective is so isolated that nothing but a parachute insertion will accomplish the
mission; whether that isolation is because of remote location, environmental factors (e.g., storms
or mountains), or threat. On some missions, the jump team may be augmenting an existing team
with personnel (e.g., manpower required for a mass casualty) and/or equipment (e.g., existing
ground team needs equipment to execute their mission).
5.1.1 Regulatory Guidance Overview. AFI 11-410, Personnel Parachuting, is the USAF
primary guidance for intentional parachute operations. When attached to USSOCOM and
performing joint missions, the USOCOM 350-series will be used. The Army is the proponent
for parachute operations for the Army and the Marine Corps and is tasked to develop
operational procedures for the Army and Marine Corps IAW DoDR 5100.1 6.6.1.2.3.2.
Develop, in coordination with the other Military Services, the doctrines, procedures, and
equipment employed by Army and Marine Corps forces in airborne operations. The Army
shall have primary responsibility for developing those airborne doctrines, procedures, and
equipment that are of common interest to the Army and the Marine Corps. However, the
Air Force retains the ability to develop its own equipment and TTPs in support of it own
operations: .6.6.3.2.10. To develop, in coordination with the other Services, doctrines,
procedures, and equipment employed by Air Force forces in airborne operations.
5.1.2 Recovery Considerations. An exact recovery plan is not required prior to
commencing jump operations; however a method to communicate such a plan should be in
place prior to conducting the insertion. A jump mission 1,000 miles from the nearest coast
with no communication and no extraction plan would not be recommended.
5.1.3 Operational Risk Management. Operational risk management (ORM) is a tool to
ensure that the team leader and mission commander have a clear understanding of the
premeditated risk that the current operation has. Clairvoyance is not a team leader skill so the
unknown risk cannot be determined and the risk of the unknown has to be assumed. ORM is
also a tool to ensure, specifically in this chapter, parachute mission success, by making the
5-2
Feet AGL
Low
400 to 800
Medium
800 to 3,000
High
5.1.6 Drop Zone Elevation. Drop zones are also defined as low, medium, and high. Low is
considered from 0 to 3,000 feet MSL. Medium is 3,000 to 5,000 feet MSL, and high is 5,000
feet and above. Static line canopies operate with little change until 3,000 feet MSL where
their descent rate begins to affect the operational outcome of missions. The 3,000 to 5,000 feet
area is the transition between round and ram air canopies and is also where ORM for missions
starts to dictate that ram air static and free-fall canopies should be used. At 5,000 feet, the
amount of equipment jumped on static line canopies should be seriously evaluated. Above
5,000 feet MSL raises limitation of even ram air canopies. (See Table 5.2, Drop Zone
Elevation.)
Table 5.2 Drop Zone Elevation.
Altitude
Feet MSL
Low DZ
0 to 3,000
Medium DZ
3,000 to 5,000
High DZ
5.1.7 Surface Winds. Winds follow the same basic formatting. Low wind is 10 knots and
below. Moderate is 10 to 25 knots, and high is anything above 25 knots. In low winds static
lines can be safely deployed in intermediate terrain; whereas in medium winds, the ORM for
static line will depend on the surface that the DZ is made of. At 25 knots, jumping static line
rounds into the water is low to moderate on the ORM scale; however, it is high in rough
terrain. At 25 knots and above, ORM starts to creep upwards even on a ram air canopy. (See
Table 5.3, Surface Wind.)
5-3
Knots
Low
0 to 10
Moderate
10 to 25
High
25 and above
5.1.8 Drop Zone Conditions. Parachuting must consider the landing zones. There are three
zone categories: easy, intermediate, and rough. On an easy DZ one can jump round or ram air
canopies in even moderate winds; however, landing a round canopy in moderate winds on an
intermediate DZ could have severe consequences. Landing a round on a rough DZ is not
advised and would be an advanced skill even on a ram air canopy. (See Table 5.4, Drop Zone
Conditions.)
Table 5.4 Drop Zone Conditions.
Terrain
Easy
Obstacles
Water/open field free of major obstacles
Intermediate
Rough
5.1.9 Parachute Types. There are three basic types of personnel parachutes in the
GUARDIAN ANGEL parachute program: static line, ram air static line, and free-fall. Each
type of parachute has its advantages and uses.
5.1.9.1 Static Line. Static line parachutes are used for low-altitude drops that do not
require parachute glide and can accept a higher ORM due to high opening shock, low
ability to steer, and high impact on landing. They work basically on the umbrella off the
roof principal. The only difference is the ability to create forward drive and steering by
having one fixed and two variable holes or T/U modifications in the rear of the canopy.
When the three holes are unrestricted, the parachute is pushed forward. If one side is
close, then the opposite side pushes the parachute into a turn. If both of them are closed,
then the parachute losses forward drive as well as it ability to float and increase its
descent rate as well as its forward drive.
5.1.9.2 Ram Air Static Line. Ram air static line parachutes are hybrid free-fall
parachutes that reduce the ORM for all the static line round down falls but traditionally
require a medium deployment altitude (system dependant). They, like their free-fall
brethren, are capable of carrying large loads even at high altitude in high winds. One of the
benefits of ram air static line parachute system is that because of the greater forward glide
ratio there is a much lower degree of accuracy required for the navigator or jumpmaster.
Ram air static lines also are used for high altitude high opening (HAHO) deployments
where the parachute opening altitude is critical. Ram air and free-fall canopies fly on the
same basic flight characteristic as a wing, which gives them the ability to steer during
forward flight, gain lift and reduce impact with the earth and/or anything that has, or is
currently attached to the earth.
5-4
5-5
Medical condition.
Last known location.
How event occurred.
ISOPREP information/personnel information.
EPA.
Survival equipment and training.
Special instructions.
Equipment or information.
Size/shape.
Color.
Weight.
Classification.
5.1.10.6 Type Mishap. If the mission is due to a mishap, the crew should want to ensure
that they are not flying into a similar problem without knowing what the original problem
was (e.g., storm or threat). This will also get the crew thinking of any additional support
they might be able to give that the pilot does not know about (e.g., native speaker or rescue
equipment threat sensor).
5.1.10.7 Immediate/Delayed. Everyone on the mission should have the same amount of
urgency and be based on the same information. Brief the urgency and why there is
urgency to ensure that the correct amount of ORM is applied.
5.1.10.8 Permissive/Non-Permissive. The amount of threat is normally briefed by intel;
however, how that applies to specific mission procedures and tactics needs to be
highlighted to ensure, that once again, everyone on the crew is flying with the same
amount of ORM by ensuring that the crew is informed as to the threat and what is involved
to all MDSs.
5.1.10.9 Enemy Situation. The bulk of the enemy situation is briefed by intel. What
they do not brief is how different threats affect the ground team verses the aircraft and
crew.
5.1.10.10 Terrain. Terrain is one of the hardest considerations to evaluate in a launch off
alert status. With the time allotted prior to launch, getting detailed mission planning is
very hard. Make every attempt to get current satellite imagery with contour overlays.
When possible, a laptop with FalconView and satellite imagery or similar product should
be kept on the jump aircraft for mission planning en route. The terrain is one of the
considerations that will drive parachute type and exit altitude.
5.1.10.11 Weather. Weather is a standard consideration for the aircrew and will be
briefed either by the weather shop or flight crew. What is not briefed is how this effects
the teams employment. This, along with terrain and threat will drive the decision on
which means of parachute insertion will be chosen.
5-6
5-7
Key EquipmentEnsure that both the front end and back end operators know what
equipment is what and when the pilot expects to use it, especially if the pilot expect to
automatically drop it.
Other.
5.1.10.17 Special Instructions. Ensure rescue crews and the assigned MDS are operating
on the same special instructions (SPINS). The following are suggested briefing items prior
to missions and alert. If the AO does not have SPINS, put procedures in place as shown in
Table 5.5, Briefing Items.
Table 5.5 Briefing Items.
Briefing Items
- Letter/color of the day
- Communications/signal
- Bullseye/SARDOT
- SAFE/SAID
- Rules of engagement
- On scene commander
-- Call sign/frequency
-- Reporting instructions
- Airborne mission commander
-- Call sign/frequency
-- Reporting instructions
- Ground Mission Commander
-- Call sign/frequency
-- Reporting instructions
- Close air/fire support
-- Call sign/frequency
-- Reporting instructions
- Joint/rescue coordination center
-- Call sign/frequency
-- Reporting instructions
- Recovery facilities
-- Call sign/frequency
-- Reporting instructions
5-8
5.1.10.24 Clearance to Deploy. The visual and verbal signals are of great importance
for the safety of the employing team. The jumpmaster may be off intercom prior to the
clear to drop is given. The jumpmaster needs to have a clear to drop signal to ensure
proper team deployment.
5.1.10.25
5-9
board, the aircraft commander needs to know who they are as well as who their
instructor/certifier is.
5.1.10.27 Number Involved/Manifest. The number of personnel and when they are on
the aircraft is required in case there is an aircraft mishap. It may be required that the roster
be radioed to a command post after the Infil or written and kept on the ground with the
ground party.
5.1.10.28 Call Signs. All call signs for operation should be briefed.
5.1.10.29 Duties and Responsibilities. Duties for individuals need to be briefed if they
have an inner operation with the crew. The requirements for systems or equipment need to
be deconflicted prior to flight unless they are considered standard. The following are
suggested items:
Team leader.
Jumpmaster.
Intercom requirements.
Equipment delivery.
Physiological training officer/oxygen NCO.
5.1.10.30 DZ Information. If DZ information is known, it should be briefed and shown
on map or pictures if available. The below is suggested briefing considerations.
Name.
Coordinates.
Elevation.
Run in.
Wind direction relative to run in and or DZ.
5.1.10.31 Markings and Features.
Recognition symbol.
Required time on target.
Known hazards.
Range procedures/requirements.
Desired heading.
Point of impact.
Opening point.
Release point.
Alternate DZs.
Emergency DZs.
5-10
Target Procedure
- NA.
DZ controller frequencies
- NA.
- NA.
- NA.
Clear to jump
Drop canceled
- Landtarget displayed.
- Watertarget displayed (boat circling off wind line).
- Landtarget removed and replaced by two streamers
forming two parallel bars, placed perpendicular to the
line of flight and/or red smoke on the DZ.
- Waterboat positioned at target or stationary in
waterJump cancelled.
- Landtarget removed.
- Watertarget removed.
Injured jumper
Communications failure
5-11
5-12
During helicopter jump operations; recover static lines prior to giving clearance.
5-13
T-10
Reserve
MC1-1B
MC1-1C/D/E
360 pounds
360 pounds
360 pounds
Rate of descent
19 to 23 fps
(T-10B=19 fps)
18 to 22 fps
System weight
31 pounds
31 pounds
31 pounds
Steerable
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
8.8 seconds
7.7 seconds
Minimum altitude
400 feet
400 feet
475 feet
Maximum altitude
10,000 feet
10,000 feet
10,000 feet
150 knots
150 knots
135 knots
Characteristics
Max weight
5.1.10.39 Descent Rates. Table 5.9, Parachute Information, does not specify nor does
the TO state what the suspended weight or altitude was used to derive the descent rates.
Figure 5.1, Descent Versus Weight and Altitude, is from the S-17/18 parachute, which is
the equivalent of the MC-1B, and should only be used for a reference for the Table 5.9,
Parachute Information, as to the parachute descent rate in comparison to weight and
altitude.
5.1.10.40 Sea Fall Rates. Table 5.10, Sea Level Fall Rate, lists the sea level fall rate for
the different types of parachutes that can be encountered by GUARDIAN ANGEL
recovery teams. This table is generic and considers weight and descent rates but not
altitude.
5.1.10.41 Minimum Exit Altitude. Table 5.10, Sea Level Fall Rate, lists the minimum
exit altitude that the TO lists for the main opening not including the altitude required for
the reserve to function as well. The Army lists the reserve as optional at exit altitudes
below 500 feet; however, AFI 11-231, Computed Air Release Point Procedures, lists the
required altitude for reserve usefulness at 750 feet AGL. Normally exit altitudes should
not be below 800 feet AGL without an accepted risk assessment of high.
5.1.10.42 Exit Airspeeds. Also not listed is the airspeed at which the parachutes can be
used. Table 5.11, C-130 Personnel Airdrop Data, lists exit airspeeds for common
parachute systems. The T-10 and the MC-1B can be deployed from lower altitude because
the airspeed can be increased to 150 knots. The Table 5.11, C-130 Personnel Airdrop
Data, does not consider the TO limitation of the MC-1C/D/E
5-14
24
22
FEET PER SECOND
nds
pou
300
nds
pou
250
20
200
18
nds
pou
150
16
nds
pou
12
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
18000
20000
ALTITUDE
UNCLASSIFIED
Table 5.10 Sea Level Fall Rate.
Type Chute
II
MC1-1C/LOPO Set 10
III
Load
Weight
Load
Weight
Rate of Fall
I
II
III
150
14.5
14.3
13.0
175
15.5
15.2
200
16.4
225
Rate of Fall
I
II
III
350
21.7
20.7
19.7
13.8
375
22.4
21.5
20.5
16.0
14.6
400
23.1
22.3
21.4
17.4
16.8
15.4
425
23.8
23.0
22.2
250
18.3
17.6
16.3
450
24.4
23.8
23.1
275
19.2
18.4
17.1
475
25.0
24.6
23.9
300
20.0
19.2
18.0
500
25.6
25.4
24.7
325
20.9
20.0
18.8
5-15
Type
Description
35 feet Parabolic
(T-10)
Minimum
Altitude
(AGL)
Drop
Airspeed
(KIAS)
750
T-I0A/B/C
125 to 150
MCI-IA/B/C
35 feet 11 Gore
TU Cut-out
(MCI-1)
400
Remarks
5.1.10.43 Airdrop Speeds. Table 5.12, C-141/C-5/C-17 Airdrop Speeds, lists the exit
airspeeds for the C-141 and the C-5. Use caution when conducting coordination with the
crews of heavy lift aircraft. They frequently have weights that will force them to have
airdrop speeds in excess of the safe exit limitations of the MC1-1C/D/E. Along with the
consideration for airspeed comes exit weight. The maximum exit weight for all the round
parachute systems is 360 pounds. There are two limiting factors on exit weight: landing
altitude and safe opening force. Above 3,000 feet, a combat-equipped jumper will exceed
the safe descent rate of the canopies, which by the Army is considered 22 feet per second.
To control the descent rate, the Army suggests that 5 pounds per 1,000 feet be removed
from the maximum allowed exit weight above 3,000 feet. This concept also reduces the
opening shock of the parachute which can be figured by using Force = Mass x Velocity
squared. If velocity can not be reduced, then at least reduce the mass.
5.1.10.44 True Versus Indicated Airspeed. Parachutes also open on true airspeed verses
indicated airspeed. The indicated airspeed is what is on the airspeed indicator in the
cockpit. It is a function of air molecule being rammed into a tube which exerts pressure on
the indicator showing airspeed. As the aircraft climbs, there are less molecules thus less
pressure and a lower speed indication; hence, the aircraft is actually traveling faster
through the air mass, which is called true airspeed. The parachute opens on the true
airspeed of the aircraft which may be quite violent as the aircraft climbs to altitude. If the
drop altitude is 6,500 feet and the indicated airspeed is 125 KIAS, the true airspeed is over
160 knots. The Army does not recommend static line jump operations above 10,000 feet,
and jumping equipment at these altitudes will make the ORM very high indeed. Static line
round parachutes should not be jumped at altitudes above 14,000 feet.
5-16
(2)
(1)
C-141/C-5 (KIAS)
C-17 (KIAS)
130 to 135
130 to 135
138 to 145
150
145 5
150
145 5
130 to 135
130 to 135
Not Applicable
NOTES:
(1)
(2) Includes
free fall, high velocity CDS, wedge, Ahkio sled, and CRR.
5.1.11 Ram Air Static Line. There are three question types of ram air static line capable
systems in the inventory. The MC-4 and MC-5 parachutes in the static line configuration have
exit altitudes of 5,000 feet, which makes them mostly ineffective. The opening characteristics
of these canopies is hard enough to make them questionable at even low altitude, and their ram
air static line programs are pretty much obsolete. Their exit speeds are 125 to 135 knots.
5.1.11.1 The MT-1X packed IAW the Navy TO is still used. It is restricted to an exit
altitude of 1,500 feet for training and an operational altitude of 1,250 feet. Its opening
characteristics are moderate to good, depending on altitude and weight of exit. Its exit
speeds are 125 to 135 knots.
5.1.11.2 The SOV-3 HH is regulatory restricted for training by AFI 16-1202, Pararescue
Operations, Techniques and Procedures, to 1,250 feet. The static line test for the system
recommended the minimum training altitude of 800 feet with an ORM review to allow for
jumper orientation to the ground. The parachute uses 122 feet to open at 145 knots with a
suspended weight of 425 pounds. The reason it can be deployed so much lower is the safe
consistent opening which allows for a much higher airspeed, and the sky hook reserve
deployment system which requires only 150 feet for reserve opening. Thus, operational
altitudes without the use of the reserve could be as low as 400 feet; however, the canopies
fly at 20.8 knots at half brake and the chances of a downwind landing become high below
600 feet. Its exit speeds are 125 to 150 knots.
5.1.12 Free-Fall. This section is intended to provide specific information regarding
planning and performance numbers and considerations.
5.1.12.1 Exit Speed. Free-fall exit speeds are not critical to the parachute performance in
general. AFI 11-231, Computed Air Release Point Procedures, lists the exit speeds for
free-fall parachute systems as between 125 to 170 knots. The speed of exit becomes
critical for the opening of the parachute if the velocity exceeds the safe opening speeds.
Thus, there is a delay required for the MT- and MC-series free-fall parachutes that require
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delays in opening starting at altitudes above 10,000 feet. (See Table 5.13, Opening Delays,
for clarity.)
Table 5.13 Opening Delays.
Exit Altitude in Feet MSL
Delay
Below 20,000
10 seconds
Above 20,000
5.1.12.2 Fall Rates. The average jumper takes 10 seconds to fall the first 1,000 feet and
then an additional 5 seconds per 1,000 feet. This is an average and depends on altitude and
weight. Normal airdrop speeds for the HC/MC-130 will not exceed 150 knots due to the
door restriction.
5.1.12.3 Exit Altitude. The exit altitude is listed as 35,000 feet which has nothing to do
with the parachute system but the current oxygen system which is rated to 35,000 feet.
The training exit altitude is based on the FF-2 at 5,000 feet when it is used, which is for all
land jumps on standard parachute systems. See AFI 11-410, Personnel Parachute
Operations, for training altitudes. The operational exit altitude is listed in AFI 11-231,
Computed Air Release Point Procedures, as 2,500 feet with a pack opening of 2,000 feet.
Use caution when viewing these numbers. They do not consider the human factor of
proficiency. Good ORM must be applied to these numbers. These numbers, unlike the
static line numbers, do not give reserve altitudes.
5.1.12.4 Opening Altitude. The opening altitudes for parachute systems are dependent
on the structural integrity of the system, reliability of the opening system, and the reserve
activation system. The maximum opening altitude of the MT- and MC-series parachute is
25,000 feet. Above that, the terminal airspeed of the parachute system exceeds the
maximum opening speed of the parachute. The SOV-3 has a maximum opening altitude of
30,000 feet in both the static and free-fall configurations. The spring-loaded pilot chute is
an unreliable system due to the randomness of the low pressure area behind the jumper
which causes pilot chute hesitations and entanglements. The larger and heavier (faster) the
jumper, the larger the negative pressure behind the jumper and the stronger the high
pressure wall on the sides of the jumper; making it harder for the spring-loaded pilot chute
to reach escape velocity. (See the Pilot Chute Hesitation Equipment video, and Figure
5.2, Negative Pressure.)
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Negative Pressure
AIRFLOW
UNCLASSIFIED
5.1.12.5 Entanglements. While the pilot chute is trying to escape, it bounces around the
jumpers back with a 6-foot bridle that can entangle on any piece of equipment.
WARNING: The spring-loaded pilot chutes in the MT- and MC-series parachutes may cause
entanglements that lead to horseshoe malfunctions.
5.1.12.6 Hard Deploy Parachutes. To avoid this malfunction and have a predictable
opening, hand deploy pilot chutes on such parachute systems as the SOV-3. Opening
shock is also a large factor to consider when using free-fall parachutes. The MT- and
MC-series parachutes are fully cross ported with small sliders which open violently at
altitude and with heavy weight. (See Hand Deploy Pilot Chute 1 video, Hard Deploy Pilot
Chute 2 video, and Hand Deploy Pilot Chute Equipment 3 video.)
WARNING: Violent openings can occur with MT- and MC-series free-fall parachutes at high
altitudes and high weights causing structural damage to the parachute system and jumper.
5.1.12.7 Opening Systems. Newer parachute designs in the SOV-3 system have a
three-stage opening system that greatly reduces opening shock with even high openings
with heavy weight. This also gives the SOV-3 the additional altitude as its maximum
opening altitude.
5.1.12.8 Exit Weight. The exit weight for the MT- and MC-series parachute is 360
pounds. Despite it being listed in AFI 11-231, Computed Air Release Point Procedures, as
450 pounds, use caution in full exit weight based on altitude opening and landing
limitations. The exit weight for the SOV-3 HH is 425 pounds and it has no opening or
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landing issues. The MT- and MC-series parachutes begin to loose lift at 5,000 feet, and
exit weight should be managed. They can be jumped up to 10,000 feet with greatly
reduced weight. Jumping the MT- and MC-series parachutes above 8,000 feet for
operational mission should only be accomplished after an ORM risk decision has been
conducted and the mission risk is accepted as high.
WARNING: Jumping the MT- and MC-series parachute above 8,000 feet can cause structural
failure in the parachutist upon landing.
5.1.12.9 Performance Numbers. Natick Soldier Center has evaluated the performance
numbers given for the MT- and MC-series parachutes and advises to use the Army FM
3-05.211, Special Forces Military Free-fall Operations, numbers with caution due to an
over evaluation of the parachutes capability.
NOTE: Natick Soldier Center has expressed concern over the performance numbers for the MTand MC-series parachutes. Be conservative in safety factor while using these parachute systems.
5.1.12.10 MT- and MC-Series Parachutes. The MT- and MC-series parachutes have
the following paraflight: Army FM 3-05.211, Special Forces Military Free-fall
Operations, performance data; K=25, HAHO K=48, Velocity of 20.8, Maximum exit
weight 360 pounds.
5.1.12.11 SOV-3 HH. K=25, HAHO K=45, Velocity of 28.8, Maximum exit weight 425
pounds.
5.1.12.12 Tandem. For a complete understanding, see military tandem and tethered
bundle (MTTB) program. The following text is for planning and comprehension only.
The MTTB provides a force multiplier by being able to bring non-jump-qualified
specialist and large loads of equipment to the PR/RO parachute mission. (See Tandem
Equipment video and Tandem Personnel video.)
5.1.12.13 T-10R. The T-10R is the most prevalent Reserve used. Due to the multitude
of missions that are conducted in the GUARDIAN ANGEL weapons system, the use of the
belly band and reserve pin are very specific.
5.1.12.13.1 Belly Band. The belly band is not required as shown in Figure 5.3, Static
Line Belly Band.
5.1.12.13.2 Reserve Pin. The right reserve should be used as a standard to prevent
confusion during water jumps. (See Figure 5.4, Reserve Pin.)
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UNCLASSIFIED
5.1.12.14 Weapons. Two new weapons have been introduced in the resent past: the M-4
and the M-14 MOD1 EBR. Both can be jumped in a weapons bag or exposed. When
exposed, the challenge faced is the absence of a carrying handle to route the belly band
through. This is solved by tying a piece of 550-pound cord around the front of the receiver
and tying the other end around the base of the collapsing stock. The loop is made from
approximately a 1-foot piece of cord and should, when tied by approved climbing knots,
extend 2 to 3 inches from the top of the receiver so that the belly band can easily route
through the loop where the carrying handle would have been. Tape any optics and
anything that can fall off the weapon. Tie the stock of the weapon to the container of the
parachute with 80-pound tape. The leg tie of 80-pound tape is optional. The barrel of the
weapon should be configured with tape, muzzle cover, ear plug in barrel, or some means of
preventing contamination or occlusion of the barrel by foreign debris. The magazine
should be in the weapon and may contain ammunition, but the chamber should remain
empty. The magazine should be taped to prevent untimely departure. The dust cover
should be closed, but use caution in taping the dust cover shut because it will prevent fire
of more than one round from the weapon due to malfunction (failure to eject.) (See Figure
5.5, M-4 Jump Configuration.)
5-21
UNCLASSIFIED
5-22
UNCLASSIFIED
5.1.12.15 Weapon Bags. The M-1950 is still authorized and used as required, but for
shorter weapons, Eagle has made weapons bags that may be used. The weapon being
jumped is configured and placed in the jump bag with or without a magazine in the well,
but no round in the chamber. The bag is then donned as if it were a weapon with a piece of
80-pound tape looped through the top carrying strap attachment point and tied to the
container. The belly band is routed through the carrying handle and a second piece of
80-pound tape is then looped through the bottom carrying handle attachment point and tied
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around the leg (optional for static line operations). (See Figure 5.6, Weapons Bag
Configuration, and Figure 5.7, Free-Fall M-4/EBR Configuration.)
Figure 5.6 Weapons Bag Configuration.
UNCLASSIFIED
5.1.12.15.1 When the M-4/EBR is jump exposed, the challenge that is faced is the
lack of carrying handle to route the belly band through. This is solved by tying a piece
of 550-pound cord around the front of the receiver and tying the other end around the
base of the collapsing stock. The loop is made from approximately a 1-foot piece of
cord and should, when tied by approved climbing knots, extend 2 to 3 inches from the
top of the receiver so that the belly band can easily route through the loop where the
carrying handle would have been. Tape any optics and anything that can fall off the
weapon. Tie the stock of the weapon to the container of the parachute with 80-pound
tape. The leg tie of 80-pound tape is optional. The barrel of the weapon should be
configured with tape, muzzle cover, ear plug in barrel, or some means of preventing
contamination or occlusion of the barrel by foreign debris. The magazine should be in
the weapon and may contain ammunition, but the chamber should remain empty. The
magazine should be taped to prevent untimely departure. The dust cover should be
closed, but use caution in taping the dust cover shut because it will prevent fire of more
than one round from the weapon due to malfunction. (Failure to eject.) The weapon
may be prepared IAW AFMAN 11-412. (See Figure 5.8, Weapons Bag Free Fall.)
5-24
UNCLASSIFIED
5-25
UNCLASSIFIED
5.1.12.15.2 Free fall jump of the Eagle Weapons Case. The weapon being jumped is
configured and placed in the jump bag with or without a magazine in the well, but no
round in the chamber. The bag is then donned as if it were a weapon with a piece of
80-pound tape looped through the top carrying strap attachment point and tied to the
container. The belly band is routed through the carrying handle and a second piece of
80-pound tape is then looped through the bottom carrying handle attachment point and
tied around the leg.
WARNING: The bottom 80-pound tape must be tied around the leg. Failure to do so may allow
the weapon bag to pivot forward and act as a wind vane, causing the jumper to loose stability.
5.1.12.16 Jump Containers, Lowering Lines, and Releases. The standard jump
containers, lowering lines, and releases are described neatly in Army FM 3-05.211,
Special Forces Military Free-fall Operations. This section will show the snap shackle
release, lowering line configuration, and three additional jump containers: the eagle jump
bag (small, medium, and large are all configured the same), special tactics rucksack
lowering line system (STRLLS), and the special operation medical kit (Dave Cruz Pack).
There is no method for knowing all the types of equipment that will be required for
missions; hence, there is no way to have a written procedure to jump the unknown. There
are, however, guidelines to ensure that the equipment being jumped does not cause
damage to the parachutist. (See Table 5.14, Guide to Safely Jump Containers.)
5-26
5-27
UNCLASSIFIED
WARNING: During static line jumps, the leg strap should not be tightened such that it will bare
the weight of the parachutist during opening shock. (See Figure 5.10, Free Fall Leg Strap.)
5.1.12.16.3 In free-fall operations, there should be two leg straps and they should be
tight enough to force the jumpers legs apart.
WARNING: Loose equipment due to loose leg straps can cause instability. (See Figure 5.11,
Lowering Line Attachments.)
5.1.12.16.4 The left picture in Figure 5.11, Lowering Line Attachments, shows the
danger of burying the lowering line release and attached STRLLS. The right picture in
Figure 5.11, Lowering Line Attachments, shows the right side lowering line
attachment and special operations medical kit.
5-28
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 5.11 Lowering Line Attachments.
UNCLASSIFIED
5-29
5.1.12.16.5 The lowering line on free-fall parachute systems may be hooked on either
the right or the left, whichever is safer for the parachutist. Frequently, the lowering
line release will be covered by oxygen systems on the right and oxygen and weapon on
the left. (See Figure 5.12, Free Fall Lowering Line Attachment.)
Figure 5.12 Free Fall Lowering Line Attachment.
UNCLASSIFIED
5.1.12.16.6 The eagle jump bags are bags that have integrated harnesses and
hardware. The operator needs to fill the bag with a kit, zip it shut, fasten the buckles,
ensure the lowering line is attached, configured, and has a quick release. The STRLLS
has its origins from a modified spider harness with the top straps cut off of it to allow
access to the top flap. The releases, usually snap shackles (pelican hooks) are attached
to the holes in the side of the frame and the lowering line is attached to the STRLLS.
The critical part of the lowering line is to ensure that it is attached and the gate is
closed. The special operations medical kit (Dave Cruz Kit) has integrated attachment
points for the releases and the lowering line. The attachment points for the special
operations medical kit is a long narrow container and the attachments are at the very
top of the pack, causing the pack to hang low; coupled with the fact that the pack straps
are very long, this can lead to minor potato chipping and instability problems. (See
Figure 5.13, Eagle Jump Bag.)
5-30
UNCLASSIFIED
5.1.12.17 At some point multiple equipment loads become a necessity. Any
combinations of equipment loads are multiple (e.g., weapon-container, two containers, or
ML-4 kit and container). (See Table 5.15, Rear Load Guide, and Figure 5.14, Multiple
Container Configuration.)
Table 5.15 Rear Load Guide.
- Release rear-mounted containers when the size is larger than the ML-4 kit.
- Use the equipment V-rings to attach the equipment on static line parachutes.
- For spring-loaded free-fall parachutes, use the front equipment D-rings.
- For static line parachutes, do not use the leg straps on the rear equipment for static line.
- Ensure load releases are accessible.
- Ensure lowering line releases are accessible.
5.1.12.18 Land and Equipment. This section is for land base equipment only that does
not fit in the general category.
5-31
UNCLASSIFIED
5.1.12.18.1 Oxygen Jumps. Normal static line operations are not conducted above
10,000 feet; however, if a mission should dictate the need to jump at altitudes where
oxygen is required, the AirOx 8 system can be donned like a single para scuba
deployment system (SPUDS). Attach a belt to the AirOx 8 system at the manufacture
belt loops. Put the oxygen system on and then don the parachute. The bottles can be
pulled through the opening for the arm or hang below the V for the leg strap. Pulling
the bottles through the arm opening ensures the system does not drop with time. Route
the AirOx 8 hose under the arm, with the excess rubber banded and push the into the
oxygen pouch. Take two MT-1X or Tandem rubber bands and girth hitch them
together and place one loop over the regulator. Take the other loop and route it around
the chest strap and loop it over the regulator, securing the regulator to the chest strap.
The mask hose can be routed either under or over the chest strap, depending on how
much slack is in the hose. (See Figure 5.15, Static Line Oxygen Donning.) Free-fall
operations frequently are above 13,000 feet and require the use of supplemental
oxygen. To prevent the oxygen bottles from slipping down, tie a piece of 80-pound
tape through the loop on the parachute container and the manifold of the AirOx 8 to
prevent it from slipping down. Use of the Crew 60 attachment point is not required
and frequently not available. To substitute, take two MT-1X or Tandem rubber bands
and girth hitch them together and place one loop over the regulator. Take the other
loop and route it around the main lift web or belly band, depending on equipment.
Then loop the second loop around the regulator, securing the regulator to the chest
strap. Route the hose through one of a pair of girth-hitched MT-1X bands and the
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UNCLASSIFIED
5.1.12.19 Floatation. MAJCOM-approved flotation is required to be used on all water
jumps and as a precaution during land drops in the vicinity of water. If the flotation is
mechanical, it should be donned with the chest strap under the flotation. This prevents the
flotation from choking the jumper and venting air from the vest. When inflating the UDT
vest only, inflate one bottle at a time. Since there are no emergency handles on the chest
of the static line parachute system, there is no reason to rubber band the flotation. Hard or
non-mechanical flotation is allowed and safe on the insertion; however if the individual
ditches on the insertion or on extraction aircraft, egress of the aircraft may be
compromised.
5.1.12.19.1 Once in the water, hard or mechanical flotation prevents short and long
term under water duties (e.g., type 4 release). (See Figure 5.17, UDT Vest, the
Para-Swimmer Vest, LSP Pararescue Flotation.)
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 5.17 UDT Vest, the Para-Swimmer Vest, LSP Pararescue Flotation.
UNCLASSIFIED
5-33
5-34
WARNING: Obstruction of emergency handle can cause failure of the emergency cut-a-way and
reserve ripcord system, resulting in sudden stops.
5.1.13 The ML-4 kit or Pararescue Flotation. The pararescue flotation is derived from a
ML-4 kit. To reduce duplication and weight, several items were removed from the kit and
renamed Pararescue flotation. The ML-4 kit is donned by placing the kit with the writing
TOP FRONT and the arrow pointing up. When donned, the arrow should be pointing up the
PJs spine. The boat lanyard and buckle should be on the left and the quick release on the
right. For training jumps, ensure that flotation is attached to the parachute harness such that it
does not come off and does not interfere with the function of the canopy. (See Figure 5.18,
ML-4 Kit, and Figure 5.19, ML-4 Configuration.)
Figure 5.18
ML-4 Kit.
ML-4 Kit
UNCLASSIFIED
5.1.13.1 For free-fall, the system is donned the same as static line with the exception of
attaching the ML-4 kit to the equipment V-rings. (See Figure 5.20, Configuration Left,
and Figure 5.21, Configuration Right.)
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ML-4 Configuration
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 5.20 Configuration Left.
Configuration Left
UNCLASSIFIED
5-36
Configuration Right
UNCLASSIFIED
5.1.13.2 SPUDs. The system allows the compressed air cylinder to be worn on the leg.
The system comes with a pouch A-7 belt, and the regulator needs a longer hose (34-inch
hose). The system is donned prior to the parachute by putting the belt around the waist and
then donning the parachute system. Once the parachute is on, the Velcro leg strap is
fasten. Place the regulator in the regulator pouch with the mouthpiece facing the scuba
cylinder. If the regulator is placed in the regulator pouch with the purge valve facing the
scuba cylinder, the regulator tends to be difficult to remove from the pouch. Secure the
Velcro on the regulator pouch so the regulator hose is against the main pouch. The excess
regulator hose is pushed down inside the pouch and the second stage of the regulator is
then rubber banded to the first stage such that it will not inadvertently come loose but can
be pulled out by the parachutist. A second option is to take the excess regulator hose and
push it down inside the pouch. The second stage of the regulator is then rubber banded to
the first stage such that it will not inadvertently come loose but can be pulled out by the
parachutist. (See Figure 5.22, Free-Fall Configuration Left, and Figure 5.23, Free-Fall
Configuration Rear.)
5.1.13.3 Free fall donning is the same for SPUDS. (See Figure 5.24, Static SPUDS
Right, and Figure 5.25, Static SPUDS Rear.)
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UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 5.23 Free-Fall Configuration Rear.
UNCLASSIFIED
5-38
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 5.25 Static SPUDS Rear.
UNCLASSIFIED
5-39
5.1.13.4 Fins. Fins are a necessity while conducting water operations. If worn on the
feet, they should be either taped or fix-e-palmed to prevent them from departing. Tape by
routing the tape around the buckles and then around the ankle. Make sure to leave a cows
tail for removal. While conducting free fall operations, taping the fins is suggested to
prevent pilot chute snag hazard. (See Figure 5.26, Free-Fall SPUDS Right.)
Figure 5.26 Free-Fall SPUDS Right.
UNCLASSIFIED
5.1.13.5 Front Accessory Gear Bag. The front accessory gear (FAG) bag is worn to
allow immediate access to emergency equipment. Place knives, flares, and any pilot chute
snag hazards in the FAG bag for free-fall jumps. See Pilot Chute Hesitation video.
5.1.13.6 Tree and Adverse Terrain Suits. When adverse terrain and/or wooded areas
are prevalent, a tree/adverse terrain suit can be used. The suit is donned by putting on first
the top, then the trouser. Don the parachute system. A 300-foot, bird-nested, 1-inch
tubular nylon coil goes into the right trouser leg, down the pocket. The tree suit is
designed to minimize possible injury. Adjustable pads are placed in positions to protecting
bony prominences. The jacket is equipped with a high collar to protect the neck and face.
The trousers have an adjustable strap running up and down the inside of each leg, which is
sewn into the trousers to make an inverted U at approximately 4-inches below the crotch
to protect the groin area. When deploying in cold climate areas, winter clothing may be
worn under the tree suit. Tree suit pads may be removed to accommodate the added bulk
of winter clothing. An additional option is to wear only the trousers, with pads removed,
to afford the availability of the tape rings and the pockets. For free-fall operations, the
system is donned the same way. (See Figure 5.27, Free-Fall SPUDS Front.)
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UNCLASSIFIED
5.1.13.7 Night Parachute Configuration. Night operations present increased hazards
over those encountered during daylight operations. Lack of visual references and jumper
visibility make night lighting a necessity. The mandatory lighting requirements are in AFI
16-1202, Pararescue Operations, Techniques and Procedures, (three volumes, when
published); however, as a general guide, place red on the back and green on the front such
that it does not interfere with the function of the canopy. Not shown here are the chemlight
sleeves that are manufactured by several companies. They fit over the reserve flap and on
the chest strap and main lift web. While jumping equipment, place red chemlights such
that they are visible and do not interfere with the function of the parachute system, the
lowering system, or the equipment. Rear-loaded equipment should not be lit or should be
lit with a different color to avoid confusing fellow jumpers. (See Figure 5.28, Fin Taping;
Figure 5.29, Tree Suit; and Figure 5.30, SOV 3 Lighting Rear.)
5.1.13.8 Equipment Rings. Red chemlights can also be placed on the equipment rings as
shown on the SOV-3HH. (See Figure 5.31, MC4/T10 Lighting.)
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Fin Taping
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 5.29 Tree Suit.
Tree Suite
UNCLASSIFIED
5-42
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 5.31 MC4/T10 Lighting.
MC-4/T-10 Lighting
UNCLASSIFIED
5-43
5.1.13.9 T-10R. Red chemlights can be attached to the front of the T-10R by girth
hitching two rubber bands together and looping them around the ends of a red chemlight.
WARNING: Placing pilot chute snag hazards on any part of the parachutist that the pilot chute
will frequent can cause a horseshoe malfunction and death.
5.1.13.10 Static Line Jump Procedures. PJs utilize static line parachuting techniques
(day or night) when the threat scenario and/or weather dictate low-altitude airborne
insertion, when deploying as part of a joint airborne assault force, and during both land and
open sea search, rescue, and recovery missions. PJ teams may be inserted
over-the-horizon at sea with an amphibious combat rubber raider craft, rigged alternate
method zodiac (RAMZ) in support of the Space Shuttle program, kayak, hard hull boat,
swimmer/scuba equipment, or on land with all terrain vehicles or other special vehicles to
enhance operations. A PJ must be a highly qualified precision parachutist, capable of
performing parachute deployments into any type of terrain, into open seas, and during the
hours of daylight or darkness.
5.1.13.10.1 DZ Wind Determination. During training deployments, the drop zone
controller (DZC) may have a windsock, streamer tied to a pole, smoke (not red), or
some other device to help indicate ground wind direction to the jumpers. If authorized,
block letters are used (A, C, J, R, or S), coordinated with the jumpmaster, navigator,
and aircraft commander to ensure they are aligned into the wind and not to the DZ axis
or aircraft line of flight. All parachutists should make the effort to learn the wind
direction while under canopy without the use of drop zone wind direction aids. (See
Table 5.16, DZ Wind Determination, for some suggestions as to how to determine the
wind.)
Table 5.16 DZ Wind Determination.
- Look for movement of trees and vegetation on the ground.
- Watch for noticeable drift of the canopy while toggles are up.
- Look for smoke or blowing dust or sand.
- Watch other parachutists landing.
- Fly an S pattern and watch for the difference in drift.
- Note the direction of wind in relation to the aircraft prior to exit.
5.1.13.10.2 Parachute Manipulation Using Modified Canopy. To successfully
maneuver the parachute to the target, a parachutist may have to hold into the wind, run
with the wind, and crab to the right or left while holding or running. To turn a canopy,
the toggle on the side of the direction of turn is pulled. This distorts the side of the
canopy and increases the thrust of the opposite side which causes the canopy to turn.
(See Figure 5.32, Parachute Manipulation.)
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Parachute Manipulation
Back view
Control
line down
UNCLASSIFIED
5.1.13.10.2.1 Maneuvering Upwind (Holding). Hold into the wind line if you
are on the wind line and you will overshoot or go past the target. This will decrease
movement across the ground (counteracting the wind drift) without affecting the
rate of descent.
5.1.13.10.2.2 Maneuvering Downwind (Running). Run with the wind if you are
on the wind line and you will undershoot or fall short of the target. This will
increase movement across the ground, giving the maximum forward speed
possible. If the running maneuver is made slightly off the wind line, the final turn
into the wind will place the jumper back on the wind line for correct target
approach.
5.1.13.10.2.3 Holding or Running (Crabbing). If your position is to either side
of the wind line, perform a quartering or crabbing maneuver. This maneuver will
allow running toward the target and moving towards the wind line or holding into
the wind moving towards the target and wind line at the same time.
5.1.13.10.2.4 Maneuvering to the Target. Each parachutist must determine the
wind line, the distance and direction off the wind line from the release point, the
drift rate, and the descent rate.
5.1.13.10.2.5 Wind Line. The wind line is an imaginary line of wind direction
passing directly over the intended target. With a variable wind, the average wind
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direction would be the wind line. The parachutist should attempt to land on the
wind line with a proper closure rate toward the target.
5.1.13.11 Release Point. If deployed on the correct line-up, the parachutist should be on
the wind line and at the correct distance from the target. However, the parachutist may
have to correct errors in aircraft alignment or for wind shifts in velocity or direction. The
normal deployment airspeeds for all types of C-130s are 125 to 130 KIAS. The HC-130
aircraft travels 210 feet (75 yards) per second and a delay in exit of 1 second will cause the
PJ to be 210 feet off the exit release point. This distance will be less during helicopter
deployments due to the slower drop airspeed (50 to 110 KIAS) 108 feet per second at 110
knots. Errors to the side or off the wind line caused by wind shifts, exiting the aircraft too
soon or too late, or inaccurate alignment of the aircraft will usually be within the distance
a parachutist can make up by maneuvering the canopy. If both the count and the lineup are
off, it will be difficult for the parachutist to maneuver to the target.
5.1.13.12 Drift Rate. Drift rate is the direction and rate of travel (target closure speed).
5.1.13.13 Direction and Rate of Travel. To determine direction/rate of travel and wind
line, attempt to determine movement in relation to the target location. Various methods
can be used. (See Table 5.17, Determine Direction and Rate of Travel.)
Table 5.17 Determine Direction and Rate of Travel.
- Look at the target or some fixed object on the ground to use as a reference point.
- Sight over your feet at the ground.
- Look for the canopy shadow.
- Listen. High winds can cause the suspension lines to whistle (22 knots).
- JMs/navigators normally deploy jumpers in such a manner to open, fly, and turn 180 degrees to
land.
5.1.13.13.1 After parachute opening, the parachutist is normally facing the aircraft
flight path. Before initiating a maneuver (except to avoid a collision/entanglement
with another parachutist), determine the location of the target and make the initial turn
towards the target in the direction of the wind line. Determine direction and rate of
movement across the ground and maneuver combining, thrust of the canopy, wind
velocity, and rate of descent to arrive at the landing site. In effect, a parachutist
maneuvers towards a target within an approach cone that is wider at the exit point and
progressively narrows as he approaches the target. If remaining within the approach
cone, the parachutist should land at the target area. If allowing himself/herself to turn
or drift outside the cone (vertically or horizontally), the parachutist may not be able to
reach the target. The approach cone will vary with wind velocity/direction and the
parachutists rate of descent. Approach the target area using a combination of holding,
running, or crabbing. A series of left and right running turns allows the jumper to
remain in the approach cone varying movement across the ground reaching the
selected target. (See Table 5.18, Wind Cone, for clarification.)
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Location
Above the wind cone and will land downwind of the target at (a).
Below the wind cone and off the wind line. The landing point will be upwind and
off to the side at (b).
5.1.13.14 Team Parachuting. Team parachuting ensures all parachutists approach small
or restricted target areas in a controlled manner. Critical to the success of a team
deployment is an experienced parachutist leading the team to the intended target area.
When making a team deployment, the higher parachutist should follow the lower
parachutist mimicking the lower parachutist parachute manipulation, without interfering
with the lower parachutist approach to the target area. The parachutists should stagger
their approach on the wind line to either side, remaining clear of each other during landing.
Normally the lower parachutist will take the right side.
5.2 Land Parachute Deployment Procedures.
5.2.1 Prepare to Land. Prepare to land at approximately 200 feet AGL/AWL.
5.2.2 Landing. Most injuries in parachuting result from incorrect landings. The parachute
landing fall (PLF) is a precise method of landing which enables the parachutist to distribute the
landing shock over the entire body and reduce the possibility of injury. However, if the
ground is extremely rough or full of holes, PLF can result in injury.
5.2.3 Equipment Release Procedures. Release of equipment on a lowering line is optional
if it weights less than 35 pounds or jumping to rough terrain DZ. Release is recommended if
equipment weight is over 35 pounds or a high altitude DZ is used. When the deployment
situation dictates, release of the equipment on the lowering line will be accomplished at
approximately 200 feet above the surface.
5.2.4 Delivery Containers. Use MAJCOM approved procedures for the rigging of all
delivery containers with integrated parachute harnesses.
5.2.4.1 Tree Parachute Deployment Procedures.
5.2.4.1.1 Tree/Adverse Terrain Suit. Complete PJ tree suit, heavy leather gloves,
and appropriate helmet with visor should be worn on all intentional tree parachute
deployments. Due to discomfort and body fluid loss incurred when wearing the tree
suit for long periods, do not don equipment until nearing the deployment area. Don the
tree suit jacket first, then bring the trousers over the jacket. This will prevent branches
from going under the jacket during a descent through the trees. After donning the
parachute, the letdown webbing will be threaded IAW AFI 16-1202, Pararescue
Operations, Techniques and Procedures. Secure the end by snapping the snap fastener
on the end of the letdown webbing into the right reserve D ring. The remainder of
letdown webbing will be coiled into a loose bird's nest and carried in the tree suit
pocket. The portion of webbing between tree suit D ring and suit leg pocket will be
secured by the knife pocket snap cover flap located on the right leg of the trousers.
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(See the Ram Air Static Line Exit video, and Ram Air Static Line Equipment Exit
video.)
Table 5.21 Post Water Entry Procedures.
- Signal All OK (extend arm overhead in the all OK signal or shout Help, blow on whistle,
deploy MK-13/MK-124 flare, or activate SDU-5/E or MS-2000M strobe light (remains on).
WARNING: Immediately inflate personnel flotation equipment if entangled in the canopy or
suspension lines. Some combinations of equipment (i.e., heavy equipment, weapons,
ammunition, fatigues versus wet suit) and water conditions (i.e., fresh water provides less
buoyancy) will decrease buoyancy.
- Release leg straps.
- Arch out of container.
- Inflate LPU on parachute waist strap.
- Swim clear of the canopy.
- Use face mask (as required).
- Close canopy releases if still attached.
- Release medical kit or equipment (as required).
- Swim to objective, recovery boat, or wait for recovery of individual parachute as briefed.
WARNING: Exit intervals of less than 2 seconds can cause canopy entanglements.
5.2.4.3.1.1 Ramp exits are straight forward and uncomplicated; they should be the
primary exit. If door exits are required, the jumpers must exaggerate the exit
position and keep the relative wind foremost in their minds.
NOTE: Ramp exits are the primary exit for ram air static line operations. Side door exits have
been know to cause line twist.
5.2.4.4 Procedures. All equipment procedures are the same as for free-fall operations.
Aircraft rigging is the same for static line operations. Emergency procedures for hung and
towed jumpers are IAW static line operations, and the remaining emergency procedures
are the same as free fall.
5.2.4.5 Free-Fall Procedures. This section provides specific operating procedures for
pararescue (PJ) military free-fall (MFF) operations. Use this section in conjunction with
AFI 11-410, Personnel Parachute Operations; AFI 13-217, Assault Zone Procedures; and
Army FM 3-05.211, Special Forces Military Free-fall Operations. (See the 130 Dive Out
video and the 130 Poised video.)
5.2.4.6 Exiting. To exit in a stable fashion, a parachutist must enter the relative wind in a
body position that will keep the jumper in a stable fashion. That means the equipment and
body are in a configuration such that the parachutist will be stable in the relative wind.
The parachutist must be flying in a stable body position prior to entering the relative
5-50
Relative Wind
AIRFLOW
UNCLASSIFIED
5.2.4.7 Equipment. Equipment that is light and/or loose will cause stability problems.
Equipment that is less than 45 pounds needs to be evaluated for size and attachment
locations. Lighter packs and containers are more conducive to rear loading because they
are out of the relative wind. Equipment needs to be worn as high on the parachutist as
possible and as tight as the parachutist can make it and still arch. When a jump container
is on and ready for deployment, the jumpers legs should not be able to go together. The
load carried should be as light as possible and consist of only the essential equipment
needed until re-supplied. All items of individual combat equipment are normally carried
in the rucksack during the deployment. Individual load bearing equipment (LBE) or
survival vests may be worn underneath the tree suit or carried in the rucksack or in a small
equipment bag separate from the main equipment load. Consider covering Alice packs or
similar containers. Rigging for combat pack and equipment containers is explained in this
manual and Army FM 3-05.211, Special Forces Military Free-fall Operations. (See Light
and Loose Equipment video.)
WARNING: Equipment that is large, light, and loose may cause instability, leading to
malfunctions and death or serious injury.
5.2.4.8 DZ Wind Determination. During training deployments, the DZC may have a
windsock, streamer tied to a pole, smoke (not red), or some other device to help indicate
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ground wind direction to the parachutists. If authorized block letters are used (A, C, J, R,
or S), coordinated with the jumpmaster, navigator, and aircraft commander to ensure they
are aligned into the wind and not to the DZ axis or aircraft line of flight. All parachutists
should make the effort to learn the wind direction while under canopy without the use of
DZ wind direction aids. Parachutists can determine ground winds by using guides in
Table 5.22, Free-Fall Drift Determination.
Table 5.22 Free-Fall Drift Determination.
- Looking for movement of trees and vegetation on the ground.
- Watching for noticeable drift of the canopy while in deep brakes (not a stall).
- Looking for smoke or blowing dust and/or sand.
- Watching other parachutists landing.
- Flying a Box pattern at 50 percent brakes and watching for the difference in drift.
- Use drop aircraft as a reference to the wind line.
5.2.4.9 Night Deployments.
5.2.4.9.1 Aircraft Lighting. Generally, the same procedures utilized in static line
parachuting at night apply to night free-fall deployments.
5.2.4.9.2 Electro-Luminescent (EL) Lighting. Although part of the canopy
purchase, the electro-luminescent (EL) lighting system is rarely used and may have
been removed. Refer to manufacturers instructions for proper installation and use.
5.2.4.9.3 Night Landings. Even on the darkest nights, parachutists will have an idea
when they are descending close to the ground. There is normally enough illumination
to perform a flared landing except on nights void of moonlight. Landing at night
requires more skill than a day landing due to the decrease in depth perception at night.
The most desired landing point is just short of the target. It is better to undershoot than
to over shoot the lights and land without references. Perform a 50 to 75 percent braked
landing and parachute landing fall (PLF) if any doubt exists as to the flare point.
Notify the DZ controller as soon as possible after landing by shouting All OK
(extend arm overhead in the all OK signal) or shout Help, blasts on whistle, deploy
MK-13 flare, or activate SDU-5/E or MS-2000M strobe light (remains on).
5.2.4.9.4 Water Deployment Procedures. Free-fall parachuting into the water is
different from the standard free fall to land. The biggest difference, and most
important one, is the low altitude with no altimeter or ARR. A good stable exit is
essential for a clean deployment of main canopy pilot chute at assign delay. (See Table
5.23, Free-Fall Water Entry Procedures, for more information.)
WARNING: Any flotation device placed between harness and parachutist must have a safety
valve or be rigged in such a manner as to not injure the parachutist should inflation occur.
NOTE: For operational water deployments, a full wet suit or dry suit should be worn when
water/air temperatures allow or fuel spills, jelly fish, or coral reefs must be negotiated.
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5.2.4.11.1 After tree entry, maintain a tight body position until the parachute is caught
in the trees and descent is stopped.
WARNING: The parachute may not be solidly entangled in the tree; be prepared to perform a
PLF.
WARNING: If vertical descent is achieved as the parachute enters the tree line, it is possible for
the parachute to collapse and the parachutist to fall to the ground.
5.2.4.12 Grouping and Assembly. A primary consideration of the MFF parachuting
insertion technique is to be able to expeditiously assemble once on the ground, either by
grouping in the air and landing as a team or to rendezvous at a predetermined geographic
location, organized and ready to accomplish a specific mission. Team members will exit
the aircraft as rapidly as possible at the exit point and remain in a group until break away
when they track away from the group and open. All parachutists will activate their main
parachute at a specified altitude. Parachutists will group in the air, guiding on the team
leader, low man, or as briefed. Team integrity is paramount. Parachutists will attempt to
land as close together as possible without interfering with each others landing pattern and
proceed to a preselected geographical point for rendezvous. Electronic/lighting equipment
may be used to facilitate assembly of personnel.
5.2.4.13 High Altitude/Oxygen Procedures. AFI 11-409, High Altitude Airdrop
Mission Support Program, is the governing AFI for parachuting oxygen requirements.
5.2.4.13.1
drops.
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Table 5.25 Prebreathing Requirements and Exposure Limits for High-Altitude Operations.
Altitude
Aircrew/Minute Jumpers/Minute
Maximum
Exposure Time
Per Sortie
Maximum
Sorties Per
24-Hour Period
From FL 180 to
FL 249
30
30
120
From FL 250 to
FL 299
45 HALO and
30
60
From FL 300 to
FL 349
60
60
30
FL 350 and
Above
75
75
30
45 HAHO
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5.3.2.5.2 AF/B 28J-1, Wind Drift Determination Parachute. When using the
AF/B28J-1 parachute, use the 16- to 21-pound weight provided with the parachute, a
MK 6 Mod 3, or a MK-58 Mod 1. When the AF/B 28J-1 is used in conjunction with
MK 6 Mod 3 smoke/flare, it will be configured by installing two MK 6 Mod 3
Suspension Bands (NSN 1370-00-069-9946) 4 inches from the weighted end of the
MK 6 Mod 3, with the attaching rings at 90 degree angles to each other and tightened
sufficiently to prevent separation during delivery. The same procedures apply when
using the MK 58 Mod 1 except MK 58 Mod 1 suspension bands (round instead of
square), will be used. Chemlight or strobe lights will be attached to the AF/B 28J-1
risers for night land deployments.
5.3.2.5.3 Strobe Lights. Strobe lights should be upright on one side and inverted on
the other side of the single portion of the risers above the weight/MK 6 Mod 3/MK 58
Mod 1. Use tape and 80-pound test tape to secure the strobe lights. For night water
deployments, attach chemlights to the AF/B 28J-1 risers to aid in recovery of the wind
drift chute in case the MK 6 Mod 3/MK 58 Mod 1 malfunctions. The MK 6 Mod
3/MK 58 Mod 1 signal may also be used for land deployments when a fire hazard does
not exist (i.e., snow-covered terrain). The signal will be easier to see than a streamer or
wind drift parachute.
5.3.2.5.4 Crepe Paper Streamers. The crepe paper streamer is 20 feet long and 10
inches wide. The metal rod is 10 inches long, weighing 0.75 of one ounce. For night
deployments, the metal rod will be replaced with 2 six-inch long high intensity
chemlights. Crepe paper streamers can be procured assembled or assembled from
locally obtained materials. They can be made of any color crepe paper, but they should
be of a color that contrasts with the terrain. Be careful to prevent squeezing the rolled
streamers prior to delivery. The paper may compress, causing the streamer not to
unroll to its full extent. A number of streamers should be deployed simultaneously on
each release point determination pass to provide a better reference. Ensure the tape has
been broken and 1 or 2 feet pulled from the roll prior to deployment.
5.3.2.5.5 Search and Rescue Light. The search and rescue light (SRL) is a durable
light sphere used during search and rescue missions carried out at night. The lights are
used to mark targets and landing sites and to indicate wind drift. The SRL is currently
produced in white, red, green, and yellow colors. The SRL has either a steady or
flashing mode, selected by a three-position toggle switch recessed into the outer
surface of each half of the ball. A steel band wraps around the sphere, providing a
secure anchor for a standard drag chute and a watertight seal. When the SRL is used to
assess wind drift, it is deployed from the aircraft using a drift parachute NSN
1670-21-812-7369. (The SRL is locally purchased through Quantaflex Canada
Incorporate NATO Stock Number 6230-21-910-3387 White, 6230-21-910-5796 Red,
6230-21-910-3386 Green, and 6230-21-910-5797 Yellow.)
5.4 Airdrop Release Methods.
5.4.1 Computed Air Release Point. The computed air release point (CARP) is the most
often used method to deploy conventional airborne forces. CARP is computed by the aircrew
(navigator). Procedures for calculating the CARP are found in AFI 11-231, Computed Air
5-58
Release Point Procedures. The navigator uses updated winds obtained from the aircraft
instrumentation/ forecasted winds on the DZ to calculate the release point. CARP is also
referred to as a navigator release. When a CARP deployment is performed, the aircrew
takes responsibility for the accuracy of the deployment. However, the JM has No Drop
authority and can prevent an incorrect release. Close coordination between the aircraft
navigator and JM is essential to ensure deployment over the correct spot. Prior to exit on
navigator release deployments, the JM and aircraft navigator should separately determine the
release point, compare their results, and resolve any differences. All parachutists will be
briefed on selected exit and opening points.
NOTE: Suspended equipment weights greater than 35 pounds increases the rate of descent and
may require adjusting the constant value to a lower number (i.e., a constant value of 25 for a 35pound load to 18 for a 115-pound load).
5.4.2 High Altitude Release Point. The high altitude release point (HARP) is similar to
CARP but is used for obtaining the release point for a HAHO or HALO deployment. HARP
considers the amount of drift of the parachutist in free fall plus the drift from canopy opening
to landing. This method may be used for both JM or navigator release jumps. JMs may learn
how to perform a HARP calculation by consulting Army FM 3-05.211, Special Forces
Military Free-fall Operations as compared to the updated aircrew version found in AFI
11-231, Computed Air Release Point Procedures. When performing a navigator-release
HARP deployment, the JM should also accomplish a separate HARP and compared these
results with the navigator for accuracy.
5.4.3 Ground Marking Release System. The ground marking release system (GMRS) is
computed by the drop zone support team leader (DZSTL) and determines the release point
from the ground by placing panels/lights in strategic locations for visual identification/release
point by the deployment aircraft. It is most often used by Special Forces teams for insertion of
personnel and equipment from low altitudes to small DZs.
5.4.4 Verbally Initiated Release System. The verbally initiated release system (VIRS) is
used by the Army and Marine Corps to deploy small numbers of personnel from rotary- or
small fixed-wing aircraft to small DZs. The release point is indicated by an oral command
from the DZ to the deployment aircraft. VIRS is performed only by qualified CCT or TALO
personnel.
5.4.5 Wind Streamer Vector Count. The wind streamer vector count (WSVC) is a JMDD
utilizing streamers and count for establishing the release point from the air. This is the method
most often utilized by PJs as it is the most accurate method for inserting small teams into
confined or unprepared areas utilizing both static line and free-fall canopies.
5.4.6 Other Airdrop Methods. The United States Air Force has developed other airdrop
methods utilizing radar systems in conjunction with navigator release airdrops for instrument
meteorological conditions. Some examples of these are adverse weather aerial delivery system
(AWADS), radar beacon airdrops, ground radar aerial delivery system (GRADS), ground
control approach (GCA)/computers aerial delivery system (CADS), and self-contained
navigation system (SCNS)/station-keeping equipment (SKE)/zone marker (ZM) airdrops.
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5.5.7 Moving Target Pattern. Deployment procedures to a moving target are similar to
those employed for a stationary target. The moving target procedures takes into consideration
target drift and will place the team on the downdrift line of the moving target and not
necessarily on the target. It is always better to land downwind/down drift of the target to allow
the target to drift towards PJ team rather than land upwind/updrift forcing the PJ team to
swim/chase after the target in the water. The pattern must be adjusted so the initial pattern
over the target after WDI deployment will return over the intended release point not less than
5 minutes and not more than 9 minutes, even minutes being ideal. If the initial pattern requires
more than 9 minutes, the team will be too far downdrift/downwind and with a high target drift
rate may not be able to locate the target visually. Less than 5 minutes may put the team
upwind/updrift of the target depending on the targets drift rate. Although a target can be
moved by the ocean current, wind will affect a stationary object to travel a greater distance.
When the wind and current are heading in the same direction, the target may be moving at a
greater speed than the PJ will be able to make up with fins alone. On the initial pass after the
WDI deployment, an accurate count can be obtained by the JM and the heading noted by both
the JM and pilot. All subsequent passes will be made on this initial heading using the count
obtained on the first pass. No attempt should be made to recheck the count or change the
initial heading because the target will have drifted.
NOTE: On subsequent passes requiring a course correction to place the aircraft over the target,
ensure the pilot corrects back to original heading.
5.5.7.1 Crosswind Pattern. This involves deploying the team in a crosswind direction,
90 degrees to the known wind line. A crosswind pattern may be required due to terrain or
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sun reflection on the surface of the water preventing a desirable release into the wind. The
pilot and JM must accurately judge the upwind distance from the target in order for this
technique to be effective. The easiest method for obtaining an accurate upwind distance is
the utilization of a reference/release point. Judging distance over water is more demanding
because of the lack of fixed reference points and tests the distance judging of the JM. (See
paragraph 5.9.7.2, Spotting Techniques.) The JM must ensure the spot is at a right
angle from the heading of the initial pass. Error towards the target if in doubt. Consider
throwing a check streamer if heading cannot be determined to verify the spot is downwind
and down drift. This will ensure a downwind impact point. It is imperative the
parachutists are deployed prior to reaching the reference point due to the forward throw of
the parachutist in the direction of aircraft travel. The object is to place the reference point
at the center of the stick after forward throw is considered.
5.5.7.2 Spotting Techniques. Reference points should be used on all JMDD, CARP, and
HARP land deployments. The utilization of reference points will increase the JMs
accuracy in determining the proper release point. An established reference/release point
will allow the aircraft to fly in any direction as long as it will pass over the
reference/release point. Approaching from a different flight heading may confuse the
parachutist with the actual wind line. However, the parachutist may find the direction of
the wind line while under canopy by drawing a straight line from their release point to the
target/PI, then course correcting onto the proper wind line.
5.5.7.3 Finding and Using a Reference Point. Upon completion of the initial pass over
the target for WDI deployment, establish the impact location of the WDI. Pick out a spot
that is an equal distance on the opposite side of the target as the WDI. This spot can be any
readily identifiable feature (e.g., discolored ground, bushes, or trees.) Back up this
location using the JM count from the first deployment and by looking at the ground after
releasing the first stick of parachutists. Fix that location in your memory. For water
deployments, find the correct distance equal to the WDI to target distance for your release
point. The JM should pass the reference/release point to the pilot to ensure both are
utilizing the same point.
5.5.7.4 Voice Terminology and Hand Signals. During JM-directed airdrops, the JM
must use clear and concise communications with the aircrew. If wearing a helmet for
communications, the JM will ensure the chin strap is fastened. If unable to wear a helmet,
such as during water operations or prior to the JMs own exit, the JM will communicate
using hand signals. When communicating with the aircrew, the JM will use standard voice
terminology and hand signals. Refer to TO 14D1-2-1-121 for standard static line
deployment commands and signals. Refer to Army FM 3-05.211, Special Forces Military
Free-fall Operations for standard free-fall deployment commands and signals. In addition
to the standard visual/verbal commands listed for CARP deployments, JMDD requires
visual/verbal deployment commands for directing the aircraft over the intended RP. These
hand and voice signals are normally relayed to the pilot over intercom and, when
necessary, to the safetyman for relay to the pilot when the JM is off intercom.
5.5.7.4.1 STEADYA voice or hand signal indicating the present direction of
flight is satisfactory. The hand signal is an open hand, palm vertical pointing the
fingers toward the flight deck.
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WARNING: If the parachutist is exiting the aircraft, do not attempt to physically restrain/stop the
parachutist.
5.6 General Jumpmaster Information/Requirements. Specific aircraft parachute deployment
procedures are contained in each aircraft MDS, specific AFIs, or MCI, Volume 3, and amended as
necessary by MAJCOM/wing supplements, flight crew information files (FCIF), and unit flight
crew bulletins (FCB). JMs should be familiar with and review the paradrop procedures used by
the deployment aircraft. All JMs and assistant jumpmasters (AJM) should review the applicable
portions of the FCB of the flying organizations routinely supporting PJ parachute operations.
5.7 Chief, Standardization Certifier/Evaluator (Stan/Eval) Responsibilities. I t
is
the
responsibility of the PJ unit chief, standardization certifier/evaluator to monitor/be on distribution
for those FCBs of flying units supporting PJ parachute operations on four or more separate
occasions per year. Multiple paradrops accomplished during a single exercise may constitute a
single occasion. The chief, standardization certifier/evaluator is responsible to inform unit
assigned JMs and AJMs of a change to an FCB or MDS-specific Volume 3 affecting procedures
used for parachute operations. It is still the individual JMs responsibility to keep abreast of all
changes.
5.8 Static Line Aircraft Deployment Procedures. General guidance on specific aircraft types
is found in TO 14D1-2-1-121.As paradrop procedures rarely change, some of the more important
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procedures (as well as some general JM tips) of the more common jump platforms are provided in
this section.
5.8.1 HH-60 Aircraft. Delivery will be made from straight and level flight. Without
internal auxiliary tanks installed, the maximum number of parachutists is four per door per
pass. With the twin 185 auxiliary fuel tanks installed, only two parachutists with equipment
per door may be deployed on a single pass. Without equipment, three parachutists per door
may be deployed on a single pass. Parachutist deployments will be accomplished at 1-second
intervals. Order of deployment of parachutist is from the left rear parachutist forward. The
right door will not be used for static line parachuting if the internal hoist has been installed.
The deployment position for the H-60 aircraft is sitting on the cargo floor with the legs outside
the aircraft. At the Standby command, the parachutists place both hands, palm down, on the
cargo floor alongside their thighs. On the Go command, the parachutist pushes
himself/herself out and grasps the reserve, performing normal procedures.
5.8.1.1 Doors/Exits. Double door exits are authorized. On double door exits, the first
parachutist of the second stick will exit 1 second after visually observing the exit of the last
parachutist from the opposite side. The opposite door should be closed during single-door
parachute operations. It may be opened for JM spotting training in concurrence with an
actual deployment. Doors may be opened or closed in flight as necessary with the pilot's
approval. JM duties may be performed from any position in either door.
5.8.1.2 Configuration.
Passenger seats will be removed from the cargo compartment.
Tape sharp edges, cargo floor troop seat, and tie-down fitting wells, and door jambs
that could cut or fray static lines or snag parachutists equipment.
Tape must not interfere with closing or opening the doors in flight.
Seat belts/personnel restraint devices will be used for all parachutists for take-off
and cruise flight.
Safetyman/JM, when secured with a gunner's belt, will be attached to a location on
the airframe that will not interfere with parachutist exit.
5.8.1.3 JM Responsibilities.
Seat belts will not be removed until the aircraft is at 1,000 feet AGL or higher. The
aircraft commander should be informed before seat belt removal.
Parachutists will not remove seat belts unless wearing a manual release (reserve or
HGRP) type parachute.
The static lines of the parachutists seated in the left and right doors should be routed
directly behind them and down to the anchor line. Ensure any excess static line slack
is stowed in the pack tray retainer band.
The static line anchor line cable is never rigged to the cargo doors or overhead
repelling rings, since training D-bags might foul the main rotor system.
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NOTE: The term No Drop instead of Abort should be briefed to the pilot before parachute
operations are conducted.
WARNING: When parachutists are in the door, ensure the aircraft clears terrain at the minimum
safe deployment altitude.
5.8.1.6 Safetyman Responsibilities. Flight engineers/aerial gunners may be used as
safetymen and will relay hand signals between the JM and pilot.
5.8.1.7 Parachutists Responsibilities. Seat belts will be adjusted to ensure the
connection is above the reserve parachute. Crowded conditions inside the cargo
compartment make accidental activation of the reserve parachute more likely. During
movement inside the aircraft, parachutists must protect their ripcord.
5.8.2 C-130 Aircraft. Personnel required to be mobile in the cargo compartment during
low-level phases will wear protective headgear, as a minimum, from the start of the
pre-slowdown checklist until the completion of the deployment checklist. (Exception:
Personnel performing day water jumps.) During an airdrop, occupants in the cargo
compartment will either have a seat belt fastened, wear a restraint harness, or wear a parachute
before doors are opened. Static lines are attached to the anchor cables before doors are
opened. (Exception: Parachutists exiting on subsequent passes may stand and hook up with
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doors open if they are forward of the aft edge of the wheel wells [Flight Station (FS) 617].)
The aircraft must be at or above drop altitude and stable no later than 1 minute out (2 minutes
out for JM-directed drops) to allow the JM access to the paratroop door. At no time will both
paratroop doors be opened for paratroop drops if only one loadmaster is on board. When more
than 20 static line parachutists are dropped on a single pass, the paratroop doors will be used.
5.8.2.1 JM Responsibilities. JMDD releases will not be mixed with any other type of
airdrop method, (i.e., GMRS, VIRS, or standard CARP deployments). Checklist times
may be compressed during Racetrack patterns, but the one-minute advisory is never
compressed and is always given on time.
5.8.2.2 JM Sight Alignment. The JM should use the forward edge of the deployment
platform support and the forward edge of the air deflector door to obtain sight alignment.
The target should pass from the V in the air deflection door to the leading edge of the
deployment platform. When the PI reaches the leading edge of the deployment platform,
a direct over the PI position has been attained. The JM can be in a kneeling, prone, or
standing position during sight alignment. This sight alignment may have to be modified if
the aircraft is required to crab to maintain proper ground track. It is especially valuable to
have the ground reference point when this situation occurs. For ramp procedures, ensure
paratroop doors are closed. JM will be in a position to visualize the target and exit point.
The JM will make course corrections to the aircraft alignment until the aircraft flies
directly over the exit point.
5.8.3 HC-130 Aircraft. The authorized exits for static line parachuting from an HC-130
aircraft are the left and right paratroop doors and ramp exits if the aircraft is configured IAW
the applicable TO. Standard static line delivery procedures are single door exits. Double door
exits require a qualified safetyman to be available for each door. Single or multiple exits are
authorized from either door.
5.8.3.1 Configuration. Standard configuration for the HC-130 requires deployment
platforms to be extended when using the paratroop doors. If an air-to-air recovery system
(ATAR) is installed, static line parachuting is restricted to the right paratroop door.
Further, the ATAR cover plate and hydraulic lines must be removed to gain parachutist
access to the right door. In order to preclude damage to the parachutists parachute canopy
by contacting with the overhead delivery system (ODS) rails during the opening sequence,
the aircraft cargo door must be open during parachute deployments. The only authorized
parachute static line hook-up point is the installed anchor line cables. During WDI
delivery, the door not being used will be closed unless a PJ trainer or certifier elects to
have it open to conduct training or evaluations.
5.8.3.2 JM Responsibilities. JM duties can be performed from any position in either
parachute door. It is recommended the JM use the right door for right-hand patterns and
the left door for left-hand patterns. The safetyman will be hooked up to the personnel
restraint system. The JM will use either a personnel parachute or the personnel restraint
system. When using a parachute, the JM will hook-up the static line forward of the center
overhead anchor line cable support. A static line restrainer will be used to hold the JMs
static line (if the JM is not the first parachutist) to the rear against the overhead anchor line
cable support and clear of exiting parachutists. The static line restrainer will be looped
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WARNING: Prior to opening the ramp, cargo door, or paratroop door, all personnel aft of FS
617 will be wearing a restraint harness with the safety line properly attached to the aircraft, a
parachute with the static line attached to the anchor cable, or a seat belt when seated in a troop
seat. Exception: Parachutists with reserve parachutes properly installed may proceed aft of FS
617 for the sole purpose of hooking their static lines to the anchor line cable. Parachutists wearing
free-fall parachutes may proceed aft of FS 617, if the aircraft is 1,000 AGL or above, to perform
jump duties.
5.8.3.3 In-flight Visual/Verbal Signals. The JM will visually relay steering signals to
the loadmaster, who will verbally relay the signals to the pilot. The JM may spot from the
aircraft ramp or paratroop door. If exit of jumpers becomes unsafe (aircraft emergency or
similar circumstances), the aircrew will turn on the red light and the loadmaster will direct
the JM to stop remaining parachutists. After turning final, the JM will advise the pilot
when the PI is in sight and when the JM is going off intercom. One minute prior to the
navigators release point, the copilot will indicate Clear to Drop by turning on the
green jump light. When the JM is not the first parachutist to exit, the JM will move to
the aft edge of the door and signal the first parachutist to assume the deployment door
position by slapping the deployment platform with his/her hand. The JM will move clear
of the door to give clear access to the deploying parachutists. Parachutists will not exit the
aircraft unless the green light is illuminated.
NOTE: During SCUBA/SPUDS/oversized equipment parachute deployments, parachutists fully
mission equipped may remain seated with seatbelts fastened until the wind drift device has been
deployed. Seating should be opposite the deployment exit. All equipment including the reserve
parachute should be worn while seated to preclude unnecessary delays. Parachutists will stand up,
hook up, and be checked prior to final approach.
5.8.3.4 Safetyman Responsibilities. The safetyman is responsible for monitoring the
JMs static line until the JM exits and each following parachutists static line after they
approach the door to exit and pass the static line to him/her. When the JM is not deploying
first, the JM will determine who (himself/herself or the safetyman) has responsibility for
monitoring the parachutists static lines as they exit. During instruction or evaluation, the
safetyman may be required to monitor a PJ trainers or certifiers static line when they are
aiding or observing the JMs duty performance. The trainer/certifier may assist by
monitoring the JMs static line. The safetyman will relay all hand signals given by the JM.
The safetyman will assist in the delivery of supporting equipment. The Safetyman will
recover the deployment bags of deployed parachutists. If the JM did not deploy, the JM
must monitor his/her own static line during deployment bag recovery.
5.8.3.5 Parachutists Responsibilities. When two or more parachutists are to be
deployed, each parachutist is responsible for monitoring his/her own static line. Once the
static line is hooked to the anchor line cable, parachutists will remain standing and avoid
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movement away from the anchor line cable except to jump. The parachutists will line up
from the paratroop door forward either in file or slightly staggered paralleling the side of
the aircraft and the respective anchor line cable. This is necessary to avoid excessive static
line from playing out which would create an exit hazard to the parachutists. By staggering
the file, as many as six fully mission-equipped parachutists can be safely lined up in the
space between the paratroop door and the Benson fuel tank. Three fully equipped scuba
parachutists can fit in the same space. When parachuting from the left door, the
parachutists static line will be over the left shoulder and held in the left hand. When
parachuting from the right door, the parachutists static line will be over the right shoulder
and held in the right hand. The parachutist will form a bight in the static line of
approximately 4 to 6 inches and hold it to his/her front. The remainder of the static line
will be carried over the shoulder with all excess stowed in the static line retainer bands to
reduce any possibility of entanglement.
WARNING: Parachutists must exercise caution as they approach and prepare to exit the door to
avoid becoming entangled with their own static line or the static lines of proceeding parachutists.
To preclude entanglement; as much static line as possible will be stowed in the retainer bands;
parachutists will passnot throwtheir static lines to the safetyman; each parachutist must use
caution to ensure other static lines do not entangle his/her hand.
5.8.3.6 Towed Parachutist. Towed parachutists on an actual tactical mission will be
recovered into the aircraft. By the time the parachutist could be identified as towed,
conscious and capable of deploying a usable reserve, the aircraft would be off the DZ. If
cut away, the towed parachutist could compromise the security of the team and the
mission. Plan for a safe area for cut-away of a towed parachutist if retrieval is not possible.
These procedures must be briefed to the aircraft commander prior to flight.
5.9 Free-Fall Deployment Procedures. General guidance on how to jumpmaster specific
aircraft types is found in Army FM 3-05.211, Special Forces Military Free-fall Operations. All
static line parachute procedures apply to free-fall except as noted here and in Army FM 3-05.211,
Special Forces Military Free-fall Operations.
5.9.1 C-130 Aircraft. The ramp or paratroop doors (single- or double-door) may be used
for deployment for free-fall parachutists. Deployment platforms are not necessary.
5.9.1.1 Loadmaster Requirements. Two loadmasters will be used on actual equipment
deployments utilizing the ramp and door. Two loadmasters will be used on all HALO
personnel deployments (13,000 feet MSL and above). One loadmaster may be used on
HALO personnel deployments (up to 13,000 feet MSL) when utilizing the ramp and door
or only one paratroop door.
5.9.2 H-1 Aircraft. Free-fall parachutists may use either door or both doors simultaneously
for deployment. When opened, the doors will be pinned in the open position.
5.9.3 H-60 Aircraft. Free-fall parachutists may use either door or both doors
simultaneously for deployment. Parachutists will use caution when exiting the right door if
the internal rescue hoist is installed. Deployment position may be standing (bent over at the
waist).
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5.9.4 Other Aircraft. When using aircraft other than those listed for deployment of
free-fall parachutists, use the procedures outlined in TO 14D1-2-1-121, unit OIs for contract
use of civilian aircraft, and the appropriate operations regulations.
5.9.5 Visual Meteorological Conditions Restrictions. All free-fall parachute deployments
using wind drift devices for wind drift determination will be restricted to visual meteorological
conditions (VMC) at deployment altitude. When the target is obscured, the JM can deploy
himself or other parachutists if he has at least two known points in sight for cross-reference
and is familiar with the DZ.
5.9.6 Deployment to a Vessel. The many factors affecting the decision to deploy a team to
vessels at sea preclude the establishment of a single procedure that will apply to all situations.
In all cases, thorough pre-deployment planning and coordination with the recovery vessel is
vital to a safe and successful operation. In sea conditions other than calm, it is essential that
large vessels, where boarding may be difficult, have a small motorized launch in the water
prior to team deployment. Alternatively, if deploying a boat, the team should inform and
coordinate the boat and personnel requirements with the captain of the vessel.
Positioning/maneuvering of the ship and the launch is the captains decision. However when
possible, the rescue team should coordinate with the captain prior to deployment. The PJ Team
Leader should consider the following:
Can the vessel/ship remain stationary in the water?
Will the vessel/ship be steered into the wind, crosswind, or other direction?
Where will the launch be positioned?
What are the procedures for boarding the vessel from the launch?
If deploying a boat with the team, can the boat safely be brought along side for boarding
and can it be moored or retrieved?
WARNING: Any time a team member is in the water alongside a vessel, the vessels propellers
should be shut down or placed in neutral.
5.9.6.1 In the rare case a decision is made to deploy the team without the use of a
motorized launch, the team should land upwind and drift/swim to the vessel. An
alternative/extra safety measure may be to have the ship put a raft/launch on a securing line
to the stern of the vessel and pick-up the parachutistsimilar to the method of retrieving a
water skier or giving a water skier a line in recreational boating.
5.9.6.2 Additional. Other items to be considered by the JM include the following:
5.9.6.2.1 SCUBA/SPUDS should always be considered as an option because it
enhances parachutists safety in the water and allows the PJ to work on the RAMZ
package underwater if required.
5.9.6.2.2 Do low visibility conditions require additional parachutist/bundle lighting?
5.9.6.2.3 Is an additional life raft needed for PJ equipment? This may prevent the
unnecessary loss of equipment.
5.9.6.2.4 What action is to be taken if ship boarding is not possible after deployment?
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5.9.7 Spotting and Aerial DeliveryCrosswind Procedures. Fly over target on heading
in a direction to permit a left-/right-hand pattern. Release the spotter chute/streamer directly
over target. Accomplish a 180-degree turn (terrain permitting) in direction of drift and
observe distance of spotter chute/streamer from target. Make another 180-degree turn to place
the aircraft on the approach leg the same distance upwind from the target as the spotter chute
is downwind. Deploy PJs, equipment, or additional spotters chutes/streamers (as required)
just prior to when the aircraft is in direct line with the target and spotter chute/streamer.
5.9.7.1. Crosswind Pattern. A crosswind pattern may be required by terrain conditions
or possible sun reflection on the waters surface. The pilot and JM must accurately judge
the upwind distance from the target in order for this technique to be effective. The easiest
method for obtaining an accurate upwind distance is the utilization of a reference/release
point. It is imperative that the jumpers be deployed prior to reaching the reference point
due to the forward ballistics of the parachute as opening occurs. The objective is to place
the reference point at the center of the stick after forward throw is considered.
5.9.7.2. Spotting Techniques. Reference points may be used on all JMD land
deployments. The utilization of reference points will increase the JMs accuracy in
determining the proper release point. Also an established reference/release point will
allow the aircraft to be flown in any direction as long as it will pass over the
reference/release point. These points are a necessity when accomplishing a crosswind or
downwind deployment pattern. The correct method for establishing a reference/release
point is as follows:
5.9.7.2.1 Upon completion of the initial over the target WDI deployment, establish
the impact location of the WDI.
5.9.7.2.2 Pick out a spot that is an equal distance on the opposite side of the target as
the WDI. This spot can be any readily identifiable feature (e.g., discolored ground,
bushes, or trees).
NOTE: The JM should pass the reference/release point to the pilot to ensure that both are utilizing
the same point of reference.
5.9.7.2.3 Head directly toward the target, regardless of the wind direction.
5.9.7.2.4 Release the spotter chute/streamer directly over the target.
5.9.7.2.5 Immediately upon release, make a left/right turn to observe descent and
position of spotter chute/streamer.
5.9.7.2.6 Establish rectangular drop pattern oriented so that the final approach will be
aligned with the spotter chute/streamer and the target, respectively.
5.9.7.2.7 Turn on approach. Make minor changes in heading to pass over the spotter
chute and the target on a direct line. Aircraft drift correction should be established
prior to passing over the spotter chute.
5.9.7.2.8
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5.9.7.4.5 Make minor changes in heading to pass over the spotter chute and the target
on a direct line. Aircraft drift correction should be established prior to passing over the
spotter chute. Initiate a uniform count over the spotter chute.
5.9.7.4.6
5.9.7.4.7 Deploy PJs when the last digit in reverse count is reached.
5.9.7.4.8 After the jumper clears the aircraft, turn to observe the accuracy of the drop.
5.9.7.4.9 Deploy additional jumpers using the drop heading and count established in
steps 5, 6, and 7.
5.9.7.4.10 Disregard the spotter chute for subsequent passes.
5.9.7.4.11 When the target drift rate is changed (e.g., drogue chute is installed on
target or know wind shift occurs), the entire spotter chute procedure must be
re-accomplished and a new drop heading and count established starting with Step 1.
5.9.7.5 Moving Target Pattern. Deployment procedures to a moving target are similar
to those employed for a stationary target. The moving target procedures consider target
drift and will place the team on the downdrift line of the moving target and not necessarily
on target. Pay special attention to the following items:
5.9.7.5.1 The pattern must be adjusted so that the initial pass over the target after WDI
deployment is not less than 5 minutes and not more than 9 minutes7 minutes being
ideal. If the initial pattern requires more than 9 minutes, the team will be too far
downdrift/downwind and, with a high target drift rate, may not be able to locate the
target visually.
5.9.7.5.2 On the initial pass after the WDI deployment, an accurate count can be
obtained by the JM and the heading noted by both the JM and pilot. All subsequent
passes will be made on this initial heading using the count obtained on the first pass.
Because the target will have drifted, no attempt should be made to recheck the count or
change the initial heading.
NOTE: On subsequent passes requiring a change of heading to place the aircraft over the target,
ensure the pilot corrects back to original heading. Moving target procedures are normally
conducted from fixed-wing aircraft.
5.10 High Altitude/High Opening. The overall concept of HAHO or standoff jumping is to
avoid the over flight of threat rings and still deploy PJs to their objective.
5.10.1 DZ Limitations. Ensure the jump has adequate emergency/abort DZs that the team
can safely land in. Ensure that the terrain in which the team is deploying in is conducive to
landing. Avoid steep valleys (wind and no LZs) and steep mountains (for the same reasons.)
5.10.2 Weather. Avoid freezing conditions and thunderstorms. If the clouds are high and
the temperature is below freezing, then condensed moisture will freeze on the canopy
impairing its proper function. All HAHOs will be canceled if the storms are within 20 NM.
5.10.3 Altitudes.
5.10.3.1 The maximum opening altitude for the MT-1X is 25,000 feet.
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5.10.3.8 FF-2 must be set 2,500 feet above highest obstacle within 5 NM of release.
5.10.3.9
5.10.3.10 Clear obstacles such as freeways and power lines by 1,000 feet.
5.10.3.11 If jumping 18,000 feet and higher, equipment checks must be complete prior to
pre-breathing 1 hour prior.
5.11 Container Ramp Loads. This section is the deployment section for container ramp loads
(CRL). CRLs are loads that are individually gated, manually cut, and gravity released. These
loads are usually tactical vehicles and water craft. When performing combined CRL personnel
drops, the most conservative exit altitudes and limitations will be used. Free-fall and ram air static
line drops are done into the wind; static line round drops are performed downwind.
5.11.1 Building. IAW AFJI 13-210, Joint Airdrop Inspection Records, Malfunction
Investigations, and Activity Reporting, only certified riggers can build and sign the JAI for
CRLs.
5.11.2 Loading. The CRLs are loaded IAW the loading TO for the aircraft that is
performing the air drop. Ensure that the floor type (e.g., HC-130 N or P) is known because of
the various roller configurations that can be installed.
5.11.3 Deploying/Exit. There are two types of parachute systems for CRL. There are direct
bag deployments like the T-10C on the RAMZ and a free bag deployment like on the ATV.
Remember that a direct bag deployment will be directly in front on opening while on static line
and ram air static line, but above on free-fall. On a free bag system, the load will be well
below on opening of static ram and round systems, and even with you on free-fall.
5.11.4 Watercraft. The rigging alternate method-zodiac (RAMZ) is a pararescue
employment system developed for peacetime, military operations other than war (MOOTW),
or combat missions to be utilized in any water environment. It can be deployed from rotaryor fixed-wing aircraft. Parachutists can deploy either static line or free-fall configured. The
optimal PJ compliment on a RAMZ deployment is three: a team leader and two team
members. Any one of the three can serve as the jumpmaster.
NOTE: Use chemlights on all actuation/release handles during day/night operations.
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WARNING: If the RAMZ and parachutists static lines are different lengths, they will not be
hooked up to the same anchor cable. RAMZ deployment bags (D-bags) must be retrieved before
parachutists deploy from the opposite anchor cables. It is recommended if RAMZ and parachutists
static lines are different lengths, the RAMZ be deployed on one pass and parachutists be deployed
on a different pass using moving target procedures.
WARNING: Parachutists must deploy on separate passes if parachutists are using different
static lines lengths.
CAUTION: Ensure airspeed does not exceed parachute limits.
5.11.4.1 RAMZ Package Predeployment Preparation. Prior to deployment, ensure
chemlights/strobe lights/LPUs on the T-10s (for training use) are activated and remove the
forward horizontal and vertical axis tie-downs prior to the aircraft turning final for live
deployment. Remove the aft horizontal axis tie-down after the aircraft has turned final.
5.11.4.2 Team Positioning. The TL/JM will be allowed to move freely on the left side of
the aircraft (between package and left side of aircraft) to monitor deployment preparations.
For actual deployment, the TL/JM will be forward of the package. The number 2
parachutist monitors safety and assists the TL/JM as required. The number 3 parachutist
monitors safety and assists the number 2 parachutist and loadmaster as required.
5.11.4.3 Exit/Deployment Sequence. The pilot will call for the green light backed up by
a verbal green light call to the loadmaster. This indicates a clear to deploy. The red
light/no drop will be used to stop the RAMZ deployment. The loadmaster will cut the load
restraint strap (gate), with a verbal cut the gate from the JM, unless pre-briefed
otherwise. After the pilot has received an affirmative response to the 1-minute call, the
pilot will turn on the green light. The red light/no drop will be used to stop the RAMZ
deployment. The loadmaster will cut the load restraint strap (gate), with a verbal cut the
gate from the JM, unless pre-briefed otherwise. The JM will keep eyes on the package at
all times and ensure the cargo chutes deploy. Approximately 6 seconds after the RAMZ
has successfully deployed at a minimum, the JM will exit, provided the RAMZ static lines
have been retrieved within the 6-second window. The best time is to deploy parachutists
between a 6- to 14-second window. Parachutists exit at 1-second intervals. A good stable
exit is important for three reasons as it allows the parachutist to (1) maintain eye contact on
the RAMZ and parachutist in front, (2) pull on assigned altitude or delay, and (3) maintain
proper body position for proper parachute deployment.
WARNING: The loadmaster must retrieve the RAMZ deployment bags prior to any parachutist
exiting. The JM/TL will not initiate deployment until visually ensuring the D bags have been
retrieved. This will preclude any parachutist entanglement with the D bags during the deployment
phase..
5.11.4.4 De-Rigging Procedures. Teams should brief alternate downwind landing
procedures to intercept a RAMZ being dragged by the cargo parachutes. Team leaders and
JMs need to be aware of this limitation and consider the using moving target procedures
after the RAMZ is deployed.
5.11.4.4.1 Orient the RAMZ to the proper axis for inflation as required.
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CAUTION: Use extreme caution to avoid the cargo chutes when the FXC parachute release
system has not disengaged the parachutes, the RAMZ is being dragged through the water by the
wind, and the PJ is attempting a moving intercept of the moving RAMZ package in the water.
CAUTION: During high winds and depending on sea state, the FXC may not release. If the
parachutes do not release, place tension on the FXC in attempt to release the device. If the FXC
does not release, cut the riser extensions.
CAUTION: Failure to remove straps before inflation may result in severe damage to the boat.
5.11.4.5 Inflation.
5.11.4.5.1 Identify compressed air tank valve and turn counterclockwise, starting
inflation and check for leaks. After three-quarters inflation, disconnect engine strap,
clear box, and enter the boat. Inflation time is approximately 1 minute and 40 seconds.
5.11.4.5.2 Release air tank quick disconnect.
5.11.4.5.3 Tilt engine to remove shock board from between transom and engine.
5.11.4.5.4 De-water and start the engine IAW manufacturers instructions.
WARNING: Ensure propeller is clear prior to starting engine.
5.11.4.5.5 Boat crew duties.
5.11.4.5.6 Secure all equipment.
5.11.4.5.7 Inflate keel.
5.11.4.5.8 Turn all valves to the navigate position.
5.11.4.5.9 Clamp shock-absorbing tubes.
5.11.4.5.10 Parachuting the CRRC.
5.11.4.6 Supporting Aircraft. CRRCs can be dropped from C-130, C-141, or C-2
fixed-wing aircraft. Availability and mission requirement will determine which aircraft to
use.
5.11.4.7 C-130 Aircraft. The C-130 has flexibility, range, and load capabilities making
it the primary aircraft of choice for NSW CRRC S/L operations. The C-130 can hold a
total of two CRRC platforms with 18 jumpers. The CRRC platform can be single or
stacked. Personnel and equipment both exit from the ramp. CRRC loads with jumpers can
be dropped on a single or two separate passes.
6-1
CHAPTER 6
AERIAL DEPLOYMENT EQUIPMENT
6.1 Purpose. The initial aerial supply or mission resupply to a deployed recovery team (RT) is a
necessary capability which enhances mission success. No two missions require the same type of
equipment to be airlifted. RTs should be familiar with the packing and rigging of aerial delivery
components. Additionally, each PJ must know the aerial delivery procedures used by the aircrew
to deploy equipment to the RT.
NOTE: Prior to loading hazardous cargo, determine packing requirements for the specific aircraft
involved.
6.2 Types of Airdrops. PJ container loads are delivered by low-velocity airdrops and free-fall
air drops.
6.2.1 Low-Velocity Airdrop. A low-velocity airdrop is the delivery of supplies from an
aircraft using cargo parachutes. Such loads are specially prepared for airdrop either by
packing the item in air-dropable containers or by lashing them to air-dropable platforms.
Cargo parachutes are then attached to the load or the platform to slow the descent of the load
and to ensure the minimum landing shock
6.2.2 High-Velocity Drop. A high-velocity drop is the delivery of items of supply that are
specially packed and rigged in containers having layers of energy-dissipating material
attached to the underside with a stabilizing device rigged on top. The stabilizing device, such
as a ring-slot parachute, is designed to minimized oscillation of the load and to create just
enough drag to keep the load upright during descent so it will land on the energy dissipater.
6.2.3 High-Speed/Low-Level Aerial Delivery System. The high-speed/low-level aerial
delivery system was developed for airdrop resupply from the Combat Talon flying at 250
KIAS and as low as 76 meters (250 feet) AGL. This system employs a modified container
using A-21 covers and a modified 22 feet or 28 feet extraction parachute. This system can
deliver up to four cargo containers weighing a minimum of 250 pounds each but not exceeding
a total of 2,200 pounds at delivery altitudes ranging from 76 to 299 meters (250 to 750 feet)
AGL. A slingshot ejection system ejects the cargo load over the designated area.
6.2.4 Free-Fall Airdrops. Free-fall airdrop is the delivery of non-fragile items of
equipment or supply from a slow-flying aircraft at low altitude, without the use of parachutes
or other retarding devices. Normally, the special packaging required for fragile items greatly
limits this technique. The technique is most effective when the drop can be made into a river,
stream, or other body of water and immediate action is taken to recover the supplies.
6.2.5 Cushioning Materials for Aerial Delivery Loads. Pieces of equipment packed
within various containers may require padding or cushioning materials. Items can be
separated with styrofoam, cellulose wadding, felt sheets, or any material energy dissipating
pads (honeycomb) suitable to protect them from breaking. Exercise care when packing
components of assemblies to ensure all items necessary for operation of the assembly are
packed in the same airdrop container.
6-2
6-3
6.4.3 Parachute Types. The are several different types of cargo parachutes currently in
use. Use Table 6.1, Cargo Parachute Data, to determine which one is best suited for the
equipment to be airdropped:
Table 6.1 Cargo Parachute Data.
Parachute
Diameter (feet)
Weight (pounds)
Capacity (pounds)
G-8/M390
11
100
T-7A
28
16
100 to 500
G-13
24.25
45
200 to 500
G-14
34
37
200 to 500
T-10C
35
20
90 to 350
G-12
64
128
501 to 2,200
6.4.4 Poncho Expedient Parachute. The poncho expedient parachute can be used to drop
up to 65 pounds of equipment. This can be useful if other parachutes are not available. The
following illustrates and describes rigging the poncho expedient parachute:
6.4.4.1 First pull the hood drawstring loop to close the hood opening and wrap the excell
drawstring tightly around the base of the hood and tie it off so no air will escape.
6.4.4.2 Fold the poncho in half (bottoms together) with the snaps down.
6.4.4.3 Cut eight suspension lines 6 feet in length.
6.4.4.4 Tie one suspension line to each of the grommets on the poncho with a bowline
knot.
6.4.4.5 Ensure there are no tangles in the suspension lines and they are the same length.
6.4.4.6 Fold the poncho. Lay the half folded poncho flat. On both sides of the poncho,
make S folds 6 to 8 inches wide to meet in the center (there should be the same number of
folds on each sides). Next fold the narrow-folded poncho into an M fold.
6.4.4.7 Tie the loop end of the static line to the drawstring (which is wrapped around the
hole of the poncho) with one loop of 25-pound test cord (or lightweight string that will
break when the bundle is deployed from the aircraft) and tie with a square knot.
6.4.4.8 Attach the load to the snap line attached to the suspension lines.
6.4.4.9 Fold the suspension lines on top of the load.
6.4.4.10 Then place the M-folded poncho parachute on top of the folded suspension lines.
6.4.4.11 Affix the poncho parachute to the top of the load with one wrap of 25-pound test
cord in the same manner as tying a package, ensuring the cord goes through the loop in the
static line. Tie with a square knot. This will deploy the suspension lines prior to breaking
loose from the aircraft.
6-4
WARNING: Jumpers should follow 1 second after the package exits the aircraft. This ensures the
package is free from the D-bag.
WARNING: Jumpers and ground party should be briefed, not to mistake the 15-foot extraction
parachute for a personnel parachutist. This is especially important at night.
6.5 Aerial Delivery Containers. With the exception of fuel containers, types and sizes of
containers are not specified. Regardless of content or container, the personnel using the
equipment should be familiar with the content, placement of equipment, and peculiarities
necessary for the operation of the equipment (e.g., catalytic heater).
6.6 Aerial Delivery Equipment. There are several different aerial delivery systems currently in
use to facilitate packaging and deploying equipment bundles. (See Table 6.2, Aerial Delivery
Systems, for details.) This section contains information on the use of cargo slings, bags, and
airdrop containers. The load may be packed with supplies, disassembled equipment, or small
items of ready-to-use equipment prepared for airdrop. The container load may require cushioning
material such as honeycomb, felt, or cellulose wadding, depending on the load requirements and
the method of airdrop.
Table 6.2 Aerial Delivery Systems.
Delivery
Type
System
Weight (pounds)
Capacity (pounds)
A-7A
Sling
6.0
500
A-10
Net
7.0
300
A-13
Rigid
7.0
100
A-16
Rigid
45
200
A-21
Bag
31
500
A-22
Bag
58
625 to 2,200
AKIO
Sled
38
200
6-5
6.6.1 A-7A Cargo Sling. The A-7A cargo sling consists of four identical 188-inch sling
straps. Each sling strap has a stationary parachute quick-fit friction adapter and a floating
D-ring. Use a combination of two, three, or four sling strap for rigging a load depending upon
its size, weight, and shape. It is used to drop non-fragile supplies. Its maximum load capacity
is 500 pounds. The minimum load is dependent on the type parachute used and the method of
airdrop (low- versus high-velocity). Two A-7A sling straps have a maximum weight limit of
300 pounds, three straps 400 pounds, and four straps 500 pounds.
6.6.2 A-21 Cargo Bag Assembly. The A-21 cargo bag assembly is an adjustable container
consisting of a sling assembly with scuffpad, a quick release assembly, two ring straps, and a
97- X 115-inch canvas cover. The A-21 cargo bag weighs approximately 31 pounds. Use it to
drop both fragile and non-fragile supplies. The maximum load capacity is 500 pounds. The
minimum load capacity is dependent on the type parachute used and the method of air drop.
6.6.3 A-22 Cargo Bag Assembly. The A-22 cargo bag assembly is an adjustable, cotton
duck cloth and webbing container consisting of a cotton or nylon webbing sling assembly, a
cover, and four cotton or nylon suspension webs. The modified A-22 cargo cover is the only
part of the system is the only part of the system used when rigging the deflated F470 CRRC.
The A-22 cargo bag has a maximum load capacity of 2,200 pounds. The maximum allowable
dimensions for a rigged load are 48 inches wide and 55.5 inches long. The maximum height
is normally 83 inches but may extend up 100 inches with Air Force approval. For a lowvelocity air drop, a standard cargo bag skid (48 X 53.5 inches) serves as a base for the
container load. For a high velocity air drop, the standard cargo bag skid or an appropriate size
piece of plywood for the base of the container load is used. The A-22 assembly weighs
approximately 58 pounds. Only ammunition listed in FM 10-553 may be air dropped.
6.7 Aerial Delivery Operational Restrictions. Each cargo aerial delivery method and
parachute has operational restrictions specific to wind, altitude, airspeed, and aircraft. The
following tables list those restrictions as they apply to C-130 aircraft only. (See Table 6.3,
Operational Mission Altitudes [1 of 2]; Table 6.4, Operational Mission Altitudes [2 of 2]; Table
6.5, Operational Airspeeds; and Table 6.6, Equipment Surface Wind Limitations for more
details.)
NOTE: For altitude and airspeed restrictions for other aircraft see AFI 11-231, Computer Air
Release Procedures.
6-6
Number of
Parachutes/Containers
Personnel
Combat operations
Tactical training
Basic airborne trainees
HALO (minimum opening)
SATB-P
G-12D/E
G-12D
G-12D
G-12E
CRRC (G-12D/E)
G-13/14
High velocity (HVCDS)/12
feet, 22 feet, 26 feet ring slot
(See remarks)
SATB-C
CDS/CRS(2)
1 to 6 containers
7 or more container
2 or more parachutes
2 or more parachutes
1 to 2 containers
3 or more containers
Equipment(2)
G-11A
G-11B
G-11C/X
G-12D
G-12E
Heavy
1 parachute
2 to 7 chutes
8 chutes
1 parachute
2 to 4 chutes
1 to 2 chutes
3 to 4 chutes
5 chutes
6 to 7 chutes
8 chutes
2 to 3 chutes
2 to 3 chutes
900
1,100
1,300
700
750
1,050
1,100
1,150
1,200
1,300
650
550
6-7
Number of
Parachutes/Containers
250 (minimum)
250 (minimum)
300 (maximum)
250 (minimum)
Door Bundle
G-13/14
300 (minimum)
T-10
400 (minimum)
T-7A
300 (minimum)
Free Fall
Day
Night
100 (minimum)
200 (maximum)
REMARK: A-22 container with 26-foot ring slot chutes airdropped below 10,000 feet MSL
during unilateral training will be rigged with non-breakaway static lines, and those airdropped at
10,000 feet and above will be rigged with breakaway static lines.
EXCEPTION: A-22 containers with 26-foot ring slot chutes airdropped below 5,000 feet AGL
during unilateral training will b rigged with non-breakaway static lines IAW TO 13C7-1-11.
NOTES:
(1)
If the following criteria are not met, the minimum altitude is 1,000 feet AGL: (a) Static line
are used. (b) Parachutes are equipped with anti-inversion devices. (c) When using T-10
parachutes, use established exit control procedures. (d) When using MC1-1A/B/C parachutes,
use alternating door exit procedures (ADEPT). ADEPT does not apply to combat operation or
special tactics personnel.
(2)
Plan minimum IMC airdrops altitudes at 500 feet above the highest man-made obstacle or
terrain feature and spot elevation, or 400 feet plus on contour interval above the highest depicted
basic terrain contour, whichever is highest, within 3 NMs either side of the run-in centerline from
DZ entry point to DZ exit point. Not applicable to aircraft with a fully operational terrain
following system.
6-8
C-130
125/130(1)
Equipment/Combination
130 to 140(2)
Heavy equipment
140
130/140(2)
CDS/CRS (G-12E)
130/140(2)
Door bundle
130
SATB
Recovery kit
130
HSLLADS
En route airspeed
PSYOPS(3)
NOTES:
(1)
(2 ) Used
when gross weight is above 120,000 pounds. For combination drops, use the higher
airspeed KIAS.
(3) Material
AF equipment
17
13
20
No restriction
25
At discretion of supported unit commander
6-9
container. When the equipment is loaded in its container the appropriate delivery system and
cargo parachute must be chosen depending on the total equipment weight. Usually the
deployment is performed by the aircrew loadmaster however, the jumpmaster may also deploy
it using standard delivery procedures. IAW AFJI 13-210.
6.8.2 Airdrop Patterns. The cargo airdrop patterns flown by the aircraft are similar to
personnel deployment patterns. The minimum altitude for day equipment bundle
paradrop is 300 feet and day free-fall equipment drops is 150 feet.
6.9 Water Equipment Delivery. Items dropped to personnel in the water are normally dropped
with retrieval lines attached. For drops to surface vessels, the MA-1/2 kit may be used as a
delivery vehicle and the equipment to be delivered substituted for the number 2, 3, or 4 bundles. If
the life rafts are not needed, a delivery kit can be constructed by replacing the life rafts with MK 6
Mod 3 flare smokes. When a parabundle is dropped using the above procedure, a parachute must
be attached to the MK 6 Mod 3.
6.10 Night Equipment Delivery. Equipment delivered at night will have a cargo marker light
attached. Attach the light by securing a double length of 5-foot nylon 550 cord to the marker light,
then attach the other end to the equipment. Stabilize the light to the equipment with type Number
5 cord. Pass the parachute static line under the type Number 5 cord to ensure light break-away
when deployed. The SDU-5/E strobe light or chemlight may be used in lieu of the cargo marking
lights.
6.11 Tree Let Down Sling. Equipment delivered into areas of rough terrain or dense forest the
tree let down sling should be considered. Using this procedure will allow the equipment to
penetrate the obstacle (e.g., tall trees) and fall to the ground prior to the parachutes hanging up.
The following is how the procedure is performed:
6.11.1 Rope Length. Take a suitable length of rope (dependent on height of obstacle to be
penetrated) and double that length.
6.11.2 Knot Type. Tie a double figure eight at the bite end of the rope and attach it to the
load using two locking carabiners (one on each bite of the figure eight); usually to the two
attachment points on an A-7 sling.
6.11.3 Remaining Rope. S fold the remaining length of rope, bottom to top, onto the load
using double wrap rubber band stows.
6.11.4 Running Ends. Take the two running ends of the remaining rope and attach it to the
cargo parachute risers using a locking clevis.
WARNING: Jumpers exiting the aircraft after the equipment bundle must exit when the
parachutes are free from the D-bag and not free of the ramp and door. Parachutists may become
fatally entangled in the tree let down sling if exiting immediately after the bundle.
CAUTION: Double wrap stows must be used on the tree let down sling. Using single wrap
stows may cause line dump, which could produce terminal results for the equipment bundle.
6.12 Crew Coordination. To facilitate crew coordination, the impact point of spotter
chutes/streamers and bundles will be identified using clock positions relative to the final approach
flown when relaying a drop report to the aircraft overhead (e.g., the spotter chute landed at 12
oclock, 45 meters).
6-10
6.13 Surface-Directed Equipment Delivery. This provides for a method of aerial delivery to a
PJ team when visual contact cannot be established due to cloud formation, fog, or trees. The
following procedures are recommended:
6.13.1 Comm. The ground controller using radio communications, flare signaling, or
smoke devices will assist the aircrew in positioning the aircraft directly overhead. It may be
necessary for the ground controller to suggest a compass heading or a term such as turn left
10 degrees now. It may also be necessary to state YOU ARE DIRECTLY OVERHEAD
NOW. The situations are too varied to provide specific guidance, however, these procedures
have proven successful in the past.
6.13.2 Reference Points. Once the position directly overhead has been established, the pilot
using navigational aids/visual reference points should establish a pattern to return the aircraft
to that spot each time.
6.13.3 Release Point. The actual release point will have to be estimated by both aircrew and
the ground controller. An into-the-wind drop heading is suggested, however conditions may
dictate otherwise. The release point will have to be calculated based on ballistic data altitude,
type of parachute, surface wind, and aircraft heading.
6.13.4 Coordination. To be effective, this procedure will require close coordination
between all parties concerned. The pilot should keep the ground controller aware of his
intentions, position in the pattern and countdown to drop.
6.13.5 Ground Marked Release System. When controlling an airdrop, the drop zone
controller (DZC) can mark a point on the ground with a visual signal to designate the
computed release point (RP) to the aircrew. This signal may be a four marker L, six marker
T, or seven marker H and is placed abeam, and 100 meters (110 yards) left of the desired
release point. The drop is executed when the aircraft is directly abeam, and 100 meters (110
yards) right of this marker on the pre-briefed inbound heading. A pre-briefed code signal or
beacon may be collocated with the markers to aid in DZ identification.
6.13.6 Verbal Initiated Release System. Combat control team (CCT) and pararescue
personnel use this procedure when normal drop procedures are not tactically feasible. The
ground party determines the desired release point, gives verbal steering guidance to the pilot to
align the aircraft over that point, and then initiates the release. Instructions transmitted to the
aircraft must be concise. Transmit TURN LEFT or TURN RIGHT to align aircraft on
desired inbound heading Transmit STOP TURN after alignment instructions when aircraft
is on course. Transmit STANDBY to the aircraft approximately 5 seconds prior to the
release point. Transmit EXECUTE, EXECUTE, EXECUTE when the aircraft reaches the
release point. Upon hearing the first EXECUTE, the navigator/pilot not flying calls
GREEN LIGHT.
6.14 Fuel. Units operating in or subject to operate in cold climate areas must have special fuel
(Coleman/white gas, butane/propane) readily available to deploy with PJ forces. Lanterns, stoves,
and heaters carried, stored, or deployed from aircraft will be empty and void of fuel or fumes.
When this equipment is required as part of the alert load, fuel must accompany it. Fuel carried
aboard aircraft will be in standard metal fuel containers and be padded to prevent accidental
rupture. The following examples are the preferred methods of carrying fuel on aircraft:
6-11
6.14.1 One-Gallon Cans. Place one to three 1-gallon cans of Coleman fuel, which are
factory sealed, into a metal 1,500 round ammunition component box. An absorbent,
non-flammable packing material such as vermiculite will be placed around fuel cans to
prevent shifting and contact with other cans. Prior to placing the lid on the ammunition
box, ensure rubber gasket is intact to provide seal.
6.14.2 Small Cans. Aluminum fuel bottles (pint or quart, no pour spout) must have an
unvented screw on cap and gasket. They can be carried as stated above, or in a field
pack. When carried in a field pack, it will be centrally located where it is protected on all
sides and not in contact with hard objects, or in the center of a rolled sleeping bag.
NOTE: Recommend fuel bottles be filled at temperatures of 75 to 80 degrees Fahrenheit.
6.14.3 Shipping Requirements. Butane/propane cylinders should be carried in a container
provided by the manufacturer or carried in metal ammunition component boxes with sufficient
packing material to prevent shifting and contact with other cylinders.
6.14.4 Labelling. When fuel containers are carried on aircraft with floor heating systems,
containers will be insulated from the floor. Ammunition component boxes or other similar
containers used as storage/delivery containers will have the word FLAMMABLE stenciled
in one-inch letters on two sides. Under the word FLAMMABLE, in one-inch letters, will be
the type fuel contained within. Different type fuels such as white gas and butane will not be
stored in the same container. Field packs containing fuel will have tags affixed in a
conspicuous location. Tags will be stenciled in one-inch letters as stated above. If fuel
containers are required to be airlifted on Air Mobility Command aircraft, the containers must
meet packing requirements for hazardous cargo.
6.14.5 Storage. Storage of fuel at rescue units must be coordinated and approved by base
civil engineering, ground safety office, and fire department.
6-12
7-1
CHAPTER 7
7-2
Combat Triad
Gunhandling
Marksmanship
UNCLASSIFIED
7.5 Moving, Shooting, and Communicating. Moving, shooting, and communicating are the
three elements of any shooting program. Learn to move balanced and efficiently. Communicate
what you are doing and what needs to be done with teammates. Last, you must shoot while doing
so.
7.6 Moving Targets. It is a fact that shooters engage moving targets. Training should
emphasize moving targets whenever possible.
7.7 Terminal Ballistics. Terminal ballistics is the study of the behavior of a projectile, on a
target. The result is lethality. Lethality is the effect of incapacitating targets for the purpose of
negating their impact on the mission and personnel survivability. In special operations missions,
lethality is essential to success.
7.7.1 Slews and Cavities. The terminal ballistics of the M855, A059 Green Tip, ammunition
in the M16 series rifle is a subject that has been studied extensively by the services. M16
series rifles must have barrel lengths and twists that stabilize the bullet sufficiently to penetrate
the target 3- to 5-inches and then slews or cavities. This breaks up the bullet and causes a
severe wound cavity that will disable the target. If the round slews in the target too soon or not
at all, it fails to create a substantial wound cavity and fails to stop the target. Therefore,
performance of the rifle depends on the round fired, the length and twist or rifling of the barrel.
The best effects of the M855 round occur when the target is hit in the heart, great vessels or
high in the central nervous system. The M16 series rifles are roughly 4MOA accurate. This
presents a problem in that the desired target is smaller than the accuracy of the weapon at very
limited ranges. (See Figure 7.2, Picture of Wound Ballistics.)
7-3
2 inches
UNCLASSIFIED
7.7.2 M-16 Information. M-16 series rifles have been in use for decades and much
information regarding their use and configuration exists. If the velocity of the A059 (Green
Tip) round drops below 2,500 feet per second (FPS), the bullet will fail to produce a
substantial wound cavity.
7.7.3 Better Performance. The Mk-262 5.56mm LR ammunition has much better terminal
ballistics performance than the M855 round. Very little data exists on the capabilities of this
round. Team leaders can plan on the ammunition increasing the effective range of their rifles
by a factor of 2. The Mk-262 ammunition does not have a steel penetrator core. (See Figure
7.3, M855 Terminal Performance at Muzzle.)
7.7.4 Special Ball. The terminal ballistics of the M118 & M118 LR special ball 7.62mm is
excellent to the maximum effective range of the rifle. (See Figure 7.4, Excellent Terminal
Performance at the Muzzle.)
7.7.5 Handguns Versus Rifles. All handgun terminal ballistics are inferior to all rifle
terminal ballistics. Do not expect the M9 pistol and A363 ammunitions to have positive
lethal effects on any target.
7-4
Figure 7.3
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 7.4
UNCLASSIFIED
7-5
7-6
WARNING: Splash or ricochets from steel targets can result in death or serious injury to the
shooter or bystanders. Always read and follow the manufactures guidelines for use, repair, and
replacement of targets.
7-7
Rounds
10
50 yards
Stage B
10
100 yards
Stage C
15
Target
Technique
Scoring
Limited exposure
targets (ABLE)
5 seconds per
exposure
V ring = 2 points
Limited exposure
targets (DOG)
5 second
exposure
10 seconds per
exposure
V ring = 2 points
Moving targets
(DOG)
Left/right,
Right/left 10
seconds per
exposure
10 seconds per
exposure
DOG silhouette = 2
points
200 yards
Stage C
15
200 yards
Stage D
15
300 yards
5 ring = 1 point
Black = 1 point
5 ring = 1 point
Black = 1 point
Black = 1 point
Stage E
15
10 seconds per
exposure
15
Moving targets
(ECHO)
Left/right,
Right/left 15
seconds per
exposure
20
Limited exposure
(DOG)
30
Stage B-10
500 yards
Stage E
500 yards
Stage F
Unknown
distance
Stage F
Low light
Stage C-5/5
Stage E-5/5
LEGEND:
Total points possible: 240 points.
Points to qualify: 220 points.
Goal: First round engagement and hit.
Head shots at 200 yards.
Center mass body shots at 3 to 500 yards.
Moving targets at 2 to 500 yards.
Limited exposure targets at 100 yards.
7-8
Rounds
10
100 yards
Stage B
10
Target
10
200 yards
Stage C
10
300 yards
Scoring
Limited exposure
targets (DOG)
5 second
exposure
10 seconds per
exposure
V ring = 2 points
Moving targets
(DOG)
Left/right,
Right/left 10
seconds per
exposure
10 seconds per
exposure
DOG silhouette = 2
points
200 yards
Stage B
Technique
Black = 1 point
5 ring = 1 point
Black = 1 point
Black = 1 point
Stage D
10
10 seconds per
exposure
10
10 seconds per
exposure
10
Limited Exposure
(DOG)
30
Stage B-10
500 yards
Stage D
500 yards
Stage E
Unknown
distance
Stage F
Low light
Stage C-5/5
Stage E-5/5
LEGEND:
Total points possible: 110 points.
Points to re-qualify: 95 points.
Goal: Sustainment of qualification skills.
Increased center mass and moving target engagement ranges to 600 yards.
Limited exposure targets for all qualification goals.
7-9
4" = 2 pts.
ABLE Target
12" = 1 pt.
4" = 2 pts.
DOG Target
Silhouette = 1 pt.
2 pts.
DOG
Center
Center
of mass
= 2 pts.
ECHO
Target
Lower 1/3 of target
length = 0 pts.
UNCLASSIFIED
7.8.11 Night Shooting. Each rifle system can employ different types of IR laser sighting
devices. See the technical order for specific capabilities and mounting solutions. Shooting the
IR laser can be very easy. The rifle can be shot from the hip; however, shooting from the hip
slows down follow-up shots. Some NVD and optic combinations can allow the shooter to
shoot through the optic at night. This has the advantage of not emitting ID and using near
standard shooting positions; permitting fast follow-up shots.
7-10
7-11
Time
Drill
(Yards)
(Seconds) Reps
Rounds
Total
12
Mask NSR
Mozam
1.5
Mozam
Box drill
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
10
Mozam
10
12
16
15
Mozam
15
Head
25
Pair
25
Curb prone
41
25
SBU prone
25
Rifle el presidente
10
12
24
50
Pair
50
2 Reload 2
10
10 to 3
7-12
Time
Drill
(Yards)
(Seconds) Reps
Rounds
Total
100
100
Sitting
100
Squatting
10
100
Kneeling
10
100
Mask sitting
100
Mask squatting
100
Mask kneeling
200
Prone pair
14
10
200
Prone 2 reload 2
20
200
Mask prone
15
200
10
10
Total Rounds
308
UNCLASSIFIED
7-13
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 7.8 Picture Kneeling.
Picture Kneeling
UNCLASSIFIED
7-14
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 7.10 Picture Shooting Around Obstacles.
UNCLASSIFIED
7-15
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 7.12 Picture 180-Degree Pivot Step 1.
UNCLASSIFIED
7-16
Indoor Ready
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 7.14 Picture Locking the Bolt to the Rear.
UNCLASSIFIED
7-17
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 7.16 Picture Ready Position.
UNCLASSIFIED
7-18
Picture Transition
UNCLASSIFIED
7.8.13.2.2 Box Drill. The box drill is a multiple target engagement drill. Two targets,
two shots to the body, two shots to the body, one to the head and one to the head. (See
Figure 7.18, Box Drill.)
Figure 7.18 Box Drill.
7.8.13.2.3 Stress Fire Drills. Stress is an essential element of any shooting program.
7.8.13.2.4 Cooper Olympic Shooting Drill. This drill is part of the carbine course of
fire. Starting at the 100-yard line. The shooter fires two rounds from kneeling; then
reloads, runs to the target and touches it and runs back to the 100-yard line. The
shooter fires two rounds from squatting position, reloads, and runs to the target and
back; finishing with firing two rounds from prone. (See Figure 7.19, Cooper Olympic
Shooting Drill.)
7-19
Kneeling
Prone
UNCLASSIFIED
7.8.13.2.5 Rifle El Presidente. With three targets down range, start with back to the
firing line. The shooter executes a 180 degree pivot and fires two rounds at each target.
The shooter takes a knee, reloads and fires two more rounds at each target.
7.8.13.2.6 NSR Drill. Starting at the three-foot line, step left or right, fire 4 to 5
rounds into the center mass of the target. This drill is designed to train shooters to
move off-line and shoot their target to the ground at very close ranges.
7-20
7-21
"RELOAD"
"MALFUNCTION"
Barrel
Barrel
Barrel
Barrel
"TRANSITION"
UNCLASSIFIED
7.8.13.3 MK14 Mod 0 EBR Training Guidelines. The EBR is a support element
weapon. It is an expert shooters gun. It is designed to support the weapon system by
filling the gap between the capabilities of the M4, M240, and M249. The EBR can
function as a designated marksman rifle, long-range (800 yard) anti-personnel weapon,
base of fire (light machine gun) weapon, and as a close-quarters battle rifle.
7-22
WARNING: Less experienced shooters will not shoot well with the EBR. Carrying this weapon
without proper training could result in serious injury or death.
7.8.13.4 Transition Training. The AFQC for the M4/M16 is used for qualification
firing. Shooters should fire 1,000 rounds each, using the attached course of fire before
carrying the weapon. Much of the training can be done on a 25-yard range. Training with
the M4 3.5X10 scope should be done at a minimum on a 100-yard range for designated
marksman missions and on a minimum 300-yard range (preferred 800-yard range) for
long-range anti-personnel employment.
7.8.13.5 Full Auto Feature. Training to use the full-auto feature of the weapon may not
be practical. The recoil of the weapon may cause the scope mount to shake loose. The
weapon may begin cooking off rounds after as few as 50 rounds. Additionally, full-auto
fire may cause the weapons to wear out in short order. Last, its unnecessary, extremely
accurate and rapid semi-auto fire can be employed very effectively when the user is
properly trained. Suggest extremely limited full auto fire.
7.8.13.6 Ammunition. The preferred ammunition for the rifle in the M118LR round.
Very little of this is available. The most common round available is the M118 round. All
training for long range shooting and sighting in should be done with the M118 or
M118LR. The M80 rounds and tracer rounds available in linked ammunition should not
be used to sight in the weapon unless they are the only rounds available and the unit
intends to carry them on alert. No information exists as to the effectiveness of or the
external ballistics for the 7.62mm slap rounds and their use is not authorized by the
technical order. Linked ammunition may substantially degrade the long-range capability
of the EBR.
7.8.13.7 Training. There are two categories of training for the EBR, carbine training
(DM) and long-range anti-personnel suppression. If training for long range shooting
cannot be done at actual distance, then the weapon should be configured with the M68
sight and laser only (no scope). See Table 7.5, and Table 7.6, EBR Course of Fire, and
Figure 7.21, 100 Yard EBR Target, for proficiency standards. Shooters should be
proficient with each stage of fire prior to carrying the weapon.
7.8.13.8
scope.
Targets. The following includes three 100-yard targets for sighting in the
7-23
UNCLASSIFIED
7-24
Time
Drill
(Yards)
(Seconds) Reps
Rounds
Total
Mozam
1.5
Mozam
Box drill
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
10
Mozam
10-3
12
12
Mask NSR
10
12
16
15
Mozam
15
Head
25
Pair
25
Curb prone
41
25
SBU prone
25
Rifle el presidente
10
12
24
50
Pair
50
2 Reload 2
10
7-25
Time/
Drill
(Yards)
Seconds
Reps
Rounds
Total
100 yard
drill
NA
100
Sitting
100
Squatting
10
100
Kneeling
10
100
Mask sitting
100
Mask squatting
100
Mask kneeling
200
Prone pair
14
10
200
Prone 2 reload 2
20
200
Mask prone
15
200 yard
drill
NA
10
10
Total Rounds
Distance
(Yards)
Target/Standing-Long Range
318
Rounds
Fired
Time
100
Sighting target
10
Center
square
1 minute
100
10
Person
1 minute
100
10
7MOA
high
target
1 minute
100
TACMAN
10
Any
2 minute
100
TACMAN
10
Any
2 minute
100
TACMAN
10
Any
2 minute
Total Rounds
60
7.8.13.9 .50 Caliber Training Guide Lines. (See Figure 7.22, Picture .50-Caliber Rifle.)
7-26
UNCLASSIFIED
7.8.13.9.1 History. The M82A1/M-107 rifle was fielded to pararescue sometime in
the 1990s for the mission Operation SOUTHERN WATCH in response to the potential
vehicle threat during a potential airdrop mission in denied or hostile territory. Training
on these rifles was handed down rotation by rotation. Since the rifle was based on the
M16 rifle series weapons, that the AFQC and CFETP training already being conducted
and access to the TO was sufficient for safe operation of the weapon. Pararescuemen
trained in Operation SOUTHERN WATCH began informal testing of the weapon in
order to configure the rifle for the mission and develop tactics techniques and
procedures. Fielding of this equipment is essential to a directed mission. The military
does not offer a formal training program for this rifle and mission. The following
guidance will provide the weapon system with a basis of information to build the
capability.
7.8.13.9.2 Equipment Configuration.
Leupold Mark 4 M1 16X40mm scope part #50541, 150 MOA scopes, with
Mildot.
30mm Steel Leupold rings with 1913 rail topcap.
SIMRAD KN/203FAB-4 GEN-III Omni-IV Weapon Sight.
The book .50 sniper course Hard Target Interdiction is the units lesson plan
outline.
The Barnes Ballistics 2.0 computer program, or suitable substitute.
7-27
7-28
ATV
UNCLASSIFIED
THIS PAGE
8-1
CHAPTER 8
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
8.1 Desert Combat Operations. A desert operation is one of the more demanding aspects of
recovery team (RT) combat operations. Accomplishment of a limited surface operation
(LSO)/extend surface operation (ESO) requires close team coordination. The hazards involved in
ground desert operations are both physical and psychological. Disregard of the basic
fundamentals of desert operations may result in an unsuccessful recovery and possible injury or
loss of a RT. Remembered that the principles and fundamentals of pararescue surface operations
do not change in the desert. Priorities may differ, techniques may vary from those in temperate
climates, but a RTwho if fit and well-trained to fight in other environmentswill have little
difficulty adjusting to desert warfare. For detailed information, see Army FM 90-3, Desert
Operations, and Army FM 3-05.214, Special Forces Mounted Operations.
8.1.1 Environmental Considerations. In order to prepare for desert operations and
function in the desert environment, it is first necessary to understand the environment.
8.1.1.1 Terrain. Terrain varies considerably from place to place, high mountain desert
and plateaus to sea level, sandy or rocky.
8.1.1.2 Mountainous. Mountainous areas may be more permissive to day time
movement and less so for vehicular travel. Canyons or wadis offer good cover and
concealment but may be hazardous due to flash floods.
8.1.1.3 Sandy/Plateaus. Flat open dessert is best negotiated by nighttime vehicular
movement. Rockier roads and trails may damage vehicle tires. Care should be taken to
avoid driving into wadis at night. Movement on foot should be the least optimal choice.
8.1.2 Climate. Made up of temperature, precipitation, and wind.
8.1.2.1 Temperature. Very high, daytime temperatures limit movement to hours of
darkness. Daytime activities should be minimal and limited to hold-up site activities. Hot,
dry air will adversely affect helicopter performance. Team members must remember that
the flying time and performance of a helicopter is degraded as the altitude and heat
increase. Anticipate significant reduction of payloads. Night operations will provide the
best operating envelope for helicopter performance. During the winter months some
desert areas (specifically high desert) may be very cold. Cold weather survival gear will
be a necessity.
8.1.2.2 Precipitation. Generally, there is a lack of water and precipitation and very low
humidity. Water sources in the field will not be readily available. Plan on resupply for
prolonged operations or attempt desert survival techniques as a last resort.
8.1.2.3 Winds. High winds can generate blowing sand and dust storms. Dust storms can
cause brownout conditions. Visibility can be reduced for hours and can last for days.
8.1.3 Life Forms. Plant, animal, insect, and indigenous personnel.
8-2
8-3
8.1.5.1 When using tactical vehicles, rate of travel will be affected by terrain and
likelihood of contact.
8.1.5.2 Vehicle speed will be affected by terrain such as traveling on roads or
cross-country. Traveling on roads will be faster but will increase chance of enemy contact.
Cross country is slower, leaves more noticeable vehicle tracks and signs of passage,
increases vehicle stress, and makes navigation more difficult. Some desert terrain is so
rough that tactical vehicles may have trouble traversing it faster than a man can walk.
Rehearse cross-country movement in terrain as close as possible to that of the target area
before deployment.
8.1.5.3 Wheel slip is when the vehicles wheels turn disproportionately (e.g., tires spin),
causing the odometer to read greater distance traveled than the actual distance traveled.
Moderately soft sand will cause the wheel to slip up to 10 percent.
8.1.6 Vehicle Lessons Learned. The following paragraphs address different areas of
vehicles and what was learned during actual operations.
8.1.6.1 Clean all filters regularly to maintain engine efficiency and avoid complications.
Use fuel filters or strainers when refueling to avoid fuel contamination and clogged fuel
lines. Remove all sand and dust from the caps before removing them to fill fluid levels.
This action will prevent contamination.
8.1.6.2 Keep the tires at proper tire pressure and filled with industrial sealant to avoid
flats. Carry extra tire plugs and repair kits.
8.1.6.3 Severe terrain consisting of rough, uneven ground, steep mountains, and loose
sand and rocks will cause vibrations and result in the loosening of nuts and bolts and fuel
and hydraulic lines. It could also disrupt electrical components. Rough terrain can
severely affect wheels, transmissions, and suspension systems. Therefore, frequent
inspections and maintenance periods are necessary to ensure vehicles function properly
and to prevent long downtime due to repairs.
8.1.6.4 The abrasive effects of sand and dust adversely affect equipment. Any moving
part faces the probability of being damaged or impaired by sand or dust. Brakes, recoil
systems, bearings, hydraulics, and relays are susceptible to incapacitation by sand or dust.
Also, sand and dust mixed with lubricants turns into an abrasive paste that can easily wear
and score moving parts. Cover equipment when not in use. Frequent preventive
maintenance will help to alleviate these problems to a manageable degree.
8.1.6.5 Intense heat and low humidity can cause overheating of the vehicles and batteries
and the degradation of seals and tires. Surface temperatures can heat parts and accessories,
making them unable without protection. Surface temperatures can reach 140 degrees and
reflect heat under and into vehicles. Remember, frequent inspections, protection with
covers, and regular maintenance will reduce the effects of these environmental factors.
8.1.6.6 Vehicle overheating is a major problem in the desert. Overheating is a greater
problem during that day than at night. Keep the fan belts at the right tension. Keep the
radiator free from debris. Use a corrosive inhibitor in the water and coolant mixture.
Inspect the water pump shaft bearing often to determine if it has worn bearings.
8-4
8-5
properly. Tire pressure can be lowered to reduce the bumpy ride and shock that is
transferred to the vehicle. However, lessons learned indicate that a higher than normal tire
pressure helps reduce punctures from smaller rocks. Rocks scraping the wall of the tires
may cause a sidewall puncture that is difficult to repair.
8.1.8.4 Riverbeds. Wadis are dry riverbeds caused by fast-moving runoff water from
higher elevations after a rain. Most wadis have a smooth bed and prove to be excellent
tracks for travel. Never travel in a wadi when it has been or is raining because of flood
danger. When coming across a wadi, look for a good entry and exit point. Many times the
banks will be steep. If the wadi is not too steep or narrow, cross it by entering head on or at
a slight angle. Be careful not to turn the wheels too much in any direction so that if the
vehicle hits a hole or slides down into the wadi, the wheel will not be torqued and break the
ball joint. Use a ground guide to walk the path, then ease the vehicle into the wadi using
low gear. Cross small ditches at an angle to prevent the vehicle from becoming high
centered. Enter these obstacles at a low speed. High-speed entry may cause the vehicle to
tip or roll over.
8.1.8.5 Marshes. Salt marshes are mostly impassable due to the powdery silt and wet,
muddy areas. Mud-packed tire treads will deny traction. Although salt marshes should be
avoided, small areas not on maps may have to be crossed. Use rocks, sandbags, perforated
steel planking (PSP), or dry sand to construct a passable bed. Loss of momentum in sand
results in getting stuck.
WARNING: Do not stand behind a vehicle when using PSP.
8.1.9 Operations.
8.1.9.1 Night Operations. Team members should be familiar with the following
considerations of desert operations: temperature, high winds and dust storms, and night
operations. Light and noise at night may be seen or heard from miles away, so strict light
and noise discipline is necessary. Enemy passive night vision devices are capable of
picking up light sources of any color at ranges far in excess of the unaided eye. One
momentary lapse may be sufficient to attract enemy attention.
8.1.9.2 Air Support. Tactical air support operations are extremely effective in a desert
environment, although dust storms may hide ground targets from air assets.
8.1.9.3 IP. Most likely, recovered IP will be suffering from environmental (hot or cold)
related injuries such as dehydration, hyper/hypothermia, or sun burn. Be prepared to
rehydrate the IP and provide protection from the environment.
8.1.9.4 Resupply. Extremely low humidity and high temperature will greatly increase
drinking water requirements. Prior to employment, an exercise should be conducted to
determine logistical requirements such as water requirements, filters on gas masks,
lubrication of weapons, and battery life on radios and optical gear.
8.1.9.5 Communications. Desert operations will require good communications for
successful mission accomplishment. Team members should understand the following
points in desert communication.
8.1.9.5.1
8-6
NOTE: This degradation is most likely to occur in the hottest part of the day, approximately
1,200 to 1,700 hours. Additional relay support may be required for communication, depending on
the distance involved. Ground-mounted whip antennas may be degraded in performance by
one-third. Directional antennas must be faced exactly in the required direction. Approximate
azimuths will not do. Radios and batteries should be kept cool and clean. Carry and store them
covered and in the shade when possible. Long distance visual signals may be distorted by heat
waves.
8.2 Maritime Combat Operations. Because so much of the Earths surface is covered with
water, the GUARDIAN ANGEL weapons systems may have a greater than average chance of
conducting operations in this environment.
8.2.1 Environmental Considerations. In order to prepare for maritime operations and
function in the maritime environment, environmental understanding is necessary to
understand the environment.
8.2.1.1 Characteristics. Recovery teams (RT) need to understand the basic
characteristics of the maritime environment. Some characteristics are waves, ice, tides,
current, and lightning.
8.2.1.1.1 Waves. Wave formations and activity are extremely important in planning
the successful execution of any waterborne operation. Waves impact on all
surface-related activities, including boating or swimming. Waves can likewise affect
the subsurface activities of the combat diver; therefore, divers must be totally familiar
with the effects of waves.
8.2.1.1.1.1 Waves are a transfer of energy through water particles. Energy, not
water, is what moves as waves pass. The actual water particles in a wave describe
a circular orbit and return very nearly to their exact starting point at the end of a
wave cycle. Like a cork bobbing freely, water particles in the open ocean move up
and down in circular motion. There is very little lateral or horizontal movement.
8.2.1.1.1.2 When planners study waves, they break them into deep water waves
and shallow water waves. In deep water waves, the orbit is intact or circular. In
shallow water waves, the orbit reflects off the bottom and becomes elliptical. As
the orbit becomes elliptical, the energy transfers and the breaking wave becomes
surf. The following paragraphs discuss wave terms, the formation of waves, and
types of waves.
8.2.1.1.1.3. Planners and operators must understand wave activity and wave
formation terminology. (See Figure 8.1, Wave Characteristics.) The common
definitions that can assist personnel in understanding waves are as follows:
8.2.1.1.1.3.1 The crest is the very top of the wave or the highest point in the
wave.
8.2.1.1.1.3.2 The trough is the lowest portion of the wave and is that point
between two crests.
8-7
Wave Characteristics
Crest
Wave Length
Wave
Height
Trough
UNCLASSIFIED
8.2.1.1.1.3.3 Wavelength is the horizontal distance between a wave crest and
the crest of the preceding wave. Wavelength can also be measured from trough
to trough.
8.2.1.1.1.3.4 Wave height is the total vertical distance from the crest of a wave
to its trough.
8.2.1.1.1.3.5 Amplitude is the height of a wave above or below sea level.
Amplitude is equal to one-half of the wave height.
8.2.1.1.1.3.6 Wave period is the time it takes, in seconds, for two consecutive
wave crests to pass a fixed observation point.
8.2.1.1.1.3.7 Planners and operators must also know how waves are formed.
With this knowledge, the combat swimmer, when exposed to certain
conditions, can anticipate what type of wave activity and wave action will most
likely be prevalent. The swimmer must also know how waves react under
certain conditions so that he can anticipate and react to sea conditions. Wave
formation is primarily a wind function. As the wind blows across the waters of
the ocean, it imparts energy onto the surface of the water, causing it to oscillate.
Wave height depends on three factors: force, duration, and fetch. Force is the
speed of the wind. Duration is how long the wind blows; it takes roughly 12
hours for fully developed waves to build. Fetch is the open distance over which
the wind blows uninterrupted by land masses such as islands or reefs. As a rule
8-8
8-9
cause submarines to rise and fall like a ship at the surface and they may also
affect sound transmission in the sea.
8.2.1.1.1.5 Breaking Waves. Breaking waves (breakers) are another area of
concern and interest. These waves form the different types of surf. Breaking
waves can be spillers, plungers, or surgers. (See Figure 8.2, Types of Breaking
Waves.) The type of breaker is normally dependent upon the bottom gradient.
Figure 8.2 Types of Breaking Waves.
Breaking
Point
Foam
5
3 2
Plunging Breaker
Foam
Still
Water
Line
Breaking
Point
1
Surging Breaker
Still
Water
Line
Foam
3
2
3
2
UNCLASSIFIED
8-10
8-11
During the increasingly longer and colder nights of autumn, ice forms along the
shorelines as a semipermanent feature. It then widens by spreading into more
exposed waters. When islands are close together, ice blankets the sea surface and
bridges the waters between the land areas.
8.2.1.1.2.2 If personnel must enter an ice field, they should proceed cautiously. Ice
1-inch thick will stop most recreational boats and can do serious damage to the
hull. Boat operators should take into account the time of ebb and flood tides; ice is
generally more compact during the flood and is more likely to break up on the ebb.
They should move at idle speed, but keep moving. It is important to be patient.
Personnel will not be able to tell how thick ice is just by looking at the field in front
of them. They should look at the broken ice at the stern of the boat. The boat
should make no sharp turns. Operators should watch engine temperatures carefully
because ice slush causes problems with water intakes; it rapidly clogs up filters and
strainers. Personnel should also keep a good watch on the propellers, especially if
encountering large chunks of ice. When backing down, operators should keep the
rudder amid ship to minimize damage.
8.2.1.1.2.3. One of the most serious effects of cold weather is that of topside icing,
caused by wind-driven spray, particularly if the ice continues to accumulate. Ice
grows considerably thicker as a result of splashing, spraying, and flooding. It
causes an increased weight load on decks and masts (radar and radio). It introduces
complications with the handling and operation of equipment. It also creates
slippery deck conditions. Ice accumulation (known as ice accretion) causes the
boat to become less stable and can lead to a capsizing.
8.2.1.1.2.4 Crew members should break ice away by chipping it off with mallets,
clubs, scrapers, and even stiff brooms. However, crew members must be very
careful to avoid damage to electrical wiring and finished surfaces.
8.2.1.1.3 Tides and Tidal Currents. Successful amphibious landings are based on
careful planning and a comprehensive knowledge of the environmental conditions that
influence the landings. Weather, with its immediate effects on wind and waves, and the
hydrography and topography of the BLS, are two of these environmental conditions.
The third element is tide and tidal current data. Mistiming tides and tidal currents will
have an immediate and obvious effect on the potential success or failure of a
waterborne operation. History is full of invasion forces and raiding teams trapped and
wiped out while crossing tidal flats at low tide. There were also many reconnaissance
elements lost at sea or compromised by daylight because they could not make headway
against contrary currents. Many of these operational disasters could have been avoided
with proper prior planning. Environmental conditions can affect every operation in a
positive or negative manner. The height of the tide and the speed and direction of the
tidal current can impede or halt a waterborne operation. These two elements require
the detachment to properly conduct mission planning to ensure a positive impact. For
operational teams to be successful, the height, direction, and speed of the tide must be
compatible with the chosen infiltration method and must coincide with the hours of
darkness. Adverse environmental elements can pose immediate threats to the
8-12
8-13
Stand
Mean Low
Lower Low Water
UNCLASSIFIED
8.2.1.1.3.5 Spring tides occur near the time of full moon and new moon, when the
sun and moon act together to produce tides higher and lower than average. When
the moon is in its first or last quarter, it and the sun are opposed to each other, and
neap tides of less than average range occur. (See Figure 8.4, Neap and Spring
Tides.)
8.2.1.1.3.6 Tides at a particular location are classified as one of three types:
semidiurnal, diurnal, or mixed. In the semidiurnal tide, there are two high and two
low waters each tidal day, with relatively small inequality in the high- and
low-water heights. Tides on the Atlantic coast of the United States are
representative of the semidiurnal type.
8.2.1.1.3.7 In the diurnal tide, only one high and low tide (diurnal tide) occur
each tidal day. These tides occur along the north coast of the Gulf of Mexico, in
the Java Sea, in the Gulf of Tonkin (off the Vietnam-China coast), and in a few
other localities.
8-14
Sun
Neap
Tides
Tide
Pattern
Last Quarter Moon
Sun
Spring
Tides
Full
Moon
New
Moon
UNCLASSIFIED
8.2.1.1.3.8 In the mixed type of tide, the diurnal and semidiurnal oscillations are
both important factors, and the tide is characterized by a large inequality in the high
water heights, low water heights, or in both. There are usually two high and two
low waters each day (semidiurnal), but occasionally the tide may become diurnal.
Such tides are prevalent along the Pacific coast of the United States and in many
other parts of the world. Where an inequality in the heights of high or low tides
exists, the higher (or lower) of the two tides will be referred to as higher high water
(or lower low water). Nautical charts in areas affected by mixed tides normally use
this information to determine the depth or overhead obstruction datum.
8.2.1.1.3.9 A tidal datum is a level from which heights and depths are measured.
Because water depths (soundings) measured during the initial charting of an area
vary with tidal conditions, all soundings are converted to a common chart sounding
datum. There are a number of such levels that are important to the mariner.
8.2.1.1.3.10 Detachment personnel should already be familiar with the tiny figures
that indicate depth of water on a nautical chart. It is important to remember that
mean low water is only an average of the various depths actually sounded in one
particular area at low water during the survey. When working in shallow water
areas, the navigator should know the minimum depth of water the vessel will pass
through. Depth varies with stages of the tide. The actual water level at low water
may be above or below mean low water at different times because of the height of
tide. The charted depth, shown by one of the small figures on the chart, is an
8-15
average. It does not indicate the lowest depth to be found at all times at that
particular point.
8.2.1.1.3.11 The charted depth is the vertical distance from the reference plane,
called datum, on which soundings are based (usually, but not always, mean low
water), to the ocean bottom. As discussed earlier, the actual depth of water can be
less than the charted depth or below the reference plane. This number is shown by
a minus (-) sign placed before the height of tide in the tide tables. The depth of
water is equal to the algebraic sum of the charted depth and the height of tide.
8.2.1.1.3.12 Frequently, operations take place near reefs, rocks, shallows, flats,
sandbars, or shoals. Navigators should use the tide tables to determine the actual
depth of the water at a particular time and place. As a further safety measure, a
lead line is a valuable adjunct.
8.2.1.1.3.13 Currently, charts are being changed to use mean lower low water as
datum. Mean lower low water is the average of the lowest of the low waters each
day and can differ significantly from mean low water
8.2.1.1.4 Currents. As discussed earlier, tide is the vertical rise and fall of the
oceans water level caused by the attraction of the sun and moon. A tidal current is the
result of a tide. Tidal current is the horizontal motion of water resulting from the
vertical motion caused by a tide, distinguished them from ocean or river currents or
from those created by the wind. Tidal currents are of particular concern in small-boat
operations.
8.2.1.1.4.1 Flood Current. The horizontal motion of water toward the land
caused by a rising tide is called flood current. The horizontal motion away from the
land caused by a falling tide is known as ebb current. Between these two, while the
current is changing direction, is a brief period when no horizontal motion is
perceptible. This time is called slack water.
8.2.1.1.4.2 Ebb. An outgoing or ebb current running across a bar builds up a
more intense sea than the incoming or flood current. This sea results from the rush
of water out against the incoming ground swell that slows the wave speed and
steepens the wave prematurely.
8.2.1.1.4.3 Longshore. Some currents run parallel to the shore and inside the
breakers. The water the waves carry to the beach causes these currents. They are
called longshore currents. A navigator should pay close attention to this type of
current because it can cause his boat to broach (capsize), or cause an object that he
is searching for to move farther than he would expect.
8.2.1.1.4.4 Currents Affect Boat Speed. When going with the current, the boats
speed over the ground is faster than the speed or revolutions per minute (rpm)
indication. The effect is the same as that experienced by an aircraft affected by
head or tail winds. When going against the current, the boats speed over the
ground is slower than the speed or rpm indication.
8-16
8-17
8.2.1.1.4.12 Flood direction is the approximate true direction toward which the
flooding current flows. Ebb direction is generally close to the reciprocal of the
flood direction. Average flood and ebb speeds are averages of all the flood and ebb
currents. Tidal Current Table 3 is similar to Table 3 of the Tide Tables. It is used
to find current speed at a specific time.
8.2.1.1.4.13 Actual conditions often vary considerably from those predicted in the
Tide Tables and the Tidal Current Tables. Changes in wind force and direction or
in atmospheric pressure produce changes in ocean water level, especially the
high-water height. For instance, the hurricane that struck the New England coast in
September 1938 piled up a huge wall of water in Narragansett Bay. This wall of
water increased to such a point that it became a huge storm wave when it struck the
city of Providence. Generally, with an onshore wind or a low barometer, the
high-water and low-water heights are higher than the predicted heights. With a
high barometer or offshore wind, those heights are usually lower than predicted.
8.2.1.1.4.14 When working with the tidal current tables, the navigator should
always remember that the actual times of slack or strength of current may
sometimes differ from the predicted times by as much as .5 hour. On rare
occasions, the difference may be as much as 1 hour. However, comparison
between predicted and observed slack times shows that more than 90 percent of
slack water predictions are accurate to within .5 hour. Thus, to fully take advantage
of a favorable current or slack water, the navigator should plan to reach an entrance
or strait at least .5 hour before the predicted time.
8.2.1.1.4.15 Tidal current calculations are by far the most critical factor pertaining
to environmental conditions. The entire waterborne operation can be jeopardized
without precise knowledge of the speed and direction of the tidal current. For
example, a 1-knot ebb tidal current will halt any forward movement of a combat
swimmer in the water. Even a 0.5-knot current will cause excessive fatigue on a
combat swimmer.
8.2.1.1.4.16 The predicted slacks and strengths given in tidal current tables refer to
the horizontal motion of water, not to the vertical height of the tide. Therefore, it is
important to compute both tide height and tidal current to gain a complete picture
of the tidal forces in the chosen AO.
8.2.1.1.4.17 The graphical method of depicting the tide and current predictions is
an excellent tool for extended calculations. It provides a complete visual picture of
the tidal forces during the operational time period.
8.2.1.1.5 Lighting. A team member can judge the distance from a thunderstorm by
knowing that light travels at about 186,000 miles per second and sound at about 1,100
feet per second (or about 1 mile in 5 seconds). If the member times how long the sound
of the thunder takes to reach the members after seeing the lightning flash, the distance
to the storm can be roughly estimated. (Counting ONE THOUSAND ONE, ONE
THOUSAND TWO, ONE THOUSAND THREE will aid the member in counting
seconds.) Detachment personnel should reduce their exposure or risk of being struck
by lightening by getting out of or off of the water and seeking shelter.
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Wind
Range
(knots)
Sea Indications
Wave
Height (feet)
0
1 to 3
0.25
4 to 6
7 to 10
11 to 16
3.5 to 5
17 to 21
6 to 8
22 to 27
9.5 to 13
28 to 33
13.5 to 19
34 to 40
18 to 25
41 to 47
23 to 32
10
48 to 55
29 to 41
0.5 to 1
2 to 3
8.2.1.2.4 Life Forms. RTs can encounter a wide variety of life forms. These life
forms can produce a wide range of hazards through biting, stinging, and poisoning.
For more information refer to AFR 64-4, Search and Rescue Survival Training.
8.2.2 Environmental Effects on Equipment.
8.2.2.1 Unless small-boat operators have a compelling reason to go out in dense fog, they
should not do so. If fog seems to be developing, they should try to run in ahead of it. The
small boat operating on larger bodies of water or oceans should always maintain a running
dead reckoning (DR) plot. If, for some reason, no plot has been maintained and fog rolls
in, the boat operator should attempt to get a position-fix immediately. With an accurate
heading to port and an accurate knowledge of speed over the bottom, it is possible to plot
a course back home.
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WARNING: If equipment is tethered to the swimmer, a quick release must be included to allow
release if equipment becomes negatively buoyant and sinks.
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8.3 Jungle Combat Operations. Operations in dense jungle increase the importance of RT
members acting in their ground-air role due to the restrictions in air to ground observation.
Successful accomplishment of ground missions in the jungle require high levels of team member
tactical team proficiency and operational support. A team member who is not familiar with the
jungle may be apprehensive when faced with the prospect of living and fighting in the jungle
environment. RT members must understand that with thorough training and acclimation, the
jungle is less hazardous than other types of climates. The more knowledge a team member
acquires, the more team member will respect the jungle and be able to operate more effectively.
Detailed information on Jungle operations can be found in Army FM 90-5, Jungle Operations, as
well as AFI 16-1202, Pararescue Operations, Techniques, and Procedures.
8.3.1 Purpose. The purpose of this section is to establish guidance and outline general
consideration for employment of a recovery team (RT) in a jungle environment. It should be
remembered that situations will be encountered that have not been addressed in previously.
Jungle operations will require flexibility in the planning and conduct of specific operations.
8.3.1.1 Environmental Considerations. The jungle environment includes densely
forested areas, grasslands, cultivated areas, and swamps. Jungles are classified as primary
or secondary jungles based on the terrain, climate, and vegetation. Since the jungle
environment includes multiple variations on terrain, climate, and life forms, it is easier for
the team member to break it down into the primary and secondary jungles.
8.3.1.1.1 Primary Jungles. These are tropical forests. Depending on the type of trees
growing in these forests, primary jungles are classified either as tropical rain forests or
as deciduous forests.
8.3.1.1.1.1 Tropical Rain Forests. These consist mostly of large trees whose
branches spread and lock together to form canopies. These canopies, which can
exist at two or three different levels, may form as low as 10 meters from the
ground. The canopies prevent sunlight from reaching the ground, causing a lack of
undergrowth on the jungle floor. Extensive above ground root systems and
hanging vines are common. These conditions, combined with a wet and soggy
surface, make vehicular traffic difficult. Foot movement is easier in tropical rain
forests than in other types of jungle. Except where felled trees or construction
make a gap in the canopy of the rain forest, observation from the air is nearly
impossible. Ground observation is generally limited to about 50 meters (55 yards).
(See Figure 8.5, Tropical Rain Forest)
8.3.1.1.1.2 Deciduous Forests. These are found in semitropical zones where
there are both wet and dry seasons. In the wet season, trees are fully leaved; in the
dry season, much of the foliage dies. Trees are generally less dense in deciduous
forests than in rain forests. This allows more rain and sunlight to filter to the
ground, producing thick undergrowth. In the wet season, with the trees in full leaf,
observation both from the air and on the ground is limited. Movement is more
difficult than in the rain forest. In the dry season, however, conditions for
observation and traffic flow improve. (See Figure 8.6, Deciduous Forests.)
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UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 8.6 Deciduous Forests.
Deciduous Forest
UNCLASSIFIED
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8.3.1.1.2 Secondary Jungles. These are found at the edge of the rain forest and the
deciduous forest, and in areas where jungles have been cleared and abandoned.
Secondary jungles appear when the ground has been repeatedly exposed to sunlight.
These areas are typically overgrown with weeds, grasses, thorns, ferns, canes, and
shrubs. Foot movement is extremely slow and difficult. (See Figure 8.7, Secondary
Jungles.)
Figure 8.7 Secondary Jungles.
Secondary Jungle
UNCLASSIFIED
8.3.1.1.2.1 Swamps. These are common to all low jungle areas where there is
water and poor drainage. There are two basic types of swampsmangrove and
palm.
8.3.1.1.2.1.1 Mangrove Swamps. These are found in coastal areas wherever
tides influence water flow. The mangrove is a shrub-like tree which grows 1 to
5 meters high. These trees have tangled root systems, both above and below
the water level, which restrict movement to foot or small boats. Observation in
mangrove swamps, both on the ground and from the air, is poor. Concealment
is excellent. (See Figure 8.8, Mangrove Swamps.)
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Mangrove Swamp
UNCLASSIFIED
8.3.1.1.2.1.2 Palm Swamps. These exist in both salt and fresh water areas.
Like movement in the mangrove swamps, movement through palm swamps is
mostly restricted to foot (sometimes small boats). Vehicular traffic is nearly
impossible except after extensive road construction by engineers. Observation
and fields-of-fire are very limited. Concealment from both air and ground
observation is excellent. (See Figure 8.9, Palm Swamps)
8.3.1.1.2.2 Savanna. This is broad, open jungle grassland in which trees are
scarce. The thick grass is broad bladed and grows 1 to 5 meters high. Movement in
the savanna is generally easier than in other types of jungle areas, especially for
vehicles. The sharp-edged, dense grass and extreme heat make foot movement a
slow and tiring process. Depending on the height of the grass, ground observation
may vary from poor to good. Concealment from air observation is poor for both
troops and vehicles. (See Figure 8.10, Savanna)
8.3.1.1.2.3 Bamboo Forest. This grows in clumps of varying size in jungles
throughout the tropics. Large stands of bamboo are excellent obstacles for wheeled
or tracked vehicles. Troop movement through bamboo is slow, exhausting, and
noisy. Troops should bypass bamboo stands if possible. (See Figure 8.11,
Bamboo Forests.)
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Palm Swamp
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 8.10 Savanna..
Savanna
UNCLASSIFIED
8-26
Bamboo
UNCLASSIFIED
8.3.1.1.2.4 Cultivated Areas. These exist in jungles throughout the tropics and
range from large, well-planned and well managed farms and plantations to small
tracts cultivated by individual farmers. There are three general types of cultivated
areasrice paddies, plantations, and small farms.
8.3.1.1.2.5 Rice Paddies. These are flat, flooded fields in which rice is grown.
Flooding of the fields is controlled by a network of dikes and irrigation ditches
which make movement by vehicles difficult even when the fields are dry.
Concealment is poor in rice paddies. Cover is limited to the dikes, and then only
from ground fire. Observation and fields of fire are excellent. Foot movement is
poor when the fields are wet because team members must wade through water
about 0.5-meter (2 feet) deep and soft mud. When the fields are dry, foot
movement becomes easier. The dikes, about 2 to 3 meters tall, are the only
obstacles. (See Figure 8.12, Rice Paddies.)
8.3.1.1.2.6 Plantations. These are large farms or estates where tree crops, such
as rubber and coconut, are grown. They are usually carefully planned and free of
undergrowth (like a well tended park). Movement through plantations is generally
easy. Observation along the rows of trees is generally good. Concealment and
cover can be found behind the trees, but team members moving down the
cultivated rows are exposed. (See Figure 8.13, Plantations.)
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Rice Paddies
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 8.13 Plantations.
Plantations
UNCLASSIFIED
8-28
Small Farms
UNCLASSIFIED
8.3.1.1.3 Climate. The discomforts of tropical climates are often exaggerated, but it
is true that the heat is more persistent. In regions where the air contains a lot of
moisture, the effect of the heat may seem worse than the same temperature in a dry
climate. Many people experienced in jungle operations feel that the heat and
discomfort in some US cities in the summertime are worse than the climate in the
jungle.
8.3.1.1.3.1 Strange as it may seem, there may be more suffering from cold in the
tropics than from the heat. Of course, very low temperatures do not occur, but
chilly days and nights are common. In some jungles, in winter months, the nights
are cold enough to require a wool blanket or poncho liner for sleeping.
8.3.1.1.3.2 Rainfall in many parts of the tropics is much greater than that in most
areas of the temperate zones. Tropical downpours usually are followed by clear
skies, and in most places the rains are predictable at certain times of the day.
Except in those areas where rainfall may be continuous during the rainy season,
there are not many days when the sun does not shine part of the time. People who
8-29
live in the tropics usually plan their activities so that they are able to stay under
shelter during the rainy and hotter portions of the day. After becoming used to it,
most tropical dwellers prefer the constant climate of the torrid zones to the frequent
weather changes in colder climates.
8.3.1.1.4 Life Forms. Life form consist of plant, animal, insect, and indigenous
personnel.
8.3.1.1.4.1 Vegetation. Trees interconnected by a network of thick vines are the
principle identifying features of a jungle. Primarily responsible for the lushness of
the vegetation is a combination of high temperature and relative humidity
throughout the year and a heavy annual rainfall. Much of this rainfall is in the form
of torrential showers, the runoff from which causes flash floods and scours the
stream courses. As a result, most jungle areas are cut by many steep-sided gullies.
Another important consideration in the jungle is the absence of moving air, a factor
which makes conditions extremely uncomfortable. These are the characteristics
that prevail in all jungles, but not all jungles provide the same operational
environment.
8.3.1.1.4.1.1 Poisonous Vegetation. Nettles, particularly tree nettles, are one
of the dangerous items of vegetation. These nettles have a severe stinging that
will quickly educate the victim to recognize the plant. There are ringas trees in
Malaysia which affect some people in much the same way as poison oak. The
poison ivy and poison sumac of the continental US can cause many of the same
type troubles that may be experienced in the jungle. The danger from poisonous
plants in the woods of the US eastern seaboard is similar to that of the tropics.
8.3.1.1.4.1.2 Thorny thickets, such as rattan, should be avoided as one would
avoid a blackberry patch. Some of the dangers associated with poisonous
vegetation can be avoided by keeping sleeves down and wearing gloves when
practical.
8.3.1.1.4.2 Indigenous Personnel. Like all other regions of the world, the jungle
also has its native inhabitants. Team members should be aware that some of these
native tribes can be hostile if not treated properly. There may be occasions,
however, when hostile tribes attack without provocation. If they attack, a small
force should be able to disperse them.
8.3.1.1.4.3 To prevent a conflict, leaders should ensure that their team members:
Respect the natives' privacy and personal property.
Observe the local customs and taboos.
Do not enter a native house without being invited.
Do not pick fruits or cut trees without permission of their owners.
Treat the natives as friends.
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8.3.1.2.7 Personnel operating in the jungle should watch for leeches on the body and
brush them off before they have had time to bite. When they have taken hold, they
should not be pulled off forcibly because part of the leech may remain in the skin.
Leeches will release themselves if touched with insect repellent, a moist piece of
tobacco, the burning end of a cigarette, a coal from a fire, or a few drops of alcohol.
Straps wrapped around the lower part of the legs (leech straps) will prevent leeches
from crawling up the legs and into the crotch area. Trousers should be securely tucked
into the boots. (See Figure 8.15, Leech Straps.)
Figure 8.15 Leech Straps.
Leech Straps
UNCLASSIFIED
8.3.1.2.8 Snakes. A soldier in the jungle probably will see very few snakes. When he
does see one, the snake most likely will be making every effort to escape. Most jungle
areas pose less of a snakebite danger than do the uninhabited areas of New Mexico,
Florida, or Texas. This does not mean that team members should be careless about the
possibility of snakebites, but ordinary precautions against them are enough. Team
members should be particularly watchful when clearing ground. Treat all snakebites
as poisonous.
8.3.1.3 Health and Hygiene. The climate in tropical areas and the absence of sanitation
facilities increase the chance that team members may contract a disease. Disease is
fought with good sanitation practices and preventive medicine. In past wars, diseases
accounted for a significantly high percentage of casualties. Before going into a jungle
area, leaders must:
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8-33
8.3.1.7 Operations. Observation. All movements of animals and men are marked by
tracks and signs. Team members must learn to read signs left in soft ground, in
streambeds, on roads and trails, and near watering places and salt licks. Animals seldom
move without a reason; a few fresh tracks supply information about their maker, the
direction, and probable intentions. Animals avoid people. The animals, their tracks, and
their behavior can reveal whether or not people are in the area. Jungle fighters can listen
to the cries of animals and learn to recognize their alarm calls. The ability to track and to
recognize signs in the jungle are valuable skills. Throughout the time in the jungle, the
fighter should practice these skills.
8.3.1.7.1 Observation and Fields of Fire. In dense jungle, observation and fields of
fire are limited by the undergrowth. In the other rain forests, however, although good
observation into the forest from the outside or above may be nonexistent, it is possible
to have fair observation and good fields of fire for a reasonable distance at ground
level. This condition exists where the branches of tall trees interlace to form a canopy
through which few sunrays penetrate, thereby prohibiting the growth of grass, bushes,
or other foliage. Where old forests have burned or have been destroyed, the resulting
tangle or undergrowth seriously limits both observation and fields of fire. In open
areas, observation and fields of fire may be limited by the height of the jungle grass,
which sometimes grows several feet over a persons head.
8.3.1.7.2 Restrictions. Generally, observation and fields of fire are less restricted in
cultivated areas than in uncultivated jungles. However, much of the natural cover and
concealment are removed by cultivation, and troops will be more exposed in these
areas.
8.3.1.7.3 Planning Use of Time. A team planning for jungle operations follows the
same planning sequence as in any other type of combat operation. In planning the use
of available time, leaders must consider that many tasks in the jungle take more time
than the same tasks in other environments. More time must be allowed for movement
and security. This means that units may have to begin movements earlier in order to
accomplish their missions within a specified time. This may leave less time for
planning and preparation.
8.3.1.7.4 Recovered IPs. Individuals accompanying team member elements need to
maintain the same rate of movement as the rest of the team. However, they may not be
as well equipped for long ground movement as the team member team (i.e., standard
issue aircrew boots) and should be allowed sufficient time for food, water, and rest.
8.3.1.7.5 Communications. In general, radio communications are adversely affected
by thick vegetation, multiple tree canopies, and mountainous terrain. Prior thought
should be given to site selection when trying to establish SATCOM; openings in the
canopy that are not blocked by a ridgeline in the desired direction of the antennas will
assist in acquiring positive communications. Consider constructing a field expedient
antenna and hoisting it up to a tree limb to improve degraded communications in the
other bandwidths.
8.3.1.7.6 Obstacles. Many natural obstacles exist within the various types of jungle
area. In the older forests there is generally no obstacle to foot movement other than
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8-36
8.4.2.1.2 Strip areas (industrialized zones built along roads connecting towns
or cities).
8.4.2.1.3 Towns or small cities (populations of up to 100,000 and not part of a major
urban complex).
8.4.2.1.4 Large cities with associated urban sprawl (populations in the millions,
covering hundreds of square kilometers).
8.4.2.1.5 Cities. Cities are centers of finance, politics, transportation, communication,
industry, and culture. They generally have large population concentrations ranging
from tens of thousands to millions of people. Because of their psychological, political,
or logistical value, control of cities have often been the scenes of pitched battles.
Operations in built-up areas are normally conducted to capitalize on the operational or
tactical significance of a particular city. In developing nations, control of only a few
cities is often the key to the control of national resources. The side that controls a
major city usually has a psychological advantage, which can be enough to significantly
affect the outcome of a countrywide conflict. The abundance of guerrilla and terrorist
operations conducted in built-up areas demonstrates the importance many insurgent
groups place on urban warfare. In the past 40 years, many cities have expanded
dramatically, losing their well-defined boundaries as they extended into the
countryside. New transportation systems (highways, canals, and railroads) have been
built to connect population centers. Industries have grown along those connectors,
creating strip areas. Rural areas, although retaining much of their farm like character,
are connected to the towns by a network of secondary roads.
8.4.2.2 Characteristics of Urbanized Areas. A typical urban area consists of
combinations of the city core, commercial ribbon, core periphery, residential sprawl,
outlying industrial areas, and outlying high-rise areas. Each of the urban areas regions
has distinctive characteristics that may weigh heavily in planning for MOUT. (Most
urbanized areas resemble the generalized model shown in Figure 8.16, Typical Urban
Area.)
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Commercial
Ribbon
Residential
Sprawl
Outlying Industrial
Area
Core
Periphery
City Core
Outlying High Rise
Areas
Core
Periphery
UNCLASSIFIED
8.4.2.2.1 City Core. In most cities, the city core has undergone more recent
development than the core periphery. As a result, the two regions are often quite
different. Typical city cores are made up of high-rise buildings which vary in height.
Modern urban planning for built-up areas allows for more open spaces between
buildings than in old city cores or in core peripheries. (See Figure 8.17, City Core.)
8.4.2.2.2 Commercial Ribbon. Commercial ribbons are composed of rows of stores,
shops, and restaurants that are built along both sides of major streets through built-up
areas. Typically, such streets are 25 meters wide or more. The buildings in the outer
areas are uniformly two to three stories tallabout one story taller than the dwellings
on the streets behind them.
8.4.2.2.3 Core Periphery. The core periphery generally consists of streets 12 to 20
meters wide with continuous fronts of brick or concrete buildings. The building
heights are fairly uniformtwo or three stories in small towns, five to ten or more
stories in large cities. (See Figure 8.18, Core Periphery.)
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City Core
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 8.18 Core Periphery.
Core Periphery
UNCLASSIFIED
8-39
8.4.2.2.4 Residential Sprawl. Residential sprawl areas consist mainly of low houses
or apartments that are one to three stories tall. The area is primarily composed of
detached dwellings that are usually arranged in irregular patterns along streets, with
many smaller open areas between structures.
8.4.2.2.5 Outlying Industrial Areas. These areas generally consist of clusters of
industrial buildings varying from one to five stories in height. Buildings generally
vary dramatically in size and composition to match the needs of the particular
businesses they house. Industrial parks are good examples of this category. (See
Figure 8.19, Outlying Industrial Areas.)
8.4.2.2.6 Outlying High-Rise Areas. These areas are similar in composition to city
core areas but may be composed of clusters of more modern multistory high-rise
buildings in outlying parts of the city. Building height and size may vary dramatically.
Generally, there is more open space between buildings located in the outlying high-rise
areas than is found within the city core area.
8.4.2.3 Urban Battlespace. Urbanized terrain is a unique battlespace that provides both
attacker and defender with numerous and varied avenues of approach and fields of fire.
The urban battlespace is divided into four basic levels: building, street, subterranean, and
air. Operations can be conducted from above ground, on ground level, inside buildings, or
below the ground. Most operations will include fighting on all levels simultaneously.
(See Figure 8.20, Urban Battlespace.)
8.4.2.3.1 Building Level. Buildings provide cover and concealment; limit or increase
fields of observation and fire; and canalize, restrict, or block movement of forces,
especially mechanized forces. They provide optimum perches for sniper and anti-air
weapons. Buildings also provide anti-tank weapons optimum positioning to allow
engagement from above, exploiting an inherent weakness found in most armored
vehicles.
8.4.2.3.2 Street Level. While streets provide the means for rapid advance or
withdrawal, forces moving along streets are often canalized by buildings and have little
space for off-road maneuver. Because they are more difficult to bypass, obstacles on
streets in urbanized areas are usually more effective than those on roads in open
terrain.
8.4.2.3.3 Subterranean Level. Subterranean systems are easily overlooked but can
be important to the outcome of operations. These areas may be substantial and include
subways, sewers, cellars, and utility systems. The city of Los Angeles alone has more
than 200 miles of storm sewers located under the city streets. Both attacker and
defender can use subterranean avenues to maneuver to the rear or the flanks of an
enemy. These avenues also facilitate the conduct of ambushes, counterattacks, and
infiltrations.
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UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 8.20 Urban Battlespace.
Urban Battlespace
Airspace
Intrasurface
(inside building)
Supersurface
(top of building)
Surface (street)
Cutaway Views
Subway
Subsurface (subterranean)
UNCLASSIFIED
8-41
8.4.2.3.4 Air Level. The air provides another avenue of approach in urbanized areas.
Aviation assets can be used for high speed insertion or extraction of troops, supplies,
and equipment. While aviation assets are not affected by obstacles on the streets, they
are affected by light towers, signs, power lines, and other aerial obstructions. They are
also vulnerable to the man-portable surface-to-air missile threat, crew-served weapons,
and small arms fire.
8.4.2.4 Life Forms. The following are definitions of the classifications of personnel that
may be encountered in the urban battlefield.
8.4.2.4.1 Combatants. Combatants are uniformed enemy forces and other
individuals who take an active part in the hostilities in a way that poses a direct threat
to US personnel.
8.4.2.4.2 Noncombatants. Noncombatants are civilians in the area of operations
who are not armed and are not taking an active part in the hostilities in a way that poses
a direct threat to US personnel. Noncombatants can include refugees, local inhabitants
affected by operations, civilian personnel belonging to US governmental agencies,
civilian personnel from NGOs, and media personnel. Military chaplains, medical
personnel, prisoners of war, and the wounded and sick are also noncombatants.
8.4.2.4.3 Prisoners of War. A prisoner of war (POW) is an individual, such as a
member of the armed forces or militia, a person who accompanies the armed forces
without being a member, or other category of person defined in the Geneva
Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, who has fallen into the
power of the enemy.
8.4.2.4.4 Detained Personnel. A detained person is any individual who is in custody
for committing hostile acts against US forces or committing serious criminal acts.
8.4.2.4.5 Dislocated Civilian. This is a broad term that includes a displaced person,
an evacuee, an expellee, or a refugee.
8.4.2.4.6 Displaced Person. A displaced person is a civilian who is involuntarily
outside the national boundaries of the persons country.
8.4.2.4.7 Evacuee. An evacuee is a civilian removed from a place of residence by
military direction for reasons of personal security or the requirements of the military
situation.
8.4.2.4.8 Expellee. An expellee is a civilian outside the boundaries of the country of
the persons nationality or ethnic origin who is being forcibly repatriated to that
country or to a third country for political or other purposes.
8.4.2.4.9 Refugee. A refugee is a civilian who, by reason of real or imagined danger,
has left home to seek safety elsewhere.
8.4.2.5 Encounters with Noncombatants. Unless combat has been taking place in an
urban area for an extended period of time, units will encounter large numbers of
noncombatants. Noncombatants may be encountered during offensive operations as a
result of clearing buildings and city blocks or when preparing for defensive operations.
The nature of stability and support operations will most likely result in having to deal with
8-42
NOTE: Experience in Somalia has shown that noncombatants can be hostile, friendly, or neutral.
Hostile noncombatants do not necessarily become detained personnel if they are not perceived as
a threat to friendly forces. For example, political opponents of US involvement may be hostile
towards the US military presence but do not pose a threat to US forces.
8.4.2.5.1 Noncombatants and Rules of Engagement. All team leaders and members
must understand the potential urban battlefield and the fact that they will most likely
encounter noncombatants. If you must deal with noncombatants, refer to the ROE.
ROE should be very specific on the treatment of each type of noncombatant.
8.4.2.6 Communication with Civilians. Learn basic commands and phrases in the
language most common to the area of operations. When giving these commands or
phrases, speak loudly and clearly at a normal rate and use gestures whenever possible. All
team members should be given a basic language translation card and carry it in an
accessible location. (See Table 8.2, Example of Basic Language Translation Card.)
Table 8.2 Example of Basic Language Translation Card.
English Word or Phrase
HALT
WHAT IS YOUR NAME?
STAND UP
WALK
SIT DOWN
YOU WILL BE SEARCHED NOW
DON'T TALK
YES
NO
NOT PERMITTED
MEDICAL AID
FOOD
WATER
USE THE LATRINE?
Pronunciation
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8.4.2.7 Cultural Issues. Team members must be educated on the types of cultural issues
that may offend the local inhabitants. For example, a gesture that may be innocent to
Americans may deeply insult the inhabitants.
8.4.2.8 Considerations for Handling Noncombatants. If the mission involves handling
noncombatants, team leaders should consider using civil affairs, psychological operations,
military police and civil leaders and authorities. Other considerations include the
following:
8.4.2.8.1 Carefully analyze the ROE concerning when deadly force can be used and
what type of weapons may be employed (e.g., using lethal as opposed to non-lethal
weapons and capabilities).
8.4.2.8.2 Do not assume that noncombatants will be predisposed for or against US
forces. Always treat civilians with dignity and respect. Use force against civilians
only in self-defense or, otherwise, in accordance with the ROE. Detain civilians only
in accordance with command directives.
8.4.2.8.3 When maneuver units conduct offensive operations, they plan to move
noncombatants away from the engagement. Normally this task will be given to a
support element after rooms and buildings have been secured. When available,
supporting organizations assist with this task. A covered and concealed location away
from the immediate combat area should be chosen. Noncombatants should be
controlled and not permitted to enter the immediate combat area, unless they have been
cleared to do so and will not compromise combat operation (i.e., media personnel,
governmental, or NGO personnel that have a reason and authority to enter the combat
area).
8.4.2.8.4 When maneuver units conduct defensive operations, they plan to move
noncombatants away from the immediate combat area. Companies and below
normally escort personnel to a designated location where they are turned over to civil
authority, battalion, or higher control. In many cases, friendly or non-hostile civilians
may be directed to a clearing point and allowed to go there without escort.
8.4.2.8.5 Security is not normally provided for media or NGO personnel if they are
permitted in the immediate combat area. Security requirements for civilians should be
clarified at the mission briefing.
8.4.2.9 Humanitarian Aid. As in example of the United Nations Embassy bombing in
Baghdad, team members may have to render some type of immediate humanitarian
assistance (medical attention and feeding). Any plan that provides for the provision of
medical care to the civilian population must be developed in conjunction with the staff
judge advocate. If this type of assistance is necessary, clarify questions in the mission
briefing.
8.4.2.10 Determining the Status of Personnel. Recovery teams do not determine the
status of individuals in the combat area. Any persons that are initially detained should be
treated as POWs, and higher authorities should be notified with a request for assistance in
evacuating these individuals.
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8.4.3 Operations.
8.4.3.1 General Weapons Considerations. The characteristics and nature of combat in
urban areas affect the employment of weapons. Leaders at all levels must consider the
following considerations in various combinations when choosing their weapons.
8.4.3.1.1 Hard, smooth, flat surfaces are characteristic of urban targets. Rounds rarely
impact perpendicular to these flat surfaces, but rather, at an oblique angle. This reduces
the effect of a round and increases the threat of ricochets. The tendency of rounds to
strike glancing blows against hard surfaces means that up to 25 percent of
impact-fused explosive rounds may not detonate when fired into urban areas.
8.4.3.1.2 Deflected rounds can easily ricochet or rabbit causing injury and death from
strange angles. A rabbit round is a round or fragment that strikes a surface at such a
steep angle that it glances off and continues to travel parallel to that surface.
8.4.3.1.3 Engagement ranges are close. Studies and historical analyses have shown
that only 5 percent of all targets are more than 100 meters away. About 90 percent of
all targets are located 50 meters or less from the identifying combatant. Few personnel
targets will be visible beyond 50 meters and they usually occur at 35 meters or less.
Engagement times are short. Enemy personnel present only fleeting targets.
8.4.3.1.4 Depression and elevation limits for some weapons create dead space. Tall
buildings form deep canyons that are often safe from indirect fires. Some weapons can
fire rounds to ricochet behind cover and inflict casualties. Target engagement from
oblique angles, both horizontal and vertical, demands superior combat marksmanship
skills.
8.4.3.1.5 Smoke from burning buildings, dust from explosions, shadows from tall
buildings, and the lack of light penetrating inner rooms all combine to reduce visibility
and increase a sense of isolation. Added to this is the masking of fires caused by rubble
and man-made structures. Targets, even those at close range, tend to be indistinct.
8.4.3.2 Situational Awareness. Urban fighting can become confused melees with several
small units attacking on converging axes. The risks from friendly fires, ricochets, and
fratricide must be considered during the planning phase of operations, and control
measures must be adjusted to lower these risks. Team leaders and members must maintain
a sense of situational awareness.
8.4.3.2.1 The team member and target may be inside or outside buildings, or they may
both be inside the same or separate buildings. The enclosed nature of combat in urban
areas means that all the weapons effects including the muzzle blast and backblast, must
be considered as well as the rounds impact on the target.
8.4.3.2.2 Usually the man-made structure must be attacked before enemy personnel
inside are attacked. Therefore, the decision to employ specific weapons and
demolitions will often be based on their effects against masonry and concrete rather
than against enemy personnel.
8.4.3.2.3 Modern engineering and design improvements mean that most large
buildings constructed since World War II are resilient to the blast effects of bomb and
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artillery attack. Even though modern buildings may burn easily, they often retain their
structural integrity and remain standing. Once high-rise buildings burn out, they may
still have military utility and are almost impossible to damage further. A large
structure can take 24 to 48 hours to burn out and become cool enough for soldiers to
enter.
8.5 Mountain Combat Operations. Mountain combat rescue encompasses operations in
extremely rugged and high-angle terrain where conditions require modification of pararescue
organization, training, equipment, and tactics. This section provides the recovery team (RT) with
information on TTP employed during the prosecution of operations in mountainous terrain.
Mountain combat operations is categorized in terms of mountainous and/or alpine operations.
Additional information can be found in TC 90-6-1, Military Mountaineering, as well as numerous
excellent civilian texts.
8.5.1 Mountain Operations. Mountain operations are those which can be conducted by a
RT team on or near an axis of communications in mountainous country. These operations
require specialized training to adapt the team member and the equipment to the environment;
normally, there is no involvement of advanced rock and cliff climbing nor major movement by
skis or snowshoes.
8.5.2 Alpine Operations. Operations are conducted by a RT team specially organized and
equipped for CSAR over snow-covered and/or precipitous terrain which may be inaccessible
to any other rescue personnel. Operations in alpine terrain require the highest level of rock
climbing, mountaineering, and ski employment. Expedient and efficient movement over
alpine terrain cannot be accomplished without focused training, specialized equipment, and
thoroughly detailed planning.
8.5.3 Environmental Considerations. Mountain regions have their own unique terrain,
climate and life forms.
8.5.3.1 Terrain. The planning and execution of mountain operations, associated with a
CSAR operation, require a thorough knowledge of the area of operations and the ability to
cope with the special conditions of the environment.
8.5.3.1.1 Mountains. Mountain terrain displays the resistant qualities of the rocks
from which the mountains were formed. The ridges, canyons, cliffs, and valleys are
evidence of the process of erosion. Rugged reliefwith steep slopesresults in swift
streams.
8.5.3.1.2 These heights may possess heavy woods or underbrush, rocky or
snow-covered peaks, glaciers, and snowfields characterized by erratic weather.
8.5.3.1.3
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by altitude injuries. Experience of working at high altitudes may allow RTs a chance to
see the effects. Team members should become familiar with and plan to bring drugs for the
management of high-altitude sickness when entering a mountainous area of operations.
Refer to the Pararescue Medical Procedures Handbook for a more thorough description of
altitude-related illness.
8.5.4.3 Elevation. In the mountains, elevation is not the sole indication of the degree of
difficulty encountered in such operations; the general configuration of the mountain and its
gradient is indicative of the problems to be encountered. Decreased atmospheric pressure
at altitude requires considerable acclimatization of men and animals; frequently, this
dictates major adjustments of the RT, weapons, and equipment
8.5.5 Operations. Principal effects of the mountain environment on CSAR operations are
discussed below.
8.5.5.1 Weather. Generally, the weather produced by mountain terrain is extremely
severe and subject to erratic patterns. Short-range weather forecasts normally cover 1- to
8-day periods and provide information as to the probable temperature, precipitation,
humidity, visibility, cloud conditions, and direction/velocity of the wind.
8.5.5.2 Reorganization. The degree of reorganization required to equip team members
for mountain operations depends on actual weather conditions in the projected area of
operations. Seasonal and weather conditions exercise a marked influence on the
performance of troops and equipment; mud, high water, humidity, continuous rain, fog,
cold, snowstorms, snow conditions, and numerous obstacles to fire and maneuver may
dictate some reorganization of RT elements and substitution or addition of major items of
equipment to cope with the conditions. Effects of these conditions should be anticipated
and considered in detail and the resulting problems resolved during the formulation of
CSAR plans.
8.5.5.3 Mounted. The slopes themselves often limit or prevent the movement of
mechanized or motorized means of transportation. The inaccessibility of mountain areas is
reflected in the lack of roads and railroads. Those roads and railroads which do exist are
found where passes or gaps cross the ranges. Canalization of traffic with the attendant
danger of ambush is a prime consideration in planning and conducting mountain
operations. This can be an advantage or disadvantage for the small RT team operating in
the mountains. These heights must be controlled or neutralized to permit the use of
corridor.
8.5.5.3.1 Difficulty in Movement. Mountain terrain presents great difficulties to the
movement of a RT team. Vehicular traffic is restricted to the vicinity of roads and
improved trails, thus having a direct effect on ground fire support and resupply. Fourand six-wheel ATVs as well as snow machines provide a limited yet viable
high-mobility vehicle for hilly terrain. Allocate prolonged time for team movements,
as progress is arduous and taxing on personnel and equipment. In limited visibility
where terrain navigation is not possible, it is still possible to navigate with the
compass. Team members who have acquired the proper technique for traveling in
mountains are capable of covering much greater distances than untrained troops. The
prime consideration is to conserve the individual's strength and combat efficiency.
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8.6 Cold Weather Combat Operations. The term cold weather operations, arctic operations,
and northern operations are virtually synonymous. Each refers to an area of the world where
conditions of climate and terrain require a recovery team (RT) to use special equipment and
special techniques to operate successfully. While the probability of a RT being employed in the
Arctic may be remote, it is not necessary to conduct operations in arctic areas to encounter deep
snow and extreme cold. Wherever it may be encountered, extreme cold weather presents problems
that cannot be ignored. For detailed information, Army FM 31-70, Northern Operations, and
Army FM 31-71, Basic Cold Weather Manual.
8.6.1 Purpose. This section identifies procedures for the tactical employment of RTs in an
extreme cold weather environment. The RT faces no changes in tactical doctrine or principles
for cold weather operations. The team leaders responsibilities are increased by the extremes
of the environment. Difficulties of terrain, visibility, and climate complicate command.
Maneuver, supporting fires, supply, and evacuation require detailed knowledge of the regions
to properly apply basic tactical principles. Resourceful leadership, proper training, suitable
equipment, and a positive approach to personnel recovery operations can convert natural
difficulties into relative advantages.
8.6.2 Terrain and Weather. Team members must be familiar with the great effects that
terrain and weather have in the cold weather environment.
8.6.2.1 Terrain. In subarctic regions, erosion by glaciation and weathering has produced
rugged and irregular shorelines. There are many fjords, coves, deep inlets, and offshore
islands, as well as vast areas of prairies, lakes, rivers, forests, and inland mountains. Soil
is often thin and is underlaid by permafrost or permanently frozen soil and rock. In
summer, the ground above the permafrost thaws. This produces a multitude of small
shallow lakes and ill-defined meandering streams which freeze over during the winter.
Vegetation varies from large, heavy, generally coniferous forests to scrub growth, grass,
and tundra.
8.6.2.1.1 Summer Operations. In the summer, extensive swamps, muskeg areas,
lakes, and rivers act as barriers to overland movement. This generates a requirement
for boats and rafts. In the absence of roads, maximum advantage is taken of inland
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CAUTION: Laser range finders give line of sight. Trajectory is only affected by gravity over the
horizontal distance (aiming points and data for uphill and downhill are the same).
8.6.3.1.2.2 Night Vision Devices. Use a cold weather battery adapter if equipped,
and keep spare batteries next to the body. Plastic parts become brittle; use caution
in handling. Keep them in a case, protected from snow when not in use. Light
amplification devices are more effective in snow cover because of increased
ambient light reflection.
8.6.3.1.2.3 Fogging. Use care not to unnecessarily breathe on lenses and sights to
avoid fogging of the glass. Team members who wear face masks may increase this
occurrence. Fogging is also a concern when moving from a cold environment to a
warmer environment (from outside cold air to inside a structure that has a warmer
air temperature).
8.6.3.2 Personnel. Team members ability and will to survive the cold will be enhanced
by knowing how it effects them, what they need to do to increase their survival, and how
to use their equipment to get the maximum advantage.
8.6.3.2.1 Clothing. As technology improves, efforts should be made to equip RTs
with these advanced materiels. There is a direct relationship between comfort and
performance. The uniform should be as light as possible, consistent with the weather.
A good rule of thumb is to ensure operators dress comfortably cool. Experience
should decide the amount of underclothing to be worn. Then after 10 to 15 minutes,
make a rest stop; remove unnecessary layers, and vent the neck, waist, and under the
arms to avoid overheating. Military cold weather clothing systems are designed to
change with needs of the individual. Varying the parts of the clothing system they are
using, RTs can be comfortable when performing vigorous activities in the cold if
proper principles of wear are adhered to. The basic principles for clothing worn can
be remembered by using the acronym COLD:
Ckeep clothing Clean.
Oavoid Overheating.
Lwear clothing Loose and layered.
Dkeep clothing Dry.
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8.6.3.2.1.1 Wicking Layer. This layer soaks up the body moisture and draws it
away from the body to keep it dry. Significant progress has been made with such
synthetics as polypropylene.
8.6.3.2.1.2 Insulating Layer. This is the layer that holds the warm air around the
body. Preferably, it is made of polyester pile, but wool is adequate. Although wool
is a good insulator, it is heavy and bulky.
8.6.3.2.1.3 Protective Layer. This not only protects the insulating layer from
getting dirty but also from getting wet. It should be made of wind resistant and
water repellent materiel.
8.6.3.2.1.4 Components of the Sock System. The first layer is a lightweight
single layer polypropylene sock. It should fit snugly. It is designed to wick
moisture away from the foot and prevent blisters by reducing friction. The
intermediate layer of the system is a vapor barrier sock. (This layer is only worn in
extreme cold temperature. The problem is that it also traps all of the moisture.)
This sock should be worn between the wicking and the insulating layers. This
keeps the foot warm and protects the insulating layer from perspiration. Never
wear the VB socks over the insulating socks, as it will cause the socks to become
saturated and lose its heat retention properties. Also, be careful of using the VB
sock when it is warm as it can cause blisters due to excessive sweating. The third
layer is a hook stitch pile fiber made of 50 percent wool and 50 percent
polypropylene. This combination provided the warmth needed for prolonged ski
movements and still allows the moisture to pass through the sock. When looking at
this sock one will see that there is a smooth side and a rough side. The smooth side
is worn on the inside next to the foot. Two pairs of the wicking and insulating socks
should be used. This enables the wearer to continually rotate the socks, allowing
the other pair to be dried in whatever method is available. Body heat works well.
8.6.3.2.1.5 Sizing. Proper sizing of the boot is critical. Done wrong, the operator
may suffer from blisters or frostbite. Larger boots may be required when using a
layered sock system because of bulk. RTLs must ensure boots are properly sized.
8.6.3.2.1.6 Waterproofing. There are many commercially available products that
effectively waterproof boots.
8.6.3.2.1.7 Gaiters. Gaiters can be used to keep snow and debris from entering
the boot. They also have limited insulating qualities.
8.6.3.2.1.8 Over Boots. As their name implies, over boots are worn over the
boot. The over boots are fully insulated and have a hard sole for walking. They are
worn in extreme cold weather operations.
8.6.3.2.1.9 Gloves. When operators wear mittens or heavy gloves, the speed of
handling/firing weapons is reduced. However, this is not an excuse for not wearing
hand protection. Under extreme cold, bare flesh freezes instantly to super-cooled
metals. Thin contact gloves work best for dexterity in weapons handling. For
extended operations in extreme cold, armorers should remove the trigger guards.
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canteens also help in accessing the water even when partially frozencanteen
insulators also help. Turning bottles upside down when traveling prevents water
from freezing at the top of the container. If using a camel-back type device, one
should remember to blow water back through the tube after drinking to prevent
freezing.
8.6.3.2.4 Factors Affecting Movement. Both snow and ice in cold weather regions
may affect movement. Consider the following factors:
8.6.3.2.4.1 Snow Cover. Movement in a snow-covered environment can be the
RTs worst enemy if the team does not understand track discipline. Tracks left in
snow are quite visible to both ground and air assets for great distances. Use of
existing tracks is encouraged, minding the likelihood of ambush. Traveling in a
previous units tracks minimizes evidence of recent activity and can work to help
improve deception. In open space terrain, break only one track. Follow the tree line
or natural terrain feature. Avoid dense forest, if possible. Stay at the edge of
wooded areas or in less dense portions. Use gentle traverses to ascend or descend
mountainous terrain. Once altitude is gained, follow slope contours. Avoid
avalanche-prone slopes. Frozen streams can provide excellent routes. Check ice
thickness before proceeding. Move close to a shore or bank. Bypass obstacles, if
possible.
8.6.3.2.4.2 Ice Cover. The freezing of rivers, lakes, and swamps increases
possibilities for movement. Some waterways which are obstacles in summer are
the best routes of advance and lines of communication in winter. At times, an
overcast sky and snow-covered terrain create a condition of visibility which makes
recognition of irregularities in terrain very difficult.
8.6.3.2.4.3 Unaided Foot Movement. RTs on foot cannot move easily through
fresh or powder snow which is more than 8-inches deep. At depths of over 15
inches, unaided movement becomes laborious and very tiring. In such conditions,
troops with no over-snow capability are road bound. Unable to maneuver
effectively, they are at a great disadvantage relative to troops who can move freely
over the snow.
8.6.3.2.4.4 Aided Foot Movement. In most conditions, using skis or snowshoes
can enhance individual mobility, and equipment can be carried in team sleds.
Troops can be trained to use snowshoes quite rapidly; however, their use is very
tiring and restricted by steep terrain. Use of skis gives greater speed than
snowshoes and opens up more terrain but requires more training. Ski-equipped
troops pulled behind vehicles (skijoring) can achieve considerable speed. They
arrive at their destination faster and more fit to fight than those who expended
energy on laborious foot movement do. In any movement in cold weather,
straggling cannot be tolerated for survival depends on staying with the unit.
8.6.3.2.4.5 Military Skiing. Skis are used by RTs to travel over the snow.
Military skiing is not to be confused with downhill skiing in the traditional sense.
Route selection is of the utmost importance. The goal is to move RTs safely and
efficiently to the objective. Trained pararescuemen can move as fast as men
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the temperature, they should fire the weapon dry. Malfunctions occur from too much
snow and ice in the weapon. Use gun covers, muzzle covers, and improvised materiels
to cover every access point to the weapon. Breakage occurs in the first few rounds and
at a higher rate in the cold. Fire slowly to allow the weapon to warm up. (For
automatic weapons: fire three single shots, then three short bursts, then normal bursts.)
As a result of slower burning propellants in the cold, chamber pressure and muzzle
velocity are reduced, thus decreasing the projectiles range. Cold air is denser which
increases the drag on projectiles during flight (which reduces range further). Test fire
and zero weapons frequently in the cold to maintain accuracy. Ammunition should be
kept at the same temperature as the weapon; this can effectively be accomplished
outside to prevent condensation.
8.6.3.3.5 Pistol. It is very difficult to handle with gloves or mittens, use contact gloves
only. The magazine can freeze in the magazine well. The slide can freeze and cause a
malfunction. Breakage of the firing pin and extractor or ejector can occur in extreme
cold, carry spares.
8.6.3.3.6 M4 Carbine. The M4 has a very close tolerance on its moving parts. It is
vital that the M4 be cleaned of all oil and grease and then lubricated with a light coat of
CLP/LAW. CLP is recommended for cleaning. But remember that it freezes at -35
degrees F (keep CLP next to body to keep it fluid and quickly WIP dry or clean and dry
M4 in a heated shelter). Ammunition should not be lubricated. The M4 performs well
under extreme temperature conditions, provided the magazines are free of firing
residue. Be sure to clean the tops of magazines between firing. Care must be taken not
to accidentally fire the weapon when inserting gloved fingers into the trigger guard
area. Operators should always attempt to keep the weapon dry. Under combat
conditions, it is necessary to cycle the weapon every 30 minutes to prevent freezing of
functional parts. Additionally, to ensure proper functioning, keep the insides of
magazines and ammunition wiped dry; leave weapon outside when entering a heated
shelter to prevent condensation. This is called sweating. Weapons will continue to
sweat for 1 hour. Weapons must be cleaned after an hour. If not, when the weapons are
taken back out into the cold, the condensation freezes, forming a thin film of ice that
can adversely affect the weapons operation. To prevent this problem, leave weapons
outside and protected from falling/blowing snow but readily accessible. Tape the butt
plate to prevent the vent hole in the upper butt plate screw from becoming plugged
with snow/ice and to provide a nonslip surface for firing. A butt plug may detract from
mission capability. Tape the stock with white medical tape to provide camouflage and
prohibit the stock from falling apart if cracked or broken. Tape underneath the ejection
port cover to eliminate the metallic sound of its opening. Tape the handguards to
prevent snow from packing in around the barrel, to camouflage the weapon, and to
prevent it from pinching or falling apart if cracked or broken. Place white cloth
medical tape, prophylactic, muzzle cap, and so forth, over the muzzle of the weapon to
prevent snow or ice from plugging the bore.
NOTE: Anything placed over the muzzle must be able to be fired through. Tape the pistol grip
with the folding trigger guard in the lowered position to prevent it from closing, provide a nonslip
grip, and allow firing while wearing mittens/gloves.
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NOTE: The particular methods for establishing contact are covered in AFTTP 3-1.8.
8.6.3.4.4 Recovered IP Considerations. Consideration should be given to bringing
additional equipment/clothing for IPs so they have the ability to survive and move with
the team. If the IP is injured, medical treatment should be weighed against exposing
them to the cold. Consider constructing a hasty shelter for the purpose of medical
treatment and rewarming if evacuation is going to be delayed. Remember that active
rewarming may cause wounds to start bleeding again once vessels become dilated. The
RT should review cold weather treatment protocol during the mission planning phase.
8.6.3.4.5 Resupply. Personnel and supplies are carried as near to the enemy as is
possible by air transport. Plans provide for alternate means of logistic support;
requirements for fuel, shelter, and clothing increase and special equipment and/or the
modification of standard equipment is often necessary. Only minimum essential
supplies and equipment can be moved by team members; supply economy is achieved
by self-sufficiency and maintaining austere living conditions. Extreme cold weather
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conditions magnify all normal supply problems. Critical points in the supply plan are
anticipated, and provision is made for possible contingencies. Failure to deliver
supplies to the RT at the proper time may cause the entire recovery operation to fail.
Heated storage is required for many items of supply, notably medical supplies.
8.6.3.4.6 Supervision. The effects of extreme cold numb personnel, increase the need
for maintenance of materiel and weapons, and slow up activities. These factors are
important considerations when making time and space calculations.
8.7 CBRNE Combat Operations.
8.7.1 NBC Warfare. NBC warfare is not a separate, special form of war, but instead
battlefield conditions just like rain, snow, darkness, electronic warfare, heat, and so on.
Units must train to accomplish their wartime missions under all battlefield conditions.
Whenever NBC is separated from other training events or conditions, our soldiers
regard operations under NBC conditions as a separate form of warfare; Officer
comment during chemical training SOLID SHIELD 87, Army Chemical Review,
January 1988
8.7.2 Environment. NBC weapons and hazards can directly influence the battlespace and
physical environment in which GUARDIAN ANGEL operates. The most notable influences
of the physical environment are weather and terrain. Weather conditions are the
uncontrollable wildcard of NBC employment and provide useful clues to probable times and
places for NBC use (e.g., employment windows). Diligent tracking of weather conditions aids
in the assessment of risks to GUARDIAN ANGEL from NBC weapons, as well as toxic
industrial materials (TIM) hazards. In concert with weather conditions, the terrain influences
where NBC effects may concentrate (e.g., chemical agents in low-lying areas) and in many
cases, it influences enemy NBC targeting (e.g., exploiting or creating chokepoints). The areas
of responsibility (AOR) in which RT operate may contain several environments, each with a
distinct set of NBC planning factors and considerations. Trained to operate in the worlds
environments, GUARDIAN ANGEL must adapt standard operating procedures to NBC
threats.
8.8 Environmental Considerations. In order to prepare for NBC operations and function in
the NBC environment, it is first necessary to understand the environment.
8.8.1 Urban Areas. Urban structures such as sewers, storm drains, reinforced concrete
buildings, subways, and basements, can protect against spray attacks of chemical or biological
agents and the effects of nuclear blast and radiation. However, this exchange for overhead
cover creates other problems. Chemical agents tend to act differently in urban areas and will
tend to collect in low areas; non persistent agents may enter buildings or seep into piles of
rubble. GUARDIAN ANGEL personnel should avoid these low areas. Also, GUARDIAN
ANGEL personnel should attempt to shut down ventilation systems in urban structures to
prevent the spread of vapor or aerosol hazards. The persistency of an agent can greatly
increase when it has settled in these areas. Once an attack has occurred, detection of chemical
contamination becomes very important. Personnel must thoroughly check areas before
attempting to occupy or traverse them.
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8.8.2 Desert Areas. Desert operations may present additional problems. Desert daytime
temperatures can vary from 90 to 125 degrees F resulting in unstable temperature gradients
that are not particularly favorable to biological/chemical (BC) attacks. Evaporation of
chemical agents during the day will rapidly create a downwind hazard and an inhalation
problem. However, with nightfall, the desert cools rapidly, and a stable temperature gradient
occurs creating the possibility of night or early morning attacks.
8.8.3 Low Terrain, Temperate Zone Areas. An adversary's use of BC or TIMs can be
effective in this environment when forces are not prepared. Uses of these weapons (non
persistent) are more efficient when employed at night and during periods of inversion
conditions. Terrain features such as tall grass or scrub brush have the tendency to retard the
flow of an agent cloud, thus reducing the overall size of the contamination. Also, the grass and
brush may absorb the chemical agent, which would not pose a significant effect on the
mission. However, movement through the area requires care because the absorbed agent may
be released when the vegetation is disturbed or crushed, creating a secondary toxic hazard.
Persistent agents can cling to vegetation, creating surface exposure and an off-gasing during
daylight. TIMs, such as chlorine, may tend to meander, as would a fog.
8.8.3.1 Movement of a biological aerosol over grass and brush reduces the concentration
as the particles impact on vegetation and settle out of the air. However, the cover provided
by vegetation protects the biological agent from the weather and; thus, favors its
survivability, specifically wet aerosols.
8.8.3.2 For additional information see Army FM 3-6, Field Behavior of NBC Agents.
8.8.4 Mountain Areas. Terrain and weather in mountainous areas magnify the requirement
for a high degree of NBC defense preparedness. Rugged terrain limits the employment of
large forces, reduces maneuver, and impedes logistical support. Shelters are difficult to dig
and may require improvisation using existing rocks, snow, and timber. However, this same
terrain may also provide caves, ravines, and cliffs as a natural source of protection.
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8.8.4.1 Chemical agents are heavier than air and will settle in valleys and depressions.
Subject to mountain breezes, agents will move down and within the valley. Thus, high
dosages are less likely on crests or sides of ridges or hills.
8.8.4.2 Radiation contamination will be erratic due to rapid changes in wind patterns but
at the same time, the range of thermal effect increases with the clarity of mountain air. The
location of hot spots may be erratic. Additionally, a nuclear blast can produce rock and
snow slides.
8.8.4.3 Colder mountainous temperatures may affect biological agents in the same manner
as cold weather.
8.8.4.4 For additional information see Army FM 3-4, NBC Protection, Appendix A.
8.8.5 Jungle Areas. Tropical climates require the highest degree of individual discipline
and conditioning to maintain effective NBC defensive readiness. Leaders and staff planners
must expect and plan for a rapid decrease in unit efficiency. They also must anticipate heat
casualties. Strict adherence to field sanitation is necessary. In addition, they must ensure that
special precautions are taken to maintain unit NBC defense equipment in usable condition.
The rapid mildew, dry rot, and rust inherent in jungle areas necessitate this requirement.
8.8.5.1 Dominant climatic features of jungle areas are high, constant temperatures; heavy
rainfall; and very high humidity. These features increase the survivability of biological
agents. In thick jungle, there is usually little or no wind and the canopy blocks most of the
sunlight from the ground, thus providing excellent conditions for adversary use of
biological agents and toxins.
8.8.5.2 The same canopy that may provide slight shielding from radiation may also
enhance blast effect with tree blow-downs and projectiles. Also, a lack of penetrating wind
may result in decreased downwind hazards.
8.8.5.3 A jungle canopy creates good overhead cover from aircraft spray. However,
persistent agents delivered by artillery or bombs may penetrate the canopy before being
released, thus creating a hazard in the immediate area of impact.
8.8.5.4 Additionally, rains can wash radiation into water collection areas producing hot
spots.
8.8.5.5 For additional information see Army FM 3-4, NBC Protection, Appendix A.
8.8.6 Cold Weather Regions. Cold weather conditions create many added problems in
NBC defense. During the winter months, 45 percent of the North American landmass and 65
percent of the Eurasian landmass are characterized by extreme cold and deep snow. These
areas include Korea, China, Bosnia, Kosovo, Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, and the United
States. The former Soviet Union developed procedures to weaponize a series of agents to be
effective in extreme cold weather. Some of those agents do not have known freezing points. In
temperatures from -20 degrees to -40 degrees F, agents such as Sarin (GB) become like a
thickened Soman (GD). Choking agents have increased persistency from 0 to -40 degrees F.
Even hydrogen cyanide (AC) which solidifies at -14 degrees F can be disseminated as fine
particles, thereby increasing its effective time and threat. Mustard agents employed through
pyrotechnic devices create effective vapor hazards far below the freezing point of mustard.
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8.8.10 Deployment Decisions. The decision to send aircraft into situations where they will
likely become internally contaminated should factor in the inability to effectively
decontaminate (decon) aircraft in a timely manner. Sending an aircraft into a
contaminated environment will likely require the aircraft to be maintained and flown in
a dirty condition.
8.8.11 Potential Threats.
8.8.11.1 Biological Agents.
8.8.11.1.1 The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) defines a biological agent
as a microorganism (or its toxin) that causes disease or deterioration of material.
Biological agents are generally directed against the respiratory system to maximize the
organisms ability to diffuse directly into the bloodstream and bodily tissue. Individual
protective equipment (IP) generally provides protection against a biological warfare
(BW) attack.
8.8.11.1.2 Generally, biological warfare agents may be classified into two broad
groups: pathogens and toxins.
8.8.11.1.3 Pathogensmicroorganisms that produce disease in humans, animals,
and/or plants (e.g., protozoa, fungi, bacteria, rickettsia, and viruses).
8.8.11.1.4
8.8.11.1.5 Most organisms are naturally occurring and can be found in almost any
environment. Lack of proper hygiene and appropriate vaccines, contribute to the
organisms ability to rapidly cause incapacitating or lethal illness. When employed as
a warfare agent, biological agents can be disseminated in aerosol form, by vectors such
as mosquitoes and ticks, or through contaminated food or water.
8.8.11.2 Chemical Agents.
8.8.11.2.1 Chemical warfare (CW) agents produce both immediate and delayed
effects that will degrade operations through lethal, incapacitating, or other damaging
effects to individuals as well as contamination of equipment, supplies, and critical
terrain features. The types of chemical warfare agents that could be encountered by
GUARDIAN ANGEL forces are classified as lethal and incapacitating. Agents may
exist as solids, liquids, or gases. In addition, toxic industrial materials (TIM) and
potentially dangerous herbicides/pesticides could be encountered accidentally or
employed by an adversary.
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8.8.11.2.2 CW agents are grouped according to use. They can either be lethal or
incapacitating. Lethal agents produce serious injury requiring medical attention (death
may occur when used in field concentrations). Incapacitating agents produce
temporary physiological or mental effects and may not require medical treatment to
recover. Both types of agents may hinder the ability to carry out the mission.
8.8.11.2.3 Lethal agents are chemical substances intended for use in military
operations to kill, seriously injure, or hinder military operations through their
physiological effects. They are classified as nerve, choking, or blood agents. Nerve
agents are considered the primary agents of threat to the US military because of their
high toxicity and effectiveness through multiple routes of entry. Nerve agents attack
the bodys nervous system. Even small quantities are extremely toxic and can cause
death in less than 15 minutes, if not treated.
8.8.11.2.4 Incapacitating agents include blister (mustards) and compounds that effect
the nervous system (e.g., BZ or LSD).
NOTE: Blister agents such as mustard when received in high enough doses and/or not treated
properly may be lethal.
8.8.11.2.5 Attack by these agents may cause additional constraints by taxing the
logistical force to provide additional medical support personnel and treatment.
8.8.11.2.6 Lethal and incapacitating agents may be disseminated by artillery, mortar
shells, rockets, bombs, or aircraft spray. They may be persistent or non persistent and
produce immediate casualties among unprotected troops, restrict friendly use of
terrain, objectives, and equipment, degrade friendly combat effectiveness by forcing
protective posture and creating confusion and stress, especially among leaders.
8.8.11.2.7 Nerve agents also have been produced and used by terrorist groups as
evidenced by the use of Sarin (GB) in the Tokyo, Japan subway attack.
8.8.11.3 Toxic Industrial Materials.
8.8.11.3.1 Although less lethal than current chemical warfare agents, industrial
materials often are available in enormous quantities, do not require expensive research
programs, are easily mass produced, do not violate the chemical weapons convention,
and can still produce mass casualties. TIMs could be released from industrial plants or
storage depots through battle damage, as consequence of a strike against a particular
facility, or as a desperation measure during military operations. They could also be
utilized as improvised chemical weapons and have potential for inclusion in
clandestine programs or contingency plans.
NOTE: IP does not protect against all TIMs (e.g., IP will not protect the wearer from
ammonia-based or chlorine-based industrial chemicals).
8.8.11.4 Riot Control Agents.
8.8.11.4.1 Riot control agents (RCA) are chemicals that produce temporary irritating
or disabling effects when in contact with the eye or when inhaled. Generally used in
the control of violent disorders, they can be effectively employed to contaminate
terrain and to cause degrading effects on individuals, requiring them to use IP for
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8.8.11.6 Radiological. Nuclear threats are associated with the explosive detonation of
special nuclear material. The radiological threat deals with radiation hazards and
radioactive materials that may be in more common use. The threat of low-level radiation
exists in all operations. This threat can exist in certain expended rounds (depleted
uranium), damaged or destroyed equipment, or contaminated shrapnel. It also may occur
from inadequate nuclear waste disposal, deterioration of nuclear power facilities, damage
to facilities that routinely use radioactive material/sources, and the direct employment of
radioactive materials/compounds by an adversary (terrorism). Specialized detection
equipment is required to detect lower levels of radiation.
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9-1
CHAPTER 9
MARITIME OPERATIONS
9.1 Purpose. This attachment establishes the general guidelines and procedures for the conduct
of GUARDIAN ANGEL recovery team maritime operations to include surface and underwater
search, rescue, and recovery. The techniques described in this attachment may be accomplished
day or night. The information contained in this chapter is not all-inclusive. Recovery team
maritime operations can be conducted in many geographical locations on any given mission.
These missions may begin with insertion by means of parachute, helicopter, surface craft, or from
the shoreline. Regardless of the method used to enter the maritime environment, using the
following TTP will provide for a safe operation and enhance the recovery teams chances for a
successful mission.
9.2 Surface Search, Rescue, and Recovery Operations. This section is intended to expand on
various TTPs to be considered when executing search, rescue, and recovery operations on the
water surface when employing from a recovery vehicle (RV), shoreline, or combat rubber raiding
craft (CRRC); as a swimmer or as a team CRRC member. The TTP detailed has been successfully
employed by GUARDIAN ANGEL recovery teams, the US Coast Guard, and other water rescue
agencies. Joe Mokry of Ocean Rescue Systems, Portland, Maine, a subject matter expert (SME)
commonly consulted by GUARDIAN ANGEL recovery teams assisted greatly in this text.
9.2.1 Water Hoist Rescue Techniques. The following procedures are specialized
helicopter water rescue hoist techniques and procedures used to affect the rescue of survivors
in the water.
9.2.1.1 Rescue Strop Water Deployment. A rescue strop deployment can be used at
night or any time that conditions dictate, such as debris or broken ice in water,
questionable water depth, and sea state. The following are procedures for performing a
strop deployment.
9.2.1.1.1 The team member keeps arms crossed over strop while being lowered to the
water. The strop safety straps are not used during this maneuver. While being lowered
on the strop, he should try to maintain visual contact with the survivor. The inherent
spinning of the hoist cable may prevent constant visual contact.
9.2.1.1.2 After being fully immersed in the water, slip out of the strop. In high seas,
the team member may slip out after his fin tips hit the crest of a wave. Once out of the
strop, swim toward the survivor.
CAUTION: Do not send the strop to survivors without a team member, as it may become caught
or an entanglement hazard and survivors may not know how to properly use it.
9.2.1.2 Barrelman Harness Water Deployment. A harness deployment can be used at
night or any time that conditions dictate, such as debris or broken ice in water,
questionable water depth, and sea state. The following are procedures for performing a
harness deployment.
9.2.1.2.1 While being lowered in the harness, the team member should try to maintain
visual contact with the survivor. Spinning of the hoist cable may prevent constant
9-2
CAUTION: Do not expose survivor to rotor wash prior to contact, as this may cause the survivor
to slide radically on ice, possibly causing injury.
9.2.1.4 Water Direct Deployment. The following are procedures for performing a direct
deployment water approach.
9.2.1.4.1 The team member is lowered to a position just above the water's surface.
The aircraft is in a position that allows him to be lowered into the water and placed
within 2 to 3 feet of the survivor.
9.2.1.4.2 Using the same shoulder that the quick strop is on, grasp the wrist of the
survivor, slide the strop down his arm, maneuver the strop over the survivor's head and
other arm, and snug the strop under the survivors arm pits. Slide the friction keeper as
tight as possible and hold with one hand.
9.2.1.4.3 If the survivor is facing away from the team member, the strop is placed over
the head and shoulders, snugged into the armpits, and the friction keeper is secured.
The strop may also be applied by moving the strop over the feet and up the body to the
armpits.
9.2.1.4.4 Securing the safety strap is accomplished by routing the hook located at the
end of the safety strap between the survivors legs, and securing it to the slide assembly
(the larger of the two slots) on the quick strop. Signal the RV when ready for recovery.
WARNING: Failure to connect the crotch strap on an unconscious or incapacitated survivor may
result in survivor slipping out of the quick strop.
9.2.1.5 Hypothermia Lift. When dealing with severe hypothermia and employing from
aircraft with no hoistable litter, employ the double-lift method or hypothermia lift. The
survivor strop is used in conjunction with the quick strop to hoist the survivor in a
semi-supine position.
9.2.1.5.1 The survivor strop is attached to the hoist hook between the harness and the
quick strop.
9.2.1.5.2 Once in the water, place the survivor strop around the survivor's torso and
attach the safety strap.
9.2.1.5.3 Move down to the legs and slide the quick strop up the legs and under the
knees.
9.2.1.5.4 Secure the friction keeper and signal the RV for pick-up. Straddle the
survivor while being hoisted.
9.2.1.5.5 The survivor is brought into the cabin first regardless of whether facing
toward or away from the team member.
9-3
9.2.1.6 Tri-SAR Harness. The Tri-SAR rescue harness is flotation, lifting harness, and
equipment storage all compiled into one piece of equipment. It is standard equipment for
the USCG and USN rescue swimmer and in use with some recovery teams. The Tri-SAR
can be inflated either manually through an oral inflation valve or pneumatically by pulling
on the inflation lanyard that activates a CO2 inflation system. This will fill the one
continuous flotation bladder encased in the denier nylon housing. There are five storage
pockets on the vest; strobe light pocket, folding knife pocket, flare pocket, chemlight
pocket, and miscellaneous equipment pocket. The USN and USCG variant of the Tri-SAR
has an integrated nylon webbing harness with a lifting V-ring as well as a gated lifting ring.
The USAF version of the vest has a few differences. As USAF Rescue and SOF
helicopters equipped with rescue hoists utilize pip pins on the rescue hook, the USAF
variant of the Tri-SAR harness is equipped with a sewn loop for use with a large carabineer
in lieu of the lifting V-ring. For land operations, the flotation vest is removable by use of a
stainless-steel mini-buckle. The olive drab vest is has removable retro-reflective tape
panels. (See Figure 9.1, Tri-SAR Harness.)
Figure 9.1 Tri-SAR Harness.
Tri-SAR Harness
UNCLASSIFIED
9.2.1.7 Tag Line. The use of a tag line during water hoist rescue operations will aid the
recovery team and RV by reducing the time required to hover directly over a small vessel
without a reference.
9.2.1.7.1 A weight may be attached to the end of the tag line without the weak link.
The weak link end of the tag line may be fastened to the hoist hook or the rescue device
before the device goes out the door.
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CAUTION: Team members working with tag lines should wear gloves. If the survivors handling
the tag line are without gloves, aircrews attach a pair of leather gloves to the tag line before
deployment.
9.2.1.7.5 To deliver the tag line to a large vessel with a restricted pickup area, the tag
line is lowered after clearing the obstacles over the vessel; otherwise follow small
vessel techniques.
9.2.1.7.6 Once the tag line is on the water or vessel and the team or survivors is
tending it, the aircrew plays out slack as the RV clears the area. The tag line weak link
is attached to the rescue device. Once the immediate area is cleared and the pilot can
again see the survivor/vessel the hoist is lowered.
9.2.1.7.7 The tag line is utilized to guide the team member or rescue device into the
desired location.
9.2.1.7.8 When the team member or rescue device is on the vessels deck and the
survivor is ready for hoisting, the RV is directed to position back over the deck. As
soon as the survivor being hoisted out is clear of the deck or obstructions, the RV is
cleared away from the obstacles/vessel usually left and/or back. The RV maintains this
position until the survivor is in the cabin and the tag line is either retrieved or
discarded. Other team members on the vessel use the tag line to steady the
survivor/team member while being hoisted up. In rough seas, the RV needs to keep
away from the vessel and obstructions and an offset hover during recovery may be
necessary.
NOTE: The tag line may be used in lieu of the hoist cable to lower small items to the surface. The
item is lowered attached to a carabiner with a weight. The same technique is utilized for delivery
of the tag line to small or large vessels. The weak link end of the tag line is attached to a cabin
tie-down ring.
9.2.1.8 Shipboard Hoist Operations. If the RV is in communication with the vessels
crew, have the vessel turn to the optimal heading based upon the pickup position and true
winds. The primary objective is to have the vessel turn to a heading to provide the RV a
relative headwind while conducting the desired operation. RVs need to consider the
turbulence caused by wind disruption around the vessels superstructure and temperature
increases from the ship exhaust. The vessel is slowed to clutch or steerage speed to make
the ship more stable to conduct operations. Larger ships may not be able to comply with
this request. The ships captain is informed of the required ships course and speed,
intended pickup location (e.g., bow, stern, or midship) requested lighting, type of rescue
9-5
device, intentions, safety considerations, number of personnel aboard the aircraft and
emergency intentions. If it is an option, have the ships crew lower or stow all antennas,
booms, rigging, flag masts, and loose gear from the hoisting area. Ship captains may be
hesitant to turn off their navigation lights; it may be necessary to specifically request it.
CAUTION: Do not use the vessels equipment for recovery, except as a last resort. Do not allow
the hoist cable or tag line to be secured to any part of the vessel.
9.2.1.8.1 Rafts and Small Boats. When the RV approaches a raft, the pilot does not
excessively slow the closing speed, but moves smoothly toward and directly over the
raft. Moving too slowly towards a raft will cause it to be blown away from the RV at a
rate equal to the RVs movement. Slow hovering over small boats may present the
same drift difficulties as a raft. Survivors supported by life jackets will present with
little to no drift problem during RV approach.
9.2.2 In-Water Survivor Approaches, Carries, and Releases. T h e b e s t s w i m m i n g
approach to a survivor on the surface is the rescue stroke. The rescue stroke is a modified front
crawl with the head up to keep the team members eyes on the survivor. This also allows him
to observe if the survivor submerges or makes a lunge towards him. Stop short of the survivor
and observe the behavior of the survivor before making contact. Prior to executing the
following approach, attempt to establish communication with the survivor. Be aware of the
added buoyancy of the wet/dry suit and avoid premature surfacing. If the survivor seems
under control, instruct the victim to roll over face up and to take several deep breaths to help
calm himself/herself. (See Figure 9.2, Rescue Stroke.)
9.2.2.1 The Defensive Position. It is recommended that the legs be the primary
defensive tactic when dealing with a panicked survivor on the surface. By reclining
backward away from a lunging survivor, the team member helps ensure that the legs and
fins will be ready to block any attack made with the survivors arms. Keep the legs
extended toward the survivor and keep moving horizontally, ready to react. Maintaining
this position will generally prevent the survivor from grabbing your equipment, face, head,
and neck area.
9.2.2.1.1 Rear Surface Approach. The following are procedures for performing a
Rear Surface Approach.
9.2.2.1.1.1 Approach the survivor with head out of the water and eyes on the
survivor.
9.2.2.1.1.2 With forward momentum, grab survivor under the armpits and rotate
toward the rescuer.
9.2.2.1.1.3 Secure survivor with in a cross-chest, collar tow or equipment carry.
NOTE: Avoid placing the survivor in a choke hold around the neck as this may induce panic.
9.2.2.1.2 Underwater Approach. The following are procedures for performing an
Underwater Approach. (See Figure 9.3, Underwater Approach.)
9-6
Rescue Stroke
UNCLASSIFIED
9.2.2.1.2.1 Approach the survivor with head out of the water and eyes on the
survivor.
9.2.2.1.2.2 Upon reaching a distance of 6 to 8 feet from the survivor, execute a
surface dive and swim under the survivor.
9.2.2.1.2.3 Execute a half-turn (survivors back should be toward the rescuer) and
surface.
9.2.2.1.2.4 While surfacing, place the survivor in a cross-chest carry.
WARNING: Do not use an underwater approach when a raft, lines, debris, or a parachute is
attached to or in the immediate vicinity of the survivor.
9.2.2.1.3 Front Surface Approach. The following are procedures for performing a
front surface approach. (See Figure 9.4, Front Surface Approach.)
9.2.2.1.3.1 Approach the survivor with head out of the water and eyes on the
survivor.
9.2.2.1.3.2 Upon reaching an arms length distance from the survivor, execute a
quick reverse.
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Underwater Approach
UNCLASSIFIED
9-8
UNCLASSIFIED
9-9
9.2.2.1.3.3 Timing the movement, the rescuer should quickly cross his arm over
the survivors arm and firmly grasp the back of the survivors wrist, right hand on
right wrist or left hand on left wrist. Then lean back and pull the survivors arm
across and in front of the rescuers body, turning the survivor around.
9.2.2.1.3.4 When the survivors back is fully turned, place the survivor in a
cross-chest, collar tow or equipment carry.
9.2.2.1.4 Cross-Chest Carry. This procedure may be difficult to perform on military
aircrew members because of their flotation and survival equipment. The equipment
carry is appropriate in this situation. The following are procedures for performing a
cross-chest carry. (See Figure 9.5, Cross-Chest Carry.)
9.2.2.1.4.1 From a position behind the survivors shoulder or under the survivors
arm, reach across the chest and pull the survivor from under the armpit with the
back of the hand.
9.2.2.1.4.2 The survivors shoulder is then tucked securely into the rescuers
armpit and the arm firmly clamped against the survivors chest.
9.2.2.1.4.3 Turn to the side with the hip directly against the small of the
survivors back, stroke vigorously with the legs, using a flutter kick to provide
propulsion.
9.2.2.1.4.4 Should the survivor be aggressive, lock the free hand under the
survivors armpit.
9.2.2.1.5 Collar Tow or Equipment Tow. Do not grasp the survivor in a manner
which may result in restricted breathing or circulation. The following are procedures
for executing the collar tow or equipment tow. (See Figure 9.6, Equipment and Collar
Tow.)
9.2.2.1.5.1 Grasp the survivors shirt collar or flight equipment from behind and
between the shoulder blades.
9.2.2.1.5.2 Assume the side stroke position and stroke vigorously with the legs,
using a flutter kick.
9.2.2.1.6 Front Head Hold Release. The following are procedures for performing a
front head hold release. (See Figure 9.7, Front Head Hold Release.)
9.2.2.1.6.1 As soon as the survivors arms are felt encircling the head, tuck the
chin down and to the side while taking a quick breath of air. Submerge taking the
survivor underwater.
9.2.2.1.6.2 If the survivors head is on the right of the rescuers head, bring the
right arm up and over the encircling arm and places a hand securely against the
survivors right cheek, the little finger against the side of the survivors nose, and
the thumb hooked under the jaw.
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Cross-Chest Carry
UNCLASSIFIED
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UNCLASSIFIED
9-12
UNCLASSIFIED
9.2.2.1.6.3 Should the survivors head be on the rescuers left side, the method is
reversed.
9.2.2.1.6.4 The remaining hand is brought up beneath the survivors other arm
seizing it in a grip with the thumb just above the elbow.
9.2.2.1.6.5 In one continuous motion, the survivors head is pressed out and
around with the right hand over your head and sweeping it across the far side. This
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9-14
UNCLASSIFIED
9-15
UNCLASSIFIED
9-16
UNCLASSIFIED
9.2.2.1.9.1 As soon as the survivors arms are felt encircling the head, tuck the
chin down and to the side while taking a quick breath of air. Then submerge taking
the survivor underwater.
9.2.2.1.9.2 Bring the hands up to the underside of each of the survivors elbows.
While keeping the chin tucked in and hunching the shoulders, push forcefully
upward freeing his/her head.
9.2.2.1.9.3 The survivor is then pushed back. Turn to face the survivor, prepared
to prevent any subsequent grasps.
9.2.2.1.9.4 Swim well out of the reach of the survivor, surface, and decide what
rescue procedure to use.
9.2.3 In-Water Rescue Breathing. A non-breathing survivor or team member in the water
is an emergency where every second counts. Rapid and skillful rescue breathing may be the
survivors best chance for survival and an important skill a team member can bring to an
in-water rescue. Circumstances where conditions are too rough or otherwise unsafe or the
hoist into the helicopter will take only a few seconds, waiting until the survivor is removed
from the water to start rescue breathing may be too long and the opportunity for a successful
resuscitation lost. Breaths must be free of water with full exhalations.
9-17
9.2.3.1 Turning the Survivor Face Up. It is easier to turn a survivor in the water face
down if you cross your arms just prior to grasping the survivors. In crossing the arms, the
strongest one is placed on top. Then pull with the strongest arm and push with the weaker
one. This technique positions the survivor face up.
9.2.3.2 Barrier Devices. It is recommended in the medical community to employ a
barrier device for the conduct of rescue breathing. This is a matter of disease prevention as
well as simple preference to avoid direct contact. Pocket type masks can be used in the
water, though their application takes practice to use correctly. The most common problem
is the lack of a good seal around the mouth, and not enough hands to hold the survivor,
position his/her head, and hold the mask at once. The best position is to stay at the head
and place the mask over the survivors face. Maintaining the mask in place throughout the
rescue has the advantage of keeping water out of the survivors airway. Hold a finger over
the air intake port to prevent the entry of water in rough seas.
9.2.3.3 Do-Si-Do Technique. The Do-Si-Do technique for in-water rescue breathing
gives good control and close monitoring of the survivor, especially under the rotor wash of
a rescue helicopter. This is particularly important in the event the survivor vomits during
the tow or resuscitation effort. If this happens, roll the survivor to keep the airway clear
and ensure there is no more vomitus left in the mouth. The following are procedures for
performing the Do-Si-Do rescue breathing technique in the water. This technique can be
performed from either the left or right side of the survivor.
9.2.3.3.1 Position the survivor on his/her back in the water.
9.2.3.3.2 From the survivors left side, slide left hand and arm between his/her left
arm and his/her body.
9.2.3.3.3 Reach under the survivor with left hand to grasp the survivors collar,
equipment, clothing or tank valve.
9.2.3.3.4 The rescuer rests the right hand on the survivors forehead to extend the
neck and keep the airway open.
9.2.3.3.5 Use your left hand and arm to roll the survivor toward the rescuer
sufficiently to begin rescue breathing. Use the right hand to pinch his/her nose closed
as the rescuer exhales into the survivor.
9.2.3.3.6 It is recommended that the rescuer stops swimming when delivering breaths
to the victim. Position so as to rise slightly in the water bringing fins back under the
rescuer. This will give better control.
9.2.3.3.7 If surface conditions are poor, use the right hand to cover the survivors nose
and mouth to prevent aspiration of water.
9.2.3.4 Chin Carry Technique. The Do-Si-Do is not the most streamlined tow technique
for rescue breathing in the water, especially if the survivor is larger than the team member.
The principle advantage of the chin carry technique is the increased speed that the team
member can swim and deliver effective rescue breaths. The team member swims on his
back allowing a very powerful fin stroke with the survivor in alignment. The following are
procedures for performing the chin carry technique for rescue breathing in the water.
9-18
9.2.4 In-Water Cervical and Spinal Stabilization. When the situation allows and the
survivors injuries indicate a potential for spinal damage, cervical spine precautions are
mandatory. Conventional cervical stabilization; a hand on each side of the head, will not work
in the water. Any water movement could compromise the integrity of the survivors spine.
Any stabilization technique utilized must maintain the head and body in line as a complete
unit.
9.2.4.1 Deep Water Roll. If the team member responds to an incident site with a
non-moving survivor face down in the water, assume spine injury unless clearly informed
otherwise or the conditions or threat dictate speed is of the essence. This roll involves
placing the arms against the survivors upper back and chest, then dipping under the
victim. Do not twist the survivor over by solely turning his/her head. The following are
procedures for performing the deep water roll.
CAUTION: Rolling the survivor by solely turning the head could cause permanent paralysis.
9.2.4.1.1 Place the survivors arms directly down alongside his/her body.
9.2.4.1.2 Splint the survivor with your arms by placing one elbow in the middle of
his/her back, with your hand on the rear of his/her head. Place your other elbow in the
middle of his/her chest, with your hand cradling his/her chin.
9.2.4.1.3 Takes a breath, firmly holding the survivor in the splinted position, then
swim under the survivor, using the legs to kick as the survivor rotates onto his/her
back. Emphasize using your elbows to lever the survivor over.
9.2.4.2 Shallow Water Roll. This is another alternative to rolling over an unconscious
survivor found face down in the water. This procedure is normally used in shallow water.
The following are procedures for performing the shallow water roll.
9.2.4.2.1 Stand alongside the survivor with your side perpendicular to the survivor,
facing the survivors near arm.
9-19
9.2.4.2.2 Reach across the survivors back with the closest hand and grasp his/her arm
between the elbow and shoulder and gently pin his/her upper arm on the far side
against the far ear.
9.2.4.2.3 Then pin the survivors near upper arm against the near ear
9.2.4.2.4 Then push down on the survivors near arm while pulling up with the other
hand. Keep the survivors arms pinned to his/her head as you executes this.
9.2.4.2.5 The survivor should roll over with his/her upper back cradled in your arm.
Then squeeze the survivor against the chest to maintain the splint as you removes the
nearest hand.
9.2.4.3 Spine Boarding in the Water. Securing a survivor to a spine board in the water
will require more than one team member. The spine board should be of a floating type and
secured within a Stokes basket with a flotation kit and counterweight to keep the survivors
face out of the water. The following are procedures for performing spine boarding in the
water.
9.2.4.3.1 One team member maintains cervical stabilization while another one applies
a cervical collar.
9.2.4.3.2 The cervical collar is applied and maintained by one team member as the
spine board is brought in from the survivors side. The board is pushed completely
underwater and aligned below the survivor. The board is then gently raised up until the
survivor is on it. If the survivor is incorrectly positioned, the board should be raised
and repositioned. As the board is raised, the team member maintaining cervical
stabilization removes his hands as best as possible without sacrificing control from the
survivors neck to not interfere with placement.
9.2.4.3.3 Straps are then secured to the survivor starting at the chest and downward
toward the feet. Once the survivors torso is secure, the head is secured utilizing foam
blocks. Straps can be s-folded and secured with retainer bands or masking tape to
streamline and facilitate quick attachment.
9.2.5 Uncooperative Survivor in Water. A recovery team may be faced with situations
where the survivor can be categorized as uncooperative. Uncooperative survivors can be
categorized into two distinct types: panicked and combative. A panicked survivor normally
desires to be rescued but is in an uncomfortable or unfamiliar environment and is usually so
frightened of drowning that they could pose a danger to the recovery team and themselves.
Calming a panicked survivor can usually be accomplished by verbal assurances from the team
member and/or being provided with flotation. Once the panicked survivor has been calmed
down and is willing to be rescued, utilize standard rescue procedures. Combative survivors
may not initially desire to be rescued, and may actively resist assistance from the team
member. The combative survivor may intentionally try to harm the team member or
themselves when approached. This type of behavior can continue indefinitely, even after
repeated attempts by the team to provide assurance and recovery. Indications that a survivor
might be combative are: prior mental instability, a suicide attempt, or demonstration of
hostility. The following are procedures for handling a combative survivor in the water.
9-20
9.2.6 Wet Rock Rescue. Survivors may be forced upon wet rocks in breaking waves
requiring the team to utilize TTP specific to that environment.
9.2.6.1 Tethered Swimmer Considerations. A team member conducting a boat based
approach to wet rocks can be tethered and tended by another team member in a CRRC. It
may be necessary for the team member to be removed from the rocks expeditiously due to
changing sea state or weather conditions and the tether will facilitate this. Once the team
member has landed on the rocks the tether can be utilized to bring a litter with medical and
additional rescue equipment to the rock for treatment and packaging of the survivor. Once
the survivor is packaged, this method facilitates the movement of the packaged survivor or
9-21
two survivors and team member through the waves back to the CRRC.
9.2.6.2 Wet Rock Approach. Approach the rocks and stop a safe distance away to
continue scene assessment. Hazards may include debris from the crash, fuel, lines, danger
from striking submerged rocks and kelp entanglement.
9.2.6.2.1 Determine the best place to attempt landing.
9.2.6.2.2 If you decide that a closer approach and landing on the wet rock is possible,
take careful measure of the surf beat. Specifically, you need to know the number of
waves in each set, the period between them, their height relative to the emerged rocks
and the length of the lull.
9.2.6.2.3 If you are able to reach firm footing with good hand-holds at low water in
the lull, exit the rocks at this time. If you require assistance to mount the rock await for
returning waves to assist.
9.2.6.2.4 The use of following waves as assistance may present a hazard. It is
extremely dangerous to be caught between breaking waves and emerged rock. You
must time the swim to the rocks to follow on the back of the wave arriving with the
high water. Typically, there will only be about 1 or 2 seconds for you to establish good
hand-holds and footing before the water retreats. If you fail to establish good holds
that allow you to climb quickly out of the way of the next wave, you must immediately
abandon that attempt and swim away with the withdrawing water.
9.2.6.2.5 Once on the rocks, evaluate the survivors condition and begin the
extrication. If working on jetties or other areas with boulders, consider use of small
short fins to facilitate movement without removal of fins.
9.2.7 Surf Rescue. In addition to the rescue of survivors in the surf, team members must be
prepared to rescue other team members in distress during the conduct of maritime infiltration
and exfiltration techniques.
9.2.7.1 Surf Entry. Entries into the surf from shore are readily accomplished in calm
conditions. In these conditions enter the water without fins on to speed entry. Once in
waist deep water, stop to don fins and swim towards the survivor. In rougher conditions,
have all gear in place before attempting to enter the water. Walk backward or sideways
while wearing fins and edge closer to the breaking waves. If time permits, study the wave
intervals to determine the lull periods. When waves approach that are to large to ignore but
too small to dive under, turn sideways to the wave and brace for impact. When deep
enough to swim with fins, dive under the next approaching wave and surface beyond the
breaker zone.
9.2.7.2 Surf Extrication. Moving a hapless survivor from the water and onto the beach
may be the most difficult part of a water rescue. If all else fails, the rescuer could simply
grasp the survivor under the arms and walk backward, dragging the survivor behind. In
circumstances such as a flat sloping beach and breaking surf, this may be the only option.
In conditions of breaking waves and surf, it is possible for the survivor or team member
executing the rescue to be injured getting in or out of the water. Learn to use the waves as
an aid to get in and out of the surf. Plant feet firmly as the wave approaches and brace for
9-22
CAUTION: In circumstances where the waves are dangerously high, however, it would be wiser
to wait for a lull between the breakers to attempt the lift.
9.2.7.2.2 Two-Person Carry. The following are procedures for removing a survivor
from the water with the assistance of another team member.
9.2.7.2.2.1 Team members remove fins and position themselves on either side of
the survivor.
9.2.7.2.2.2 Drape one of the survivors arms over each team members shoulders
and wrap their survivor-side arm around the survivors waist or back. The team
members will then slide their free arms under the survivors legs and grasp each
others wrist.
9-23
9.2.7.2.2.3 The survivor will now be in a sitting position in your arms with his/her
back supported by both your other arms.
9.2.7.2.2.4 The team members will walk out of the water to safety.
9.3 Small Boat Operations. A recovery team can conduct CRRC operations as an infiltration,
search, rescue, recovery, and exfiltration platform in support of PR/RO. The organization for a
particular operation is dependent on the nature of the mission. When organizing for the mission,
team and individual qualifications or experience should be matched to the specific requirements of
the mission or training event. The following information provides planning guidelines for a safe
and successful CRRC operation. Detailed information on environmental factors, tides and tidal
currents, nautical charts and publications, small boat navigation and basic boat handling skills can
be found in Army FM 3-05.212, Special Forces Waterborne Operations. Operation and
maintenance instructions for the CRRC can be found in Marine Corps TM 09665A-13&P/1-1,
Operation and Maintenance Instructions with Component and Repair Parts Listing For Combat
Rubber Raiding Craft and Zodiac Field Service Manuals. Specific mission planning factors to
CRRC operations are discussed in the following paragraph.
9.3.1 Load Planning. As a rule, the team leader should not load the CRRC to its maximum
capacity when preparing for a mission. In a crowded CRRC, team members in the forward
positions are subjected to a greater degree of physical discomfort owing to the turbulence
created by the effect of swell and wave activity. This concern is especially significant during
long-transit periods. Increased physical stress may diminish an individuals ability to perform
once he has arrived in the objective area. Furthermore, in the tactical or rescue environment
the team leader must take into account the possibility of prisoners, casualties, and the
evacuation of friendly forces. Thus, it is always wise to have sufficient additional boat space
for unforeseen contingencies. For example, although the F470 CRRC with an outboard motor
(OBM) is capable of transporting ten personnel, no more than six personnel should be
embarked. The optimum weight ceiling for the F470 CRRC is 2,000 pounds. Any weight
above this ceiling significantly reduces the CRRCs efficiency. Experience has shown that six
team members, with mission-essential equipment, on average, come closest to this weight
ceiling. In marginal sea states or when there are extended distances to be covered,
consideration should be given to limiting embarked team members to four. As with the
planning of any operation, provisions must be made to deal with uncertainty. Plans should be
developed to address contingencies and emergencies during CRRC transits to include:
9.3.1.1 Outboard Motor Breakdown. The team has a trained technician and brings tools
and spare parts or spare motor, if space and time permit.
9.3.1.2 Navigational Error. The team studies permanent geographical features and
known tides, currents, and winds, take into account the sea state, and intentionally steer
left or right of the target beach landing site (BLS) so once landfall is reached, a direction to
the incident site is already established.
NOTE: When using the GPS, the CRRC should aim directly at the BLS; it should not offset left
or right of target. Proper use of the GPS will take the CRRC directly and accurately to the BLS.
9-24
9-25
at sea, it is easier for search assets to spot a capsized CRRC than individual swimmers.
9.3.1.8 Loss of Contact. If contact is lost between crafts when conducting operations
involving multiple CRRCs, the usual procedure is for the lead craft to wait a preplanned
period of time for the missing CRRC to catch up. Make every attempt to reestablish
contact as soon as possible. Factors to consider include the following:
9.3.1.8.1 CRRCs are most likely to lose contact at night and in reduced visibility (fog,
rain, and heavy seas). To reduce the likelihood of lost contact, the following measures
should be followed:
9.3.1.8.1.1 Formations are kept tight and the coxswain maintains visual contact
with the other craft.
9.3.1.8.1.2 Other team members in the CRRC are assigned to assist the coxswain
in his duty.
9.3.1.8.2 If a CRRC falls behind the formation or stops, the other craft will stop to
render assistance. In the event that a CRRC cannot maintain the formation speed, the
CRRCs will travel at the slow crafts best possible speed.
9.3.1.8.3 If contact is lost, the lead CRRC should stop and wait for the lost craft to
catch up. If after a short period, the lost craft does not catch up, the lead CRRC follows
a reciprocal bearing until contact is made. Contingency plans include the following:
9.3.1.8.3.1 If contact is not made along the track, the lead CRRC will proceed to
a pre-designated rally point and wait until the lost craft arrives.
9.3.1.8.3.2 The coxswain of the lost craft attempts to reestablish contact. If
contact is not swiftly made, the coxswain moves to the pre-designated rally point to
await the rest of the force.
9.3.1.8.3.3 The team leader decides if the mission or the lost craft takes
precedence, taking into account the time available for the mission and the
preplanned abort criteria.
9.3.1.9 Man Overboard. If a team member falls overboard, the coxswain will alert the
team leader and other craft in the area using voice, radio, or visual signals. To facilitate
recovery, each team member will have a pre-briefed signaling device (these may be IR
depending on the tactical situation) attached to a personal flotation device (PFD). It will
be activated upon falling overboard.
9.3.1.9.1 Unless the CRRC is in a dangerous surf zone, where stopping would
endanger the entire CRRC team, the coxswain will maneuver to avoid the team
member and shift the engine into neutral until past the man to prevent the propellers
from striking him.
9.3.1.9.2 Depending on the tactical situation, a team member overboard in the surf
zone will either return to the beach where a designated boat will recover him, or he will
swim through the surf zone and be recovered.
9-26
9-27
UNCLASSIFIED
9.3.2.8 Signaling Devices. These devices include smoke, flares, chemlights, sea dye
markers, and submersible strobe lights.
9.3.2.9 Paddles. A sufficient number of paddles should be transported to provide
propulsion and steering for the CRRC in case of OBM failure.
9.3.2.10 Repair Kit. This kit should contain provisions for the CRRC and OBM. (See
Table 9.1, OBM and CRRC Repair Kit Contents.)
9.3.2.11 Sidelights. Colored lights are used as follows: red on port and green on
starboard. Consider using battery powered light sticks opposed to chemlights. During
tactical operations, the battery powered light sticks can be easily turned off.
9.3.2.12 Lines. Bow and stern lines should be at least 15 feet long.
9.3.2.13 Protective Clothing. Generally, protective clothing will be worn at the
discretion of the team leader as dictated by the environment and mission. Team leaders
consider the desires of the individual crew. Planners consider that team members can
suffer hypothermia during prolonged exposure to sea spray and wind even in relatively
mild air temperatures.
9.3.2.14 Equipment Loading. Place all organizational equipment that is not worn by the
team (e.g., medical gear, rescue equipment, and radios) in waterproof bags (as required)
within rucksacks or submersible bags. Pad sharp corners and projections on equipment to
prevent damage to the boat. Stow and lash the bags or rucksacks securely in the boat before
launching.
9-28
Extra Parts
8-inch pliers
9-29
UNCLASSIFIED
9.3.3.3 Fuel Mixture Procedures. All two-stroke engines require a 50:1 fuel oil mixture.
A rule of thumb is 1 pint of lubricant oil to 6 gallons of fuel oil. If utilizing non-standard
engines follow the manufacturers guidance. Suggest utilizing a high-octane fuel, 91 or
greater, or an octane booster. The use of TCW-2 two-stroke oil is recommended.
Procedures and considerations for mixing fuel and oil are as follows:
9-30
CAUTION: If the fuel oil is too thin, excess wear and possible damage will occur.
9.3.3.3.5 Discard fuel mixtures after 30 days.
9.3.3.4 Mounting and Start Up. The procedures for mounting the OBM to the transom
and starting are listed below:
9.3.3.4.1 Secure the lanyard from the OBM to the CRRC transom. The lanyard will be
a cable with a carabiner or snap hook. This will secure the OBM from loss.
9.3.3.4.2
Center the motor on the transom and tighten the clamp screws.
9.3.3.4.3 Make sure tilt lock lever is down. When the lever is this position the motor
is locked down. When the lever is up this allows the motor to tilt up in shallow water.
9.3.3.4.4 Make sure shallow water bar is down.
9.3.3.4.5 Ensure that the tilt pin is placed in the proper hole, so that the lower linkage
is 90 degrees to the bottom of the CRRC. Ensure that the tilt pin has a lanyard.
9.3.3.4.6 Push the pin back in the mount. Ensure to push the plastic ear all the way in.
This will lock the pin in and will prevent it from falling out.
9.3.3.4.7 Hook up the fuel container. Make sure the hose connector is all the way on
the motor. Open the fuel vent valve if equipped on the fuel container and squeeze the
priming bulb until it is hard.
9.3.3.4.8
9.3.3.4.9 Move the shift lever to the neutral position. The engine will only start when
in the neutral position.
9.3.3.4.10 Turn the throttle grip to the start position.
9.3.3.4.11 If the engine is cold, pull the primer knob through its full stroke three times
to prime the engine.
9.3.3.4.12 Leave the primer knob in the warm up position (color line showing) to
provide for enrichment.
9-31
9.3.3.4.13 Pull starter handle slow until the starter engages and then pull forcibly. Pull
as needed until the OBM starts. Do not over extend pull strokes as this may damage
the starter.
9.3.3.4.14 If the OBM does not turn over, squirt starter fluid into the carburetor, pull
the choke out and pull start again.
9.3.3.5 Shifting. To shift the OBM while underway, use the following procedures:
9.3.3.5.1 After the engine is running smoothly, turn the throttle control to the shift
position. Move the shift forward with a quick motion.
9.3.3.5.2 For reverse, decrease the speed and turn throttle control clockwise to the
shift position and move the shift lever to reverse.
9.3.3.6 Stopping the OBM. To stop the OBM while underway or when stationary:
9.3.3.6.1 Slow the OBM to idle speed.
9.3.3.6.2 Move the shift lever to neutral.
9.3.3.6.3 Press the stop button which is located on the end of the steering handle or in
the front of the motor by the primer.
9.3.3.7 Tilt Use. To adjust the tilt of the OBM:
9.3.3.7.1 Move the tilt lever up. The OBM will be able to come to the up position.
9.3.3.7.2 Move the tilt lever and use the tilt on the engine cover to raise the motor to
the full tilt position. Tilt support will automatically engage. Make sure the propeller is
always underwater. Do not operate the OBM in reverse when the tilt is up. Motor will
tilt up causing loss of control. Always run the OBM at slow speeds. Ensure you check
the water pump indicator often.
9.3.3.8 Fuel Delivery Checks.
9.3.3.8.1 Squeeze the primer bulb until definite pressure is felt. If pressure holds, the
system is good.
9.3.3.8.2 If no pressure is felt or the bulb looses pressure, check for leaks.
9.3.3.8.2.1 Check the fuel container and vent, if necessary.
9.3.3.8.2.2 Check the fuel hoses.
9.3.3.8.2.3 Check fuel filter cap.
9.3.3.8.2.4 Check the fuel pump.
9.3.3.8.3 Carburetor Considerations.
9.3.3.8.3.1 If the primer bulb does not firm up and no leakage is present, check
carburetor for flooding.
9.3.3.8.3.2 If the pressure is good and there are no leaks and the OBM still does
not start:
9.3.3.8.3.2.1 Remove the fuel filter cap.
9-32
9.3.3.9.2
9.3.3.9.8
9.3.3.9.9 One team member should steady the engine while another team member
pulls starter handle.
9.3.3.9.10 Pull starter by using slow continuous pulls. Turn the engine over until it
pulls over easily.
9.3.3.9.11 Move tilt lever down.
9.3.3.9.12 Pull starter handle rapidly about ten times. This will remove any remaining
water in the carburetor and the crank case.
9.3.3.9.13
9-33
9.3.3.10.1 Take a blunt object and press the ball in the fuel line connector, then
squeeze the primer bulb several times. This can be done any time water is suspected to
be in the fuel line.
9.3.3.11 Cooling System. Make sure that a thin stream continuously pours out of the
water pump indicator. If water fails to stream out of the water pump indictor, stop the
engine immediately.
9.3.3.11.1 A weak or intermittent discharge may indicate an obstructed intake.
9.3.3.11.2 Check the intake screen located down by the propeller. If it is clogged
remove any debris. If no obstruction is apparent, it may indicate a bad water pump.
9.3.3.11.3
9-34
9-35
Date
Incident
@ time
Drift
@ Time
Wind Current
(due to wind)
Datum
Position 1
N/S
F/W
Direction
Speed
Leeway factor
@ Time
Leeway in knots
15
345
30
315
Position 2
N/S
E/W
Time
45
300
60
285
Position 3
N/S
E/W
Time
75
270
90
255
Position 4
N/S
E/W
Time
105
240
120
225
Position 5
N/S
E/W
Time
135
210
195
165
150
180
Position object's LKP at the center of the plotting board. Enter vectors for Total
Water Current and Leeway to determine datum.
UNCLASSIFIED
9-36
Object
Pattern type
On scene conditions:
3X
Surface visibility
Sea state
Air/water temp
X
5X
Start point
Stop Point
Search speed
3X
2X
CSP
4X
Time to run
Search leg
Track space
Initial heading
Leg 4
Leg 2
Leg 5
Leg 3
4X
X is the basic unit of expansion
and is equal to the Track Spacing.
Units may be seconds, minutes, miles
or parts of a mile.
Search leg
Track space
Direction
of creep
CSP
SL
Direction
of current
0.5
TS
TS
Pattern not compensated for current
Max
object distance
Use when route is known or can be assumed,
an LKP is known, but datum is uncertain.
Always calculate the effect of drift and leeway
on unknown portion of route and orient search
legs accordingly.
UNCLASSIFIED
9-37
Total Water
Current Vector
Last Known
Position (LKP)
0830Z
Leeway
Factor
Datum
1030Z
UNCLASSIFIED
9.3.4.1.1.2.1 Leeway. Leeway is the movement of a search object through the
water. Leeway is caused by local winds blowing against the exposed surface of
the search object.
9.3.4.1.1.2.2 Local Wind-Driven Current. Wind blowing over the water's
surface tends to push the water along in the same direction the wind is blowing.
This wind current affects the movement of a search object in open waters.
Wind-driven current may not be a factor when searching in coastal waters,
small lakes, rivers, or harbours because nearby land masses may block or
reduce the effect of wind.
9.3.4.1.1.2.3 Sea Currents. Sea current refers to the movements of water in
the open sea.
9.3.4.1.1.2.4 Tidal Currents. Tidal current is caused by the rising and falling
of tides.
9.3.4.1.1.2.5 River Currents. The flow of water in a river is called river
current. These currents can quickly move a search object over a long distance.
This factor should be considered in rivers or at the mouth of a large river.
9.3.4.2 Search Patterns. Once a search area has been determined, a systematic search
for the object must be planned. The team determines which the best search pattern to use
is. Consider the following to determine which search pattern to use:
Weather conditions.
9-38
3x
1x
CSP
2x
4x
6x
1x
3x
5x
7x
Leg lengths set in units
of time or distance
UNCLASSIFIED
9.3.4.2.2 Sector Search Pattern. A sector search pattern is used when datum is
established with a high degree of confidence but the search object is difficult to detect,
such as a person in the water (PIW). The team navigates through datum several times,
each time increasing the chances of finding the search object. Datum should be marked
by the team with a buoy or other floating object. By marking the center of the search
pattern, the coxswain has a navigation check each time the boat comes near the center
of the search area. This pattern consists of nine legs. All legs and crosslegs of this
pattern are of equal length. After running the first leg, the teams first turn will be 120
degrees to starboard to begin the first cross leg. All subsequent turns will be 120
9-39
120
0
120
0
240
CSP
STOP
240
120
0 240
UNCLASSIFIED
9.3.4.2.3 Parallel and Trackline Search Patterns. The Parallel And Trackline
search patterns are used when there is a probability that the search object could be
anywhere in the search area. It is a good pattern to use when the approximate location
of the search object is known and uniform coverage is desired. Parallel track patterns
are the simplest of the search patterns. The team steers straight courses on all legs.
Each leg is one track spacing from the other. The legs are parallel to the long side or
major axis of the search area. The Trackline pattern is used to search when the only
information available is the intended track of the vessel the team is searching for.
9.3.4.2.4 The Creeping Line Search Pattern. The Creeping Line search pattern is
used when the probable location of the search object has been determined to be more
likely at one end of the search area than at the other end. This is best used to cover large
areas where datum is vague and the search object is easy to spot. In areas of relatively
static water the creeping line search will track relatively true over the ground giving
very complete coverage. Searches in areas of strong current should not attempt to
9-40
Current
Current
SL
CSP
TS
LKP
Preplanned
Stop Point
Search compensated
for current
CSP
SL
LKP
TS
Preplanned
Stop Point
Search uncompensated
for current
UNCLASSIFIED
9.3.4.2.5 Barrier Pattern. The Barrier pattern is used in areas with strong current
such as a river. The search lies along the path of the current. The boat moves back and
forth over the same track. This can be done by steering on an object on each side of the
river bank. The boat moves from one side of the search area to the other while the
current carries the water and objects past the search barrier. Since river currents can
vary across the width of a river, a more effective barrier might be established by
forming a line abreast. This is done by placing observers on each bank and having a
boat in the area of swiftest current hold station between the observers on shore.
Additional boats, if available, could be added to the line abreast to reduce the effective
track spacing and increase the effective coverage. This technique produces a more
effective, and predictable, barrier.
9.3.4.2.6 Shoreline Search. CRRCs can perform a shoreline search, since their draft
allows them to get close enough to the shoreline to permit careful inspection. Search
craft engaged in shoreline searches must be aware of navigational constraints and any
limitations imposed by sea conditions. Team leaders consider the possibility of
survivors clinging to navigational aids such as buoys, or to rocks off shore. Survivors
may make their way to any dry land they drift close enough to see. Survivors may also
9-41
anchor their boat or raft or tie it to an offshore navigational aid if they drift into shallow
water but still cannot see land or believe they cannot make it to shore unaided.
9.3.4.3 Search Area Determination Procedure. Draw a circle with a 6-NM radius
centered at the LKP.
9.3.4.3.1 If drift is considered significant, the team should estimate the drift based on
local knowledge/on scene conditions, and center the 6-NM circle around the drifted
LKP.
9.3.4.3.2 Remember that the time of datum must take into consideration the underway
transit times for the search craft.
9.3.4.3.3 Next draw the search pattern within the tangent of the circle. Datum for the
search is the commence search point (CSP). Orient the search area in the same
direction of drift, that is, in the same direction as the total drift vector.
9.3.4.3.4 If the reported position of a distressed craft is in shallow water, it could be
at anchor, and a search down the drift line may be appropriate.
9.3.4.4 Commence Search Point. The CSP is a point identified by datum in which a
search craft begins its search pattern.
9.3.4.5 Track Spacing. Track spacing (TS) is the distance between adjacent parallel legs
within a search area. These tracks may be conducted simultaneously by multiple units
separated by fixed intervals, or they may be the result of successive sweeps conducted by
a single search craft. Most of the search patterns described in this chapter consist of
equally spaced, parallel search legs (tracks). The distance between adjacent search legs is
called the TS. The best TS is a distance which permits maximum expectation of search
object detection in the shortest period of time. (See Table 9.2, Track Spacing to determine
track spacing.)
Table 9.2 Track Spacing.
Good Conditions
Poor Conditions
MDM
Search Object
Person in Water
0.1
0.1
0.5
0.2
1.0
1.0
9.3.4.6 Search Preparation. Before beginning a search, you must collect all available
facts about an incident. The checklist below will help team members determine whether
they have everything they need to begin a mission. Once the team has collected all
available facts and performed the required search planning, they are ready to get underway.
What is the object of this search and what equipment did the survivors aboard have?
How many survivors are involved?
9-42
9-43
in the water should be well-known to all team members. Make a turn toward the survivor.
A team member to act as a pointer must be designated and always keep the PIW in sight.
The pointer will position himself in visual and verbal contact with the coxswain and direct
him to the PIW until the survivor is alongside the buoyancy tube of the CRRC. The
coxswain maneuvers into position under the guidance of the pointer and stops the
propellers upon approaching the person. Before reaching the man overboard, reduce speed
and cut the engine off or put the OBM in a quick reverse to prevent running the survivor
over. The team takes direction from the coxswain regarding the pick-up side and positions
itself to aid the survivor out of the water. (See Figure 9.19, PIW Recovery by CRRC.)
Take the following into consideration when conducting PIW recoveries:
9-44
PIW identified
PIW
"LEFT
SIDE!"
Use quick reverse
to prevent running
PIW over
Reduce speed
UNCLASSIFIED
9.3.5.1.1 Approach the survivor facing into the current or wind, whichever is the
stronger of the two. By steering into the elements, the coxswain will maintain steerage
even at slow speed and can use the elements to slow and stop the CRRC.
9.3.5.1.2 Survivors immersed in cold water will rapidly lose muscle strength and
coordination and may not be able to help themselves. They may have to be assisted
every step of the way to recovery.
9-45
9-46
9-47
9-48
Hoist conducted
off CRRC bow
UNCLASSIFIED
9-49
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 9.22 CRRC CRS.
CRRC CRS
UNCLASSIFIED
9-50
9-51
9.4 Underwater Search, Rescue, and Recovery Operations. The requirement exists for
GUARDIAN ANGEL recovery teams to be capable of an underwater search, rescue and recovery
of personnel and material. The success of any underwater operation is based on the teams
knowledge and ability to safely and accurately execute its assigned tasks. In order to meet this
requirement, training in specific equipment modification and TTP is necessary. This section deals
specifically with scenarios and problems encountered in GUARDIAN ANGEL diving operations
under adverse conditions with an emphasis on limited to no underwater visibility and
contaminated water. All TTP in this section have been utilized successfully by Pararescue teams
and major metropolitan police and fire dive teams. Much of the TTP detailed has been developed
and refined by Walt Hendrick of Lifeguard Systems Inc. of Lake Hurley, New York, a SME
commonly consulted by GUARDIAN ANGEL recovery teams. Topics such as diving policy,
principles, physiology, general scuba air diving and closed circuit oxygen Underwater Breathing
Apparatus (UBA) diving procedure can be found in SS521-AG-PRO-010 USN Navy Diving
Manual, Revision 4. Information on tactical underwater operations can be found in AFTTP 3-1.8,
Tactical EmploymentGUARDIAN ANGEL and Special Tactics Forces, and Army FM 3-05.212,
Special Forces Waterborne Operations.
9.4.1 Equipment Considerations and Techniques for Adverse Conditions.
GUARDIAN ANGEL recovery team scuba operations give a shallow underwater (generally
less than 130 feet) search, rescue, and light recovery capability that can be rapid deployable,
easily portable and with minimum support requirements. Disadvantages of scuba operations
include the limited endurance of open-circuit systems (depth and duration), physical
protection offered in contaminated water, current influences, and if not equipped, a lack of
voice communication. Team safety and effectiveness can be increased for operations in
adverse conditions by taking into consideration the following considerations and techniques.
9.4.1.1 Face Masks. Traditional face masks are unacceptable for contaminated water
conditions but suitable for clean warm water operations. Divers should keep the mask on
until they are out of the water and place the mask strap under the hood to prevent loss in
the event the mask becomes dislodged while underwater. Cleaning the face plate regularly
with a mask cleaner or any soft abrasive cleanser will prevent fogging. A fogged up mask
will not affect a diver in no-visibility conditions but may increase the chance of the diver
wanting to remove his mask upon surfacing.
9.4.1.2 Snorkels. The snorkel may present an entanglement hazard for the diver
executing operations along the bottom in limited visibility conditions. The snorkel can
dislodge the mask if it strikes against an object and does not facilitate streamlining of the
diver. If operating in adverse conditions transferring the regulator to a snorkel during a
surface swim may cause the diver to aspirate and ingest contaminated water.
9.4.1.3 Protective Helmets. If diving in an overhead environment or moving water, head
protection should be worn. If the mission requires the helicopter free fall employment of
scuba-equipped team members, wear a protective helmet to prevent hitting the head on the
tank manifold/regulator first-stage when making impact with the water. Utilize a
lightweight plastic helmet. Because of the buoyant characteristics of the helmet padding,
consider taking out the padding and wearing the helmet over a hood. Protective helmets
also give versatility by their ability to mount submersible lights or cameras. (See Figure
9.23, Protective Helmet with Divator FFM and Underwater Communications.)
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Figure 9.23 Protective Helmet with Divator FFM and Underwater Communications.
UNCLASSIFIED
9.4.1.4 Full Face Masks. The full face masks (FFM) ability to keep the divers face
warm allows for underwater communications system use and helps protect the face from
hazardous materials. These attributes make it ideal and recommended for pararescue
operations. FFMs are designed to enclose a divers eyes, nose and mouth but not the rest
of the head. Seriously consider using the FFM in conjunction with an attached dry suit
hood to protect the diver when diving in contaminated water. No FFM on the market will
guarantee that no water will enter the mask. An additional safety consideration is that the
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mask, with a good seal and positive pressure, will protect the airway of an unconscious
diver. Important features for a FFM to have include; an equalizing device, automatic
defogging, earphone pockets for underwater communications systems, low volume, large
buckles with wide straps and modular communications. Disadvantages of diving FFMs is
that without the proper hood they are difficult to seal around the divers face without a
constant stream of bubbles from under the mask seal and inadvertent inflation of the
divers hood with air. A positive-pressure mask will also cause the diver to use and lose air
at a higher rate than a diver equipped with a standard regulator. New divers can increase
their rate of air consumption by approximately 20 percent.
CAUTION: Prior to the use of FFM divers must be trained in their use and be thoroughly familiar
with the operation of these masks.
9.4.1.4.1 Divator FFM. The Approved for Navy Use (ANU) Interspiro MKII Divator
FFM has been in use for many years and is a good, lightweight FFM currently in use
with many recovery teams. The divator automatically de-fogs with each breath the
diver takes and the attached second-stage regulator has proved reliably resistant to
freezing in cold water in exhaustive USN tests. The divator can be bought as a
positive-pressure mask which means during an accidental break in the mask seal the
regulator will go into free-flow mode to keep water out of the mask. This feature will
work in shallow water but has been proven to be ineffective in deep water. Even in
shallow water, at peak inhalations during moderate work, positive pressure does not
exist. If the diver is in a head down position, water pressure will be greater than
positive pressure and the mask is vulnerable to leaks. The divator is equipped with an
adjustable nose block device to facilitate valsalva maneuvers. The height of the block
can be varied according to each divers face size. The diver pushes the mask against his
face brings the block into contact with his nostrils and permits him to build the pressure
necessary to valsalva. The divator requires specialized service tools and instruments
for proper adjustment. The divator lacks ear pockets to hold underwater
communication earphones.
9.4.1.4.2 EXO Balanced Regulator Military Standard FFM. The Diving Systems
International EXO Balanced Regulator Military Standard (BRMS) is also ANU for
scuba operations. The EXO BRMS has a unique suspension and face seal that allows
the mask to move in many directions on the divers face without losing a seal and
flooding. All parts are large and designed to be utilized by a gloved hand. Pockets for
underwater communication earphones are integrated with the face seal of the mask.
The mask is also equipped with a regulator adjustment knob to allow the diver to adjust
the regulator for ease of breathing at depth. A nose pocket is provided to facilitate
valsalva maneuvers. The EXO BRMS was not designed to be a positive-pressure mask
and will free-flow if it should become loose. Because of the low volume of the design,
it is simple to clear and it is designed to defog the lens with each breath the diver takes.
(See Figure 9.24, EXO BRMS FFM.)
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Communications module
Regulator adjustment knob
Purge button
Regulator exhaust
UNCLASSIFIED
9.4.1.4.3 Surface Vents. A disadvantage of FFM is that divers wearing them on the
surface awaiting deployment will breathe from their main tank. Standby divers can not
have their masks in place and be ready to employ without depleting a significant
amount of air from their tanks. Vents are available that allow the diver to breath
ambient air with the mask in place. The diver simply manipulates the vent and
automatically switches to air from his tanks.
9.4.1.4.4 FFM Diving Techniques. FFM diving requires modification from
traditional diving procedures. Water entry should be done deliberately. Avoid sudden
movements or jumps from height that could dislodge or loosen the mask enough to
permit water to get past the face seal. The diver holds the mask tightly against his face
when he enters the water. Equalization of pressure of middle ear spaces is practiced
prior to operational diving to familiarize divers with the procedure. Yawning and
swallowing are alternatives to the use of the mask equalizing device. Divers should be
familiar with clearing a completely flooded mask underwater and complete mask
removal and replacement underwater.
9.4.1.4.5 FFM Emergencies. In contaminated water conditions, three emergency
situations could exist if divers are utilizing a FFM. These are; an out-of-air situation,
mask leak or flood and a loss of communication. The divers first step is to notify the
tender. In an out-of-air situation in contaminated water, there is no satisfactory way to
share air with another diver (e.g., octopus, emergency gas supply [EGS] bottle, or
contingency cylinder). In clean water, this procedure would work but without a
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back-up mask, the diver would be essentially blind. Removing the mask, mask
leaking, or flooding in contaminated water could be dangerous and should cause
immediate dive termination. Consider the use of an EGS to a manifold block as a
personal back-up supply. Divers employing the FFM in conjunction with underwater
communications systems should have redundancy in the form of line pull signals.
9.4.1.5 Gauges. All divers should be equipped with a depth gauge and submersible
pressure gauge. Most recovery team dive operations will occur in limited visibility
conditions, it is recommended that phosphorescent analog gauges be utilized to facilitate
visibility of the gauge. Low visibility may even hamper being able to visualize the
numbers on the gauge. If only the needle can be seen, divers can remember the clock
position of the needle on the gauge when at the minimum return to surface pressure
reading. An example would be, If 1,000 PSI is at the 2 oclock position on the gauge, the
diver has to remember to return to the surface at 2 oclock. For no-visibility conditions,
the diver can fill a zip-lock bag with clear water and tape it to the top of the gauge. To
view the gauge; the diver can press the bag against his mask in conjunction with a small
light.
9.4.1.6 Nitrogen-Oxygen. Nitrogen-oxygen (NITROX) diving is a unique type of diving
using nitrogen-oxygen breathing gas mixtures ranging from 75 percent nitrogen/25 percent
oxygen to 60 percent nitrogen/40 percent oxygen. Using NITROX significantly increases
the amount of time a diver can spend at depth without decompressing. It also decreases the
required decompression time compared to a similar dive made to the same depth using air.
NITROX may be used in all diving operations suitable for air, but its use is limited to a
normal depth of 140 feet salt water (FSW). NITROX breathing gas mixtures are normally
used for shallow dives. The most benefit is gained when NITROX is used shallower than
50 FSW, but it can be advantageous when used to a depth of 140 FSW. Detail information
on NITROX diving operations can be found in Chapter 10, Nitrogen-Oxygen Diving
Operations, in SS521-AG-PRO-010 USN Navy Diving Manual, Revision 4.
9.4.1.6.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of NITROX Diving. The advantages of
using NITROX rather than air for diving include:
Extended bottom times for no-decompression diving.
Reduced decompression time.
Reduced residual nitrogen in the body after a dive.
Reduced possibility of decompression sickness.
Reduced Nitrogen Narcosis.
The disadvantages of using NITROX include:
Increased risk of CNS oxygen toxicity.
Producing NITROX mixtures requires special equipment.
NITROX equipment requires special cleaning techniques.
Long-duration NITROX dives can result in pulmonary oxygen toxicity.
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NOTE: Nitrox is not currently approved for use by GUARDIAN ANGEL personnel.
9.4.1.7 Emergency Gas Supply Bottles. Small additional tanks allow divers to
self-rescue when their primary air source has been depleted. Small 18- to 30-cubic foot
pony bottles with an independent regulator give the standby diver an EGS that can be
transferred to another diver allowing the standby diver to leave and return with even more
back-up air. The EGS is mounted to the main tank with a quick release mechanism that
both the diver and standby diver can easily get to in an emergency. Mount the EGS on the
right side of the tank so that the regulator second stage on the cylinder is properly
configured for the entrapped diver to use. (See Figure 9.25, EGS Bottle.)
9.4.1.7.1 EGS Techniques. When passing off an EGS aluminum bottle underwater,
maintain control of the buoyant cylinder to prevent it from loss or injuring another
diver. There are two methods to pass off an EGS bottle to another diver.
9.4.1.7.1.1 Remove the regulator and switch to another regulator mouthpiece from
the EGS. If the diver is in contaminated water, the regulator mouthpiece will be
contaminated when it enters the divers mouth. A diver wearing a FFM will be
required to move his mask to make the transition exposing his mouth, nose, eyes,
and skin to the same hazard.
9.4.1.7.1.2 Use a dive block designed to make the transfer from the main air
supply to an EGS. This is the safest method and connects the main air supply with
an EGS. These blocks are simply activated and then the unit shifts the divers
breathing source from the primary air source to the EGS. (See Figure 9.26, Dive
Block.)
9.4.1.8 Contingency Cylinders. In addition to the safety offered by the standby diver,
there should be a contingency tank within easy access of the surface team. A contingency
tank is a designated emergency scuba tank configured to be taken to a diver trapped
underwater after he has been given the standby divers EGS bottle. The contingency
cylinder should have a regulator attached, a carrying handle, a least one extra cutting tool,
a carabineer, and a light marker. On the incident site, it should be full, and the dive
supervisor should check its status before the primary diver enters the water. Take into
consideration that if the team is utilizing a single aluminum 80 ft scuba tank that it will
become buoyant once some of its air is used. To prevent possible loss of the tank by the
entrapped diver weigh it with a 2-pound weight about 8-inches above the bottom. (See
Figure 9.27, Contingency Cylinder.)
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EGS Bottle
UNCLASSIFIED
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Dive Block
UNCLASSIFIED
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Contingency Cylinder
UNCLASSIFIED
9.4.1.9 Underwater Communications Systems. Due to the complexities, dangers, and
challenging conditions of underwater search, rescue, and recovery operations, there should
always be communication between the divers and surface team. A underwater
communications system will reduce the chance of miscommunication and ensures the
surface team always knows the divers status. Psychologically when dealing with mishaps
it can be reassuring for the primary diver to have someone to communicate with. Systems
require either a FFM or oral cup to allow the diver to speak. Before employments ensure
team members are trained in use and emergency procedures. Voice-activated (VOX)
systems are preferable to push-to-talk models since the searching diver will not have to
stop searching with one hand whenever he needs to communicate. These systems can be
either hardwired or wireless.
9.4.1.9.1 Hardwired Communications. These are usually comprised of a topside
communications box, communications wire, ear phones for the tender and a
microphone in the divers FFM. Hardwired communication systems are very reliable
coupled with good communication. (See Figure 9.28, Hardwired Underwater
Communications.)
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UNCLASSIFIED
9.4.1.9.2 Wireless Communications. Single sideband is the principal technology
employed by current manufacturers of these systems. Before employing wireless
systems, consider factors that can affect the quality of underwater communications.
These include gas density of breathing gas, underwater work level, nitrogen narcosis,
bubble noise, regulator noise, FFM oral-nasal cavity size, microphone type, hood and
mask restrictions, loss of natural feedback, diving dress, placement of transducers used
to generate and receive the signals, and underwater features. All factors need to be
overcome for a topside dive supervisor to communicate with a diver or for two divers
underwater to communicate. The basic components of a wireless system are a FFM
speaking chamber coupled with an electronics housing. Attached to the housing are
connections for the microphone and earphone. (See Figure 9.29, Wireless Underwater
Communications.)
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UNCLASSIFIED
9.4.1.10 Swim Fins. Due to entanglement hazards diving in limited visibility waters,
consider taping the outside strap of each fin or route straps backward through the buckles
so that the running end pull tab is on the inside of the fin strap. Keeping the inside strap
free for adjustment is easier to reach for most divers. Highly buoyant fins and booties may
provide a hindrance for search and recovery operations in shallow water decreasing
effectiveness of the search pattern. Having buoyant feet can be a hazard to dry suit
equipped divers increasing the risk of inadvertent feet first ascents. A pair of ankle
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CAUTION: Prior to the use of dry suits, divers must be trained in their use and be thoroughly
familiar with the operation of these suits.
9.4.1.13.1 Dry Suits Limitations. Use of dry suits is limited by the following:
9.4.1.13.1.1 Horizontal swims may be fatiguing due to suit bulk.
9.4.1.13.1.2 If the diver is horizontal or head down, air can migrate into the foot
area and become trapped there causing the diver to lose attitudinal control.
Because there are no exhaust valves in the legs, the diver may find himself
ascending feet first and out of control. The expanding air in the legs can cause over
inflation, loss of buoyancy control, and a rapid uncontrolled ascent. The expanding
air trapped in the feet may also cause the divers fins to pop off.
9.4.1.13.1.3 Inlet and exhaust valves can malfunction.
9.4.1.13.1.4 A collapsing or parting seam or zipper or a rip in the suit can result in
sudden and drastic loss of buoyancy and in thermal shock.
9.4.1.13.1.5 Extra weight is required to achieve neutral buoyancy. It is generally
best to use oversized weights.
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NOTE: Divers must receive proper training in and be thoroughly familiar with the dry suit before
they attempt to use it operationally. Any diver planning to use a dry suit in any water, especially
while diving under adverse conditions should be thoroughly familiar with the functioning of the
suit and the manufacturers operational literature. Divers should have experience with the suit
before deployment to the dive site. In addition to gaining experience using the suit, the diver
should get a thorough checkout on the proper method of donning and doffing, suit care, and
maintenance. Three dives to increasing depths are normally sufficient for an experienced diver to
become familiar with the suit.
9.4.1.13.2 Dry Suit Risks. The two greatest risks to the diver using a dry suit are
floodout and blowup.
9.4.1.13.2.1 Floodout is the sudden compromise of the dry suits watertight
integrity usually caused by a tear or the failure of one of the watertight seals. The
diver may experience thermal shock caused by the sudden exposure to the very
cold water. The result of catastrophic buoyancy loss has been greatly exaggerated
within the diving community.
9.4.1.13.2.2 Blowup is the sudden loss of buoyancy control caused by the rapid
expansion of air trapped inside the suit. It is most commonly caused by an
inadvertent ascent without venting the suit, a stuck (often frozen) low-pressure
inflator, or a closed or jammed exhaust valve.
WARNING: Proper training prepares the diver to deal effectively with these emergencies. Cause
of death for untrained divers is usually drowning, air embolism, decompression sickness, or a
combination of these factors.
9.4.1.13.3 Cold Water Considerations. Do not subject the dry suit to an ambient
outside temperature below 32 degrees F before a dive. Such exposure can result in
super cooling of the inlet and exhaust valves and can cause icing on immersion. If it is
necessary to expose the suit to extreme temperatures before diving, the diver should
lubricate the valves with silicone. Attempt to re-warm the valves before entering the
water.
9.4.1.13.3.1 Dry Suit Hoods. The primary function of the hood is to prevent heat
loss through the head. In water less than 70 degrees F, hoods should be a minimum
of 3mm thick to decrease heat loss and help prevent vertigo induced by having cold
water flood the ears. Dry suits are available with built-in latex hoods in which the
diver will be required to wear an insulated skull cap under the hood to provide
thermal protection. The dry suit will offer its best protection if it includes an
attached hood that seals around the divers face and under a FFM. Latex hoods are
great for sealing with a FFM but they are very susceptible to puncture. When
equipping team members order the attached latex hood a size smaller to prevent it
from filling with air and becoming very uncomfortable. If a wet suit hood is worn,
it should have vents to prevent the build-up of air under the hood. Two vents
should be installed on at the top for when the diver is vertical and one at the back of
the head for when the diver is horizontal.
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CAUTION: Weight requirements will change from fresh water to salt water.
CAUTION: Weight requirements will change with changes in the amount of thermal protection
worn under the dry suit.
9.4.1.13.4.2.1 Vent all of the air from the BC.
9.4.1.13.4.2.2 Vent all of the air from the dry suit. All air can be vented by
assuming a vertical position in the water and opening the dry suit exhaust valve
completely by turning it counterclockwise until it stops.
9.4.1.13.4.2.3 Raise the left elbow and allow the suit to vent. Water pressure
will force air from the lower point of the suit up through the torso and out the
exhaust valve.
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9.4.1.13.4.2.4 Fill the lungs with air and then you should float at eye level.
When you completely exhale all of your air, you should slowly begin to sink. If
both conditions are met, you are neutrally buoyant.
9.4.1.13.4.2.5 As you consume more air in the tank, you will become more
buoyant. After achieving neutral buoyancy at the surface with a full tank of air,
add an amount of weight equal to the weight of the air in the tank.
9.4.1.13.4.2.6 Before adding the weight, inflate the BC. Add just enough
weight to offset the change in buoyancy of the tank you are using.
CAUTION: Different tank sizes and tank materials will require different amounts of weight to
compensate for the change in buoyancy from a full tank to an empty tank.
9.4.1.13.4.2.7 Once in a vertical posture with your head out of the water, you
will notice that there is more pressure on the legs than the chest. This is normal
anytime you are in the water and have your head higher than your feet. The dry
suit should feel as though it is squeezing the diver gently, but firmly, all over
the body.
9.4.1.13.4.3 Dive Start. Ensure that the exhaust valve is completely open. To
open, turn it counterclockwise until it stops. Lift the left elbow to raise the valve to
the highest point of your body. Keep the wrist lower than your elbow. With the
mask on, you may not be able to see the valve, but should be able to hear air exiting
the valve. Descend by venting all of the air from the BC.
9.4.1.13.4.4 Descent. Once you descend past 10 feet, you will descend faster.
Leave the exhaust valve open. Do not close the exhaust valve. Add air to the suit
is short bursts, the short bursts will control the volume of air going into the suit and
will help keep the valve from freezing open when air or water temperatures are
below 40 degrees F. Just enough air is added to eliminate any uncomfortable
squeeze. To equalize a foot squeeze, you must get air into the boots. Air can only
enter the boots if you are parallel to the surface or in a slight feet-up attitude.
WARNING: Do not close the dry suit exhaust valve all the way while underwater. The valve has
been designed to vent automatically whenever the valve is at the highest point of the body.
Closing the valve increases the amount of air trapped in the suit and may lead to a loss of control.
Rapid ascent is dangerous and may cause pulmonary over inflation injuries or decompression
sickness, either of which can result in serious injury or death.
9.4.1.13.4.5 Attaining Neutral Buoyancy at Depth. When you reach the desired
depth, add just enough air to the dry suit to make yourself neutrally buoyant. A key
to dry suit diving is to dive with the minimum volume of air in the dry suit. Proper
weighting is essential to dive with a minimum volume of air in the dry suit.
9.4.1.13.4.5.1 Use the dry suit to adjust buoyancy. If you recovery additional
weight during the dive, use a lift bag to raise the additional weight to the
surface. If the lift bag becomes too buoyant and you are unable to control it,
you can release it.
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WARNING: Do not inflate the BC while using the dry suit. Controlling two independent air
bladders is a very difficult skill to master. If not carefully performed, the diver may experience a
rapid and uncontrolled ascent.
9.4.1.13.4.5.4 In the event of a damaged dry suit and it is unable to hold air,
consider inflating the BC.
9.4.1.13.4.6 Trim. When swimming underwater, you should be neither foot down
nor head down. You should be in level trim. When in both level trim and neutrally
buoyant you can move in any direction with a minimum of effort.
9.4.1.13.4.7 Ascent. Prior to ascent, ensure the exhaust valve is completely open.
The ascent must be slow and controlled. As you start towards the surface, you will
become positively buoyant as the air inside the suit expands. Vent air from the
exhaust valve as needed to maintain neutral buoyancy. You should be able to stop
the ascent at any time by simply exhaling.
WARNING: New divers should ascend next to a weighted line for their first few dry suit ascents
which can be used to gain control if necessary.
9.4.1.13.4.7.1 Monitor the ascent rate utilizing a dive timer and depth gauge
and stay within ascent rate limits.
9.4.1.13.4.7.2 If you ascend too fast, raise the left arm higher to allow the dry
suit to vent more air. If raising the left arm does not slow the ascent, push in on
the exhaust valve to activate the manual override.
9.4.1.13.4.7.3 If negatively buoyant and you have difficulty ascending, lower
the left arm and add a burst of air to the dry suit to add buoyancy. Once you
begin the ascent, be prepared to vent air through the exhaust valve.
9.4.1.13.4.7.4 Be prepared to stop the ascent at any time.
9.4.1.13.4.8 Surface Swimming. Inflating the BC will allow you to swim
comfortably on the surface without inflating the dry suit. Inflation of the dry suit
on the surface will place pressure on your neck. Consider adjusting the exhaust
valve all the way closed during surface swimming to prevent water from leaking
into the suit through the valve. Although it is acceptable to close the valve
completely while on the surface, ensure you open it to the open position before
submerging again.
9.4.1.13.4.9 Dry Suit Diving Emergencies. Master the following emergency
skills before using the dry suit in open water.
WARNING: The following emergency procedures should be practiced in a controlled
environment under the supervision of a dive supervisor experienced in dry suit diving before the
dry suit is used in open water.
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WARNING: If the diver is unable to establish positive buoyancy by inflation of the BC, only then
should the diver consider dropping his weight belt. A small amount of cold water introduced into
the dry suit may seem like a catastrophic failure. If the suit is not flooded, the inflation of the BC
plus the ditching of the weight belt will result in extreme positive buoyancy. The diver needs to
ensure that every effort is made to ascend using only the BC before ditching the weight belt. Such
buoyancy would be impossible to control and would result in a very rapid and uncontrolled ascent.
9.4.1.13.4.9.1.10 Dropped/Lost Weight Belt. If the weight belt is
dropped or lost execute the following:
9.4.1.13.4.9.1.10.1 Attempt to recover the weights.
9.4.1.13.4.9.1.10.2 Grab hold of anything you can and vent the suit.
9.4.1.13.4.9.1.10.3 If unable to control the ascent, assume the flare
position.
9.4.1.13.4.9.1.10.4 Continues to exhale as you ascend.
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9.4.1.14 Diving Harness. A diving harness allows a tethered diver to have both hands
free during the execution of a search dive. Properly configured, a harness will allow a
diver to maintain a taut line without any discomfort or effort, and feel line pull signals
through up to 150 feet of line. Keeping the attachment point in a constant location, a diver
can monitor his ascent rate by the change in the angle of the line across his chest. The
angle of the line also indicates that the tether became snagged on an underwater obstacle.
The harness should sit across the solar plexus so that it will not interfere with the divers
breathing. Good characteristics of a dive harness include adjustable shoulder straps,
reinforced stitching, stiff webbing, and crossing back straps to prevent unnecessary
pressure on the divers neck and back. The diver is tethered by securing a line to a D-ring
on the front of the harness with a Figure-8 knot with a locking carabineer or snap shackle.
The D-ring tether point should sit off-center so that when the diver is in the proper search
position the line will not run between the divers legs. (See Figure 9.30, Diving Harness
with Cutting Tools.)
Figure 9.30 Diving Harness with Cutting Tools.
UNCLASSIFIED
9.4.1.14.1 Alternative Configurations. Seat harnesses and loops tied around the
divers waist should be avoided due to putting the diver at a low tether point which will
put the diver in a vertical position under the water. Loops tied around the divers waist
may also rotate around the body causing difficulty in locating it to clear an
entanglement or signal the line tender. Divers should avoid holding the tender line
with one hand and searching with the other. If the diver was to drop the line, there is
no way of locating it in limited visibility. Holding the tender line with one hand also
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9-71
9-72
Line Markings
Narrow band every five feet
Diver
25 feet
50 feet
75 Feet
100 feet
125 feet
Tender
UNCLASSIFIED
9.4.1.20 Contingency Strap. A standby diver responding to an emergency needs to be
able to descend swiftly through limited visibility water along the primary divers tending
line. If he attempted to descend with only one hand, leaving the other to fend obstacles he
will only have one hand available to assist the diver in need. A contingency strap is
utilized secured to the standby divers harness and snapped into the primary divers tether
line. The recommended set-up is to use a 1-inch plastic side-release buckle in the middle,
a carabiner at one end to snap onto the primary divers tether, and a brass ring at the other
end with affixes to the standby divers harness attachment. Divers should not attach
themselves to someone else without a quick release capability. A contingency strap offers
the advantage of having the standby diver descend the primary divers tether without
pulling on it hand over hand which might worsen an entanglement or worsen an injury.
Having both hands also allows the standby diver to be able equalize, adjust buoyancy,
descend holding equipment, assess and deal with an emergency. (See Figure 9.32,
Contingency Strap.)
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Contingency Strap
UNCLASSIFIED
9.4.1.21 Diver Propulsion Vehicles. Diver propulsion vehicles (DPV) allow divers to
cover great distances while reducing swimming effort and air consumption. This
capability is utilized by some GUARDIAN ANGEL recovery teams to search large areas
of clear water and to facilitate subsurface infiltration or exfiltration. Tow-behind DPVs are
preferred to sit on top models and are considered more versatile because of streamlining
and the lessened chance of the divers gear getting caught in the propeller. Tow behind
DPVs also have propellers that are located where they can be seen by the diver, allow
better maneuverability, and facilitate the carriage of extra equipment. The Farallon
MK-VIII and MK-VIIIS are the only DPVs currently available that are ANU and divers
employing them should reference the manufacturers instruction and maintenance manual
for additional information. (See Figure 9.33, Farallon MK-VIII DPV, and Figure 9.34,
MK-VIIIS DPV.) The following are some planning and configuration considerations for
the use of DPVs in recovery team operations:
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Note: Performance tests were conducted by a 160 pound (73Kg) diver using a single
tank open circut SCUBA configuration. Speed and range of each Farallon DPV
will vary based on current flow, diver size, diver equipment configuration, diver
posture and battery status..
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 9.34 Farallon MK-VIIIS DPV.
Note: Performance tests were conducted by a 160 pound (73Kg) diver using a single
tank open circut SCUBA configuration. Speed and range of each Farallon DPV
will vary based on current flow, diver size, diver equipment configuration, diver
posture and battery status..
UNCLASSIFIED
9-75
CAUTION: Divers piloting DPVs must closely monitor ascent and descent rates to prevent
pulmonary overexpansion injuries and decompression sickness which can result in death.
NOTE: The vehicle is steered by the divers body positioning and fin movements. These
maneuvers should be practiced in shallow water and at slow speeds until the diver is proficient in
the operation of the vehicle. It is recommended that the diver be experienced in the operation of a
DPV prior to open water use.
9.4.1.21.1 Team members must consider the DPVs speed and power with the ability
to return to a start point without it, should it fail.
9.4.1.21.2 Too much speed over distance causes thermal problems for the diver.
Divers not swimming will need to consider additional thermal protection to stay warm.
9.4.1.21.3 Power required for speed rises exponentially and drag rises exponentially
with speed. There is an immediate point of diminishing returns where the battery
capacity required to burn even a short time at high speeds becomes prohibitive. Divers
streamline their equipment as much as possible to reduce drag.
9.4.1.21.4 The best method of attaching a DPV is by a tow cord that runs from the
DPV handles to a sit harness on the diver with either a front and rear tie-in or D-ring.
This configuration allows the diver to be pulled by the D-ring attachment and not by
the arms. This allows the divers hands to remain relaxed, with only wrist action
required to guide the DPV and a finger on the trigger.
9.4.1.21.5 The best position for a diver on a DPV is where the propeller wash will not
hit the diver at all.
9.4.1.21.6 The best handle position is riding with the DPV out in front with the divers
arm extended, relaxed with the hand lying on the handle and not grasping it.
9.4.1.21.7 In the event a team member experiences a disabled DPV it is essential to
tow him and his DPV. The first step is to configure the disabled DPV by threading a
tow cord through the disabled DPVs forward lifting handle and then clipping it off
onto the rear D-ring of the divers harness. The diver on the disabled DPV then clips
into his buddys rear D-ring which allows him to be towed himself. The towed diver
must maintain being streamlined by resisting the temptation to look where he is going
by keeping his head down. This will generate less drag.
9.4.1.21.8 Should the DPV begin to flood it must be turned off immediately. The unit
should be abandoned if it becomes too heavy causing problems with the divers
buoyancy. As a precaution, a lift bag may be carried (120 pounds of lift) to prevent the
loss of the vehicle in this situation.
9.4.2 Diving Personnel. When planning underwater search, rescue and recovery
operations matching qualifications and experience of diving personnel to specific
requirements of the operation, knowledge of the duties, responsibilities and relationships of
the various members of the diving team is essential. This paragraph specifically deals with the
team configuration to support a search under adverse conditions where tethered diver TTP is
essential. Team members diving under normal circumstances can configure IAW
SS521-AG-PRO-010, USN Navy Diving Manual, Revision 4.
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9.4.2.4.7 Ensures that the stand-by and 90 percent diver (if available) are in place
before allowing the diver to descend.
9.4.2.4.8 Ensure the safe entry of the diver, noting the time in and the starting tank
pressure.
9.4.2.4.9 Directs the diver where to search, monitors the tether line, give signals as
appropriate and alerts the profiler of any slack in the line.
9.4.2.4.10 Decide whether an area can be secured; having been properly searched.
9.4.2.4.11 Monitor the divers air bubbles, record the breathing rate every five
minutes and continuously access diver status.
9.4.2.4.12 Assist the diver out of the water and through the dress down phase.
9.4.2.5 Profiler. The profiler, also the standby diver tender, is to record the progress of
the search by keeping a sketch map showing exactly where the divers have been and what
areas have been covered. Without documenting the divers profile, there is no way for the
TL to know whether a diver has missed an area or not.
9.4.2.6 Standby Diver. In addition to primary diver duties, a standby diver must be ready
to replace the primary diver if he is unable to execute his tasks and be ready to render
assistance if the primary diver runs into any trouble. The standby diver is also the next in
line in the normal rotation of divers. The standby diver monitors the progress of the search
as reported by the tenders. He is constantly alert to any circumstance that might demand
his participation. A standby diver at the incident site should do the following:
9.4.2.6.1 Have all gear, except for primary regulator or FFM in place.
9.4.2.6.2 Have the contingency line in place and ready for attachment.
9.4.2.6.3 Be properly weighted to prevent any problems with descent.
9.4.2.6.4 Be mentally prepared to deploy at any moment.
9.4.2.6.5 Be fully capable of performing well-rehearsed and tested contingency plans.
9.4.2.7 Ninety Percent Diver. Because of the complexities of diving, it is possible that
the standby diver may experience a problem when deployed. Likely problems range from
equipment problems to an inability to equalize. A second standby diver is identified and
available with his exposure suit on and with his gear fully checked and functioning. If the
standby diver is called on to make a dive, the 90 percent diver completes the dressing
process so that the diver is ready to enter the water. Because a 90 percent diver replaces
the standby, a tender is not required. The standby tender operates in conjunction with
whichever diver makes the dive.
9.4.2.8 Buddy Diver. When conditions dictate that buddy diving techniques are
adequate, a buddy diver is the divers partner for the operation. The buddy divers are
jointly responsible for the assigned mission. Each diver keeps track of depth and time
during the dive. Each diver shall watch out for the safety and well being of his buddy and
shall be alert for symptoms of nitrogen narcosis, decompression sickness, and carbon
dioxide build-up. A diver shall keep his buddy within sight and not leave his buddy alone
9-78
9.4.3 Communication and Line Signals. Divers conducting tethered underwater search,
rescue and recovery operations have two means of communicating with the surface depending
on the type of equipment used and available. Voice communications and line pull signals can
be utilized. While on the surface, tenders and divers can communicate using hand signals.
9.4.3.1 Voice Communications. The dive team makes every attempt to communicate
with each other with the same terminology by using standard phases. The following
terminology in Table 9.3, Diver-To-Tender Voice Communications. is considered standard
and employed whenever possible. All persons using the intercom system should lower the
pitch of their voices and speak slowly and distinctly. The conversation should be kept brief
and simple, using standard diving terminology. Divers repeat verbatim all directions and
orders received from topside.
Table 9.3 Diver-To-Tender Voice Communications.
Voice Communication
Meaning
ROGER
ON THE SURFACE
9.4.3.2 Surface Signals. While in the water, divers should take care not to communicate
verbally unless they are utilizing a communications system. If the tender wants the diver
to move to a specific location, the tender should point in the desired direction.
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9.4.3.3 Line Signals. A line pull signal consists of one pull or a series of sharp, distinct
pulls on the tether that are strong enough to be felt by the diver. All slack must be taken
out of the tether before the signal is given. The line pull signal code has been established
through many years of experience. Standard signals are applicable to all diving operations;
special signals may be arranged between the divers and diving supervisor to meet
particular mission requirements. Most signals are acknowledged as soon as they are
received. The diver should stop to face the line to orient himself towards the starting point
every time he receives line signals. This also gives the opportunity for the diver to move
backward and take up any slack in the tether. This acknowledgment consists of replying
with the same signal. If a signal is not properly returned by the diver, the surface signal is
sent again. A continued absence of confirmation is assumed to mean one of three things:
(1) the line has become fouled, (2) there is too much slack in the line, or (3) the diver is in
trouble.
NOTE: If communications are lost, the dive supervisor must be notified immediately and steps
taken to identify the problem. The situation is treated as an emergency.
9.4.3.3.1 Tender-To-Diver Signals. (See Table 9.4, Tender-To-Diver Line Pull
Signals.)
Table 9.4 Tender-To-Diver Line Pull Signals.
Number of Pulls
Tender-to-Diver Communication
1 Pull
3 Pulls
4 Pulls
2 plus 2 Pulls
3 plus 3 Pulls
4 plus 4 Pulls
SURFACE.
Diver-to-Tender Communication
1 Pull
IM OK.
2 Pulls
6 plus 6 Pulls
9-80
9.4.4 Search Operations. One of the GUARDIAN ANGEL recovery team tasks is to locate
and recover objects underwater. There are several well established and proven search methods
to choose from, depending on the location, depth, water condition, and size of the object.
Techniques and patterns that may work well for finding a weapon lost in a water employment
may not be suited to finding a victim in a fast flowing irrigation canal. Recovery teams do not
have the luxury of planning where and when they will operationally dive. The team needs to
pre-plan for the types of operations they are expected to perform.
9.4.4.1 Rescue Versus Recovery. Time will be the determining factor for whether to treat
the incident as a rescue or a recovery. The rescue mode should be maintained for a given
length of time after the incident occurred, usually from 60 to 90 minutes. Beyond that time
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period, it would be impossible to make a successful rescue of a drowning victim. For the
period after, the team will stop and evaluate whether to continue in rescue or recovery
mode.
9.4.4.2 Gathering Information. The team should interview witnesses to gain
information at the incident site and assign another diver to do additional research if the
situation does not seem credible. Many would-be victims are discovered at other locations
alive and well if no one actually observed them go under the water. This is a serious
consideration prior to the committing of limited GUARDIAN ANGEL resources.
9.4.4.2.1 Interviewing Witnesses. The manner in which witness interviewing is
approached can make the difference between minutes and hours when conducting an
underwater search. Every witness is a potential resource and the team leader should
establish control and an objective attitude of the situation. Compassion must be
carefully balanced with firm authority when dealing with emotionally charged
witnesses. It is essential for the team leader to record notes during the interview. The
team leader should be in a physical location where he can see as many of the witnesses
as possible and the surrounding land. It will assist the team leader in putting together
the pieces of the incident. Consider separating the witnesses to obtain individual
accounts so others do not influence their accounts.
9.4.4.2.2 Establishing the Last Seen Point. When asking a witness to point to the
last seen point (LSP), the first step is to take the witness to the exact spot where they
were at the time of the accident. The team can establish the LSP with a reference
object by the following:
9.4.4.2.2.1 The team leader assigns team members to individual witnesses. If
there are many witnesses and the operation is in rescue mode, then the team may
want to concentrate initially on key witnesses that are able to communicate quickly
and effectively. The team member conducting the interview takes the witness back
to the exact location where he or she was at the time of the accident. A reference
object, similar to the size and shape of the search object, is placed in the water. The
team member conducting the interview asks the witness to direct the object to the
LSP.
9.4.4.3 Search Area Determination. Team members must be familiar with not only the
LSP of the victim or object but where it now located is. The following considerations will
assist team members in determining the search area.
9.4.4.3.1 Wind and Current Effects. Wind will not affect a victim or any other
object on the bottom. If the victim struggles on the surface or the object takes awhile
to sink, it will certainly have an affect. The wind will move an object in direct
proportion to both its strength and the surface area of the object above water. Water
currents will move an object. At the surface, the object will be carried at the same
speed and in the same direction as the current. If the wind and the water are flowing
together, the submergence point is a matter of adding the distances together. If the
current and wind are moving in different directions, the position is calculated by
trigonometry. A calculator with a trigonometric function is useful in this calculation.
(See Figure 9.35, Current Effects.)
9-82
Current Effects
Point of Emergence
67 feet
UNCLASSIFIED
9.4.4.3.2 Sink Rates. A human body will sink at a rate of about 1.5 feet per second in
salt water and 2 to 2.5 feet per second in freshwater. Variations will result because of
muscle-to-fat ratios, body composition, and clothing. Because of these variables,
SMEs estimate that bodies will sink at a rate of 2 feet per second in any environment.
Except in shallow water or in the presence of extremely fast currents, once a body
lands on the bottom, it will not move until it has putrefied enough to gain buoyancy
from the gases produced within. Once the body has enough buoyancy, it may only
float partially. It may drift and scrape along the bottom for some time before finally
rising to the surface. If a body sinks in water in which there is little or no current, it
will be on the bottom within an imaginary circle, the radius of which is equal to the
depth. (See Figure 9.36, Body Sinking in Water.)
9-83
UNCLASSIFIED
9.4.4.3.3 Grids. The first step in narrowing a search area is to eliminate areas of
impossibility or lesser likelihood. On a large scale map divide the body of water into a
grid. Based on information collected, observed currents designate areas upstream of
the submergence point and those that are too far or too near. Once the team has
outlined the overall search zone on the map, place outer perimeter buoys in the water
according to the grid. Place the buoys 50 to 75 feet apart to designate the box. Divers
will search in patterns within this boundary using these buoys as guidelines. When
divers complete the search in that area, additional buoys are dropped within the box to
section off each area. Emplacing the buoys after the search is conducted prevents
divers from becoming snagged during the search.
9.4.4.4 Search Pattern Considerations. Once the dive supervisor determines the search
area, the supervisor determines which pattern to employ. The decision is based on many
factors, such as the size of the area to be searched, the area from which the team is
working, available resources, current, depth, search objective, bottom contour, and
obstacles.
9.4.4.4.1 Tether Considerations and Length. When conducting tethered diver
searches, the primary diver should make every effort to work toward shore during the
conduct of the search. This provides a psychological benefit to the primary diver of
working back home as cold and fatigue set in as a result of the search effort. The
primary diver is sent out along the surface until reaching the descent point. The dive
supervisor needs to consider the arc involved with diving tether lines. The deeper the
9-84
Feet
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
10
14
22
32
41
51
61
71
81
91
100
111
121
131
141
20
22
28
36
45
54
63
73
82
92
102
112
122
132
142
30
32
36
42
50
58
67
76
85
95
104
114
124
133
143
40
41
45
50
57
64
72
81
89
98
108
117
127
136
146
50
51
54
58
64
71
78
86
94
103 112
121
130
139
60
61
63
67
72
78
85
92
125
134
143
70
71
73
76
81
86
92
99
130
140
143
80
81
82
85
89
94
136
144
150
OVERALL NOTE:
* If the tender is standing on a platform, then the height of the platform needs to be added to the
depth.
9.4.4.4.2 Descent. In limited visibility, divers should always descend feet first to
protect their head from hidden obstacles, prevent sinus squeeze, and facilitate the
valsalva maneuver.
9.4.4.4.3 Searching the Bottom. Using the body, the tethered diver searches at a 45
degree angle to the tether, with the divers head away from the tender. This position
allows keeping the line taut, provides easy access to the tether for signal response and
allows the tender in no-visibility conditions to use the whole body in the search. Dive
supervisors should limit divers to a 20-minute bottom time because of the mental
fatigue, hypothermia, or other distractions.
9.4.4.4.4 No-Visibility Search. Psychologically searching in no-visibility can lead to
fixation of the diver attempting to see anything. This leads to the diver missing or
misidentifying the object of the search. Divers should close their eyes and concentrate
on feel. A diver searching in no-visibility conditions must use the entire body to
conduct a search, visualizing what is felt with the fingertips, arms, torso, legs, and toes.
9-85
The technique by which a diver uses his hands is critical. The divers hands should not
grope randomly. Divers should have their own individual search pattern to be used for
every dive. Divers start with their hands in front of them palm down and sweep them
out to each side and bring them together again. They then move them forward one
hand-length and repeat the sweep. Searching utilizing this technique ensures that no
area along the divers path is missed.
9.4.4.4.5 Clearwater Search. When searching in water with good visibility, the
primary diver should not crawl along the bottom but utilize buoyancy skills to swim
over observing the bottom, scanning visually side to side, looking for the search
objective.
9.4.4.4.6 Obstacles. In the event that the diver encounters a large obstacle in the
search path (e.g., old car, submerged trees, or rocks) to maintain the search pattern, the
diver must go up and over the object. Going up and over the obstacle will increase the
risk of entanglement in limited visibility water. The area should be then divided so that
the diver can search one side of the object and then the other. If snags remain an issue,
the team may want to consider a boat-based operation, allowing an increase in the
angle of the tending line.
9.4.4.4.7 Discovery. The discovery of the search objective underwater can lead to
excitement of the diver. The diver waits for breathing to come under control before
giving the Found object line signal or employing a small marker buoy, if conducting
the search untethered. If the object of the search is a victim, the tender will discreetly
notify the dive supervisor of the find. This gives the team leader the opportunity to
remove family members, spectators and the media from the general area. Once the
incident site is secure, the tender gives the Ascend slowly signal to the diver, giving
clearance to surface with the victim. If the diver needs assistance, the diver signals
Okay, but I need help from the standby diver after the Found object signal is
acknowledged. If the objective is a piece of evidence and needs to be documented, it
should be marked with a buoy, noted on the profile map, and left in place. If the team
is operating in recovery mode, the victim will be bagged underwater, especially if
badly decomposed. Lift bags relieve the diver of having to handle the body bag all the
way to the surface.
9.4.4.4.8 Re-Searches. Divers and tenders should be constantly alert to anything
that might cause them to miss the object of their search. Divers should signal tenders
to make note of objects on the bottom, such as weeds, trees, vehicles, debris, or
anything else that may mandate searching the area again. If the diver is not holding a
good pattern, the diver should be recalled before the entire span of time is wasted. If
the search is thorough and the object not found, the object is not underwater, the team
is searching the wrong location, or the scope of the search was not wide enough. Team
members can expand the area of operations with the first approach being to move in
increments of about 20 feet farther out than the initial sweep of the last search.
Another approach is to begin searching outward from the boundaries of the original
search. An area should be re-searched if any of the following conditions apply:
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9-87
9-88
Arc Search
Reference
Point Line
Reference
Point Line
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 9.38 Walking Shoreline Search.
Turnaround
UNCLASSIFIED
Turnaround
9-89
9-90
in
Anchor
io
ct
re
Di
Anchor
Buoy
Area of
Search
Anchor
UNCLASSIFIED
9.4.4.5.2.1.1 Maneuver the boat past the first point where you wish to begin
searching and deploy a buoy at that point. The buoy only marks the position
where the boat will be. It will be recovered once the boat has been properly
anchored.
9.4.4.5.2.1.2 Position the boat so that the wind or the current, whichever is
stronger, is at a 45 degree angle to the bow and you are reapproaching the buoy
from the downwind or down current side. Before passing the buoy, drop the
stern anchor, placing it on the same side of the boat as the buoy. To avoid
tangling the line, anchors should always be lowered.
9-91
9.4.4.5.2.1.3 Continue moving past the buoy, paying out stern anchor line as
you go. Once past the buoy, drop a bow anchor on the same side as the stern
anchor so that the bow anchor is directly into the wind or current.
9.4.4.5.2.1.4 Move the boat laterally, away from the stern anchor, to deploy
the second bow anchor.
9.4.4.5.2.1.5 Taking in and paying out line as necessary, set the boat at the
focus of these anchors. There should be an anchor 45 to 90 degrees off both
sides of the bow and one off the stern. The engine should not be turned off until
the boat is anchored securely.
9.4.4.5.2.1.6 To ensure that an anchor will hold, the anchor line played out
should ideally be seven times the depth of the water.
9.4.4.5.2.1.7 When the team has searched all of the area possible, change
position by hauling in and giving out line as necessary. When the team has
exhausted the search range of these buoys, have another boat deploy a fourth
anchor and bring the end of the line. This anchor will replace one of the
original three. The remaining anchors are reset and the team continues the
process of taking in and giving out line to move around the new, adjoining
search area.
9.4.4.5.2.2 Running Line Search. This tethered search is useful in areas of heavy
grass, debris or strong currents. The diver searches straight out from shore or from
a boat to the extent of the determined search area. If the water is moving, the diver
deploys with the current. Once the diver reaches the end of the first sweep, he
surfaces, then he and the tender move as a unit anywhere from two to five feet to
one side, depending on the parameters of the search. The diver then searches
toward the tender and the process repeats itself. This technique affords a
reasonable degree of control while reducing somewhat the problem of snagging
weeds. If the problem is debris, the diver will be able to crawl over it and untangle
himself on his return, minimizing the areas that he misses. Deploying with and
returning against the current means that the diver will not be pushed off his search
pattern. (See Figure 9.40, Running Line Search.)
9.4.4.5.2.3 Direct Overhead Search. This tethered search is used in areas of
exceptionally heavy weeds or debris. For this pattern, the diver descends straight
below the tender, who is on a platform, and searches the immediate area. The diver
is then raised above the weeds and lowered again a foot or two to one side. Tenders
should ensure that they do not pull up the divers too quickly. The repetitive up and
down motion greatly increases the risk of barotraumas and pulmonary
overexpansion injuries. (See Figure 9.41, Direct Overhead Search.)
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Current
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 9.41 Direct Overhead Search.
UNCLASSIFIED
9-93
9.4.4.5.2.4 Jack-Stand Search. This search is utilized for bottoms that are nearly
flat and for searching for very small items. It is intended for a methodical search,
rather than one covering a large area in a short time. This technique can be utilized
with a single diver who is tethered back to the surface, or it can be used with two
divers and no tether. It can also be used perpendicular to a light current (1/4 or 1/2
knot) or parallel to a current of up to one knot. Configure one running line on the
bottom weighted with 15 to 25 pounds at each end and no more than 125 feet in
length. A vertical line to the surface, carrying a float of at least 10 pounds
buoyancy is attached at each weight. The diver or dive pair descends to one end of
the weighted running line. On reaching the other end, after searching in detail
along its length, the diver moves the weight 2.5 to 3 feet, or as visibility and the
size of the object in question dictate. When operating in a current, the line should
be moved upstream. This allows silt to pass and not settle on the search area. (See
Figure 9.42, Jack-Stand Search and Figure 9.43, Jack-Stand Search Kit.)
9.4.4.5.2.4.1 Jack-Stand Search Disadvantages. This search works poorly
with a tethered diver system because the diver is easily entangled in the
attendant lines. In less than clear water conditions, the employment of a dive
pair will decrease the efficiency and effectiveness of the search. Divers
conducting this search typically keep one hand on the running line, limiting
their search capability. The running line on the bottom may become snagged
on debris when the diver moves the weight forward. If a diver discovers such a
snag while searching along the line, the diver will have to unsnag the line, pull
it taut, and re-search the area. The weights that anchor the ends of the line must
be heavy enough that a diver can pull against them to tighten the line.
9.4.4.5.2.5 Circle Search. The primary diver following this technique executes a
circular pattern over the bottom while tethered to a central point. A second diver
can sit at the hub to let out line as required or the tether can be rigged through a
weighted swivel, with the line run up to a tender aboard a boat. Another method is
to use a MacKin pivot which is a weighted unit with a free-moving spool, allowing
a diver to make unimpeded circles around it. In this case, the diver lets out his own
tether line from a spool attached to his harness. Whenever a MacKin pivot is used,
it should have a buoy line to the surface, indicating the center of the search pattern
and also to act as a signal line. If a diver is controlling his own search, he must
place a marker on the bottom so that each time around he will know when to extend
the search. If there is no tether line back to the surface, an additional diver needs to
be in the water. The buddy should remain at the hub where can monitor and send
line signals. Circle searches have their disadvantages to include entanglement risk
and not being tender directed. Conducting multiple searches utilizing this pattern
may leave large areas unsearched unless the circles are well overlapped. (See
Figure 9.44, Circle Search.)
9-94
Jack-Stand Search
11
UNCLASSIFIED
5
6
Start
Point
9-95
UNCLASSIFIED
9-96
Circle Search
Descent
Line with
Surface Bouy
Diver
Buddy
Team
Start
Point
Makin
Pivot
Weighted
Reference
Line
UNCLASSIFIED
9.4.4.5.2.6 Sleds and Tow Bars. In clear water conditions, sleds and tow bars can
be used to search large areas quickly. The effectiveness of the search depends on
the coxswain of the tow boat, that must be able to follow close reciprocal courses
to maintain even, overlapping sweeps of the search area. Use of these devices
creates a tremendous amount of drag on the tow boat. The line must be rigged so
that it is centered on the stern or it may force the boat to veer off course. To ensure
that the tow boat follows a predictable course, buoy the lines of the search pattern
with floats about 50 feet apart. Place different colored buoys at the ends to signify
the turnaround point. The distance to the turnaround point is governed by the
length of the tow line. The diver trails a long way behind the tow boat and he will
not have searched an entire leg of the pattern until the boat is far past the end of the
leg. The diver lands on the bottom and waits for the tow line to go slack during the
turnaround. The tender at the stern of the boat will need to handle the lines to
ensure that they do not go slack and become caught in the propeller. Divers should
not be towed faster than 2.5 knots. Faster speeds increase diver heat loss, put too
much pressure on regulator diaphragms causing them to free-flow, and flood or rip
off a mask. Divers flying the sled or tow bar should maintain as high an altitude
above the bottom as visibility will allow. On finding the object of the search, the
diver lets go of the device, drops a buoy, and either recovers the object or signals
the tow boat. Hazards include the diver entering areas of low visibility, increased
cold stress, decompression sickness and pulmonary overexpansion injuries if the
diver makes ascents at to high a rate. Any ascents or descents should be made
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slowly enough for the diver to properly equalize. At the end of the search
operation, the diver never rides the sled to the surface; the diver releases the sled
and makes a normal ascent.
9.4.4.5.2.6.1 Sled and Tow Bar Communications. Attach small sections of
rubber hose or plastic pipe every few feet along the tow line. A secondary line
is run through them from the tender. That line can be utilized for line pull
signals or a hard-wired communications system. With line pull signals, new
signals will have to be pre-briefed for special commands.
WARNING: Divers should never be tethered to sleds or tow bars because of chance of
entanglement and strangulation.
9.4.4.5.2.7 Large Area Searches. A large area is searched by dividing it into
blocks. Each block should be football field sized a rectangle 300 feet long and 150
feet wide. Each block of an area to be searched can be marked with buoys. On the
long side of the block, place four buoys 100 feet apart, numbered 1 through 4.
Along the shorter side, where the team will start, place two buoys 75 feet apart.
Designate these as A and B. Start the boat at the buoyed end of the grid, along the
centerline. If enough team members are available, divers can work on both sides of
the boat simultaneously. Deploy the divers just beyond the edges of the block;
ensuring overlap with the adjoining block and have them work inward toward the
boat. Once the divers have covered these sections, move the boat 25 to 35 feet
farther down the centerline of the block and have them repeat the procedure until
the boat is even with buoy 2. A diver should then be deployed to search the area
that has been underneath the boat during the previous search patterns. The tender
should work the diver from the bow, sweeping the diver in a narrow path along the
centerline from buoy A to the boats present position. Repeat this procedure until
the entire block has been covered. (See Figure 9.45 and Figure 9.46 Large Area
Searches.)
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100 feet
1
75 feet
Search
Area
Search
Area
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 9.46 Large Area Search #2.
100 feet
75 feet
Centerline
Search Area
UNCLASSIFIED
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9.4.4.5.3 Moving Water. As the speed of water increases, the problems and
complexities of the search also increase. A current greater than 1.5 knots could pin a
diver against an obstacle and make an entanglement more difficult to manage. A 2.5
knot current can easily tear a divers mask off and depress the purge button on the
regulator second stage. Moving water will also affect tenders since they may be unable
to fight the drag of any current greater than 1.5 knots. A tender may not be able to
bring a diver back toward the platform or even be pulled overboard. Team leaders
need to be aware of these problems and make an intelligent ORM decision if the
current is to fast to warrant a dive. In rivers and canals downstream safety control
measures will need to be in place before divers are committed to the water. Consider
that some rivers and canals cannot be searched until flood conditions subside. Other
hazards for diving in rivers and canals include:
Strong currents that may carry away a diver.
Surface and submerged debris being washed down river that could become an
entanglement hazard.
Extremely low visibility.
Increased heat loss for divers in moving water.
Increased fatigue working in moving water.
Entanglement in submerged roots and trees.
Unsuitable entry and exit points.
Insecure footing for surface personnel.
Biological or chemical contamination from up river.
9.4.4.5.3.1 Moving Water Search Planning. Victims can get hung-up on
submerged stumps, roots, branches, lines, rock crevices, and weeds. The team may
chose to dive some of the more obvious features before conducting a bottom
search. Diving for an object will still require a systematic search pattern because
they are less affected by the current. In planning an underwater search in a river
and canal, consider several important things:
Where the object or victim entered the water?
When and where if the object was observed floating downstream?
Would the object sink and remain in place?
Would the object be carried downstream by the current?
Are there any natural traps that may hold the object?
9.4.4.5.3.2 Static-Line Platform Search. Team members construct a Telfer lower
in which a line is anchored from one shore to the other and rigged so the platform
can be maneuvered upstream, downstream, left, and right of the search area. If
only one shore is accessible or if the distance between shores is more than 200 feet,
anchor the platform with the hurricane anchoring system. Once the platform has
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object. Small marker buoys are compact and convenient although the weight is
insufficient to hold in any surf and may require securing to the object or victim.
Figure 9.47 Static-Line Platform Search.
Right Tag
Line
Lin
Track
Lowe
ring
Line
g
t Ta
Lef ine
L
Current
UNCLASSIFIED
9.4.4.5.4.2 Surf Diving Techniques. It is important to recognize that even in
rather small surf; the diver cannot overpower the forces of the water. The diver
must be knowledgeable with surf technique and the water conditions, using the
conditions to his advantage for exit and entry. Observe surf conditions for at least
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NOTE: Exhaustion in the surf line will most certainly lead to panic, lost gear and a rescue.
9.4.4.5.4.5 Recovering Victims in the Surf. If possible, secure a line and float to
a victim found in large surf, moving to shallow water or past the drop zone;
whichever is closer, as quickly as possible. In large surf, a diver will probably
loose his grip on a victim when the wave hits. Whenever feasible, victims should
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be removed from the water by boat outside the surf line to avoid additional trauma
to the body and privacy.
9.4.4.5.5 Night Operations. In general, underwater search and recovery operations
should be conducted during the hours of daylight. This is primarily to maintain the
safety and efficiency of the operation and to avoid the potential for confusion. There
are however, situations where conducting night diving operations may be unavoidable:
Anytime there is a realistic possibility for a rescue.
When critical objects or victims may be lost in moving water, changing tidal
conditions or consumption by marine life.
It has been determined that the object of the search may be subject to rapid
deterioration underwater (e.g., documents, paper products, or soluble narcotics).
Where an operation was initiated during the hours of day light and can be safely
and efficiently completed by continuing after dark.
In support of tactical operations conducted during the hours of darkness.
9.4.4.5.5.1 Night Search Hazards. Conducting operations during the period of
darkness carries the potential of hazards not normally encountered during the hours
of daylight:
Increased confusion.
Monitoring the progress of untethered divers.
Potential for equipment loss.
Difficulty in controlling surface boat traffic.
Increased psychological stress.
Possibility of missing the search object because of the lack of available light.
9.4.4.5.5.2 Night Equipment Considerations. Night diving operations require
additional equipment for both divers and support personnel.
9.4.4.5.5.2.1 Each diver should have a primary and back-up light with
sufficient intensity and battery life for the duration of the underwater search
9.4.4.5.5.2.2 Adequate chemlights to mark divers, underwater equipment,
search area, surface buoys, and underwater objects.
9.4.4.5.5.2.3
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that are especially sensitive to sudden changes in the wind. Most small boats will remain
in that position, unless able to be righted, and will float enough to support any crew that
had been aboard. Survivors may be trapped inside the capsized hull requiring a search and
eventual rescue. As US Coast Guard helicopter rescue swimmers are not scuba qualified,
the US Coast Guard will ask for assistance from GUARDIAN ANGEL or local public
safety dive teams to employ from its aviation assets to search the underside of these
vessels. Sea state may prevent a hazard as the vessel rises, falls or crashes with large
swells and waves. Sails, deck lines, fuel, and masts may present an entanglement hazard
and searching underneath the vessel requires the divers to consider it an overhead
environment. Divers should not enter underneath the vessel without a protective helmet,
harness, and EGS. In limited visibility water, two divers can be employed, one as an
underwater tender on the edge of the vessel with a tether tending the diver conducting the
search and escort of the survivors to the surface. (See Figure 9.48, Diver Configured for
Helicopter Operations.)
Figure 9.48 Diver Configured for Helicopter Operations.
UNCLASSIFIED
9.4.6 Recovery Operations. A recovery mode operation is run without the goal of saving a
life. Victim and material retrieval can give a recovery team a physically and mentally
challenging task. The operation requires a different approach that a rescue operation. The rule
of thumb applied in most cases is that if the victim has been underwater for more than an hour,
there is no chance for resuscitation. The shifting of an operation from rescue to recovery mode
should be made discreetly for the sake of bystanders if present. In recovery mode, the
operation is executed at a slower, more deliberate pace. Witnesses are interviewed in more
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detail, and more time is taken for documentation. Often, team members may determine
through the scene that hazardous conditions such as depth, current, and weather diminish the
reasons for diving at all.
9.4.6.1 Body Recovery. Team members should be familiar with the variety and range of
conditions involved with a death in the water. Divers may have to testify about the
condition of a recovery victim in the event an investigation is launched.
9.4.6.1.1 Positioning. Often the body of a drowning victim will found in a prone,
semi-fetal position. At times, the bodys position in the water may cause postmortem
wounds and abrasions. Viewing the body, the diver will want to check and see if the
body is entangled, or contorted in the position it was found. Hands often are
significant and the diver should note if the victim is holding any objects.
9.4.6.1.2 Rigor Mortis. Rigor mortis, the stiffening of the muscle tissue after death,
is caused by the buildup of lactic acid in the muscles. This condition will vary with the
time elapsed since death and water temperature. Depending upon conditions such as
ambient temperature, rigor mortis does stop and the muscles become lucid again. In
the event that the body must in some way be manipulated to fit into the body bag
because of rigor mortis, the procedure used should be noted in the team documentation
of the event. Rigor mortis will be more pronounced if the victim struggled prior to
death. In some cases, a rare phenomena of instantaneous rigor mortis, cadaveric
spasm, may affect a specific part of the body such as a hand and arm of a victim who
clutched an object in the throes of death.
9.4.6.1.3 Algor Mortis. Algor mortis is the cooling of the body temperature. After
death, a body in the water normally cools at a rate of 1.5 degrees F per hour. The
cooling is subject to many variables including victim body composition, clothing
worn, and ambient temperature.
9.4.6.1.4 Postmortem Lividity. Soon after death, the blood will settle into the lowest
points of the body. Postmortem lividity is the cooling and settling of blood and is
denoted by splotches of pink or red coloring. Lividity in victims found in the water is
less pronounced. Should postmortem lividity be observed in a position not close to the
bottom contour then the condition may indicate the body was put underwater after
death occurred.
9.4.6.1.5 Trauma. Wounds or obvious injuries may often have contributed to the
cause of death to a victim recovered underwater. A wound received at least minutes
prior to death will normally display more blood than one received at the moment of
death or afterwards.
9.4.6.1.6 Victim Re-Float. There are a number of factors which will affect when, if at
all, the body will resurface. Once a body sinks, it will go all the way to the bottom.
Once the body begins to float, it will come all the way back to the surface. Body
re-floating is caused by the buoyancy of the gases trapped in the body. The major
cause of body re-float is internal decomposition, particularly as it creates a gas buildup
within the victims intestinal tract.
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9.4.6.1.7 Water Temperature. The faster the decomposition process occurs, the
sooner the body is likely to re-float. Water temperature is the major factor affecting
decomposition of the body. Generally, the process will occur in the body unless the
bodys internal temperature drops to 38 degrees F or less. The cooler temperatures
inhibit bacterial growth necessary for decomposition and subsequent gas buildup.
Gasses will diffuse into cool water more rapidly than in warmer water, a factor which
also inhibits re-float because of the limited gas buildup.
9.4.6.1.8 Water Depth. Normally, deeper water is cooler than the water closer to the
surface. The gases created by the body will diffuse into the water much more quickly
in cooler waters, thus decreasing the internal gas buildup needed for re-float. The
greater the water depth, the greater the degree of pressure which limits the buoyancy of
the gases accumulating within the body. In some cases, depth can prevent a body from
floating at all. If a slight amount of buoyancy can be achieved by the bodys gas
buildup, then the body is certain to float back to the surface as the pressure against the
gases will continually decrease as the body ascends. This increase often causes the
body to travel upward at an accelerated pace by the time it reaches the surface. Once
the body is on the surface, it may sink again after gases escape from the body. The
length of time for the body to re-sink depends of multiple variables. The body may
even re-float again under certain conditions. Variables affecting re-float must be
considered differently in each situation. Predicting when a body will re-float with any
accuracy is extremely difficult, yet team members will be asked regularly during the
operation. Additional factors which can contribute to body re-float are as follows:
9.4.6.1.8.1 The type of water may affect the rate of decomposition; clean water is
less conductive than murky water. The more bacteria in the water, the faster the
decomposition process and gas buildup will occur.
9.4.6.1.8.2 Marine life feeding upon a victim can affect its buoyancy; in some
instances the feeding can prevent re-float entirely.
9.4.6.1.8.3 The victims clothing can often promote or inhibit buoyancy.
9.4.6.1.8.4 Trauma caused by large open injuries could cause a body to decompose
faster. However, open wounds could also make it more difficult for the internal gas
buildup needed for re-float to occur.
9.4.6.1.8.5 Recent food intake can affect victim re-float. A victim who has not
eaten anything hours before the incident will take longer to produce gases required
than a victim that did eat. A high carbohydrate meal will contribute to gas
production more than a light diet.
9.4.6.2 Bagging the Victim Underwater. Whenever possible, the body should be bagged
underwater. Body bags designed especially for this purpose are available with screen
mesh panels for water drainage. A conventional body bag is not practical for this purpose
because of the weight of the water which would become trapped during bagging the body
underwater. If the events surrounding the death are suspicious, the hands should be
bagged individually with small plastic bags up to the elbows and banded in place. When
bagging the hands underwater, be cautious when surfacing the victim so that water in the
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UNCLASSIFIED
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UNCLASSIFIED
9.4.6.3 Light Salvage Recovery. Underwater material recovery operations will require a
GUARDIAN ANGEL recovery team to locate an object and then bring it to the surface for
recovery. Once the object is located, the team immediately marks the object with a marker
buoy which accomplishes two things; notifies the surface team that the divers located the
object and should the team lose sight of the object it is easy to relocate. The team
establishes the deepest depth of the object to determine the length of line required for the
lift. The size, weight, center of gravity and potential attachment points of the object are
then determined to identify what equipment for rigging and rising is necessary. If the
object is too large to be recovered into a CRRC or other small vessel, the team evaluates
the distance and depth of water between the dive site and shore for the object to be towed.
The team may want to coordinate a larger towing or crane-equipped vessel to bring the
object back to shore. The following considerations apply when planning a lift:
Minimize the number of divers in the water.
Never fill lift bags from personal air supply.
Match the lift capacity to the objects weight.
Minimize the number of bags in use.
Ensure an adequate safety factor in the rigging.
Use shackles or carabiners not knots.
Put a small amount of air in the bag and reinspect rigging.
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UNCLASSIFIED
9.4.6.3.2.2 Enclosed Flotation Lift Bags. Enclosed flotation bags are totally
enclosed and have over-pressure valves to vent expanding air as they ascend. Also
known as pillow bags, these allow the object to be lifted in any position, inside or
outside of the object. They have the advantage over open bottom bags in that they
can attain their max lift in much less water. These bags are ideal for the recovery
of vehicles and can even be utilized as emergency flotation for a distressed vessel
or aircraft floating at the surface. Enclosed flotation lift bags range in various sizes
with a lift capacity from 220 to 6,600 pounds. These bags are equipped with quick
disconnect inflation ports. Specialized bag systems are available for the recovery
of submerged vehicles. (See Figure 9.52, Enclosed Flotation Lift Bags.)
9.4.6.3.2.3 Salvage Tubes. These cylindrically-shaped bags are utilized when the
team needs to raise an object very close to the surface. This is invaluable for when
a long tow to shore of the object is expected. Salvage tubes range in various sizes
with a lift capacity from 1,100 to 77,000 pounds. These bags are equipped with
quick disconnect inflation ports and pressure relief valves.
9.4.6.3.2.4 Boulder Lift Bags. These flat square bags are designed to get a
maximum amount of lift from a single lift point in a minimum depth of water.
They can also be used as air jacks capable of exerting force over a large area. (See
Figure 9.53, Boulder Lift Bag.)
9.4.6.3.3 Light Salvage Rigging. Be aware of the load rating of all rigging hardware
involved in the lift. Low stretch is normally utilized as lift line with webbing,
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UNCLASSIFIED
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UNCLASSIFIED
9.4.6.3.4 Inflation Method. For GUARDIAN ANGEL recovery team operations, lift
bags are normally inflated by stand alone scuba tanks configured for inflating the type
in use. A tank is usually configured with a regulator first stage configured with an air
nozzle or a connection fitting.
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Roundslings
UNCLASSIFIED
9.4.6.3.5 Staged Lift Operations. When the team conducts a lift, it must be made in
a controlled manner. The team must consider the remaining air spaces within both the
lift bag and the object to be recovered. As the object begins to rise within the water
column, the air in the lift bags and that trapped in the object will expand and want to
accelerate the load to the surface. If the diver is not confident that it is possible to vent
both the lift bags and control the lift, the diver should use a series of staged lifts of
usually not more than 20 feet at a time. For the team, it is a good policy to assume the
rigging will fail and that the load will drop to the bottom and the bag will rocket to the
surface. (See Table 9.7, Staged Lift Equipment Requirements, Table 9.8 Basic
Underwater Salvage Physics, and Figure 9.55, Staged Lift.) The procedures for
conducting a staged lift are as follows.
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Depth in Feet
Cubic Feet
80
33
40
66
26.7
99
20
132
16
165
13.3
OVERALL NOTES:
* 80 cubic foot only produces 20 cubic foot of air at 100 feet.
** Divide lift bag capacity 64 or 62.4 to find cubic feet. Multiply by depth in atmosphere for air
requirements:
1 cubic foot of sea water equals 64 pounds.
1 cubic foot of fresh water equals 62.4 pounds.
1 liter of sea water equals 1 kilogram.
1 cubic foot equals 7.481 gallons.
1 cubic foot of air displaces 1 cubic foot of water at sea level.
1 US gallon equals 8.56 pounds of lift in sea water/8.34 pounds in fresh water.
50 gallon drum equals 428 pounds of lift in sea water/417 pounds in fresh water.
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Staged Lift
Lift 2
Lift 1
Buoy
Lift Bag
Lift Bag
Lift 3
Attachment
Point
20 feet
Lift 4
Attachment
Point
Final Lift
Attachment
Point
Object
UNCLASSIFIED
9.4.6.3.5.1 Establish weight of the object to be recovered.
9.4.6.3.5.2 Establish depth of object to be recovered.
9.4.6.3.5.3 Pre-rig the lifting line with loops every 20 to 30 feet or utilize
mechanical ascenders.
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9.4.6.3.5.4 After surveying the site, the dive team will secure the lift line to the
optimum lifting point on the object.
9.4.6.3.5.5 Attach a small lift bag just above the load and partially inflate the bag
to put tension on the line.
9.4.6.3.5.6 Double check all rigging and add additional webbing as required.
9.4.6.3.5.7 Attach a lift bag to the mechanical ascenders 10 feet below the surface
and partially inflate the bag without lifting the object.
9.4.6.3.5.8 Make a final check that the rigging is secure and that all divers are
clear of the load.
9.4.6.3.5.9 When all divers are clear, fully inflate the top bag and lift the object
from the bottom
9.4.6.3.5.10 The object will now drift from the original site allowing divers to
inspect the bottom for additional fallen debris or bodies. Divers should not swim
under the load
9.4.6.3.5.11 Attach another mechanical ascender 20 feet below the surface and
repeat the process
9.4.6.3.5.12 Raise the object in a series of 20- to 30-foot increments
9.4.6.3.5.13 The final lift will bring the object to just below the surface where the
object can be recovered by crane, or towed to shore.
9.4.6.4 Firearms Recovery. When searching for a weapon in no visibility, pat or scrape
the ground very lightly. The diver must consider that the weapon could discharge
underwater. Care should be given to preserve potential fingerprints if involved in an
investigation. Guns and other metal objects are highly susceptible to oxidation once
removed from the water. A gun that has been immersed for several months can still fire
while in the water but 30 minutes of exposure to air can rust the weapon beyond repair.
Any gun or metal object should be kept in the same water that it was recovered in. During
investigations solid objects should be placed in a rigid container to prevent loss of
evidence.
9.4.6.5 Submerged Aircraft. The primary objectives when responding to water related
aircraft incident is to locate the wreckage and recover the victims that may be found in and
around the submerged vehicle. In the event of aviation mishaps, the team may be
requested to raise components of the wreckage and record observations to assist authorities
in the mishap investigation. Team members should note that IAW Federal Law CFR 14,
NTSB 830, no one may recover a civil aircraft that has not been released by the Federal
Aviation Administration or the National Transportation Safety Board.
9.4.6.5.1 Locating Submerged Aircraft. Many aircraft carry crash locators which
are simple transceivers that activates upon crashing. Unfortunately, these devices do
not work well for aircraft that have crashed and sunk underwater. Larger commercial
aircraft may be equipped with an underwater locating device or beacon signal which
utilizes a pulsed acoustic signal to transmit its location. In order to intercept this signal
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ordnance disposal forces employed to deal with it. Weapons armed with devices which
detonate on contact or by magnetic influence cannot be safely approached using
conventional diving equipment. Ejection seats are potential hazards underwater
because they are activated by small explosives that could be lethal underwater. Either
the explosive concussion of the blast or the seat can be a hazard. The diver removing
a victim from an aircraft needs to familiar with the emergency egress locations and the
cockpit ejection handles of the aircraft involved.
9.4.6.5.4 Recovering Aircraft Victims. Whenever possible, the victims should be
recovered before the wreckage is removed. There are many reasons for this.
9.4.6.5.4.1 When an aircraft contacts the water the forces on the aircraft are also
exerted on the victims inside. To expect all victims to be intact and not injured is
not realistic. The victims may be badly disfigured or even dismembered by the
crash.
9.4.6.5.4.2 When the victims are badly disfigured or dismembered, they must be
removed prior to moving of the wreckage. Small portions of the body essential to
identification; teeth and fingers for fingerprints, must be recovered. All body parts
must be recovered. It is not acceptable to leave human remains underwater
because their recovery was inconvenient. Small portions of the bodies remaining
in the aircraft fuselage may fall out during the lift and tow to shore.
9.4.6.5.4.3 If the victims are removed from the wreckage underwater and carefully
bagged prior to raising to the surface, personal effects (e.g., jewelry, paper, or
wallets) will not be lost. This may be crucial to the identification of the victims.
9.4.6.5.5 Aircraft Recovery. Prior to beginning the actual recovery, the location of
the wreckage and the location of any wreckage scattered on the bottom should be
recorded. Investigators must be able to return to the exact site years later. Since the
wreckage of a small aircraft is twisted, contorted, and loosely connected mass of metal;
a typical salvage operation is usually not possible. After documenting the position of
each piece of wreckage, the aircraft will be removed piece by piece. The fuselage and
or the tail section may be intact but the forward part of the cabin, the wings, and even
the engine may be missing and located on the bottom some distance away. When the
use of lift bags is planned, the wreckage will have to be raised and then towed to shore.
The complexity of this operation should always be considered. What may appear to be
a small section may have components attached by small control cables strewn over the
bottom. Prior to rising any components ensure that it is free and independent from
other components.
9.4.6.5.6 Aircraft Towing. The towing of the wreckage to shore is a slow process.
Most lift bags come with a hitch point installed by the manufacturer for towing. This
point should be utilized opposed to the wreckage. If towing the wreckage utilizing
open bottomed lift bags, some loss of buoyancy should be expected. A quick
disconnect mechanism should be established on the tow boat. A secondary marker
should be established to the wreckage in the event is lost. This is accomplished by
adding a small buoy to the towline near the boat or a marker and line behind the
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9.4.7 Overhead Environments. An overhead environment is any dive where the divers
must enter into a situation where they do not have a clear, unobstructed path to the surface.
This situation may be found under ice, wrecks, large crashed aircraft, caves, pipelines, sewers,
or even large vessels. In the event of an emergency, the diver will not be able to make a
controlled or emergency ascent because of the overhead structure. Due to the complexities
involved in these operations they are not within the scope of this document.
9.4.8 Contaminated Water. Contaminated water is defined as water which contains any
chemical, biological, or radioactive substance which poses a chronic or acute health risk to
exposed personnel. Some degree of contamination and/or pollution is evident in practically
every body of water in the world. The contamination may be naturally occurring or come from
a variety of sources including terrorist acts, leaking vessels, industrial discharges and/or sewer
effluent. However, much of the contamination that enters the water is not readily apparent. The
biggest concern is from relatively enclosed bodies of water, such as lakes, rivers, or harbors
which are within close proximity to large populations and wrecks, where contamination can
accumulate and/or concentrate. These contaminants could present a potential health risk to
divers and may additionally impact mission and operational readiness. The effects on
personnel may become evident immediately or may be delayed for many years especially in
the case of exposures to carcinogenic substances. For most microbiological exposure, illness
will not develop for several hours after diving and could possibly be delayed for days. With the
exception of chemical/biological warfare agents, acute toxicity and/or incapacitation is
unexpected for most chemical exposures. However, chronic sub-toxic exposure to a variety of
chemical hazards may affect illnesses such as cancer, neurodegenerative disease, hormonal
disregulation and others. Only general guidance can be provided because of the wide
variability in contaminants, potential exposure levels and other variables. Team members are
encouraged to contact local agencies to obtain information on local water contaminants and
hazards. (For detailed information on hazards and diving in contaminated water, see
SS521-AJ-PRO-010, Guidance for Diving in Contaminated Waters.)
9.4.8.1 Contaminants. The three types of contaminants divers can expect to encounter
are chemical, biological, and radiological. The potential routes of exposure for divers are
inhalation, ingestion, absorption, and impingement (forcing of material into the body, such
as through a wound). Unless the response is to a specific incident, the availability of
quantitative data on the contaminants present in any specific body of water is problematic.
Real-time, or even near real-time, water analysis is not currently feasible.
NOTE: Both chemical and biological contaminants tend to concentrate in sediment rather than in
the water column.
9.4.8.2 Equipment Considerations. There is no single equipment configuration or
material which will protect the diver under all conditions or from all contaminants. The
standby diver must be equipped with a level of protection at least equal to that worn by the
divers. Additionally, tenders and other team members may experience as great a hazard as
the diver. The mucous membranes are the most vulnerable regions on the body and,
assuming intact skin, are essentially the only route microorganisms can enter and infect the
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body. Therefore, isolating these vital areas from the source of contamination is the primary
concern when diving in a biologically contaminated environment. Respiratory and
physical protection must be available for team members on the surface. For recovery team
contaminated water diving operations, the use of dry suits with attached hood and gloves
coupled with an FFM are employed. However, there will be situations when additional
protection will be required and beyond the capability of a GUARDIAN ANGEL recovery
team.
9.4.8.3 Tender Considerations. Tenders and other topside personnel may also require
protection from hazards while supporting diving operations in contaminated water. A
thorough hazard analysis will address the degree of protection required by topside
personnel as well as the divers. Every effort should be made to position the dive station
outside the contaminated area with a transition zone between the work area and the dive
station. Some degree of contamination of the work area and topside equipment will occur
and it is expected the tenders will come into intimate contact with contaminated water and
must be appropriately protected. Rubberized gloves are worn to protect the tender while
tending the divers tether which is in contact with the contaminated water.
9.4.8.4 Dive Site Zones. Even before diving operations in contaminated water begin, the
dive site should be divided into three zones for proper sequestration of contamination
throughout the operations. (See Figure 9.56, Contaminated Water Dive Site.) A zone
immediately surrounding the point of water entry/exit must be deemed one of high
contamination. The zone to which divers and gear progress after completing their initial
decontamination following a successful dive is one of low contamination. A final zone
into which divers progress after they have been decontaminated and had all their diving
equipment removed is clean. If feasible, the clean zone should be positioned upwind
from the contaminated zones. Positioning of topside personnel may need to be adjusted to
keep from spreading contamination.
9-124
Wind Direction
Initial Rinse
HOT
Remove Ancillary Dive Gear
LOW
Personnel DECON
Equipment
Secondary
DECON
CLEAN
Undress
A/R
Shower
Equipment
Post-Dive
Maintenance
UNCLASSIFIED
9.4.8.5 Initial Decontamination. The initial decontamination step is to spray bulk
contaminants off a diver with a high pressure, clean, fresh water rinse. Use salt water if
fresh water is unavailable. The diver should be sprayed upon initial exit of the water to
limit the quantity of contaminants being transferred to the dive station. Team members
should be careful to direct water flow away from potential points of leakage (e.g., exhaust
valves, or seal junctions) in the divers rig; a high-pressure jet of water directed at such
potential breach points may inject contaminants inside the protective gear and into contact
with the diver. Tenders should also exercise care that overspray does not spread
contamination. Carefully remove the bulk of contaminants at this stage to ensure the
greatest effectiveness of subsequent decontamination steps.
9.4.8.5.1 Initial Equipment Removal and Wash Down. Ancillary dive gear such as
harnesses, weight belts, and EGS tanks are removed for subsequent decontamination.
After the diver has been initially rinsed and the ancillary gear removed, the diver
should be scrubbed with a stiff-bristle synthetic brush and cleaning solution. The
composition of the cleaning solution should be appropriate for the contaminant to be
removed; 5 percent bleach solutions are adequate for most situations and should not
degrade equipment when used for short periods of time and then rinsed away.
Commercially available household bleach is usually approximately 5 percent. One
method for preparing a 5 percent bleach solution is to mix 3 pounds of HTH (high-test
hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite) into 5 gallons of fresh water. Long handled
brushes will facilitate the cleaning process. Handheld brushes should be used for
detailed cleaning of the divers equipment. Once the diver has been thoroughly
9-125
scrubbed with cleaning solution applied from head to toe, he should be rinsed with
fresh water. Again, attending team members should be careful when directing
high-pressure water toward potential breach points of the diving rig. After the diver
has received his final rinse, he should progress toward the clean zone.
9.4.8.5.2 Clean Zone. After the diver has been adequately decontaminated and
moved into the low-contamination zone adjacent to the clean zone, the dive gear
should be removed in a step-wise fashion. First, the FFM is removed. Then the dry suit
and gloves should be removed. Next, dry suit should be removed. If nothing indicates
that the diving rig has been breached during the dive, the diver may proceed to the
clean zone and take a routine post-dive shower, which should include washing of the
entire body with soap and shampoo. Diver should use Domboro solution in each ear
for a minimum of 60 seconds per side. Additionally, the area under each fingernail
should be thoroughly scrubbed with soap and a nailbrush. The diver should use
antiseptic mouthwash to rinse his mouth. If there are indications of possible dermal
exposure to contaminants, then additional decontamination steps will be required. This
includes scrubbing the bare skin with a 0.5 percent bleach solution for approximately
10 minutes and then washing with soap in a shower. The 0.5 percent solution can be
prepared from a 1:9 dilution of the equipment decontamination solution already
prepared. Label solutions carefully as applying 5 percent directly to a divers skin can
be very irritating. Care should be taken not to introduce decontamination solution into
abdominal or central nervous system wounds, if present.
9.4.8.5.3 Equipment Decontamination. The entire divers equipment must undergo
secondary decontamination after it has been removed from him during the personnel
decontamination procedure. This secondary decontamination procedure entails rinsing
contamination from the equipment and then soaking it in a bleach-based solution for at
least thirty minutes. Drums or wading pools may be effective repositories for this
process. After soaking, equipment should be rinsed thoroughly until no foaming
occurs.
9.4.8.5.4 Tender Decontamination. The tender decontamination procedure is the
same as that for divers. The last person out of the contaminated zone will have to self
decontaminated.
9.4.8.5.5 Medical Documentation. Team members in contact with the diver and
water have a medical evaluation conducted to ensure there have been no ill effects as a
result of the dive. This also aids in documentation in the event the team members
becomes ill at a later date due to the dive.
9-126
10-1
CHAPTER 10
10-2
more difficult and more technical the rescue becomes. Ropes may have to be relied upon to
gain access to the victim and to support the team members and the victims during the rescue in
order to remove them from the rescue site.
10.3.4.1
degrees.
support
footing?
10.3.4.2 A medium-angle rescue is considered to be terrain that has a slope angle from 35
to 60 degrees. Again, the condition of the terrain will determine the level of technical
expertise required to perform this rescue safely.
10.3.4.3 A high-angle rescue is considered to be terrain that has a slope angle of 60
degrees and higher.
10.3.5 Rescue Necessities.
10.3.5.1 Rescuers are totally dependent upon the ropes used to keep them and the victims
from falling and to gain access to and egress from the rescue location.
10.3.5.2 Competent technical rescue skills involving ropes, anchoring and belaying
systems, lowering and hauling systems and litter work are mandatory for the safe
performance of the rescue team.
10.3.6 Safety Definitions.
10.3.6.1 Two terms that are frequently confused are safety factor and margin of safety.
10.3.6.2 The safety factor is the ratio of the breaking strength of the materials in reference
to the force applied. A multiplier is applied to the calculated maximum force to which a
component will be subjected. Typically, for components whose failure could result in
serious injury or death, a safety factor of 10:1 is used. Non-critical components generally
have a safety factor of 2.
10.3.6.3 Safety factors (SF) are needed to account for imperfections in materials, flaws in
assembly, material degradation, and unexpected stresses. For example, a 2kN load requires
system strength of 20kN, resulting in an SF of 10:1.
10.3.6.4 The margin of safety is an index indicating the amount beyond the minimum
necessary or the strength of the material minus the anticipated stress. The difference
between those two values is less than that of the safety factor. This does not protect the
rescuer well as the SF either. The following illustrates the margin of safety: if the breaking
strength of your system is 20kN and the anticipated stress is 17kN, then the margin of
safety would be 3kN or 15 percent.
10-3
10-4
#3
Wrap 3, pull 2
<25 kN (12.5:1)
<36 kN (18:1)
#4
30 kN (10:1)
#5
<25 kN (12.5:1)
Brake Bar
#2
20 kN (10:1) >
#6
2 kN Load
Wrap 3, pull 2
<36 kN (18:1)
#1
Anchor
UNCLASSIFIED
10-5
1 kg (kilogram) =
1 meter =
30.48 cm =
1 foot
2.54 cm =
1 inch
25.4 mm =
1 inch
Length
Fahrenheit to Celsius
Celsius to Fahrenheit
F = (9/5 x Degrees C) + 32
To Convert From
Outdated Unit
Pound-mass
Kilogram (kg)
Foot
0.304
Meter (m)
0.304
0.304
Acceleration
Energy
Kilogram (kg)
25.4
Stress
0.453 14.593
Inch
Speed (velocity)
Force
Multiply By:
To Obtain This
SI Unit
Poundal
0.138 255 0
Millimeter (mm)
Newton (N)
Pound-force
4.448 222
Kg * m/s2
6.894 757
Kilopascal (kPa)
1.355 818
(ft * lbf)
(kN/m2)
Joule (J)
(N * m)
10-6
10.3.7 New Descriptive Name. A mass, which is hanging statically from a rope, will cause
a force (tension) to exist in the rope, which is proportional to the mass and the value of
gravitational attraction at the location where the mass is suspended. The tension in the rope is
the MG-force and is expressed in Newtons (N).
10.3.7.1 The standard international value for acceleration of gravity (G) is 9.806 650 m/s2
(32.174 05 ft/s2) and this is the assumed value often applied when mass is mistakenly
equated to force.
10.3.7.2 The actual value of G ranges between 9.77 and 9.83 m/s2 over the surface of the
earth and even more widely above and below the surface.
10.3.7.3 The MG-force is not an intrinsic value of an object but will vary depending on the
buoyancy and the local gravity acting on the object.
10.3.8 Deprecated Unit. The term kilogram-force (kgf or kilopound, kp) is not appropriate
for describing force. The proper term for force is the Newton.
10.3.9 Rope in Service. The term rope in service refers to the amount of rope that is under
load (or could be put under a load, (i.e., belay line) at a given point in a rescue operation. It is
also the amount of rope between the descent control device and the attachment to the litter
bridle.
10.3.10 Fall Factor. Fall factor is determined by dividing fall distance by the rope in service.
In the case of static rope, an acceptable fall factor would be 1m drop/3m rope = Fall Factor 1/3
or 0.33.
10.3.10.1 Fall Factor is simply the length of the fall divided by the length of the rope from
faller to the fixed point, whether belayer or anchor, the equation looks like this:
Fall Factor x Length of Fall = Rope in Service
10.3.11 Rope Stretch and Rope Strength. Contrary to popular belief, the terms static and
low stretch are not universally interchangeable. According to the Cordage Institute rope
standards, at 10 percent of a given ropes Minimum Breaking Strength a static kern mantle
rope may have an elongation of up to 6 percent (2 to 3 percent ideally), while low stretch kern
mantle ropes may range in elongation from 6 to 10 percent.
10.3.11.1 The static rope is ideally suited for technical rope rescue. Compliance with the
previous specifications is based upon testing according to the Cordage Institute Standard
Testing Methods for Fiber Rope and/or ASTM D-4268, Standard Methods of Testing Fiber
Ropes.
10.3.11.2 Tensile strengths are approximate averages for new, unused ropes. To estimate
the minimum tensile strength of a new rope, reduce the approximate average by 10 percent
(Cordage Institute defines minimum tensile strength as two standard deviations below the
average tensile strength of the rope).
10-7
10.3.11.3 The kern mantle construction used in these ropes features a double-twist cable
core for low-static elongation and resistance to spinning while ascending or descending,
yet will elongate to absorb energy in the event of an accidental dynamic loading. It is
important for a static rope to be able to absorb the energy of an accidental dynamic
loading. This type of loading could possibly cause damage to the sheath and/or core of the
rope, bodily injury, or anchor failure.
10.3.11.4 Often a key point in rope selection, rope strength is a function of what the rope
is made of, how the rope is made, and how much fiber is in it.
10.3.11.5 Desired strength must also be balanced against other factors such as diameter
(compatibility with other gear), weight, flexibility, and anticipated use. In other words,
how strong is strong enough?
10.3.11.6 A comparative analysis of rope stretch among popular brands of dynamic rope
is found in the index of this manual. The title of the research paper is the 1999
International Technical Rescue Symposium, Qualifying a Rescue Rope.
10.4 Command.
10.4.1 Operational Risk Management. Operational risk management (ORM) is a tool
used to make informed decisions by providing the best baseline of knowledge and experience
available. Its purpose is to increase operational readiness by anticipating hazards and reducing
the potential for loss, thereby increasing the probability of success in recovering personnel.
10.4.1.1 ORM. The ORM process is a five-step, closed-loop process.
Identify Hazards. Identify conditions with the potential to cause damage, injury, or
mission degradation.
Assess Hazards. For each hazard identified, determine the associated degree of risk
in terms of probability and severity.
Make Risk Decisions. First, develop and implement a set of risk control options to
minimize risk consistent with mission accomplishment. Then, decide if benefit of the
mission outweighs the new risk levels. If risks outweigh benefits, seek further risk
reduction.
Implement Controls. When risks are reduced to acceptable levels, implement the
appropriate control measures.
Supervise. Conduct follow-up evaluations of the control measures to ensure the
desired effect. Adjust, as necessary.
10.4.1.2 Levels of ORM. The ORM process is utilized on three levels based upon time
and assets available.
Time-Critical. An on-the-run mental process when time is limited.
Deliberate. Adding time, assets, and techniques to provide a more in-depth level of
application.
In-Depth. A working-group level of application employing detailed qualitative and
quantitative techniques.
10-8
10.5 Control.
10.5.1 Individual Responsibilities. The team leader has overall responsibility of the
operation and all team members. His word is final, and as such no one does anything without
his approval. He does however relinquish command in the event a federal agency (i.e., FEMA)
arrives on scene.
The belay manages belay line.
The mainline can be a brake, winch, or a haul team.
The edge may be one or more people; keep edge clear, place edge protection, assist load
over edge.
The attendant manages handling of patient (with or without stokes liter) and cleans route
if required.
The vector is used in some lowering operations to direct main/belay line over edge.
The control gives commands to lower or raise the load, especially during the critical
edge phase.
10.5.1.1 Briefing the Team.
Conducting a whiteboard analysis.
Analysis.
Critical points.
Whistle test.
Static system safety factors.
Comparative analysis.
Pro or con list.
Ease of use and training.
Equipment requirements.
Amount.
Commonality.
10-9
Speed of setup.
Field trials.
Failure analysis.
Do backups work as intended?
Worst case scenario.
72 hour weather forecast.
10.5.1.1.1 The underlying goal of this process is for the team leader (TL) to convey the
necessary steps required for mission completion. Broken down into its elements, this
is what the team leader should come away with after everyone has been briefed:
Here is what I think we face.
Here is what I think we will do.
Here is why.
Here is what we should keep our eye on.
Now, talk to me. (What else do we need and how are we doing?)
10.5.1.1.2 This format allows team members an opportunity to voice concerns or
oversights, and if properly executed, will achieve a team consensus. After the briefing,
the TL assigns operational roles, and then delegates authority to the Control person. At
this time the TL begins the process of inspecting every component of the
systemincluding operator technique.
10.5.1.1.3 Ideally, to free up the TL and to reduce risk by having single-task roles, a
separate control person is used. The control person should be in a location where the
edge transition can be easily seen, yet still communicate with the main and belay line
operators. Communication can be achieved through verbal commands, radio, whistle
blasts, or through the edge person. Commands follow the YOU this is ME,
followed by the specific command (e.g., EDGE, CONTROL, PREPARE TO GUIDE
THE LITTER).
10-10
Mission Steps
Total Time
Required:
Date:
Potential
Hazards
Risks Level
Circle Overall
Controls
APPROVED BY:
_____________
Rating.
Hrs:
Min:
Low (L)
Medium (M)
High (H)
Extremely High
(EH)
Residual Risk
Level
DATE:______
10-11
10.6 Communications.
10.6.1 Lowering Operations.
First stage (role call)ensure everyone is physically and mentally ready.
Second stage (positioning the load)position the attendant/victim to allow for a
smooth transfer over the edge. The Edge people may need to help to the Attendant
carry the litter to the edge. To make this easier, the Control can ask for slack in the
mainline as required.
Third stage (pre-tensioning)pre-tension the system and transition the load over
the edge. There are several ways of pre-tensioning the system; the appropriate
technique is dependant on the number of available rescuers and terrain, and must be
briefed by the TL prior to roll call. Commands given during this phase must be very
concise to ensure minimal exertion by the entire crew.
Fourth stage (attendant needs)commands specific to the needs to the attendant,
such as speed, belay or edge protection requirements, and an indication of progress.
10.6.2 Raising Operations.
First stage (role call)ensure everyone is physically and mentally ready.
Second stage (raising)use a pulley system or winch to raise the load; includes
sets and resets.
Third stage (edge transition)reset the haul system when the load is just below
the edge, to ensure that the load can be cleanly and smoothly brought completely up
over the edge without having to reset during the critical edge transition.
10.6.3 Communications Checklists. The following checklists (Table 10.4, Command and
Communication for Rising, Table 10.5, Command and Communication for Raising, and Table
10.6, Team Leader Briefing) are to be used by the control person when conducting raising or
lowering operations. Individual teams should develop alternate signals in the event radio
communications fail (e.g., whistle blasts). Adherence to the commands in the check-off list
must be enforced, even in training.
10.7 The Science of Rope Rescue.
10.7.1 As mentioned in the introduction, the science of rope rescue is relatively new. Prior to
1982, the majority of rope rescue principles were developed from other applications such as
caving, rock climbing, and sailing.
10.7.2 The technique of a high line or guiding line has been around since the 1600s. The
evolution of some of these principles go so far back that they simply cannot be traced
(e.g., mechanical advantage).
10.7.3 The downside to this is that many unsafe and untested techniques, especially in the
area of anchors, remain in use today. For instance, the belief that a self-equalizing anchor
exists is a myth.
10-12
Response
Action
READY!
READY!
READY!
ATTENDANT READY?
READY!
READY!
ATTENDANT STOP!
EDGE, READY?
READY!
ATTENDANT, READY?
READY!
-VECTOR MAINLINE!
-RELEASE VECTOR!
B. No vector
C. Jigger
D. Edge lift
10-13
Attendant
READY!
READY!
MAINLINE UP!
MAINLINE UP!
SET!
READY!
ATTENDANT READY?
READY!
READY!
MAINLINE UP!
STOP, STOP, ALL STOP!
Additional Commands:
STOP!Given by anyone; this means freeze.
STOP, STOP, WHY STOP?If load has stopped for unknown reason.
DOWN, DOWN!Go down faster.
SLOW!Self explanatory.
UP ROPE!Pull rope through device and ensure there is no slack.
SLACK!Too much tension, need more rope.
Whistle Commands:
One BlastStop!
Tow BlastsUp!
Three BlastsDown!
Three Long BlastsHelp!
READY!
10-14
UNCLASSIFIED
10-15
10-16
10.7.8 Definitions.
10.7.8.1 Mass is the quantity of matter a body contains. The unit of mass in the SI system
has been chosen as the kilogram (kg).
10.7.8.2 Force may be defined as any action on a body which tends to change its size or
shape, its state of rest, or its state of motion.
10.7.8.3 In the SI system, the unit of force is called the Newton (N). (See Table 10.7, SI
System.)
Table 10.7 SI System.
Term
Definition
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, i.e. it is the change in
velocity in a given time.
Acceleration
Acceleration = Change in velocity
Time
Velocity
meters
second x second
change in velocity
Time
20 - 10 m/s =
10 m/s = 5m/s2
2s
2s
10-17
10.7.9.3 The peak dynamic force (PDF) is approximately two times the ADF or as in the
example above, 6000N x 2, or 12 kN.
NOTE: 8 to 10 kN is the maximum sustainable fall the human body generally can withstand.
10.7.9.4 Where this becomes critical for the rescuer is when a piece of equipment, such as
a daisy chain is subjected to a fall. An 80kg load falling 1m will induce a shock load of
17.6 kN. The daisy chain will absolutely fail under this load as will most likely the person
attached to the daisy chain. (See Figure 10.3, Spectra Daisy Chains After Sustaining an
80 kg Load Falling 1 Meter.)
10.7.10 Pulley Systems and Mechanical Advantage. Mechanical advantage is the ratio of
output force divided by input force. Mechanical advantage in pulley systems is gained by
increasing the number of times your initial one unit of tension is applied to the load. If the
output force is bigger than the input force, a machine has a mechanical advantage greater than
one. This can be accomplished through several means.
10.7.10.1 The amount of effort saved when using simple or complex machines is called
mechanical advantage or MA. A pulley is a chain, belt or rope wrapped around a wheel.
The mechanical advantage of a pulley system is approximately equal to the amount of
supporting ropes or strands.
10.7.10.2 Therefore, if you had a mass of 60kg and wanted to lift it using two supporting
ropes, you would have mechanical advantage (MA) of 2. The mass will feel like one half
of what it really is. When lifted with the help of the pulley system your 60kg would only
feel like 30kg. Thus the effort force equals 30kg.
10.7.10.3 The simplest example of a pulley system is shown below. Here the fixed pulley
provides no mechanical advantage (MA) but rather only changes the direction of pull. The
force required to life the load is approximately the same as the load itself and the same
amount of rope is brought in for the distance that the load is raised. (See Figure 10.4,
Simple 1:1.)
NOTE: All diagrams in this chapter are for instructional purposes only. They are not to be
construed as endorsements of any particular type of equipment or specific system. Certain items
such as progress capture Prusiks have intentionally been omitted for reasons of clarity.
10.7.10.4 The MA changes however, if the same pulley is moved to a different location so
that it is now a traveling pulley; one that moves toward the anchor as the load is raised.
Now only half as much effort is required, but over twice the distance. (See Figure 10.5,
Simple 2:1.)
10.7.10.5 Even if a second pulley is added so that the direction of the pull is reversed, the
pulley does not affect the Ideal Mechanical Advantage (IMA), though in some cases it may
make it more practical for the haulers to pull. (See Figure 10.6, Simple 2:1 With a Change
in Direction.)
10-18
Figure 10.3 Spectra Daisy Chains After Sustaining an 80 kg Load Falling 1 Meter.
UNCLASSIFIED
10-19
Simple 1:1
Load
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.5 Simple 2:1.
Simple 2:1
Load
UNCLASSIFIED
10-20
Load
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.10.6 Mechanical advantage is gained from the moving pulleys in exchange of effort
for distance. If the last pulley in the system is fixed, it does not affect the IMA but may
improve the practical use of the pulley system by changing the direction of pull. In both of
the above figures, twice as much rope is required on the pull side to raise the load a certain
distance, although only half the force is required.
10.7.10.7 This is referred to as a system with an MA of 2, or a 2:1 system.
10.7.10.8 A pulley system is just one of many ways to achieve MA. The key to learning
pulley systems is in understanding the basic concepts and principles that distinguish one
system from another. All to often rescuers are shown just one or two pulley systems and
end up force fitting them to all rescue situations. Learning a few pulley systems by rote
does not provide rescuers with the knowledge and flexibility to make the best use of
resources.
10.7.10.9 To be efficient, flexible, and effective, rescuers need to have the ability to
quickly decide which system is most appropriate for the given working conditions such as
the amount of tension the load places in the mainline, the availability of equipment,
working room, friction points, and the number of haulers.
10.7.10.10 Pulley systems can be divided into three categories: simple, compound, and
complex. It addition, most pulley systems can be rigged either by using the mainline itself
or using a separate rope, often referred to as acting on the mainline, as shown below.
While most pulley systems used in rope rescue will be either be simple or compound,
10-21
rescuers still need to be able to recognize and understand the advantages and
disadvantages of all types of pulley systems. (See Figure 10.7, Pulley System.)
Figure 10.7 Pulley System.
Pulley System
(a) Pulley System using Mainline
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.10.11 There are some components that can be added to a pulley system to make its
operation more practical during a rescue. The first is a self-minding ratchet. This device
enables the haulers to maintain lift distance gained without having to hold onto the rope at
all times. One such device is the Prusik and a Prusik minding pulley (PMP), shown below.
(See Figure 10.8, Ratchet Prusik.)
10.7.10.12 Devices that act as ratchets also enable resets of the pulley system as the
maintain tension in the mainline while the pulley system is slackened and reset. This can
also be accomplished by having a rescuer tend the device that will grab the rope when the
pulley system needs a reset.
10.7.10.13 Simple pulley systems are characterized by having one continuous rope
flowing back and forth alternately between the pulleys under load and the anchor (or the
anchor and the load) and all pulleys at the load side (referred to as traveling pulleys) travel
towards the anchor at the same speed. (See Figure 10.9, Simple Pulley System, details
this movement.)
10-22
Ratchet Prusik
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.9 Simple Pulley System.
Stationary Pulley
Traveling Pulley
UNCLASSIFIED
10-23
Simple 2:1
Simple 2:1
UNCLASSIFIED
10-24
10-25
UNCLASSIFIED
10-26
10.7.15 Vector Angles. One of several considerations when building a mechanical advantage
using pulleys is that of vector angles and resultant loads. (See Figure 10.12 and Figure 10.13,
Vector Angle and Resultant Loads.)
Figure 10.12 Vector Angle and Resultant Loads I (1 of 2).
1.4
90
1
120
2
1
.7
1
120
90
.5 .5
.7
160
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.15.1 Of primary concern to the rescue technician is the fact that as the angle increases
(widens) the resultant load increases proportionately.
10.7.15.2 Notice the increased load on a pulley as the angle widens from 90 to 120 to 160
degrees.
10.7.15.3 This has a direct effect on the anchors as well as the entire system. Make sure
the load factor does not exceed the capacity of the overall system.
10.7.15.4 To achieve an SSSF of 10:1, the number of people on a raising team must be
limited to four for a 3:1 MA system and to two for a 5:1 MA system with an 11mm rope.
10-27
58%
60
100%
120
100%
!
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.15.5 A reasonable rule of thumb is that the number of people hauling multiplied by
the MA should not exceed 12. The hauling should be done hand over hand and not by
attaching a Prusik to the rope.
10.7.15.6 These values are based on the following assumptions and calculations.
10.7.15.7 Based on several tests, the average pull is 50 pounds per person or 150 pounds
for three people. With an MA of 3:1, the load on the rope becomes 150 x 3 = 450 pounds.
With a 10:1 SSSF, this value becomes 4,500 pounds.
10.7.15.8 The tensile strength of our 11mm ropes is 6,500 pounds, and with a knot, it is
30 percent less or 4,550 pounds. With a 5:1 MA, two people pulling, and a 9:1 SSSF, the
maximum load on the rope will not exceed 100 x 5 x 9 = 4,500 pounds.
10.7.16 The Tension-Method for Pulley Systems. A pulley systems ideal mechanical
advantage (IMA), which does not factor in friction, is expressed as a ratio of the amount of
output force to the amount of input force (e.g., 6:1 or 6 to1). The input force is the tension
you apply to the system and is always expressed as 1.
10.7.16.1 One method of calculating the IMA of any pulley system is referred to as the
Tension method or T-method. This factor is increasingly critical as the slope increases.
10.7.16.2 Some basic physics principles need to be understood and applied to knowing
how tension is distributed through a pulley system. Mechanical advantage in pulley
systems is gained by increasing the number of times the initial one unit of tension is
applied to the load.
10-28
10-29
Tension Distribution
.5T
1T
2T
1T
1T
.5T
1T
2T
1T
2T
1T
3T
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.15 Simple 3:1.
Simple 3:1
1T
1T
2T (1T + 1T = 2T)
1T
1T
2T
1T
3T (1T + 2T = 3T)
Load
UNCLASSIFIED
10-30
Compound 9:1
1T
1T
1T
A
A
1T
1T
2T
3T
3T
6T
2T (1T + 1T = 2T)
1T 3T (1T + 2T = 3T)
6T (3T + 3T = 6T)
3T
3T
9T (6T + 3T = 9T)
Load
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.17 Complex 3:1.
Complex 3:1
2T (1T + 1T = 2T)
1T
2T
4T
2T
1T
1T 1T
2T
Load
3T (1T + 2T = 3T)
UNCLASSIFIED
10-31
10.7.16.13 To calculate/measure the losses due to friction, one must know the efficiency
of the pulleys or carabiners being used. Efficiency is the measure of friction loss
calculated as the input force over the output force, expressed as a percent. For example, if
90N is required on one side of a pulley to hold a 100N load on the other side, the efficiency
of the pulley is stated as 90 percent or 90/100. With efficiency information, the friction
loss through the system can be calculated. Figure 10.18, Theoretical Mechanical
Advantage, shows calculations for a pulley system with pulleys having an efficiency rating
of 0.90. Paragraph 10.7.16.15.1, Friction Coefficient, discusses friction theory in greater
detail and is illustrated in Figure 10.19, Points of Friction.
10.7.16.14 Assuming that the pullers pull at the pulley system with one unit of Tension
(1T), only 0.90T will be transferred past the first pulley. When that 0.9T reaches the second
pulley, only 0.81T will be transferred on (0.9 x 0.9 = 0.81) as the friction loss is now
compounded over two pulleys. Follow this process all the way through the pulley system.
When complete, use the T-method to determine the final TMA, which in this example is
2.71:1. If higher efficiency pulleys are used, the TMA is increased, bringing it closer to
the IMA of 3:1. Also important to note is that if you are using pulleys of different
efficiencies, less losses occur if the most efficient pulley is placed closest to the pullers.
This is because the loss at the first pulley is compounded throughout the system.
10.7.16.15 Friction is a force that opposes motion. Friction acts in a direction opposite to
the objects direction in motion. Without friction, the object would continue to move at a
constant speed forever. There are different forms of frictionsliding, rolling, and fluid.
The formula to calculate the normal force is FN = - mg.
FN is the normal force in Newton (N).
m is the mass in kg.
G is the gravitational force in m/s2.
EXAMPLE: The normal force acting on a 70-kg person would be FN = - (70 kg) (-9.8 m/s2) =
686N. What this means in rope rescue is that friction incurred when lowering a victim and
attendant can work to our advantage, whereas friction incurred while raising the same load makes
for substantially more work. This sounds overly simple, but friction takes its toll on equipment and
rescuers. For example, a 2000N load being raised over a pulley that changes direction 90 degrees
will incur friction such that the haul team is only operating at 0.9 efficiency. In other words, they
are only capable of hauling 1800N. (See Figure 10.19, Points of Friction.)
10.7.16.15.1 Friction Coefficient. Additional examples regarding friction coefficient
are as follows:
Rock edge coefficient of 0.59. Therefore, a 2kN load (2kN/0.59) would equal
3.38.
Metal edge coefficient of 0.83. Therefore, a 2kN load would equal 2.40.
Munter Hitch coefficient of 0.15. Therefore, a 2kN load would equal 13.33.
The challenge here is that the human hand can only hold 209N for a short
duration, therefore the friction coefficient generated is 0.32, or 209N x 0.59 = 150.
10-32
1T
1.9T (1T + 0.90T)
0.90T
0.81T
1.71T
Load
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.19 Points of Friction.
Points of Friction
Friction Points
.9 Efficiency
.9 Efficiency
.59 Efficiency
Total:
= 5.84 kN required
to lift a 2 kN load
UNCLASSIFIED
10-33
10-34
Force Diagram
mg
UNCLASSIFIED
10-35
10.7.17.10 Since the system is in equilibrium, the combined effect of the R and T force
vectors result in an opposite and equal force to the mg vector, thereby countering its effect.
10.7.17.11 To draw the vectors, start with the mg force vector, indicating both its
magnitude and direction.
10.7.17.12 Next draw the vectors which counter the effect of mg; draw the resistance R
vector (Figure 10.21, Force Vectors)in this case you only know its direction and have
the tail of the R vector start at the tip of the mg vector. Draw the T vector from the tip of
the R vector, and draw it parallel to the slope angle until it intersects the tail of the mg
vector. The magnitude of the T vector which is the tension in the rope is determined by
measuring its length, and comparing it to the scale to which you drew the mg vector. For
example, if you used the above scale, and drew the mg vector 2cm long representing 2 kN
of force, the resultant T vector is 1.2cm in length, then the corresponding force would be
1.2 kN.
Figure 10.21 Force Vectors.
Force Vectors
mg
mg
mg
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.17.13 It becomes apparent that as the slope angle increases, the force vector T
becomes larger, to the point where T and mg are the same when the angle is 90 degrees
(free-hang).
10.7.17.14 Conversely, the tension T becomes nil when the angle of the slope is 0 degree
(level).
10-36
Table 10.8 Resultant Force (kN) for a Given Slope Angle and Mass.
Mass (kg)
Angle
200 kg
(2 people)
280 kg
(3 people)
360 kg
(4 people)
440 kg
(5 people)
520 kg
(6 people)
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.17
0.24
0.31
0.37
0.44
10
0.34
0.48
0.61
0.75
0.88
15
0.51
0.71
0.92
1.12
1.33
20
0.67
0.94
1.21
1.47
1.74
25
0.83
1.16
1.49
1.83
2.16
30
0.98
1.37
1.76
2.16
2.55
35
1.12
1.57
2.02
2.46
2.91
40
1.26
1.76
2.27
2.77
3.28
45
1.39
1.95
2.50
3.06
3.61
50
1.50
2.10
2.70
3.30
3.90
55
1.61
2.25
2.90
3.54
4.19
60
1.70
2.38
3.06
3.74
4.42
65
1.78
2.49
3.20
3.92
4.63
70
1.84
2.58
3.31
4.05
4.78
75
1.89
2.65
3.40
4.16
4.91
80
1.93
2.70
3.47
4.25
5.02
85
1.95
2.73
3.51
4.29
5.07
90
1.96
2.74
3.53
4.31
5.10
OVERALL NOTE:
* Under certain conditions a rescue team my choose to deviate from a 10:1 SSSF. This element
should be factored into the ORM checklist.
10-37
10.7.17.15.1 The green shaded areas in the table represent acceptable levels of
mainline tension (kN) for a 10:1 SSSF using a 11.1 millimeter (mm) or larger nylon
kernmantle low-stretch rope, assuming a knotted breaking strength of at least 22 kN.
10.7.17.15.2 The yellow shaded region shows acceptable combinations of mass and
slope angle for a 12.7mm mainline, assuming a breaking strength of approximately 33
kN. Force levels that exceed 10:1 SSSF for both 11.1mm and 12.7mm mainline ropes
are shown in the red region. As an example, three litter bearers and a patient can
maintain a 10:1 SSSF on slopes to just under 40 degrees using an 11.1mm mainline. If
instead, they are using a 12.7mm mainline, then the maximum slope angle can be
increased to 70 degrees.
10.7.17.15.3 It is important to note that the yellow and red areas of the table do not
represent go or no go from an operational standpoint.
10.7.17.15.4 The different colors simply represent where a 10:1 SSSF does or does not
exist given a certain slope angle, rope type, and rescue mass. Under certain conditions
a rescue team may choose to deviate from a 10:1 SSSF for specific reasons. This
element should be factored into the ORM checklist.
NOTE: All diagrams in this chapter are for instructional purposes only. They are not to be
construed as endorsements of any particular type of equipment or specific system. Certain items
such as progress capture Prusiks have intentionally been omitted for reasons of clarity.
10.7.17.16 Table 10.9, Summary of Leg Tension Forces, Figure 10.22, Leg Tensions, and
Figure 10.23, Ropes, incorporate all of the principles described above so that the rescue
team can safely develop a solution for establishing safety lines and high lines. Utilizing the
Vector Angles chart along with Table 10.8, Resultant Force (kN) for a Given Slope Angle
and Mass, the leg tension forces can be computed accordingly. The desired outcome is the
determination as to whether or not it is safe to suspend a rescuer and victim on the line by
maintaining a SSF of 10:1.
Table 10.9 Summary of Leg Tension Forces.
Angle Leg
Tension
90
70 percent
120
100 percent
150
200 percent
170
575 percent
OVERALL NOTE:
* Leg Tension = distance across span x hanging force 4Y (vertical drop).
10-38
Leg Tensions
75 feet
10 feet
A 75 foot high line sags 10 feet at the center with a 150 pound
load. What is tjhe tension on each leg?
Leg Tension = Distance Across x Hanging Force / 4Y
(75 x 150) /40 = 281.25 T on each leg
With a 30 kN rope, this meets the SSSF of 10:1 as 281.25 is
less than 300
120 degrees
3 kN
Force
What is the total tension with a spread of 120 degrees and a
suspended force of 3 kN?
120 degrees = 100% on each leg, or 3kN
UNCLASSIFIED
10-39
Ropes
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.18 Ropes for Rescue Work.
10.7.18.1 Perhaps one of the most difficult concepts to grasp is that of using a rope with
the least amount of stretch for rescue work. Climbing ropes or dynamic rope, which offer
8 to 10 percent stretch, are great for reducing injuries in climbing falls, but these are
unacceptable for rescue work. The last thing you want a rescuer and patient to have to
endure is rope elongation after a main anchor has failed.
10.7.18.2 Static rope is a type of rope that typically only stretches 2 to 3 percent when a
1kN force is experienced.
10.7.18.3 No one rope size or strength will be perfect for every need. Rope strength is the
more important of the two attributes. Strength is usually expressed as tensile strength at
break. There are as many ways to measure and describe rope strength as there are
manufacturers of rope. In testing, many factors come into play, any of which can move
scores up or down. The rate at which the pull is applied, the temperature, the diameter of
the mandrel, along with other factors can change test results. Descriptions can be just as
bad. Maximum, average, and minimum all are terms used to describe tensile strength.
Obviously, you should not compare one manufacturers maximum strength to anothers
minimum strength. Beware, there are manufacturers who only list a nebulous safe
working load, not a tensile strength at all.
10.7.18.4 The minimum strength is the only one that counts when a life will hang on the
rope. Ropes are tested according to Federal Standard 191A Method 6106. The NFPA also
10-40
Accessory Cord
UNCLASSIFIED
10-41
10-42
Types of Webbing
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.22 Pulleys.
10.7.22.1 There are three main types of pulleys: ball bearing, needle bearing, and bushing.
10.7.22.2 In general, pulleys with ball bearings deliver about 95 percent efficiency while
pulleys with bushings deliver about 85 percent efficiency. Rope stiffness also greatly
affects pulley efficiency. Use pliable ropes when using multiple pulleys. Prusik minding
pulleys have sides that are squared off and are used in conjunction with Prusiks to create a
belay system. This squaring off helps to prevent the Prusiks from being pulled through the
pulley. (See Figure 10.26, Pulleys.)
10.7.23 Carabiners. Carabiners come in a multitude of sizes, shapes, and styles. Of all the
features including material and strength, shape, gate type, gate opening, and reservoir space,
strength is paramount. Remember that the spine (side opposite the gate) is the strongest part.
10.7.23.1 A carabiner with an open gate looses approximately 50 percent of its strength.
10.7.23.2 Tri-loading (3-way) results in a 70 percent loss in strength.
10.7.23.3 D or offset D carabiners are typically used for rescue rigging.
10.7.23.4 In part, the shape of the carabiner determines how many slings, pulleys, or ropes
can pass through the widest end. The tendency is to load it up until no more material can
be mashed through the gate. Unfortunately this can cause side loading which significantly
reduces the strength of the carabiner.
10-43
Pulleys
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.23.5 The carabiner pictured in Figure 10.27, Carabiners, manufactured by Petzl,
features a push button release. This item is absolutely worthless in the types of
environments that PJs typically work in, becuase of the push button being inaccessible
with gloves on. Screw locks remain the best since they have less to malfunction and can
be manipulated easily.
10.7.24 Descenders. These are used for belaying and rappelling. All these devices apply
friction across the rope to impede the movement of the rope through the device. Plates have
been around for some time and are the precursor to tubes but their use is getting scarce with the
invention of tubes. Called an ATC by most, the proper name for these popular devices is a
tube device. Just about all companies make a tube device but those with slots in one side to
increase the friction really shine on the new generation small diameter ropes and wet or icy
ropes such as alpine climbing. Tubes add twists to the rope but can be kept to a minimum with
proper use.
10.7.24.1 There are a host of specialized friction devices that their primary function is for
sport climbing or climbing in gyms. While these will work for traditional climbing, their
climbing action can clog with dirt, which could decrease their safety margin.
10.7.24.2 Even more specialized friction devices are those designed for solo climbing
applications and a high knowledge of their peculiarities and advanced rope skills is
mandatory for their use.
10-44
Carabiners
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.24.3 There exists a controversy among rescuers and climbers regarding which
descending device is acceptable for rescue work. Figure 8s have been in use by pFigure
Eightsararescuemen since the 1970s, when they replaced multi-carabiner stacks. Although
they have their place and are hard to beat in the area of safety, their usefulness in technical
rope rescue is limited. The major downfall comes from the amount of twist that is induced
into a descent line. This can become disastrous for a small rescue team that has only one
mainline attendant. Attempting to clear twists as they enter a Figure Eight will cause an
irreversible jam.
10.7.24.4 Brake racks have the inherent benefit of being adjustable dependant upon the
load. The tie-off also is easier to manage under load. Given their robust construction,
brake racks are one of the most reliable pieces of hardware for this task.
10.7.24.5 Brake tubes also fall in the category of safe, reliable, robust, and able to handle
knots well. (See Figure 10.28, Descenders; Figure 10.29, Test Data; and Figure 10.30,
540 Belay Device, for more clarification.)
10-45
Descenders
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.29 Test Data.
Force (kN)
20
540
16
12
12.9 kN
8
4
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Time(s)
All tests 1m drop of 280kg onto 3m of 12.5mm PMI EZ Bend rope
UNCLASSIFIED
0.8
10-46
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.25 Belaying Devices.
10.7.25.1 This device relies on a common principal of the rope generating a frictional
force with the object upon which it is wrapped in proportion to the load. The load can be
easily controlled as long as the number of wraps is sufficient to generate enough friction to
counteract the force generated at the contracting surfaces.
10.7.25.2 A very desirable further attribute of this principal is the ability of these systems
to absorb large momentary increases in load forces. When the system is subjected to a
sudden increase in force the rope grips the object harder creating a proportional increase in
friction. The increase in friction effectively compensates for the sudden load increase and
only a fraction of this force is transferred to the operator of the system.
10.7.25.3 The belay spool works essentially on this principal with the additional
advantage of the internal friction of the rope fibers created by the bending and
straightening of the rope as it moves over its lobed surface under load. This same principal
makes the brake bar rack an effective device given its relatively small contact surface with
rope.
10.7.25.4 Rope moves relatively easily through the belay spool when not under load by
virtue of the rope's tendency to form a loose coil around the drum. This coil generally only
makes contact with the top of the lobes so friction is low. This is especially advantageous
when belaying a rescue load being raised (e.g., taking rope in through the device). When
10-47
this is reversed, as in a lower, the belayer needs only to maintain a firm grip on the rope
and allow the device to self feed.
10.7.26 Rigging Plates. This piece of hardware is designed for organizing the work position
and to create a multiple anchor system very easily. It also serves to optimize the distribution
of forces at the belay.
10.7.26.1 These are an excellent tool and offer a clean way to bring together multiple
anchor points. (See Figure 10.31, Rigging Plates; Table 10.10, Hardware Characteristics;
and Table 10.11, Rope Characteristics, for information.)
Figure 10.31 Rigging Plates.
Rigging Plates
UNCLASSIFIED
Table 10.10 Hardware Characteristics.
Device
Strength
32 kN
32 kN
36 kN
35 kN
W2P1 anchor
540 lowering device
24-26 kN
70 kN
10-48
Strength
6mm cord
7.5 kN
7mm cord
10 kN
8mm cord
15 kN
11.1 rope
30 kN
12.7 rope
40 kN
25mm web
18 kN
10.7.27 Knots and Hitches. Proper utilization of knots is a science unto itself. The
following section is a compilation of the knots deemed most efficient for modern rope rescue
work. It is not all inclusive, but each of the knots depicted are reliable and easy to tie. (See
Figure 10.32, Knot Cartoon; Figure 10.33, Definition Diagram; and Table 10.12, Rope
Strength Decrease Due to Knot.)
10.7.27.1 Some tips on knot tying:
10.7.27.2 Practice tying knots with the same size and type rope intended for use in the
field.
10.7.27.3 Knot loops should be small and about as big as that which is intended to go into
it. Space is often a luxury PJs do not have. Compact rigging skills afford maximum use of
resources.
10.7.27.4 Know relative strengths and use the stronger knots when possible. Realize that
a ring bend (water knot) only provides about 50 percent efficiency and when wet is only
about 35 percent as strong as the original piece of webbing.
10.7.27.5 Back-up knots are not always necessary. Concentrate on tying each knot the best
it can be tied.
10.7.27.6 Rig and tie as if you were an engineer. Directionally tension, use what is
necessary and no more.
10.7.27.7 Definitions.
10.7.27.7.1 Knota strand of material is tied to itself.
10.7.27.7.2 Bendtwo or more strands of material are tied to each other.
10.7.27.7.3 Hitcha strand (or two strands) of material is tied around another object
in such a manner that if the object were removed, the hitch would undo itself.
10.7.27.7.4 Running Endthe end of the rope or material that is being worked with.
10.7.27.7.5 Standing Endthe bulk of rope or material not being actively used.
10.7.27.7.6 Bighta 180-degree turn in the strand of rope material.
10.7.27.7.7 Loopa 360-degree turn in the strand of rope or material.
10-49
Knot Cartoon
UNCLASSIFIED
10-50
Definition Diagram
Bight
Loop
Half Hitch
Running End
Standing End
Turn
Round Turn
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.28 Basic and End-of-Rope Knot.
10.7.28.1 Double Fishermans Knot. The double fishermans knot (also called double
English or grapevine) is used to tie two ropes of the same or approximately the same
diameter. It is a joining knot. (See Figure 10.34, Double Fishermans Knot.)
10.7.28.1.1 Tying the Knot.
Step 1. With the working end of one rope, tie two wraps around the standing
part of another rope.
Step 2. Insert the working end (Step 1) back through the two wraps and draw it
tight.
Step 3. With the working end of the other rope, which contains the standing part
(Steps 1 and 2), tie two wraps around the standing part of the other rope (the
working end in Step 1). Insert the working end back through the two wraps and
draw tight.
Step 4. Pull on the opposing ends to bring the two knots together
10-51
21 percent
19 percent
36 percent
Loops
20 percent
19 percent
18 percent
25 percent
- Butterfly Knot
25 percent
- Bowline
33 percent
15 percent
26 percent
Rope With A Loop In It
35 percent
41 percent
- Butterfly Loop
31 percent
Knots in Web
- Overhand Loop
35 percent
30 percent
26 percent
10-52
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.28.2 Figure Eight Knot. The Figure Eight bend is used to join the ends of two ropes
of equal or unequal diameter within 5mm difference. (See Figure 10.35, Figure Eight
Knot.)
10.7.28.2.1 Tying the Knot.
Step 1. Grasp the top of a 2-foot bight.
Step 2. With the other hand, grasp the running end (short end) and make a
360-degree turn around the standing end.
Step 3. Place the running end through the loop just formed creating an in-line
Figure Eight.
Step 4. Route the running end of the other ripe back through the Figure Eight
starting from the original ropes running end. Trace the original knot to the
standing end.
Step 5. Remove all unnecessary twists and crossovers. Dress the knot down.
10-53
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.28.3 Water Knot. The water knot is used to attach two webbing ends. It is also
called a ring bend, overhand retrace, or tape knot. It is used in runners and harnesses and is
a joining knot. (See Figure 10.36, Water Knot.)
10.7.28.3.1 Tying the Knot.
Step 1. Tie an overhand knot in one of the ends.
Step 2. Feed the other end back through the knot, following the path of the first
rope in reverse.
Step 3. Draw tight and pull all of the slack out of the knot. The remaining tails
must extend at least 4 inches beyond the knot in both directions.
10-54
Water Knot
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.28.4 Bowline. The bowline is used to tie the end of a rope around an anchor. It may
also be used to tie a single fixed loop in the end of a rope. It is an anchor knot. (See
Figure 10.37, Bowline.)
10.7.28.4.1 Tying the Knot.
Step 1. Bring the working end of the rope around the anchor, from right to left
(as the climber faces the anchor).
Step 2. Form an overhand loop in the standing part of the rope (on the climbers
right) toward the anchor.
Step 3. Reach through the loop and pull up a bight.
Step 4. Place the working end of the rope (on the climbers left) through the
bight, and bring it back onto itself. Now dress the knot down.
Step 5. Form an overhand knot with the tail from the bight.
10-55
Bowline
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.28.5 Round Turn and Two Half Hitches. This knot is used to tie the end of a rope
to an anchor, and it must have constant tension. It is an anchor knot. (See Figure 10.38,
Round Turn and Two Half Hitches.)
10.7.28.5.1 Tying the Knot.
Step 1. Route the rope around the anchor from right to left and wrap down (must
have two wraps in the rear of the anchor, and one in the front). Run the loop around
the object to provide 360-degree contact, distributing the load over the anchor.
Step 2. Bring the working end of the rope left to right and over the standing part,
forming a half hitch (first half hitch).
Step 3. Repeat Step 2 (last half hitch has a 4-inch pigtail).
Step 4. Dress the knot down.
10-56
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.28.6 Figure Eight (Retraced Figure Eight). The Figure Eight retrace knot
produces the same result as a Figure Eight loop. However, by tying the knot in a retrace, it
can be used to fasten the rope to trees or to places where the loop cannot be used. It is also
called a rerouted Figure Eight and is an anchor knot. (See Figure 10.39, Figure Eight
[Retraced Figure Eight].)
10.7.28.6.1 Tying the Knot.
Step 1. Use a length of rope long enough to go around the anchor, leaving
enough rope to work with.
Step 2. Tie a Figure Eight knot in the standing part of the rope, leaving enough
rope to go around the anchor. To tie a Figure Eight knot form a loop in the rope,
wrap the working end around the standing part and route the working end through
the loop. The finished knot is dressed loosely.
Step 3. Take the working end around the anchor point.
Step 4. With the working end, insert the rope back through the loop of the knot in
reverse.
Step 5. Keep the original Figure Eight as the outside rope and retrace the knot
around the wrap and back to the long-standing part.
Step 6. Remove all unnecessary twists and crossovers; dress the knot down.
10-57
UNCLASSIFIED
10-58
Butterfly Knot
UNCLASSIFIED
10-59
10.7.28.8 Directional Figure Eight. The directional Figure Eight knot forms a single,
fixed loop in the middle of the rope that lays back along the standing part of the rope. It is
a middle rope knot. (See Figure 10.41, Directional Figure Eight.)
Figure 10.41 Directional Figure Eight.
UNCLASSIFIED
10-60
Bowline-on-a-Bite
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.28.9.1 Tying the Knot.
Step 1. Form a bight in the rope about twice as long as the finished loops will
be.
Step 2. Tie an overhand knot on a bight.
Step 3. Hold the overhand knot in the left hand so that the bight is running down
and outward.
Step 4. Grasp the bight with the right hand; fold it back over the overhand knot
so that the overhand knot goes through the bight.
10-61
Step 5. From the end (apex) of the bight, follow the bight back to where it forms
the cross in the overhand knot. Grasp the two ropes that run down and outward and
pull up, forming two loops.
Step 6. Pull the two ropes out of the overhand knot and dress the knot down.
Step 7. A final dress is required: grasp the ends of the two fixed loops and pull,
spreading them apart to ensure the loops do not slip.
10.7.28.10 Two-Loop Figure Eight. The two-loop Figure Eight is used to form two fixed
loops in the middle of a rope. It is a middle rope knot. (See Figure 10.43, Two-Loop
Figure Eight.)
Figure 10.43 Two-Loop Figure Eight.
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.28.10.1 Tying the Knot.
Step 1. Using a doubled rope, form an 18-inch bight in the left hand with the
running end facing to the left.
Step 2. Grasp the bight with the right hand and make a 360-degree turn around
the standing end in a counterclockwise direction.
Step 3. With the working end, form another bight and place that bight through
the loop just formed in the left hand.
Step 4. Hold the bight with the left hand, and place the original bight (moving
toward the left hand) over the knot.
10-62
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.28.11.1 Tying the Knot.
Step 1. Form a bight in the rope about as large as the diameter of the desired
loop.
Step 2. With the bight as the working end, form a loop in rope (standing part).
Step 3. Wrap the working end around the standing part 360 degrees and feed the
working end through the loop. Dress the knot tightly.
10.7.28.12 Prusik Knot. The Prusik knot is used to put a moveable rope on a fixed rope
such as a Prusik ascent or a tightening system.
10.7.28.12.1 This knot can be tied as a middle or end of the rope Prusik. Static
accessory cord, braid on braid cord, or twisted cords may be used for Prusik loops.
Make absolutely sure that whichever type is used is strong enough for the intended
load and that it is small enough in diameter (relative to the standing line) and will have
enough friction to grab the standing line effectively. As a general rule, the Prusik loop
material diameter should be approximately 60 to 80 percent of the standing line
diameter. If the diameter is too small, the hitch will tend to be tight making it difficult
10-63
to move upward. On the other hand, if the diameter is too large, the hitch will not
tighten up enough to grip the standing line. In life supporting applications such as
rescue, recommend that two tandem triple wrap Prusik hitches be used. Use 8mm
Prusiks with 11mm rope and 9mm Prusiks with 12.5mm rope.
10.7.28.12.2 Tying the Knot.
10.7.28.12.2.1 Middle-of-the-Rope Prusik. The middle-of-the-rope Prusik knot
can be tied with a short rope to a long rope as follows:
Step 1. Double the short rope, forming a bight, with the working ends even.
Lay it over the long rope so that the closed end of the bight is 12 inches below
the long rope and the remaining part of the rope (working ends) is the closest to
the climber; spread the working end apart.
Step 2. Reach down through the 12-inch bight. Pull up both of the working
ends and lay them over the long rope. Repeat this process making sure that the
working ends pass in the middle of the first two wraps. Now there are four
wraps and a locking bar working across them on the long rope.
Step 3. Dress the wraps and locking bar down to ensure they are tight and not
twisted. Tying an overhand knot with both ropes will prevent the knot from
slipping during periods of variable tension.
(See Figure 10.45,
Middle-of-the-Rope Prusik.)
Figure 10.45 Middle-of-the-Rope Prisik
Middle-of-the-Rope Prusik
UNCLASSIFIED
10-64
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.28.14 Bowline-on-a-Coil. The bowline-on-a-coil is an expedient tie-in used by
climbers when a climbing harness is not available. It is a specialty knot.
10.7.28.14.1 Tying the Knot.
Step 1. With the running end, place 3 feet of rope over your right shoulder. The
running end is to the back of the body.
10-65
Step 2. Starting at the bottom of your rib cage, wrap the standing part of the rope
around your body and down in a clockwise direction four to eight times.
Step 3. With the standing portion of the rope in your left hand, make a clockwise
loop toward the body. The standing portion is on the bottom.
Step 4. Ensuring the loop does not come uncrossed, bring it up and under the
coils between the rope and your body.
Step 5. Using the standing part, bring a bight up through the loop. Grasp the
running end of the rope with the right hand. Pass it through the bight from right to
left and back on itself.
Step 6. Holding the bight loosely, dress the knot down by pulling on the
standing end.
Step 7. Safety the bowline with an overhand around the top, single coil. Then,
tie an overhand around all coils, leaving a minimum 4 inch pigtail.
10.7.28.15 Checkpoints. (See Figure 10.47, Bowline-on-a-Coil.)
A minimum of four wraps, not crossed, with a bight held in place by a loop.
The loop must be underneath all wraps.
A minimum 4 inch pigtail after the second overhand safety is tied.
Must be centered on the mid-line of the body.
Figure 10.47 Bowline-on-a-Coil.
Bowline-on-a-Coil
UNCLASSIFIED
10-66
Frost Knot
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.28.17 Munter Hitch. The munter hitch, when used in conjunction with a
pear-shaped locking carabiner, is used to form a mechanical belay. (See Figure 10.49,
Munter Hitch.)
10.7.28.17.1 Tying the Knot.
Step 1. Hold the rope in both hands, palms down about 12 inches apart.
Step 2. With the right hand, form a loop away from the body toward the left
hand. Hold the loop with the left hand.
Step 3. With the right hand, place the rope that comes from the bottom of the
loop over the top of the loop.
Step 4. Place the bight that has just been formed around the rope into the pear
shaped carabiner. Lock the locking mechanism.
10-67
Munter Hitch
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.28.17.2 Check Points.
A bight passes through the carabiner, with the closed end around the standing or
running part of the rope.
The carabiner is locked.
10.7.29 Anchor Choices.
10.7.29.1 As the interior angle (A) increases, the force on the web (T1), and in example 2,
the anchor points (T2) increases. Load L1 is a typical rescuer plus equipment of 220
pounds (100kg). Load L2 is the NATRS consensus standard rescue test load of 440
pounds (200kg). (See Table 10.13, Angle Calculations.)
10.7.29.2 The bottom line here is to keep the interior angle to an absolute minimum, while
still using enough anchor points to keep the system safe. The following diagram depicts
another way of visualizing load forces on the angles created through multiple anchor
rigging.
10-68
Multiplier
0.5
0.493
0.985
30
0.5
0.511
1.020
45
0.5
0.533
1.066
60
0.6
0.569
1.137
90
0.7
0.699
1.393
120
1.0
0.985
1.970
135
1.3
1.286
2.574
150
1.9
1.905
3.806
175
11.5
11.304
22.582
180
8.0
8.000
8.000
10-69
UNCLASSIFIED
10-70
Two-Point Distribution
UNCLASSIFIED
10-71
No deviation in mainline
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.29.3.6 With the exception of rock gear, a minimum of two anchor leads should be
concentrated into one anchor focal point. For rock gear, four anchor leads should be
used due to the strength of the wire and likelihood that the rock itself might fail.
10.7.29.3.7 This concentration of the anchor points, defined as load sharing, is the
center of all forces, and has leads of fixed lengths. The front of a rigging plate can also
be tied into the anchors.
10.7.29.3.8 The concept of a load distributing anchor, inappropriately referred to as a
self equalizing anchor can be built using a variety of materials and techniques.
Several examples are shown, but the bottom line here is that all anchors must be
reliable, pretensioned with back ties if necessary, and double checked.
10.7.29.3.9 The same type of methodology needs to be used for the belay line as for
the main line. Keep this in mind when inventorying equipment.
10.7.29.3.10 After the patient or load has been located the rigging team should look
for a location that is as flat as possible and free from tripping hazards. If directional
pulleys are to be used, they should be prepositioned.
10.7.29.3.11 Later in this section typical anchor/mainline/belay line configuration will
be discussed. Included in the calculations for the working area should be adequate
space for anchor focal points.
10-72
UNCLASSIFIED
10-73
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.55 Standard Anchor Focal Point for a Mainline Lowering Package.
Mainline Anchor
Point
Mainline
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10-74
Interlaced Webbing
Focal Point
Load
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.57 Pretensioned Front-Tie.
Load
3:1 MA
Anchor
UNCLASSIFIED
10-75
Edge Protection
UNCLASSIFIED
10-76
UNCLASSIFIED
10-77
System Overview
Type, number, condition, and placement of anchor device
Type, condition, and placement of carabiner
The rope end section which goes
to either another person or load
Improper procedures, and/or
complacency, inexperience,
as well as no or little margin
of safety, and a row of other
unhealthy applications.......
ROPE-OVER-EDGE-PROBLEMS:
If all other "chains" in the entire
rope system are alright, this is
usually the WEAKEST POINT.
Most stress is excerted where
rope runs over corners and edges!
Features of
anchor host
Angle of rope turn
ROPE:
Wrong type, wrong diameter,
damaged, overaged, weak, and
used improperly/overloaded
ESPECIALLY DANGEROUS
DURING RAPPELING OR
JUMAR-ASCENDING WHEN
ROPE IS RUBBED WHERE
IT RUNS OVER EDGES!
BODY HARNESS:
Inadequate type,
weak, damaged,
not properly done,
not intergrated
UNCLASSIFIED
10-78
10-79
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.29.11 An excellent checklist format for sizing the system can be found in the
Technical Rescue Riggers Guide.
10.7.29.12 The knot bypass system for a mainline lowering package consists of a
five-step process: (See Figure 10.62, Knot Bypass Lower.)
Knot approaches to within 1 to 2 feet of the brakebar.
Tension is applied to the LRH until the Prusik grabs and assumes the load.
The brakebar is slack and the knot is passed around the brakebar.
10-80
Anchor
1)
Anchor
Anchor
2)
Anchor
4)
3)
Anchor
5)
6)
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.63 Knot Bypass Raise.
1)
Anchor
4)
UNCLASSIFIED
Anchor
Anchor
3)
2)
Anchor
5)
10-81
Edge Line
Safety line for
monitoring edge
and beyond
Belay Line
Line
Belay
Edge Transition
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.30.1 High-angle rescue consists of many elements such as rope, hardware, and
anchors all working together as a system. Just as a chain is only as strong as its weakest
link, the high-angle system is only as effective as its weakest link.
10.7.30.2 For example, if the system uses a mainline rope that has a test strength of 40 kN
but is attached to an anchor that pulls out at 2.2 kN, the strength of the entire system is only
2.2 kN.
10.7.30.3 Study the strengths of the component pieces of equipment carefully and learn
how to best engineer them so as to maximize their strength in regard to the overall system.
10.7.30.4 The mainline is the primary attachment for the patient and stokes litter. The
main line focal point in a rescue system should be between seven and ten meters from the
edge. This will allow adequate space for the belay sequence to occur yet not consume
excess rope and anchor material.
10.7.30.5 Control person should also be able to observe the mainline crew.
10.7.30.6 The photo below (Figure 10.65, Tying a Brake Rack) shows the proper
technique for tying off the brake rack.
10.7.30.7 The belay line should be the strongest line in the system in the event it has to
endure dynamic loading.
10-82
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.30.8 The belay line focal point in a rescue system should be between 3 and 5 meters
from the edge.
10.7.30.9 This will allow adequate space for the attendant and edge transition team to
prepare the litter and attendant for descent, as well as recover the litter during a raise.
10.7.30.10 The edge line in a rescue system should be secured to a separate anchor from
the main or belay line. (See Figure 10.66, Edge Lines.)
10.7.30.11 They are solely for the edgemen to safely observe the litter attendant, assist
with vectoring duties, or while initially laying ropes and anchors.
10.7.30.12 The following figures demonstrate the proper use of safety lines by edge and
control. (See Figure 10.67, Edge Attendant Tie-In; Figure 10.68, Cliff Rescue Example;
and Figure 10.69, Effective Rope Management by Edge Personnel.)
10-83
Edge Lines
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.67 Edge Attendant Tie-In.
Figure 8 on a bight.
Safety end
UNCLASSIFIED
10-84
Leader and
belayer on
safetyline
Bombproof
Main Anchor
System
Arriving member
of the mule team
McSmart,
reporter
UNCLASSIFIED
10-85
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.30.13 Belaying Techniques.
10.7.30.13.1 A belay is a method of protection against a fall by handling a tensionless
rope in such a manner that it may be taken in or let out as another person climbs,
rappels or ascends a fixed rope or is raised, lowered or transported, yet be secure to
hold this load in case of failure of the main support.
10.7.30.13.2 The following table (Table 10.14, Types of Belays) outlines several types
of belays.
Table 10.14 Types of Belays.
The Belay Is
Managed by others
A Totally Separate
Tensionless Rope
Belay
10-86
10-87
Load
UNCLASSIFIED
10-88
UNCLASSIFIED
10-89
Load
Belay Line
Loading sequence for a
Prusik Minding Pulley (PMP)
1) Spine 2) Long 3)Short 4) Pulley
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.73 Belay Package Raise.
Load
Belay Line
Loading sequence for a
Prusik Minding Pulley (PMP)
1) Spine 2) Long 3)Short 4) Pulley
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10-90
UNCLASSIFIED
10-91
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.76 Litter Evacs Litter Evacuation Techniques.
Litter Evacuations
UNCLASSIFIED
10-92
Pulled With
Average Force kN
0.74
Gloved hand-over-hand
0.69
0.92
0.77
0.62
1.44
Gloved hand-over-hand
0.83
1.61
Harness, front
1.47
1.98
Gloved hand-over-hand
1.48
Harness, front
1.86
2.61
Gloved hand-over-hand
2.28
3.18
10.7.30.17.3 The optimum system will be the one that requires the least amount of
effort to safely raise the load with the minimum amount of equipment in the shortest
time.
10.7.30.17.4 Simple pulley systems are preferred especially when working at altitude
or extreme cold. This will aid in preventing the rescuers from incorrectly building a
system that may not fall within a 10:1 safety factor.
10.7.30.17.5 Lowering Systems.
10.7.30.17.5.1 Low Angle, High Angle, Single Attendant, and Multiple
Attendants.
10.7.30.17.5.2
10-93
Litter Rigging
Attendant's Harness
Patient's Harness
Interlocking bowlines
with dual locking "D"
carabiners
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.30.17.5.2.5 Either dual locking D carabiners or a tri-link is used to join
the interlocking long-tail bowlines and the litter harness.
10.7.30.17.5.2.6 The attendant needs to wear a sit and chest harness; one that
fits comfortably as he may have to endure long periods of suspension below a
litter.
10.7.30.17.5.2.7 A loop connecting the sit harness to chest harness ballows for
flexion of the attendants spine and hips allowing for greater ease in
manipulating the litter. (See Figure 10.80, Attendants Sit/Chest Harness
Configuration.)
10-94
Figure 10.78 Interlocking Long-Tail Bowlines and Bowlines with Carabiners for Harness.
Belay line
Mainline
A Tri-link can also be used
to reduce congestion at this
junction
Interlocked long
tail bowlines
Attendant
Patient
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.30.17.5.2.8 Use high directional anchors whenever possible. (See Figure
10.81, Mainline Package, Lower.)
10.7.30.17.5.2.9 Have a load releasing hitch configured and ready to be
attached in the event of a knot bypass or other obstruction.
10.7.30.17.5.2.10 Mainline person should face the brake rack and be positioned
at the rope end, not the anchor end.
10.7.30.17.5.2.11 Brake rack should always be locked off before performing
any other duties. (See Figure 10.82, Brake Rack Set-Up.)
10.7.30.17.5.2.12 With double pulleys paired up, a 4:1 mechanical advantage
system (personal jigger) can be easily constructed.
10.7.30.17.5.2.13 One or both of the two pulleys must have a connection
becket below the sheave for connecting the end of the haul rope. (See Figure
10.83, Jigger Set-up.)
10.7.30.17.5.2.14 This is a system set up with a short length of rope that is used
for making small movements to a load, which might be a stretcher, a fallen
person awaiting rescue, or the rescuer. It is becoming standard practice to use
not one but two jiggers on a rescue stretcher. (See Figure 10.84, Prusik Sling
Holding the Load on a Jigger Pulley.)
UNCLASSIFIED
10-95
10-96
UNCLASSIFIED
10-97
Main
Line
Belay Line
Attendant
Edge
Control
Edge
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.82 Brake Rack SetUp.
ain
Lin
Anchor
UNCLASSIFIED
10-98
Jigger Setup
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.84 Prusik Sling Holding the Load on a Jigger Pulley.
UNCLASSIFIED
10-99
10.7.30.17.5.2.15 One is attached to the head of the stretcher and controls the
tilt, while the other forms the rescuers attachment, to enable easy freedom of
movement.
10.7.30.17.5.2.16 With this type of system, the attendant straddles the litter
until the edge transition is complete. The two Edgemen will carry the litter
package as close to the edge as possible. (See Figure 10.85, Harness
Configuration for Vertical Litter; Figure 10.86, Vertical Litter, Single
Attendant; and Figure 10.87, Attendant Prepares to Transition Edge with
Vertical Litter.)
10.7.30.17.5.2.17 The litter should be lowered to a point approximately 2 to 3
meters below the edge. At this time, the attendant slackens the jigger system
and lowers himself to the foot of the litter. This allows maximum control and
ability in redirecting around terrain. The following pictures show the sequence
of events. (See Figure 10.88, Patient is Secured to Litter Prior to Attendant
Moving Into Position; Figure 10.89, Lowering Sequence; and Figure 10.90,
Lowering Sequence Part II.)
10.7.30.17.5.2.18 The mainline configuration for operation is the same as the
horizontal litter technique.
10.7.30.17.5.3 Horizontal Litter, Single Attendant. (See Figure 10.91,
Horizontal Litter.)
10.7.30.17.5.3.1 The attendant is attached to the interlocking longtail bowlines
by means of a Barrelman. This allows flexibility to move up or down in
relation to the litter. The attendant can then also climb on top in the event of on
overhang or to provide medical treatment, if required.
10.7.30.17.5.3.2 The minimum number of members on the team is four:
mainline, belay, attendant, and edge (may have to double as control).
10.7.30.17.5.3.3 Raising Systems.
10.7.30.17.5.3.3.1 All mainline raises are based on proper selection of the
appropriate mechanical advantage.
10.7.30.17.5.3.3.2 Use the smallest and most efficient mechanical
advantage pulley system possible. This reduces the likelihood of
over-engineering and inducing system errors. Before constructing a
mainline raise, the amount of force the system will endure needs to be
calculated. As mentioned earlier it is imperative the team leader avoid a
cookbook solution such as a 3:1 MA as this may not be adequate to raise
the load if only a few individuals are available on the haul team.
10-100
UNCLASSIFIED
10-101
UNCLASSIFIED
10-102
UNCLASSIFIED
UNCLASSIFIED
10-103
10-104
Lowering Sequence
UNCLASSIFIED
10-105
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.91 Horizontal Litter.
Horizontal Litter
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10-106
Figure 10.92 Haul Team Prepares to Raise the Load While Control Communicates with the
Attendant.
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.30.17.5.3.3.1 The steps to follow when transitioning from a lower to a
raise are as follows:
Mainline is tied off to the lowering device.
9mm Prusik is set in place to hold the mainline.
Pre-rigged MA is now attached to mainline.
Haul team is in place.
Prusik is released as haul team begins the raise.
Prusik is set as a progress capture while MA is reset.
10-107
Pickoff
UNCLASSIFIED
10-108
10-109
Aztek Setup
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.30.17.5.3.13 The rescuer is lowered to approximately the same level as
the subject. A Prusik is then used to attach the subject to the mainline/belay
lines using 2 Prusik loops (6 to 7mm perlon, 45cm or 18 inches tied length).
These may be attached at the top before beginning the lower.
10.7.30.17.5.3.14 If the subject is wearing a chest harness, clip into both the
chest harness and waist harness using standard locking carabiners. It may be
possible to place a chest harness on the subject depending on their physical
condition. The use of both the chest and waist harness allows the subject to
hang at a much better angle. If the descent is to be short it may not be
warranted.
10.7.30.17.5.3.15 The rescuer then uses a Purcell Prusik attached to the
mainline (either should be attached below the subjects attachment points) to
reach up and triple wrap a Prusik around both the mainline and the subjects
rope. This will be the clamp. The rescuer will then attach the ratchet end of
the small haul system first to the clamp Prusik, and then the other end to the
subjects harness.
NOTE: The haul must be attached at the same point as the climbers rope is attached to be
effective.
10-110
10-111
Buddy Rappel
UNCLASSIFIED
10-112
UNCLASSIFIED
10-113
Tag Line
Tag Line
To Litter/Attendant
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.30.17.5.4.1.1 The two tag lines are attached to the pulley with
triple-wrapped Prusiks and a Figure Eight. The figure below illustrates the
rigging. The pulley should be a Kootenay pulley with three holes to attach
the stretcher and the two tag lines or a two-inch pulley with a rigging ring
or plate clipped into the pulley with a locking carabiner. Each tag line must
be secured like a belay line. A person on each end must operate the belay
system in complete coordination with each other to make sure that there is
never any slack in either tag line.
10.7.30.17.5.4.1.2 There are several other applications for the Kootenay
carriage system.
10.7.30.17.5.4.1.3 These include double drooping highline, English Reeve,
and the Norwegian Reeve.
10.7.30.17.5.4.1.4 Each of these utilizes several common pieces of
equipment to get the litter and attendant either across an expanse or up and
over the same.
10.7.30.17.5.4.1.5 Rigging for rescue has tested a variety of systems and
proven conclusively that ailing to use tag lines on both sides will result in
certain death in the event of a mainline failure. The following systems are
explained along with the rigging requirements for each.
10-114
10-115
English Reeve
UNCLASSIFIED
10-116
Norwegian Reeve
UNCLASSIFIED
10.7.30.17.5.5.1.1 Assess the Need for Additional Resources. The recon
sector should provide command with enough information or recommend
the need for additional resources. Information that will be helpful in
determining the need for additional resources would include: number of
victims, location and condition of victims, estimated angle of terrain,
distance to victim, and estimated time of extraction. Command should put
in an early call for additional resources.
10.7.30.17.5.5.1.2 Assess the Hazards. Identify all potential hazards to
rescuers.
10.7.30.17.5.5.1.3 Decide on Rescue or Recovery. The recon sector
should advise command whether the operation will be conducted in the
rescue or recovery mode. In the rescue mode personnel assigned to the
recon sector will be reassigned to the treatment sector and recon sector will
be terminated. If the operation is to be conducted in the recovery mode,
command may wish to leave the victim and any related equipment in place
for investigative purposes.
10.7.30.17.5.5.1.4 Decide on an Action Plan. With a recommendation
from the treatment sector, command will have to decide on an action plan.
The extrication sector and safety sector shall be made aware of the specific
action plan.
10-117
10-118
10.7.31 Equipment Lists. (See Figure 10.100, Accessory KitIndividual; Figure 10.101,
Tubular Nylon Color Codes; and Table 10.16, Harness Testing for further guidance.)
10-119
Accessory KitIndividual
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.101 Tubular Nylon Color Codes.
UNCLASSIFIED
10-120
Full-Body Harness
Number of Tests
13
13
Range (minutes)
13
Median (minutes)
0.35 to 4.76
5.08 to 30.12
0.62 to 13.13
Mean (minutes)
1.32 to 14.23
5.30
1.25
3.35
Standard deviation
Type of Decision
Chest Harness
Full-Body
Medical
11
Voluntary
10
10.7.31.1 Personal.
10.7.31.1.1 On Harness (Sit/Chest Harness Combination).
Prusik minding pulley, two small.
Ascending device.
Ice screws, two.
Sewn slings (2 x 60cm and 2 x 120cm).
Rappel device (not Figure Eight).
Carabiners, four to six non-locking, 6 locking.
Tandem Prusiks (Purcells)8mm: one is 1.65m and one is 1.35m untied (the
avalanche probe has centimeters on it100cm = 1m).
2 to 7mm Prusiks each 1.35m untied.
Third tool (hammer).
Snow picket (two minimum).
Ski pack.
Beacon/probe/shovel crampons.
Glacier glasses head lamp.
Ice axe snow saw.
Snow shoes.
Surveyors tape (recommended).
Trail wands (optional).
Compass and GPS.
Helmet: adjustable to fit over knit hat.
10-121
10-122
Definition
A body of permanent ice slowly flowing downhill under the pull of gravity.
Not to be confused with a snowfield which is a body of snow that does not
move.
Abalation Zone Where more snow melts than falls. (See Figure 10.104, Abalation Zone.)
Accumulation
Zone
Where more snow falls than melts. (See Figure 10.105, Accumulation Zone.)
Bergschrund
The crack that develops at the base of steeper slopes, separating the moving ice
from the stationary ice higher up. These do not follow the 200 foot rule of
crevasses and will seem to drop infinitely. (See Figure 10.106, Bergschrund.)
Cornice
A build-up of snow on ridge crests, overhanging on the leeward side and created
by the wind. (See Figure 10.107, Cornice.)
Couloir
A natural concave groove between steeper walls of rock; usually wider than a
gully. (See Figure 10.108, Couloir.)
Crevasse
A crack in the glacier, sometimes hidden by snow cover. Can go as deep as 150
to 200 feet. Crevasses are formed in predictable areas on the glacier called
zones of tension. (See Figure 10.109, Crevasse.)
Moraines
Rock and debris areas on the glacier, will be labeled lateral, medial, and
terminal moraines. (See Figure 10.110, Moraines.)
Moulins
Serac
A tower or block of ice that is separated from the mass. One of a mountaineers
greatest hazards. (See Figure 10.111, Hanging Glacier.)
Snowbridge
Toe
10-123
Glacier Terminology
Lateral
Crevasses
Radial
Crevasses
Lateral
Moraine
Ice
Fall
Medial
Moraines
Firn
Zone
Exposed
Ice
Below
Fern Line
UNCLASSIFIED
10-124
Glacier
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.104 Abalation Zone.
Ablation Zone
UNCLASSIFIED
10-125
Accumulation Zone
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.106 Bergschrund.
Bergschrund
UNCLASSIFIED
10-126
Cornice
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.108 Couloir.
Coulior
UNCLASSIFIED
10-127
Crevasse
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.110 Moraines.
Moraines
UNCLASSIFIED
10-128
Hanging Glacier
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.112 Snow Covered Crevasse Field.
UNCLASSIFIED
10-129
UNCLASSIFIED
10.8.5 Avalanche Terms.
10.8.6 Runout Angle. The angle, measured from horizontal, between the toe of the
avalanche and the crown. Also called the alpha angle.
10.8.7 Settling, Settlement. The slow deformation and densification of snow under the
influence of gravity. Sometimes settling is incorrectly used to describe collapsing or
whoomphing snow.
10.8.8 Slope Cut. Moving rapidly across an avalanche starting zone, aiming at safe terrain
on the side, so that if an avalanche breaks, your momentum will carry you off the moving slab
onto safe terrain. Skiers call them ski cuts.
10.8.9 Sympathetic Trigger. One avalanche triggers another avalanche some distance away.
10.8.10 Terrain Trap. Terrain in which consequences of an avalanche are especially
hazardous. Common terrain traps include gullies, an abrupt transition, or an avalanche path
that terminates in trees, crevasse field, or cliff.
10.8.11 Trigger. A disturbance that initiates fractures within the weak layer, allowing the
slab to slide off the slope. In 90 percent of avalanche accidents, the victim or someone in the
victims party triggers the avalanche. Other triggers include new snow, cornice falls, wind,
rapid warming, or percolated water. Avalanches are not triggered by noise.
10-130
Definition
Anchors
Aspect
The direction the slope faces with respect to sun and wind. For
instance a slope may be north-facing, or it may be a leeward slope.
Beacon
Bed Surface
Collapsing
Continental Climate
The snow climate found in mountains far from the influence of the
oceans weather. Characterized by thin snowpacks, cold
temperatures, and more persistently unstable snowpack.
Grid Search
Intermountain Climate
Leeward
Maritime Climate
The snow climate near the oceans. Characterized by deep snow and
warm temperatures.
Remote Trigger
Probe
Runout
10.8.12 Weak Layer. A relatively less cohesive layer of snow underlying a relatively more
cohesive layer of snow. In a slab avalanche, the weak layer fractures, allowing the overlying
slab to slide of the slope.
10.8.13 Whoompf. Snowpack collapsing on a buried weak layer; an obvious sign of
instability.
10.8.14 Wind Loading. Loading of weight on top of a snowpack when wind drifts snow
onto lee terrain. Wind can deposit snow ten times more rapidly than snow falling from clouds.
Wind loading is a common denominator in most avalanche accidents.
10-131
10.8.15 Windward. The upwind slope of an obstacle such as a ridge. Usually snow is
eroded from the windward slopes making them relatively safer. (See Figure 10.114 through
Figure 10.116, Avalanche Sequence Parts I, II, III.)
Figure 10.114 Avalanche Sequence Part (1 of 3).
Avalanche Sequence (1 of 3)
UNCLASSIFIED
10-132
Avalanche Sequence (2 of 3)
UNCLASSIFIED
10-133
Avalanche Sequence (3 of 3)
UNCLASSIFIED
10-134
Bone
Improper
Proper
UNCLASSIFIED
10.8.16.1.2 Care should be taken when selecting a harness. The harness should have
broad webbing or fabric, while its waistband cinches just above the climbers hipbones.
This will support the climber with a high center of gravity. It is recommended that the
operator try it on with a backpack to insure a comfortable fit for traveling. Weight is
also a factor in selecting a harness for glacier travel.
10.8.16.2 Chest Harness.
10.8.16.2.1 Along with the sit harness, the traveler should wear a chest harness. The
use of the chest harness will keep the fallen climber upright while hanging in a
crevasse.
10.8.16.2.2 Chest harnesses can either be purchased or made with tubular nylon.
10.8.16.2.3 A chest harness can be as simple or complex as the climber wants. The
only thing that is important is that the harness is adjustable.
10-135
10-136
10-137
10.8.17.10 The mountain coil is a style that most climbers are familiar with. It may be
either worn on the climber or stowed in the back pack.
10.8.17.11 The climber or team leader determines how the rope will be coiled and carried.
10.8.17.12 Quartering the Rope. Depending on the climbing team configuration, the
rope will need to be divided equally. This is extremely important when traveling in a team
of two.
10.8.17.13 To divide the rope into three equal parts follow these steps:
Step 1. Back-coil the rope finding both ends.
Step 2. Climbers will stand facing one another, each with a separate end of the rope
inhand.
Step 3. One climber than will reach across to the other climbers rope, grasping the
rope below the other climbers hand. A carabiner can be used for this.
Step 4. One climbers will now back away from one another while maintaining their
end and letting the section they grabbed move trough their hand or carabiner.
Step 5. Once the rope is stretched the climber will then tie into the rope and coil up
the slack between him and the running end.
10.8.17.14 For a Party of Three:
Step 1. Back coil the rope finding the center.
Step 2. Tie a knot into the rope
Step 3. Back coil the opposing ends
Step 4. Determine the amount of coils needed to take in and coil the rope.
Step 5. The end climbers will then tie into the rope. For some methods of coils the
end climber must first tie into the rope than coil it. For example, the Kiwi coil requires
this.
10.8.17.15 For a party of four or more, follow the above steps. Try to space the additional
knots in the rope equally if traveling.
10.8.17.16 If a member of the team or a patient needs to be short roped, adjust the spacing
as required.
10.8.18 Tying into the System.
10.8.18.1 Now that the rope is divided as required the team must tie into it and prepare for
traveling.
10.8.18.2 There are several ways to tie into the rope. Every climber has a personal
preference for the type of knot to use but the main principles are the same. The first and
last climber will use a retraced Figure Eight of retraced over-hand knot tied directly into
their harness. The middle climbers will use a butterfly of middle of the line Figure Eight,
the butterfly being the preferred method.
10-138
10-139
10.8.19.2 Manufactured sleds are very sturdy but weigh a lot, where as, kiddie sleds are
light weight and work just as well even though they are not as sturdy as a manufactured
sled.
10.8.19.3 The sled can be tied into the system a couple of ways.
10.8.19.4 The first way is to tie it directly into the rope in between two climbers. This is
done by attaching the sled to the rope via two Prusik cords. One will be tied from the front
of the sled to the rope and the other from the back to the rope. This allows the sled to be
moved along the rope as needed. A disadvantage to this is that the sled may move on the
rope due to the Prusik slipping when no tension is applied to it.
10.8.19.5 The second way is to attach the sled to the climbers pack with cordellete. The
rope then would be ran through a carabiner on top of the sled and tied by a clove hitch in
the back. (See Figure 10.118, Traveling with a Sled.)
Figure 10.118 Traveling with a Sled
UNCLASSIFIED
10.8.19.6 This will prevent the sled from moving along the rope. The clove hitch in the
rear will also keep the sled from sliding forward in a fall and colliding with the climber.
10.8.19.7 For the last climber, the options are to not carry a sled or attach it to the pack.
In the event of a crevasse fall, the climb will have nothing to stop the sled from falling.
10.8.20 Tying in the Back-Pack.
10.8.20.1 Tying in the back pack is very important, especially if it is a large pack. The
pack can be rigged several ways.
10-140
10-141
UNCLASSIFIED
10-142
EXAMPLE: If the team is moving in a file while the crevasses are running parallel to the
direction of travel, there is a good chance the entire team is on a single snowbribge. If the bridge
was to give away, the result could be catastrophic.
10.8.25 Crossing Crevasses. Crossing a crevasse requires the team to effectively
communicate and manage the rope properly. Depending on the size and conditions of the
snowbridge, there are a several ways to cross. (See Figure 10.120, Crossing the Crevasse.)
10.8.25.1 The first way is to simply keep the rope taught and the team continues to move
over the bridge.
10.8.25.2 The second way is to have team stop and belay one another across.
10.8.25.3 The final and most time consuming yet safest way is to set a picket and belay
the first climber across the bridge. Once safely across, the climber will set another picket
and belay the middle man across. Once the middle man is across, he will belay the next or
final climber across the snowbridge.
10.8.25.4 If a crevasse is too big to cross or the snowbridge is not study enough, the
climbing team may have to find the end run of the hole and go around. This is done by
probing along the edge until an area safe enough to cross is found.
10.8.25.5 Time of day is a important factor in deciding when to travel.
10.8.25.6 Late night or early morning is a very good time to travel on a glacier. It is colder
during this time of day and the snowbridges have had time to reconsolidate becoming
stronger.
10.8.25.7 Late afternoon early evening is not the safest time to travel since the
temperature usually rise and the bridges begin to melt making them weaker.
10.8.25.8 If the temperature has remained constant, than the team can decide which is the
best time to move due to mission requirements.
10.8.25.9 Temperature plays a big role in deciding when and how to travel. Too cold can
be just as bad as too hot.
10.8.25.10 Many considerations revolve around towing the sled. Several of the
considerations are the weight of the sled, number of sleds, whether the sleds are attached
while traveling, and terrain covered.
10-143
Rope secured
to harness,
swami, or
coil A/W
Probing with
ice axe
Hidden
Crevasse
UNCLASSIFIED
About 50 ft distance
Keep rope off snow
Axe ready
for selfarrest
Axe ready
for selfarrest
Extra
length
of
rope
Rope
secured
10-144
EXAMPLE: The team is descending a steep buttress and the first person on the rope has the sled.
The second climber is maintaining space so that the sled does not slide up into the partners legs
causing the partner to trip or be pulled off balance.
10.8.25.16 Escape Techniques and Procedures.
10.8.25.16.1 The crevasse fall can be as simple as one leg falling through a
snowbridge to a dynamic fall resulting from a complete failure of the bridge. With
proper rope management and traveling techniques, the risks can be greatly mitigated.
In theory, as the team moves across a crevasse and a climber punches through the
teammates will arrest the climbers fall using an ice axe arrest.
10.8.25.16.2 Once the fall is stopped, the team will communicate if the fallen climber
can ascend without the help if assistance is needed.
10.8.25.16.3 Once a fall has been arrested, the team needs to set an anchor.
10.8.25.16.4 Once the anchor is in place, the team needs to ensure good
communication.
10.8.25.16.5 If able, the climber will begin to escape the crevasse.
10.8.25.16.6 There are several ways the climber can ascend. The climber may does
this by using the Purcell Prusik set up discussed in the previous section or use
mechanical ascenders. There are other numerous ways to ascend but the discussed
methods have been proven the quickest and most effective means of ascension.
10.8.25.16.7 Once ascension has begun, the climber must be prepared to cross the lip
of the crevasse. This can be very difficult due to the fact that the rope cuts into the
snow. The team above can help by protecting the edge with an ice axe or other pieces
of gear.
10.8.25.16.8 The following graphics depict glacier travel, a crevasse fall, and escape.
(See Figure 10.121, Step 1 through Figure 10.130, Step 10.)
10-145
Step 1
Throwing loops
away and falling
into proper arrest position
Hand carried loops
allows belayers to
assume self-arest
"FALLING!"
UNCLASSIFIED
10-146
Step 2
Toes dug in
Stay cool,
calm and collected
Pick in snow
and at shoulder
heigth --Body weight on
top of axe handle
UNCLASSIFIED
10-147
Step 3
Stays in an
arrest-position
until last man
signals: "ON BELAY"
"ON BELAY"
or
"BELAY ON"
UNCLASSIFIED
10-148
Step 4
Snow picket
anchors
2nd man gets
gets his feet dug
into snow, belays
temporarily, gets
Z-system ready
Dig a good
butress for
anchoring feet
Axe to keep
rope from
cutting into
snow/ice
UNCLASSIFIED
2nd man's
figure-8
knot
Prusik on rope
Snow picket
or ski pole, etc.,
to secure the axe
When pickets in
place, gradually release
tension on rope to see
if pickets hold
10-149
Step 5
Party Rope
Rescue rope
Frozen in
UNCLASSIFIED
10-150
Step 6
Pullys
or
biners
Pully
or
carabiner
ll
Pu
Anchors
3 carabiners
Figure-8 knot
Biner
Short Sling
lac
s
ets
er
ast
ling
ty S
e
Saf
Prusiks
Carabiners
Hauling
Prusik
Push Prusik when
needed to hold rope
sh
pu
Line
already
hauled up
Master Safety
Prusik
1 to 5 Z-Pully System
UNCLASSIFIED
10-151
Step 7
Fallen
team mate
Direction
of
pull
Gibbs ascenders (2)
Carabiners (3)
Figure-8 knot
in Party Rope
Pullys (2)
pull
Pullys (2)
Party rope
Anchors (3)
UNCLASSIFIED
10-152
Step 8
Self-Rescue
(Prusiks must
be attached to
rope prior to
glacier operations)
Prusik System
Nose-Level
Through carabiner
Below
waist
Wrap
around
legs
UNCLASSIFIED
Extra
length
allows
for wrap
around
legs
10-153
Step 9
To initiate
self-rescue
Prusik Climb...
First prusik
to be raised
in
conjunction
with
UNCLASSIFIED
first leg
to be
raised
10-154
Step 10
prusik sling
to harness
Slide prusik
ahead of
jumar
UNCLASSIFIED
10-155
10-156
10.9.2 General Tactical Considerations. Confined space and collapsed structure rescue is
typically a complex and time consuming task. In peacetime, this type of rescue is demanding
enough without the considerations of a tactical or combat environment. Teams still must focus
and be as cautious, safe, and thorough as possiblea demanding endeavor when life is in the
balance, the area is not completely secure, or in the case of terrorist activities. Teams must be
cautious about dangerous residual materials or agents, UXOs, and secondary explosive
devices. Having NBC specialists and EOD present on-site to provide expertise, detection and
mitigation equipment is desirable. In the event a recovery of this type must take place in the
mist of hostilities, the rescue team will require a sizable security force with required support in
order to secure the site. Additionally, the operational site should be free from direct assault in
order to keep the structure as viable as possible during recovery or rescue activities, and the
team focused on rescue as opposed to defensive or offensive activities.
10.9.3 Confined Space Rescue. A confined space is defined as a space that is big enough to
bodily enter but is not meant for continuous human occupancy, and has limited means of entry
and escape. A confined space can exist by deliberate construction of a space or structure, or by
the result of collapsed structures or in nature such as a cave. In confined space, the primary
thing of concern is rescuer safety as in all rescue situations. A prevalent situation that seems
to arise from this type of rescue is rescuers and rescuers of disabled rescuers being
overwhelmed by fumes or gases that render them unconscious. This dangerous domino effect
only complicates the entire scenario by an exponential factor. (See Figure 10.131, Vertical
Confined Space Entry and Figure 10.132, Vertical Confined Space Post-Entry.)
WARNING: No PJ is to enter a confined space without a gas monitor on their person.
10.9.3.1 Hazard Identification. First, assess the scene and identify hazards. These can
be comprised of physical, chemical, electrical, munitions, and atmospheric hazards.
10.9.3.1.1 Atmospheric Conditions. The first thing a rescuer must do prior to
entering a confined space is to evaluate the atmosphere. Is the air safe to breathe? Is
there sufficient oxygen content? Is there an over abundance of oxygen? Is there the
presence of a combustible gas? Is the gas detectable by smell or by monitor
exclusively? It will be discussed mostly from the standpoint of combustible gases
being of explosive concern. The presence of combustible gases (even low levels) can
affect human occupancy resulting in everything from nausea to seizures and to
incapacitation and to unconsciousness. Hydrocarbons do not feed the human
respiratory system.
10-157
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.132 Vertical Confined Space Post-Entry.
UNCLASSIFIED
10-158
UNCLASSIFIED
10.9.3.1.2.1 The lower explosive level (LEL) is a minimal level at which a
concentration of combustible gas will readily explode or burn with a sufficient
ignition source. This area encompasses all hydrocarbons. Typically the default
level on a gas monitor is set at 10 percent and will provide a safe conservative level
of monitoring. This level can be changed but should only be done by a person
qualified to evaluate the conditions of monitoring in a particular environment.
Once a gas reaches the LEL of 100 percent, the probability of explosion with an
ignition source is a given. Theoretically the area between 0 and 99 percent is an
environment too lean to ignite.
10.9.3.1.2.2 The oxygen level (O2) indicates two things; if there is an adequate
supply of oxygen in the ambient air to support human occupancy and if there is an
over abundance of oxygen in the air. Remember at sea level, O2 content is 21
percent (79 percent nitrogen and other gases), O2 is fuel for combustion, and it
feeds fire. There is also the concern of oxygen toxicity in high O2 atmospheres for
10-159
10-160
WARNING: Open-flame lamps should not be used in confined spaces because of the possibility
of explosive conditions and the close proximity of other rescuers, survivors, combustible
materials, and loaded rope systems.
10.9.3.1.8 Ropes and Associated Rope, Belay, Climbing Hardware. Care,
maintenance, and inspection of all applicable equipment remain the same as with
regular climbing and mountaineering operations. Because a great number of confined
spaces are accessed from a top entry, the importance of an overhead anchor is
especially important when hauling litter patients and heavy objects. Since overhead
anchors are typically rare, the team should have a heavy-duty tripod available. (See
Figure 10.134, Anchor Tripod.)
10-161
Anchor Tripod
UNCLASSIFIED
10-162
10-163
Optional Equipment
Entry Tools
- Gas detector.
- Elbow/knee/skin pads.
- Avalanche/location beacon.
- Sledge hammers
10-164
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.136 Gas Powered Saws.
UNCLASSIFIED
10-165
Crash-Axe Extended
UNCLASSIFIED
10-166
UNCLASSIFIED
10.9.3.2.1 PJ Rescuer/Entrant Equipment Minimums.
Gas detector.
Head protection (ProTec helmet, climbing/mountaineering helmet).
Helmet light source (recommend halogen and LED combo light).
Secondary light sourcehelmet or handheld.
Leather work gloves (recommend leather reinforced Nomex).
Eye protection (fog free ballistic goggles or protective glasses (e.g., Oakley and
WileyX).
Climbing/body harness.
Ropes, nylon, spectra, climbing hardware, as required.
Dust mask, respirator, or self contained breathing apparatus (SCBA).
Radio.
Medical and patient packaging equipment, as required.
Extrication gear, as required.
10.9.3.2.2 Optional Equipment.
Elbow, knee, or shin pads.
10-167
10-168
10-169
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.140 Flex-Scope Camera System.
UNCLASSIFIED
10-170
UNCLASSIFIED
10.9.4.6.1 Mechanical Pipe Posts and Jacks: Used to shore overhead a side
bearing/trench loads. (See Figure 10.145, Mechanical Jack; Figure 10.146, Trench
For Jack 4 x 4 Placement; and Figure 10.147, Jack Supporting Cross Beam Members.)
10.9.4.6.2 Raker Shores: Used for stabilizing free-standing walls while rollers,
pipes, and wheels are used for moving extremely heavy objects. (See Figure 10.148,
Move Concrete Slab on Poles, and Figure 10.149 through Figure 10.151, Move
Concrete Slab Over Object.)
10.9.4.7 Forced Entry. It may be necessary to break through a level of building material
to get access to an adjacent area. The barrier may be as simple as a door or as hearty as a
slab of concrete wall or floor. Obviously, some barriers will necessitate looking for
alternative entry areas, as in the case of plate metal. Attempt the simplest method first. In
a display of efficiency and speed, a PJ team of six was able to crash through 6 double walls
of 2 x 4s, drywall, and wood paneling using only three sledgehammers and boots in
roughly 3 minutes. The following figures display entry into a reinforced concrete slab. One
entry was made using only a Haligan tool, sledgehammer, and saw with metal-cutting
blade. This entry took about 12 to 15 minutes. The other entry was made using a masonry
circular saw and took about 25 minutes. Choice of tools is based on quality and thickness
of the barrier material. (See Figure 10.152 through Figure 10.154, Concrete Entry 1, and
Figure 10.155 and Figure 10.156, Concrete Entry 2.)
10-171
T-Shore
UNCLASSIFIED
10-172
UNCLASSIFIED
10-173
UNCLASSIFIED
10-174
Mechanical Jack
UNCLASSIFIED
10-175
UNCLASSIFIED
10-176
UNCLASSIFIED
10-177
UNCLASSIFIED
10-178
UNCLASSIFIED
10-179
UNCLASSIFIED
10-180
UNCLASSIFIED
10-181
Concrete Entry 1 (1 of 3)
UNCLASSIFIED
10-182
Concrete Entry 1 (2 of 3)
UNCLASSIFIED
10-183
Concrete Entry 1 (3 of 3)
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.155 Concrete Entry 2 (1 of 2).
Concrete Entry 2 (1 of 2)
UNCLASSIFIED
10-184
Concrete Entry 2 (2 of 2)
UNCLASSIFIED
10.9.4.8 Clamp Meters. Clamp meters are handheld devices that wrap around power
lines. They have digital readouts that will provide the user with a variety of information
depending on the model. The information these units typically display activily state of the
line, type current (AC/DC), direction of current, amperage, voltage, resistance,
temperature, and frequency. This information is very useful when determining weather to
cut a line or if you are experiencing radio interference. (See Figure 10.157 Clamp Meters
and Figure 10.158, Clamp Meter.)
10.9.4.9 Cribbing and Shoring Materials and Equipment as Required: Wood lumber
and plywood: 6 x 6s, 4 x 4s, 2 x 4s, plywood/gusset plates, and nails to construct: t-shores,
vertical braced shores, laced post shores, horizontal shoes, and various raker shores.
Prefabricated: metal mechanical pipe shores and trench jacks, pneumatic shoring posts,
feet, brackets and extensions. Also, sandbags are a hot commodity.
10-185
Clamp Meters
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.158 Clamp Meter.
Clamp Meter
UNCLASSIFIED
10-186
10-187
UNCLASSIFIED
10-188
UNCLASSIFIED
10-189
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.162 Contents of Wheeled Equipment Sled.
UNCLASSIFIED
10-190
10-191
10.10.3.3.2 Haligan Tool/Crow-Bar. These tools can be used by itself for prying or
in tandem with a hammer of sledge for more power. (See Figure 10.138,
Miscellaneous Entry Tools.)
10.10.3.3.3 Sledge Hammer/Battering Rams/Axe. Provide kinetic power, and
cutting ability.
10.10.3.3.4 Straight Blade Battery Operated Saw. One of the best tools at a PJs
disposal is the simple 24-volt battery operated straight blade sawAKA saw-saw.
When fitted with a quality rescue blade, this tool will cut through most items twice as
fast a hydraulic jaws of life. It creates clean cuts of metal unlike the jaws which can
create sharp edges of shredded metal. Materials include a wide variety of steels, iron,
aluminum, and other alloys. Most metals used in vehicle and aircraft body
construction will not be a problem. Exceptions include hardened steels and alloys like
lock retension pins, locks, and plate armor. (See Figure 10.163, 24-Volt Straight Blade
Saw with Bag and Spare Batteries.)
Figure 10.163 24-Volt Straight Blade Saw with Bag and Spare Batteries.
UNCLASSIFIED
10.10.3.3.5 Pneumatic and Hydraulic Jaws/Rescue Combination Tool. These
devices cut and spread, and usually have a several head/cutter/spreader options; They
also have positional head adjustments and are easily operated by a single rescuer. They
come in various sizes and have various operating mechanisms. They can be either
pneumatic or hydraulic and some are operated by a hand pumping action, some with
battery attachment, and others with air or hydraulic line attachments. Their portability
10-192
UNCLASSIFIED
10.10.3.3.6 Chain-Saw. It is use is reserved to trees, bushes, lumber, and soft
construction materials (i.e., 2 x 4s, drywall). (See Figure 10.136, Gas Powered Saws.)
10.10.3.3.7 Shovel or Entrenching Tool. For clearing dirt and debris from under an
object, or digging trenches.
10-193
Powered Jaws
UNCLASSIFIED
10.10.3.3.8 Lift Bags. Are constructed of reinforced nylon reinforced rubberized
materials. They operate on a low-pressure system and depending on size and
construction, a single bag can lift from 1 ton, upwards of 20 tons and more. The bags
are inflated using gas-operated air generators, SCUBA cylinders, or foot pumps. The
SCUBA cylinders provide an excellent option because they provide a large volume of
air very quickly, can inflate the larger size bags 2 to 5 times, and are very portable.
Some of the newer tanks are constructed of Kevlar and or carbon fiber and are able to
hold higher pressures as well.
10.10.3.3.9 Lift Pads. Are constructed of reinforced rubberized materials. They
operate on a low pressure system as well and can be stacked on top of each other in
order to increase the lift distance. The pads are inflated using gas-operated air
generators or foot pumps. The pads can be laid on cribbing materials or sandwich
stacked between alternating layers of pads and cribbing to control direction and
distance of lift. (See Figure 10.166, Lift Pads with Foot Pump.)
10.10.3.3.10 Cribbing. Cribbing is used to secure a load once it is lifted to the desired
height. It can also be used to set alternating platforms for staged lifting of an object.
There are many different items that can be utilized as cribbing.
10.10.3.3.10.1 Pre-constructed cribbing is extremely strong and varies in dessign
from 15 to 30 degree wedges, to square block lenghts, to narrow step designed
blocks. They are constructed of many lightweight materials such plastics, Kevlar,
composites, and metal.
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UNCLASSIFIED
10.10.3.3.10.2 Various type of block and wedged wood is used: pieces of 6x6, 4x4,
2x2, railroad ties, and logs.
10.10.3.3.10.3 Sandbags are a great alternative to minimizing your kit. You can
pack a large number of empty sandbags, and fill them up at the operational site.
This is a great SOP if you are in an area with an abundance of sand such as the
desert. Just remember to pack an entrenching tool.
10.10.3.3.10.4 Anything made of a large study mass can be used (e.g, rocks, pieces
of steel I-beam).
10.10.3.4 Portability and Kits. Extrication kits can be built and customized a number of
ways. They can be constructed as minimalist man-packable system to large
comprehensive kits that require a team of rescuers or a vehicle to move. All these rescue
tools can be air-dropped or belayed. Kits should be pre-built and inspected for quick
reaction. Kits should be staged and built with a tiered approached to extrication
complexity and size of objective. If an extrication tasking proves to be a large
undertaking, then choosing the largest kit or all parts of a multi-stage kit becomes the
option. As operations dictate, the larger the kit, the closer to the operational area you want
to insert the kit with the team.
10.10.3.4.1 Rucks. A variety of ALICE, custom, and pre-fabricated rucks exist for
employing with smaller extrication tools that function with manpower or foot pumps.
Small hand-pump jaws, crash axes, battery saws, and lift pads can be carried and
employed by PJs by personnal parachute or AIE insertion. (See Figure 10.167, Small
10-195
ALICE Rigged with 24 Volt Saw; Figure 10.168, Small ALICE Rigged with Jaws; and
Figure 10.166, Lift Pads with Foot Pump.)
Figure 10.167 Small ALICE Rigged with 24 Volt Saw.
UNCLASSIFIED
10.10.3.4.2 Haul Bags. Large amounts of extrication gear can be packed into these
reinforced bags. Bags such as the Yates Mountain Equipment are constructed to hold
large amounts of mountain gear and are durable in those types environment. They
have multiple hand holds for team carry, usaully are rigged with shoulder straps, and
can be easily rigged for belay operations and even door bundle drop.
10.10.3.4.3 Sleds. Sleds are usually wheeled and are great for relatively flat terrain or
urban environments. They can hold a great deal of weight and equipped, and can be
belayed or even air-dropped.
10.10.3.4.4 Boxes. Large equipment boxes can be packed with large amounts of gear
but are less versitle. They are constructed of metal and high impact plastics. They can
belayed, but it is desirable to belay the box as close to the target area as possible. It can
be air-dropped, but good precision is desired in order to minimize the distance the box
has to be carried. This container option is well known for storing the REDS Kit.
10.10.3.4.4.1 REDS Kit. As the standard for an common extrication kit, the
packing list below is an example of good extrication kit options. See Table 10.20,
Heavey REDS Kit Contents and Table 10.21, Light REDS Kit Contents.)
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10.10.4 Extrication Capability. Extrication capability is a field that requires a continous
commitment to proficiency training and acquisition of refined up-to-date equipment to include
improvements in increased versitility and capability, reduced weight, increased strenght, and
smaller size for portability and function. These improvements will greatly enhance the rescue
teams ability to conduct a successful extrication with great speed, minimal resources, and
reduced footprint. The PJTL is responsible to ensure a team is trained and equipped to perform
a broad spectrum of extrication capability.
10.11 Nuclear, Biological, Chemical and Explosives.
10.11.1 General. Contaminated environments are the most chanllenging of environmental
considerations because of the serious risks and high probablity of fatalities they can pose to the
rescue team and victims. Rescue operations that must be conducted in these type
environments pose a myriad of problems that must be overcome or mitigated. Not all rescues
are feasible in these environments and serious risk management issues must be weighed
against risking a rescue team, security, and supporting assets to execute a recovery.
10.11.1.1 The challenges of simply surviving in NBC environments is concern enough,
before any other tactical considerations can be evaluated. The logistics and security
concerns of performing operations in contaminated areas with protective gear is such that
in most cases, the operations have to be conducted in remote isolated areas or areas that are
under friendly control. The wearing of NBC protective gear seriously hampers and reduces
the tactical capability of the operator/rescuer/PJ.
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Item
REDS container
O-cutters
Spreader
Hydraulic pump
Set of chains
Crash ax
Hacksaws
Fire blanket
Reciprocating saw
Air pump
1
1
1 x Pulling heads
10-198
Item
REDS container
Combo tool
Crash ax
2
1
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10-200
10-201
Actions on
the DECON site
Security
Final PCI
Rehearsals
SECURITY
HALT
DECON SITE
Alternate
Route
ORP
TLPs
PCIS
Rehearsal
WARNORD
OPORD
AA
UNCLASSIFIED
10-202
10-203
(DED),
detailed
troop
Identify routes, holding areas, water source and resupply, fire and logistic
support.
Set security and medical plan.
Check prevailing and current winds.
Draw a sketch of the site.
Note any special considerations.
10.11.6.2 Immediate Decontamination.
10.11.6.2.1 The purpose of immediate chemical or biological decontamination is to
allow a force to sustain its mission and improve survivability of personnel while in a
contaminated area. Individual actions include: skin decon, personal wipe down, and
operators spray down. Immediate decon techniques are initiated individually without
command, once contamination on bare skin is detected.
NOTE: Skin decon is started within one minute of being contaminated and operators spray down
is most effective when done within 15 minutes after personal wipe down.
10.11.6.2.2 Radiological. Contamination hazards have different affects but the same
decontamination principles. Remove radiological contamination from equipment and
personnel by brushing and/or using soap and water.
10.11.6.2.3 Commanders Inherent Responsibilities Checklist.
Ensure all personnel are trained on procedures to conduct immediate decon.
Ensure personnel are proficient on the use of chemical defense equipment
(CDE).
Ensure appropriate security and force protection measures are taken during skin
decon procedures executed away from base.
10.11.6.2.4 Individual Decon Responsibilities Checklist.
Skin decontamination.
Start self-decontamination within 1 minute of becoming contaminated.
Personal wipe down.
Every soldier wipes down his mask, hood, gloves, and other essential gear.
Do not attempt to remove chemical contamination from your protective
overgarment, unless the agent is thickened and globbed on the over garment.
Brush off radiological contamination from your overgarment.
Operators spray down
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WIND
Step 1
Button up
vechicle and
equipment
Step 2
Washdown
vechicle and
equipment
Step 3
Assembly Area
IPE
Exchange
UNCLASSIFIED
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10-206
10-207
Thorough DecontaminationEquipment
UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 10.172 Thorough DecontaminationTroop.
Thorough DecontaminationTroop
Station 1
Equipment
Decon
Station 2
Hood/Boot
Decon
(1)
DTD LOGISTICS
Station 3
BDO
Removal
(1)
(1)
Station 4
Glove/Boot
Removal
M22
(1)
Liquid Control
(2)
Station 7 (3)
Mask Decon
Station 6
Mask (2)
Removal
O
H2
O
H2
ap
so
C
SH
Station 5
Monitor
First Aid
Equipment
Check
(1)
(1)
Vapor Control
Station 8
Reissue
UNCLASSIFIED
10-208
10-209
rally point [ORP]). The same personnel tasked to set up the ORP secure the site.
The remaining members of the element move to the contaminated area to conduct
the mission. The personnel at the decontamination site go to MOPP 4 as the
operational element returns from the contaminated area. The ORP security
personnel prepare to decon the returning element. The element members are
checked for contamination at a liquid/vapor contamination control line or hot line
with available detection equipment. If decontamination is necessary, the following
operational element decontamination procedures should be applied.
10.11.6.3.4.1.1 Unsupported Pararescue Team Decontamination Steps.
Step 1. While the operational element moves to the objective, the
remaining element members at the ORP set up a modified hasty
decontamination site that includes a hot line and a sump for disposal of
contaminated equipment and clothing. As the element members return
from their mission, one member in the ORP acts as station
operator/monitor while the other members provide security for the
ORP/decon site.
Step 2. The operational element halts at the hot line.
Step 3. If a sample or equipment has been recovered, it is checked for
contamination and decontaminated if necessary.
Step 4. Samples or recovered equipment are then placed into a Mylar
bag (or acceptable substitute) held by the clean ORP member. Bag is
sealed and placed on the clean side of the hot line.
Step 5. SOF personnel and their personal equipment are now checked
with the appropriate detectors. Equipment is either disposed of in the sump
or decontaminated and checked again before declaring it clean.
Step 6. After Step 5 is completed on the second soldier using the buddy
system, decontaminate the buddys protective mask hood using personnel
and equipment decontamination kits, then roll protective mask hood. The
risk during this step is the transfer of contamination to the neck and the
accidental breaking of the mask seal during rolling.
Step 7. The first and second personnel use the buddy system to remove
the first soldiers chemical protective over garment (CPOG)/battle dress
overgarment (BDO) and discards it into the sump. Use of a knife, surgical
scissor, or other cutting tool is appropriate during this step; however, the
instrument used must be decontaminated after each cut. The first person
moves to the next station 10 to 15 meters away.
Step 8. At the second station, the first person removes overboots and
gloves. A contamination control line (CCL) is established and clearly
marked. It is on the upwind side and delineates the dirty side from the clean
side. Standing on the dirty side, individuals will remove one boot, leaving
it on the dirty side, and stepping, with the same foot over, the CCL to the
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10-211
Check out
with doctor
EMT Area
CCP
Triage
Area
Med Kits
Remove gross
contamination
Shuffle Pit
ine
lL
tro
Deflation
pump
on
nC
Puff pad
for DECON
of hands
tio
HOT LINE
Trash
na
mi
Drop non-sensitive
equipment here
Trash
nta
Trash
SDS MATT
Co
Drop sensitive
equipment here
UNCLASSIFIED
10.11.6.3.4.1.2.1 Expedient Personnel Decontamination System
Tactical Planning Guidelines.
Decontamination of the force will occur at the closest permissive site
to the target permitted by the tactical situation. In some missions, such
as maritime interdiction operations (MIO), decontamination will likely
occur directly on the objective after it is secure.
Timely and effective decontamination is critical to prevent NBC
casualties. SOF contamination challenges may be considerably higher
than the standard 10/m2 that JSLIST approved material (JAM) is
designed to protect against.
Chemical warfare (CW) break-through times on SOF personnel
protective equipment (PPE) dictates the need to conduct
decontamination at the soonest opportunity consistent with the tactical
situation. CW break-through times are significantly reduced in the case
of salt water exposed PPE, further heightening the importance of rapid
decontamination.
The nature of CSAR operations in the NBC environment dictates the
use of a supporting force to conduct decontamination is often tactically
infeasible. The pararescue teams decontamination capability must
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10-213
10-214
10-215
Cut down one side of CPU trouser leg, have contaminated person
step out of CPU trouser. (cutter decon hands)
Strip off one Gore-Tex sock, then second, then one CPU sock, and
then the second, having the contaminated person step onto safety pad.
(cutter decon hands)
Contaminated personnel proceed to mask drop area, decon hands, use
breath hold technique with assisted mask removal from decon line.
Move to redress area/redress move to exfil area.
Monitor and administer buddy aid if necessary. Personnel developing
symptoms of exposure should be taken to the triage area for treatment.
Basic operating principles of litter decontamination.
Management of life saving ABCs (check airway, check for
breathing, and check for circulation) always comes first.
Spot decon and cut away of protective garment or mask removal to
facilitate care of ABCs.
Patient triage is an important and dynamic part of litter decon, if a
casualty has a compromised airway, is not breathing, or has
uncontrolled bleeding, they should not be in the litter decon area.
Current decon media is 0.5 percent hypochlorite solution, M-291,
M-295, SDS.
Appropriate litter is the Raven decon litter.
Litter decon will be a cut out procedure similar to the onion peel
procedure.
The exact cut template will be determined by the ensemble worn
(currently JSLIST VII, FRIES, DUI).
To control the spread of contamination, every opportunity to decon
the hand of the cutter must be used.
Decon of hands and cutting tool must be accomplished prior to each
cut.
Decon of the patients boots and gloves should be the first step for
successful decon.
10.11.6.3.4.1.4.4 EPDSLitter Casualty. The following procedures are
specific to the EPDSlitter casualty.
Set up parallel to standard EPDS line.
All considerations to wind, environmental factors and casualty flow
are unchanged.
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NOTE: Although not stated after each step, cutter should decon hands and tools between every
step or touch!
One piece cut out procedure checklist.
Initial step.
Decon any gross contaminated areas, decon exterior of mask and
hood.
Decon patients gloves.
Decon patients boots.
Liberal use of SDS and D-295 on the members.
PPE prior to cut out is encouraged and will reduce the potential
spread of contamination.
Mask hood cut out.
Cut arm strap.
Cut center through elastic.
Roll hood back.
Cut lines. (Dipicted as dotted line in Figure 10.174 and Figure
10.175, Cutout Diagram.)
Fold lines (depicted as solid line).
Remove boots/gloves and wound management.
Cut or unlace boots, remove boots. Do not remove sock.
Remove gloves from fingers.
Dressings should be removed and wounds irrigated as needed after
removal of PPE. Clean dressings should be reapplied by
non-contaminated personnel.
FRIES or DRY (one piece cut out).
Cut from neck line down each arm.
Cut from neck line down one leg.
Cut from crotch down other leg.
Fold down upper chest.
Roll from center out.
Roll sleeves outcut, roll, and fold.
Undergarment Removal (BDU/CPU/Other).
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UNCLASSIFIED
10-218
UNCLASSIFIED
10.11.6.3.4.1.4.1 Casualty Care Past the CCL.
The patient should be managed at the CCP for injuries and any
symptoms from contamination or other injuries.
Two piece cut out procedure checklist
Initial step.
Decon any gross contaminated areas, decon exterior of mask and
hood.
Decon patient's gloves.
Decon patient's boots.
Liberal use of SDS and D-295 on the members PPE prior to cut out is
encouraged and will reduce the potential spread of contamination.
Mask Hood Cut Out.
Cut arm Straps.
Cut center through elastic.
Roll hood back.
Cut lines. (Shown in Figure 10.174 and Figure 10.175, Cut Out
Diagram, dotted lines.)
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10-220
10-221
10-222
10-223
10-224
NOTE: Before receiving another patient, decon team members drink approximately half a quart
of water each. The amount consumed is increased or decreased according to the work level and the
temperature.
Step 6. Logroll the casualty toward either side and liberally decontaminate his
backside and the underlying litter. DO NOT remove splints. Splints are
decontaminated by applying a 0.5 percent chlorine solution (include the padding
and cravats). Splints are not removed until the patient has been evacuated to an
appropriate echelon of care. This may include a corps level Combat Support
Hospital or Mobile Army Surgical Hospital (CASH or MASH), Air Force
Expeditionary Medical Support/Air Force Theater Hospital (EMEDS/AFTH)
medical treatment facility, or Navy Fleet Hospital. The patient is checked with
detector paper (M8) or a CAM for completeness of decon. Dispose of
contaminated bandages and coverings by placing them in a contaminated waste
bag. Seal the bag and place it in the contaminated waste dump.
WARNING: DO NOT use the M291 pads or wipes from the M258A1 kit around the wounds.
NOTE: Other monitoring devices may be used when available.
Step 7. Logroll the casualty toward the opposite side and liberally
decontaminate his backside and the underlying litter
Step 8. Roll casualty back to supine position and cut arm straps of mask hood.
Step 9. Cut hood and roll hood back.
Step 10. Cut, fold, and roll the upper half of the casualtys IPE. Cut from the
neckline down each arm. Fold down upper chest. Roll from center out. Roll
sleeves out.
Step 11. Cut shoulder straps away from casualtys trousers.
Step 12. Cut and roll casualtys trousers. Cut from top center down leg. Cut from
crotch apex down leg.Roll out to each side.
Step 13. Cut closures of over-boots and slide over-boots off.
Step 14. Remove Gore-Tex over-socks and chemical protective uniform (CPU
socks).
Step 15. Roll cuffs of gloves and pull gloves off from fingers.
Step 16. Use same cutout procedures for undergarments as for IPE.
Step 17. Decontaminate skin with 0.5percent hypochlorite solution as required.
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10-226
NOTE: This solution is a 0.5 percent solution, considerably weaker than the five percent used for
scissors.
Wipe the external parts of the mask; cover both mask air inlets with gauze or
your hands to keep the mask filters dry. Continue by wiping the exposed areas of
the patients face, to include the neck and behind the ears.
Step 3. Remove field medical card (FMC). Cut the card tie wire, allowing the
card to fall into a plastic bag. Seal the plastic bag and rinse it with the five percent
chlorine solution. Place the plastic bag under the back of the protective mask head
straps.
Step 4. Remove all gross contamination from the patients. Remove all visible
contamination spots by using the M291/ kit or a sponge dipped in a 0.5 percent
chlorine solution.
Step 5. Remove overgarments. Remove overgarment jacket. Have the patient
stand with his feet spread apart at shoulder width. Unsnap the jacket front flap and
unzip the jacket. If the patient can extend his/her arms, make a fist and extend both
arms backward at about a 30-degree angle. Move behind the patient, grasping the
jacket collar at the sides of the neck; peel the jacket off the shoulders at a
30-degree angle down and away from the patient. Avoid any rapid or sharp jerks
that spread contamination. Gently pull the inside sleeves over the patients wrists
and hands. If the patient cannot extend his/her arms, cut the jacket to aid in its
removal. Dip the scissors in the five percent chlorine solution between each cut.
As with a litter patient, cut both sleeves from the inside, starting at the wrist, up to
the armpit. Continue cutting across the shoulder to the collar. Cut around bandages
or splints, leaving them in place. Next, peel the jacket back and downward to avoid
spreading contamination. Ensure that the outside of the jacket does not touch the
patient or any inner clothing. Remove the patients butyl rubber gloves by grasping
the heel of the glove, peel the glove off with a smooth downward motion. Place the
contaminated gloves in a plastic bag with the overgarment jacket. Do not allow the
patient to touch his/her trousers or other contaminated objects with exposed hands.
Remove the patients overboots by cutting the laces with scissors dipped in the five
percent chlorine solution. Fold the lacing eyelets flat on the ground. Step on the toe
and heel eyelets to hold the overboot on the ground and have the patient step out of
it. Repeat this procedure for the other overboot. If the green vinyl overboot (GVO)
is worn, first try to remove the overboots without cutting; if necessary cut the
overboot along the front. If the overboots are in good condition, they can be
decontaminated and reissued. Remove overgarment trousers. Unfasten or cut all
ties, buttons, or zippers before grasping the trousers at the waist and peeling them
down over the patients combat boots. Again, the trousers are cut to aid in removal.
If necessary cut both trouser legs starting at the ankle, keeping the cuts near the
inside of the legs, along the inseam, to the crotch. Cut around all bandages,
tourniquets, or splints. Continue to cut up both sides of the zipper to the waist and
allow the narrow strip with the zipper to drop between the legs. Place the scissors
in the decon solution. Peel or allow the trouser halves to drop to the ground. Have
the patient step out of the trouser legs one at a time. Place the trousers in the
10-227
marked and contaminated disposal bag. Have the patient remove cotton glove
liners to reduce the possibility of spreading contamination. Have the patient grasp
the heel of one glove liner with the other gloved hand, peeling the glove off. Hold
the removed glove by the inside and grasp the heel of the other glove, peeling it
off. Place both gloves in the contaminated waste bag. Place the patients personal
effects in a clean bag and label with the patients identification. If they are not
contaminated, return them. If personal effects are contaminated, place the bagged
items in the contaminated storage area until they can be decontaminated, then
return to patient.
Step 6. Check patient for contamination. After the patients overgarments have
been removed, check BDUs by using detector paper (M8) or a CAM. Carefully
survey all areas of the patients clothing, paying particular attention to discolored
areas on the uniform, damp spots, tears, areas around the neck, wrist, ears, and
dressings, splints, or tourniquets. Remove spots by using the 0.5 percent chlorine
solution, using the M291/M258A1 kit or cutting away the contaminated area.
Always dip the scissors in the five percent chlorine solution after each cut.
Recheck the area with the detection equipment.
Step 7. Decontaminate the patients skin. Use the M291/M258A1 kit, or the 0.5
percent chlorine solution to spot decontaminate exposed neck and wrist areas,
other areas where the protective overgarment was damaged, dressings, bandages,
or splints. Have patient hold breath and close eyes. Have patient or assist patient in
lifting mask at the chin. Wipe face with M291/M258A1 or the 0.5 percent chlorine
solution. Wipe quickly from below the top of one ear, being careful to wipe all
folds of the skin, top of the upper lip, chin, dimples, ear lobes, and nose. Continue
up the other side of the face to the top of the other ear. Wipe the inside of the mask
where it touches the face. Have the patient reseal and check mask.
CAUTION: Keep the decon solution out of the patients eyes and mouth.
Step 8. Remove bandages and tourniquets. During the clothing removal, the
clothing around bandages, tourniquets, and splints was cut and left in place. The
aidman will replace the old tourniquet by placing a new one 1/2 to one inch above
the old tourniquet. When the old tourniquet is removed, the skin is decontaminated
with the M291/M258A1 kit or the 0.5 percent chlorine solution. Do not remove
splints. Decontaminate them by thoroughly rinsing the splint, padding, and cravats
with the 0.5 percent chlorine solution. The aidman gently cuts away bandages. The
area around the wound is rinsed with the 0.5 percent chlorine solution, and the
aidman irrigates the wound with the 0.5 percent chlorine solution. The aidman
covers massive wounds with plastic secured with tape. Mark the wound as
contaminated. The aidman also replaces bandages that are needed to control
massive bleeding. Dispose of contaminated bandages and coverings by placing
them in a plastic bag and sealing the bag with tape. Place the plastic bags in the
contaminated waste dump.
Step 9. Proceed through the shuffle pit to the clean treatment area. Have the
decontaminated patient proceed through the shuffle pit to the clean treatment area.
10-228
NOTE: Disinfectant solution for use during patient decon procedures is prepared in accordance
with the label instructions on the container. The solution strength for skin can also be used to
irrigate the wound.
Patient decons team members remove the patients clothing as in decon of
chemical agent patients. Do not remove bandages, tourniquets, and splints.
Move patient to a clean litter as described for a chemical agent patient. Place
patients personal effects in a clean plastic bag; label the bag. If
uncontaminated, give to patient. If contaminated, place in contaminated
storage, decontaminate when possible, and then return to patient. Place
patients clothing in a plastic bag and dispose in a contaminated waste dump.
Bathe patient with soap and warm water, followed by reapplication of a
liquid disinfectant. The medic places a new tourniquet one-half- to one-inch
above the old tourniquet, then he removes the old one. The medic removes
bandages and decontaminates the skin and wound with the disinfectant
solution or the 0.5 percent chlorine solution; he replaces the bandage, if
needed, to control bleeding. Splints are disinfected by soaking the splint,
cravats, and straps with the disinfectant solution.
NOTE: Use a 0.5 percent chlorine solution to decontaminate patients suspected of being
contaminated with mycotoxins.
Two decon team members move patient to the hotline and transfer him/her to
a clean litter as described for chemical agent patients. Keep the FMC in the
plastic bag on the clean litter with the patient. Two medics from the clean side
of the hotline move the patient from the hotline to the clean treatment/holding
area.
10.11.9.4.5.2 Decontaminate an ambulatory biological agent patient.
Remove the patients FMC by cutting the tie wire and allowing it to drop into
a plastic bag. Keep the bagged FMC with the patient.
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Have the patient remove his outer clothing (or have a decon team member assist
him). Place his contaminated clothing in a plastic bag and move the bagged
clothing to the contaminated waste dump.
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10.13.3.2 The climber must ensure his knees never get too close to the trunk when using
spiked climbing aids; his buttocks should be the farthest part of his body away from the
trunk. His arms are either holding onto the trunk, branches, or moving and holding the
climbing safety belt.
10.13.3.3 The climbing safety belt comes in two parts, a leather belt worn around the
waist, and a safety belt which is adjustable. Each end of the safety belt snaps to the waist
belt. This belt keeps the climber from falling backwards and aids the climber when
working to free equipment or personnel. The belt allows the climber to use both hands
while working and in case of a fall, keeps the climber close to the trunk.
10.13.3.4 When used in ascending or descending, the belt should be kept between the head
and waist. The length of the belt around the trunk must be adjusted to aid in comfortable
climbing.
CAUTION: If the spikes come free of the bark/wood causing a fall, arrest the fall by pinching the
tree trunk with the climbing safety belt. Do not try to reset the spikes into the tree until the fall has
been arrested.
10.13.3.5 A short rope or sling can be used in conjunction with the belt. This ensures
ascent and descent procedures are safely performed when branches are bypassed. Attach
the rope or sling to a solid limb or trunk for additional security.
10.13.3.6 Caution must be exercised when wearing and using tree-climbers. Unless
experienced, individuals may have to look down to observe the spot where the spike is
being placed.
10.13.3.7 Care and caution must be exercised in the transport of spiked tree-climbers. For
a tree parachute deployment, the tree-climbers can be packed into a container and attached
securely underneath the medical kit or below the parachute on the buttocks.
10.13.4 Recovery of Personnel Suspended in Trees. C a l l t o t h e s u r v i v o r t o c h e c k
consciousness. If the survivor is conscious, inform then not to move or try to climb down. Ask
if they are injured and what type of injuries; then explain your intentions.
10.13.4.1 Evaluate the situation and coordinate with the team on a plan of action.
10.13.4.2 One PJ will climb the tree to the patients location. The climber will carry
sufficient equipment to perform a tree let-down and medical supplies to treat
life-threatening injuries. Minimum equipment will consist of:
Tree climbers and belts (2 or 3).
One end of a climbing rope or let-down tape (1 inch minimum width).
Three sling ropes.
Three locking carabiners.
Medical kit.
10.13.4.3 Initial action upon reaching the patient will depend on the severity of the
injuries and security of the parachute hang-up. The PJ should use one sling to secure
himself to the tree while working on the survivor. If the tree climbers and belt are used, the
10-232
WARNING: The PJ must ensure his fingers are not caught in the capewell release cable upon
release.
10.13.4.6 As the survivor is lowered by the belaying teammate, the PJ in the tree should
descend with the survivor and guide him between branches to avoid further injuries. The
commands to be used by the climber are BRAKE for immediate stop and SLACK for
continuing a slow descent.
10.13.4.7 If the survivor is unconscious, you should have a litter in place directly below
the lowering point. Lower the survivor directly into the litter. Initiate immediate medical
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care if needed, ensure the patient is on the ground before disconnecting the carabiners and
rope.
10.13.4.8 Heavily branched or high trees might require two rescuers to climb the tree
while a third remains on the ground as the belayer. One PJ guides and holds the victims
feet and legs, while the other supports the upper body during descent procedures.
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CHAPTER 11
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every operator will be using the same type LBE, the contents should be as standardized as
possible. All operators should be familiar with what equipment and where it is worn on their
teammates, LBE. The following is a breakdown of items carried in the LBE:
11.5.3.1 Munitions. The typical combat load is seven magazines (one in the weapon, six
on the LBE) of 5.56mm for the M4 and three magazines of 9mm for the M-9. Ammunition
should be placed on the LBE where it is secure and easily accessible. Typically on a
Rhodesian-type vest, this is in the very front of the operators chest. The amount may be
increased or decreased to meet specific mission requirements. Normally, munitions are
selected based on the degree of threat, rules of engagement (ROE), time and distance to be
traveled, and total equipment load. (See Chapter 7, Combat Marksmanship and
Munitions, for additional information.)
11.5.3.2 Interteam Radio. The current radio fielded by teams is the PRC-148 multiband
interteam radio (MBITR). It is primarily used for operators to communicate with other
team members, usually via a VHF/FM low band frequency (e.g., 45.75 mHz). However, it
may also be used by any team member to communicate ground-to-air via a VHF/UHF AM
frequency. It should be placed on the LBE where it is secure and easily accessible. It
should be where the operator can manipulate the radio unaided by his team mate (e.g.,
changing volume or switching between frequencies).
11.5.3.3 Signaling. Multiple sources of both day and night signaling devices are carried
to include the following: (1) chemlights of multiple colors to include infrared (IR). They
may also be used for marking patients during a mass casualty, marking cleared rooms
during close quarters combat (CQC), or marshalling aircraft. (2) A VS-17 panel, cut down
in size to reduce space, is carried for day marking of the individual/team location during
emergency close air support (ECAS) or marking a helicopter landing zone (HLZ). (3)
Flashlight that is compact, powerful, and night vision device (NVD) friendly; it should
include multiple filters to include IR, blue and red. Besides its typical use of illumination,
a flashlight can be used as a sign/countersign method. (4) Pyrotechnic flares to include the
dual-end MK-13 with a day orange smoke and night red flare end. (5) Also, the
Gyrojet/Pen-gun flare may be considered where penetrating large trees or high terrain is
necessary.
11.5.3.4 Navigation. Either a commercially available compass or military lensatic
compass is carried and used in conjunction with a map as a primary land navigation tool.
A global positioning system (GPS) is also carried as a back-up land navigation tool. Both
items should be placed in the LBE where they are secure and readily accessible. Specifics
on their use is explained in later in this chapter.
11.5.4 Rucksack. The type and size of pack used will be dictated by the mission concept
(e.g., jumping, extended surface operations ESO, or direct action DA type missions). Proper
fit is essential for comfort and safety. An improper fitting rucksack will cause the operator to
fatigue much more quickly. Prior to mission execution ensure it is properly adjusted. It
should have to ability to be jettisoned via a quick release and in no way interfere with firing of
the weapon. It should lightweight and durable. On a team where multiple types of rucksacks
are being used the medical contents should be placed in standardized locations to the largest
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extent possible. All operators should be intimately familiar with their other teammates
rucksacks and arrangement of its contents.
11.5.5 Sleep Gear. Typically, sleep gear will not be carried on short duration no-notice
PR/RO missions. On pre-planned ESO in support of PR/RO, the average outside ambient
temperature is the key consideration of what type, if any sleep gear will packed for the
mission. Sleep gear may consist of a poncho and poncho liner up to a complete cold weather
system to include sleeping pad, bivy sack, inner bag, outer bag, and vapor barrier. As with
clothing, sleep gear should be layered for maximum effectiveness. Compression sacks help
reduce size and keep items together for rapid access or storage. When conducting operations,
consider the survivor, as well as team.
11.5.6 Food and Water. Food should be nutritionally balanced for the individual and the
operating environment. When deciding on water requirements you must consider the potential
duration of the mission, ability to purify, and degree of purification based on military and
biological threat. Purification systems, which do not require heat and remove the greatest
amount of bacteria, should be chosen (e.g., chlorine bleach).
11.5.7 Communications Equipment. Each recovery team (RT) usually carries at least one
man packable multiband radio. All communications used during PR/RO missions will be
encrypted. The following is the most current equipment fielded by RTs.
11.5.7.1 PRC-117F. The AN/PRC-117F is an advanced multiband, multimission
manpack radio providing reliable tactical communications performance in a small,
lightweight package that maximizes user mobility. The AN/PRC-117F provides reliable
operation with embedded communication security (COMSEC), satellite communications
(SATCOM), and electronic counter-countermeasures (ECCM) capabilities. The radio
operates from either two BB-590/U nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) rechargeable batteries, two
BA-5590 lithium batteries, two BB-390AU nickel metal-hydride, or two BB-490/U
lead-acid batteries. The AN/PRC-117F frequency range is continuous from 30 MHz to
512 MHz, providing AM and FM and various data waveforms. The AN/PRC-117F
provides line of sight (LOS), SATCOM, and ECCM frequency hopping operation (i.e.,
HAVE QUICK and SINGCARS), and is compatible with all tactical VHF/UHF radios.
The radio may also be coupled with a ruggedized laptop computer using HARRIS high
performance waveform software to receive near real-time intelligence or mission updates.
11.5.7.2 PRC-148 Multiple Band Interteam Radio. MBITR is a multiband radio
providing the operator to communicate to other team members on a VHF/FM low-band
frequency, ground-to-air via a UHF/AM frequency, or over-the-horizon (OTH) long-haul
communications via satellite communications. Additionally, it has frequency hopping
capability allowing the operator to communicate with aircraft using HAVE QUICK or
other ground components using SINGCARS. Additionally, the MBITR supports
VINSON and ANDVT cryptologic keys. The MBITR is limited to only 5 watts of output
limiting its range making it not the radio of choice for overall mission control. However,
when total individual operator weight is a concern, the PJTL may considering carrying an
additional MBITR with a BA-5590 battery adapter as the primary mission control radio. It
should be placed in the operators equipment where it is secure and easily accessible
allowing the operator to change between frequencies unaided or to verify the frequency.
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11.5.8 Night Vision Devices. NVDs give the operator expotential superiority over the
enemy during night time PR/ROs. The equipment chosen should be ruggedized and carefully
maintained. Night vision equipment such as night vision goggles (NVG) should be carried on
all missions, planned and unplanned, day and night. A mission executed during the day may
continue into the night, and without night vision capability the RT loses an element of
superiority. NVDs increase the effective range of the eye at night. The two types currently in
service are active (infrared) and passive (image intensification) in nature.
11.5.8.1 Active (Infrared). Active devices provide their own light source providing a
night-viewing capability regardless of the level of ambient light. An example of an active
IR device is a Surefire flashlight with IR filter lens.
11.5.8.2 Passive (Image Intensification). Passive devices intensify ambient light levels
to provide visible images. Starlight and moonlight ordinarily provide sufficient light to
employ these devices. Artificial illumination at low intensity or an IR filtered light source
increases their effectiveness during particularly dark periods. Direct or bright non-IR
filtered artificial illumination renders these devices temporarily ineffective. Image
intensification devices generally provide a surveillance capability at greater ranges than
infrared equipment.
11.5.8.3 Advantages of NVDs.
11.5.8.3.1 The unaided eye cannot detect infrared light.
11.5.8.3.2 NVDs can be used to detect the enemys use of infrared source.
11.5.8.3.3 Image intensifier NVDs do not require an artificial light source; therefore,
these devices cannot be detected.
11.5.8.3.4 On moonless nights when ambient light is not adequate, image
intensification devices may be used effectively by providing small amounts of IR
filtered artificial illumination.
11.5.8.4 Limitations. If employed improperly, some NVDs may be detected. Such
detection by the enemy may disclose friendly positions. Operators using them must be
intimately familiar with the equipment and its limitations. See the appropriate technical
manual for specific use and limitations. Some general limitations are listed include the
following:
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11.5.8.4.1 Infrared light can be detected and the source located. Infrared light is
subject to countermeasures by physical means (e.g., IR vector-aided fire) by chemical
smokes or counter illumination.
11.5.8.4.2 NVDs are line of sight instruments. Dead spaces in surveillance
experienced during the day are generally the same at night. Most NVDs are adversely
affected by bright non-IR filtered light.
11.5.8.4.3 NVDs may be adversely affected by bad weather conditions. If the
objective lens gets fogged or wet, the image will be distorted.
11.5.8.4.4 Image intensifier devices require clear moonlit night sky conditions to
optimize performance. Infrared devices are best suited for clear, dark conditions.
11.5.9 Influencing Factors. Many factors influence the decision as to what items of clothing
and equipment an operator should wear or carry. These include the weather, mission concept,
mission assigned duty, overall physical condition of the operator, and their degree of
proficiency. If a movement is anticipated, consider the distance to be traveled and method of
travel. The weight of individual clothing and equipment is extremely important. When total
operator weight is of concern as with certain AOs, each piece of equipment carried must be
scrutinized as to its primary use and importance and whether it should be carried at all.
Equipment performing only one function and does not have multiple uses should be
scrutinized first. It is important to note that, if movement is by foot, the maximum weight an
individual can wear and carry and still fight and perform effectively, is 65 to 70 pounds. These
factors should be considered at all levels of planning.
11.5.10 Individual Combat Equipment Levels. Individual equipment and clothing can be
broken down into three defense levels: first, second, and third line. Each line is based on the
equipment required to execute and continue the mission. This also includes equipment
required for self-preservation in the event the operator now becomes an IP.
11.5.10.1 First Line. First line equipment and clothing are the basic necessities required
for personal defense, survival, evasion and escape. It is the minimum equipment, when
combined with individual knowledge, to retain survivability when a mission has been
compromised and can no longer be accomplished. It is the operators last line of defense
in the event the tracker has had to shed the second and third lines and has become an IP.
Examples include: mission uniform, personal survival kit, navigation tools, food, water
gathering materials, and signaling/recovery devices. This line also contains the sidearm
and ammunition. These items are lightweight and carried on the person, usually on the
operators first line belt.
11.5.10.2 Second Line. Second line equipment and clothing consists of the combat load.
The combat load includes the equipment essential to performing a PR/RO. Weapons and
munitions, communication/signaling devices, medical blow out kits, limited rations,
protective mask (gas), and a fixed blade knife are examples. These items are normally
carried in the LBE. The combat load must fit properly and be appropriately camouflaged.
A final check should be made to ensure that the equipment placed in or attached onto the
LBE is secure and does not cause excessive noise, both while patrolling and running.
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11.5.11 Essential Elements. It is essential that prior to any operation the TL scrutinize the
mission requirements to ensure each person is adequately equipped. The TL will acquire
information from essential elements of information (EEIs) to determine the type of
camouflage and basic clothing needs. TLs should always plan on the worst case scenario.
11.6 Cover and Concealment.
11.6.1 Artificial and Natural Cover. Cover is protection from the fire of enemy weapons.
It may be natural or artificial. Natural cover (ravines, hollows, reverse slopes) and artificial
cover (foxholes, trenches, walls) will protect individuals from grazing fires and partially
protect from plunging fires. The habit of locating and taking advantage of every bit of cover
the terrain offers combined with the proper use of movement techniques will ensure effective
protection from enemy fire. Concealment is protection from enemy observation. It, too, may
be natural or artificial. Remember that concealment is not protection from enemy fire.
Individuals must not make the mistake of believing they are protected from enemy fire merely
because they are concealed from enemy eyes.
11.6.2 Natural Concealment. Natural concealment is frequently provided by the
surroundings and needs no alteration to be used. Examples are: bushes, grass, and
shadows. Artificial concealment is made from materials such as burlap or nets. Natural
materials such as bushes, leaves, and grass, which are moved from their original
location, can also be arranged to form artificial concealment. Care must be taken to
consider the effects of seasons on the concealment provided by both natural and artificial
materials.
11.6.3 Individual Concealment Techniques.
11.6.3.1 Avoid Unnecessary Movement. Remain still as much as possible, movement
attracts attention. An individual may be concealed when still, yet easily detected when
moving. Movement against a stationary background causes an individual to stand out
clearly. When changing positions, move carefully over a concealed route to the new
position.
11.6.3.2
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11.6.3.4 Shadows Help Concealment. An individual in the open stands out clearly.
Shadows are found under most conditions of day and night.
11.6.3.5 Stay Low to Observe. Observe from a crouch, squat, or the prone position.
Present a low silhouette, making it difficult for the enemy to see.
11.6.3.6 Expose Nothing That Shines. Reflection of light on a shiny surface instantly
attracts attention and can be seen for great distances.
11.6.3.7 Keep Off the Skyline. Human figures on the skyline can be seen from a great
distance, even at night, because a dark outline stands out against the lighter sky. The
silhouette formed by the human body makes a good target.
11.6.3.8 Alter Familiar Outlines. Military equipment and the human body are familiar
outlines to all soldiers. Alter or disguise these revealing shapes.
11.6.3.9 Keep Quiet. Noise, such as talking or rattling, can be picked up easily by enemy
patrols or listening posts.
11.7 Environmental Camouflage, Cover and Concealment Considerations.
11.7.1 Desert Environment. Basic techniques of camouflage cover, and concealment also
apply to the desert environment with some additional considerations.
11.7.1.1 The colors tan, light brown, and loam green may be used for camouflage. Avoid
black since it is easily detected using NVDs. When utilizing camouflage face paint,
consider using darker colors around the eyes; this will reduce sun glare reflecting into the
eyes. Burlap bags spray painted to match the colors of the operational area make excellent
pack covers and help distort the shape. Ponchos spray painted or manufactured in desert
camouflage to match the area make acceptable shade trench shelters and reduce the chance
of aerial observation. All optical devices must be covered when not in use, even at night.
When using optics such as weapon sights and binoculars, consider placing a nonreflective
lens cover over the front of the lens. Panty hose can be placed over the lens as an
improvised method. When stopping for long periods of time and natural cover and
concealment cannot be found, dig in and use an overhead cover. Digging in will provide
cover and lower the profile to the enemy. It will also reduce the amount of shadow
required to cover the position.
CAUTION: Weapons should be painted to match camouflage scheme. Follow appropriate
painting protocols to prevent weapon malfunction. Ensure wet paint does not seep into the
receiver and jam the firing mechanism. Keep in mind there Is no approved procedure for
painting weapons in any AF technical order.
11.7.1.2 When stopping for long periods of time and natural cover/concealment cannot be
found, dig in and use a desert poncho or camouflage netting for overhead cover. Digging
in will provide cover and lower the profile to the enemy. It will also reduce the amount of
shadow required to cover the position.
11.7.2 Urban Environment.
11.7.2.1 Unlike other environments, the urban setting is a 3-dimensional area. Because of
the population density, possible observation from above is more likely.
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11.7.4.2 Team Cover and Concealment. From the air, snow-covered ground presents
an irregular pattern of white, spotted with dark tones produced by objects protruding above
the snow, and by irregularities in the snow surface such as valleys, hummocks, ruts, and
tracks. To ensure concealment, it is necessary to site dark objects on dark backgrounds,
control the making of tracks in the snow, and maintain the snow covering on camouflaged
equipment. No practical artificial materiel has been developed which reproduces the
texture of snow sufficiently enough to be a protection against photographic observation.
Concealment from direct observation is relatively successful through the use of white
snow garments, white paint, and whitewash. However, these measures can be detected by
aerial photography. In snow, tracks show up as lines of dark shadows. It is almost
impossible to obliterate them by brushing or other means. Tracks are continued past
installations to what appears to be a logical destination whenever possible. The degree of
whiteness of artificial materiels used for camouflage in snow terrain must be carefully
chosen. A hint of yellow or red betrays the camouflage. White with a blue tint is
preferable. Skillful exploitation of weather conditions increases opportunities for surprise
recoveries. This includes the exploitation of falling snow, blizzards, fogs, and low clouds
for concealment of pararescue team movements and of good snow conditions for the rapid
movement of teams on skis. With reliable weather forecasts, the effects of unfavorable
weather can be reduced.
11.7.5 Jungle Environment.
11.7.5.1 Individual Camouflage/Concealment. Certain individual protective measures
in the jungle are important. The normal close proximity of the enemy and the concealment
in the jungle make sound, light, and movement revealing to the enemy and constitute an
ideal danger to ground teams. In jungle operations, scanning of the terrain immediately
ahead for selection of a concealed position and a covered avenue of approach is important.
Arms and legs are kept covered. Shine from metal gear is dangerous. The dials of
luminous wristwatches can be a giveaway at night.
11.7.5.2 Team Cover and Concealment. Undergrowth, forest area, and high grass areas
afford excellent concealment from observation and also limit the distance sound travels. It
must be remembered that these advantages work for the enemy as well as for friendly
personnel. Artificial concealment and camouflage is very easy to make. Soft ground in
certain areas and the prevalence of riveting and covering materiel make artificial cover
easy to dig and conceal. Except in the primary evergreen rainforest, the trees in most
jungle areas will not provide extensive cover. Average tree trunks are generally not more
than 12 inches in diameter; in areas where large-trunked trees are located, the trees are
usually widely spaced. Most of the cover in jungle areas will be afforded by surface
irregularities, such as ravines, gullies, and large rocks. These are found in abundance.
11.8 Fundamentals of Movement. As with all types of tactical movement, your personal
attitude is the most important aspect. Accepted among many is the stop light method of
increasing your perception of a given situation. Green condition is reserved for when there is
likely to be no enemy contact. Yellow condition is reserved when enemy contact is likely to
occur and senses are extended, nothing is taken for granted and an increased perception is
required. Red condition is reserved for the enemy. In red condition all senses are excited and
you project yourself to see red (the color psychologically causes violent reaction). When in red
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condition, your most aggressive attitude is displayed. Follow these general rules to move without
being seen or heard by the enemy:
11.8.1 General Rules. Prepare yourself and your equipment.
Tape identification tags together and to the chain so they cannot slide or rattle.
Tape or pad any parts of the weapon or equipment that rattle or are so loose that they
may snag. Be sure the tape or padding does not interfere with operation of the weapon or
equipment.
Use the ankle ties when you do not blouse the field trousers. Do not tie them too tightly.
No other tie-down should be used. They may interfere with circulation in the legs and feet.
In cold weather, poor circulation may lead to frostbite or other cold injury.
Wear a soft cap, with its less distinctive outline.
Do not carry unnecessary equipment. One cannot move rapidly when weighted down.
Do not wear sunglasses or glasses unless they are of the non-glare variety. Otherwise
they may reflect sunlight and compromise your position.
Move by bounds in short distances and stop often. Stop, look, and listen, then begin
your movement again.
Look for the next spot to stop before leaving the concealment of the present position.
Observe that area carefully for enemy activity. Select the best available covered and
concealed route to the new location; take advantage of darkness, fog, smoke, or haze to
assist in concealing movement.
Change direction slightly from time to time when moving through tall grass. Moving in
a straight line causes the grass to wave with an unnatural motion, which may attract
attention. The best time to move is when the wind is blowing.
If birds or animals are alarmed, remain in position and observe briefly. Their flight or
movement may attract the enemys attention or provided a clue to the whereabouts of the
enemy.
Take advantage of the distraction provided by noises.
Cross roads and trails. Look for a large culvert, a low spot, or a curve. Cross quickly and
quietly.
Follow the furrows as much as possible when crawling over a plowed field
Avoid steep slopes and areas with loose stones.
Avoid cleared areas to prevent being silhouetted.
11.8.2 The Rush. The rush is the fastest way to move from one position to another while
under fire.
11.8.2.1 Short rushes from one covered position to another may be used when enemy fire
allows brief exposure. Maneuver teams, buddy teams, or individuals may advance by
short rushes to avoid accurate enemy fire.
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11.8.2.2 Try not to stay up any longer than 3 to 5 seconds. Do not give the enemy time to
track with automatic fire. The rule is rush from cover to cover. If cover and concealment
are not available, follow the principle of Im up, the tracker sees me, Im down, roll (no
more than 3 seconds), this ensures that the time of exposure to enemy forces is negligible.
11.8.2.3 Scout the area ahead. Get up and move in the lowest profile possible to the next
site. Keep weapon pointed and ready in the most likely spot the enemy may fire against
you. As soon as you hit the ground, come up ready to fire.
11.8.2.4 Do not rush from a position shortly after firing. Shift right/left or crawl before
springing to your feet.
11.8.2.5 After completing a rush to a position providing concealment but no cover, roll or
crawl to a new position before firing.
11.8.2.6 This type of movement is very difficult with a ruck, and may cause loss of
equipment. If carrying a large load and cannot roll, shift to one side.
11.8.2.7 If the enemy sees you, the enemy will fire at the last point you were seen. Vary
the direction you roll or shift.
11.9 Crawling Maneuvers. There are times when one must move with the body close to the
ground to avoid being seen. There are two ways to do this, the low crawl and the high crawl. Use
the method best suited to the conditions of visibility, cover and concealment available, and speed
required.
11.9.1 High Crawl. The high crawl is used when cover is more prevalent and speed is
essential to the outcome. The body is kept off the ground and your weight is rested upon
the elbows, forearms, and knees. If carrying a rifle, it is either carried across the body
slung in the crotch of the elbows, or across the back. Movement is made by alternately
pulling with each arm and pushing with one leg (if profile is to remain low) or both legs
if in adequate cover. Maintain a profile consistent with cover and speed consistent with
silence.
11.9.2 Low Crawl. The low crawl is used when cover and concealment are inadequate and
when an enemy response is expected. Normally this movement is used to bypass enemy
positions or barriers. The low crawl is extremely slow, so speed cannot be essential to the
outcome.
11.9.2.1 Lie as flat to the ground as possible, legs together and ankles placed flat. Hands
are outstretched in front and flat in position to seek out obstacles such as mines and trip
wires. The head is placed flat with eyes in a position to scout for obstacle. Heels and
buttocks must not rise above the ground. The purpose is to hug the ground as close as
possible.
11.9.2.2 Prior to movement, use the hands to clear an area large enough for the body to
follow. Do not transition out of the cleared area.
11.9.2.3 To move forward extend arms fully to the front and draw one leg far enough to
push and maintain a low profile. Pull with forearms and push with leg. Repeat procedure
as needed. All movement must be slow and deliberate.
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11.10 Stealth Walking. There are two general types of stealth walkingthe toe first and heel
first. Walking in a stealthy manner can be very tiring as well as time consuming and is used when
silence is absolutely paramount. Usually this type of walking is for contact procedures and sentry
neutralization, but may be used whenever stealth is needed. When used during sentry removal,
consider removing any equipment that is not needed. Follow procedures for sentry removal for
additional information.
11.10.1 Body Position. The body must remain relaxed with just enough tension to impart
your movement with force if necessary. The upper body is straight and at an angle sufficient
to block a frontal attack. The arms are up and in a position to block blows. If a weapon is at
hand, hold the weapon with intent and consider it to be used as a bludgeon, if need be. Legs
are bent and shaped as a horseshoe, shoulder width apart, ready to transfer weight and
maintain balance. Maintain 360 degree awareness and do not stare at the objective (staring
may cause the sixth sense to be activated). Be prepared to attack in any direction.
11.10.2 Toe First Method. Pick a point about one-half normal stride, preferably free of dry
leaves and other obstacles. Slowly lift the forward foot and move it forward clearing obstacles
with the toes. Place the outside of the foot lightly down, putting pressure as needed to
maintain silence. Rotate the foot into position until the ball of the foot is placed and lower the
heel. Very slowly, shift the body weight forward until the weight is on the forward foot.
Repeat the process with the other foot, (ensuring that legs are not crossed), moving towards the
forward foot and place approximately shoulder width apart. Terrain and situation will
determine speed and silence.
11.10.3 Heel First Method. Pick a point about one half normal stride, preferably free of dry
leaves and other obstacles. Slowly lift the forward foot and move it forward clearing obstacles
with the toes. Use the outside of the foot to place it lightly down placing pressure as needed to
maintain silence. Rotate the foot into position until the heel of the foot is placed and lower the
toes. Very slowly, shift the body weight forward until the weight is on the forward foot.
Repeat the process with the other foot, (ensuring you do not cross the legs), moving towards
the forward foot and place approximately shoulder width apart. Terrain and situation will
determine speed and silence.
11.11 Combat Tracking. A knowledge of combat tracking techniques provides information
needed to evade enemy trackers and locate evading friendly personnel. Combat tracking
techniques may have to be employed in the final stages of locating the evader. In difficult threat
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situations, the IPs fear of being captured may cause reluctance in revealing the hiding place,
requiring a more extensive search to make contact.
11.11.1 Qualities of a Tracker. Tracking can be effectively employed using basic
techniques, common sense, and some degree of experience. There are traits and qualities that
must be developed and refined, to qualify as a worthy combat tracker. A tracker must have
patience. The tracker must be able to proceed slowly and quietly, yet steadily while observing
available indicators and interpreting them. The tracker must avoid using reckless speed that
may cause him to overlook important signs, lose the trail completely, or blunder into an enemy
force. A good tracker must be persistent. The tracker must have the ability and desire to
continue the mission even though indicators are scarce or conditions of weather or terrain are
difficult. If the tracker loses a trail, the tracker must have the determination and persistence to
find it again. The tracker must develop an acute sense of observation. The tracker must be able
to see things not obvious at a glance. The tracker must have the ability to use his senses of
smell and hearing to supplement personal observation. A good tracker must also develop a
sixth sense. The tracker may often be led to inspect an area simply because it does not look
right. This ability often enables a tracker to regain a lost spoor or discover new or additional
indicators. An effective tracker must also know the evader or element being tracked. The
tracker cannot properly interpret clues that are found unless the tracker has some knowledge of
the individuals, their habits, equipment, or level of training. A good tracker must also have an
understanding of nature, a good memory, intelligence, and the tracker must be physically fit
enough to accomplish the mission.
11.11.2 Tracking Terminology:
11.11.2.1 Spoor. Spoor means a set of tracks laid upon the ground and visible to a
tracker.
11.11.2.2 Tracker. The tracker is the member of a tracking team who is physically
looking for and following the spoor. The tracker is not, and at no time should be used as
the point man.
11.11.2.3 Quarry. Quarry is used as an alternative to fugitive, target, or the
pursued.
11.11.2.4 Time and Distance Gap. The theoretical distance which the quarry could
move over the ground between the time of incident and the time which the tracker arrive to
commence a follow-up.
11.11.2.5 Follow-up. A follow-up is the physical act of a tactically trained tracking
team, following a spoor made by the quarry.
11.11.3 Tracking Team Composition and Formation. The best team composition for
conducting combat tracking consists of a minimum of four trained trackers. A tracking team
as large as six to eight personnel can be effective as well; however, take care not to
contaminate the spoor with the additional personnel. The best suited movement formation for
tracking is the Y formation. The left and right flanks provide for security but additionally
scan for tracks that may cut across their line of travel. The primary tracker is in the center of
the formation and has the responsibility of following the spoor, marking the last known spoor
and communicating critical information to the team leader/controller. The tracker sets the
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pace for the formation. The controller is in the rear of the formation and provides for rear
security, control of the formation and communication with command and control elements.
Additionally the controller conducts scans with binoculars during extended halts to pick up
signs of any threats or the quarry.
11.11.4 Concepts of Tracking. As a tracker moves along the ground following a spoor, the
tracker begins to build a mental picture of the objective being tracked. To accomplish this, the
tracker constantly asks himself questions such as: How many people am I following? How
are they equipped? Do they know they are being followed? By comparing indicators, the
tracker begins to answer the internally posed questions. For example, if the tracker finds a
footprint and a scuff on a tree about waist high, it may indicate an armed individual passed this
particular spot. There are six concepts that apply to tracking: displacement, staining,
weathering, littering, deception, and interpretation/immediate use of intelligence data.
11.11.4.1 One or more of the first five concepts can define any indicator the tracker
discovers. Using the sixth concept, the tracker combines the other five concepts and uses
all discovered indicators to form a composite picture of the evader being followed. To
accomplish this, the tracker must interpret what has been seen. Once an interpretation has
been made, applicable intelligence data should be made available for the trackers
immediate use on the spot. For example, indicators may point out contact is imminent. If
intelligence data indicates extreme stealth and caution may be required, the tracker must be
appraised of this fact at the earliest possible moment. By examining each concept
individually, the tracker can see several concepts can apply to one indicator at the same
time. It is hard to visualize how any indicator would not be defined by at least one of the
concepts of tracking. There are six variants of spoor indicators:
11.11.4.2 Ground spoors are marks and impressions of footwear, other body parts,
equipment carried or left on the surface of the ground. Ground spoor can be observed by
regularity of the impression as with a uniform tread pattern; flattening from pressure on the
ground; transference from material transferred by the foot from one medium to another,
color change and disturbance. Following ground spoor is easiest in soil which holds the
spoor well (e.g., sand and snow).
11.11.4.3 Aerial spoor is any damaged created to vegetation as an individual moves
around or through the vegetation and can be identified as crushed, broken or bent grass,
leaf creases, skinned bark, or dew knocked off vegetation.
11.11.4.4 Signs are any indicator other than ground or aerial spoor.
11.11.4.4.1 Bits of clothing, threads, or dirt from boots can be displaced from a
persons uniform and deposited on thorns, snags, or the ground are signs. Thorns
should be inspected for bits of clothing or other matter ripped from the uniform of the
person being tracked.
11.11.4.4.2 In almost any area, there will be insects and spiders. The observation of
any changes in the normal life of these insects may be an indication someone has
recently passed. Bees that are stirred up, ants that have had their holes covered by
someone moving over them, or spiders that have had their webs torn down are valuable
clues. Spiders often spin webs across open areas, trail, or roads to trap flying insects.
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If someone is careless and does not move under these webs, an indicator is provided to
an observant tracker.
11.11.4.4.3 Wild animals and birds flushed from their natural habitat by the person
being tracked are examples of displacement. Cries of birds excited by unnatural
movement are an indicator. Tops of tall grass or brush moving on a windless day is an
indication someone is moving the vegetation from its original position. Displacement
can result from clearing a trail by either breaking or cutting ones way through heavy
vegetation with a machete. These trails are obvious to the most inexperienced tracker.
A person sleeping will also flatten the vegetation.
11.11.4.5 As a poorly trained or disciplined evader or element moves over a piece of
terrain, it is likely a clear trail of litter will mark its path. Gum or candy wrappers, ration
cans, cigarette butts, remains of fires, or even piles of human feces are unmistakable signs
of recent movement. Weathering must be taken into consideration when estimating the
age of litter. Rain flattens or washes litter away and turns paper into pulp. Ration cans,
exposed to weather, will rust first at the exposed edge when it is opened. Rust then moves
in toward the center. Again the tracker must use his memory to properly determine the age
of litter. The last rain or strong wind can be the basis for a time frame.
11.11.4.6. Blood spoor consist of any blood or other bodily fluids left behind due to
existing injury. Examples are blood, lung shot and matter left behind from a head wound.
Blood signs often will be in the form of spatters of drops left by the wounded person being
followed. Bloodstains are not always on the ground. Blood can be smeared on leaves or
twigs from a persons height to the ground.
11.11.4.7 Body waste consist of urine, feces, or oral ejecta such as spit or chewing
tobacco.
11.11.5 Analyzing Footprints. Footprints may indicate direction and rate of movement,
number of persons in the moving element, whether or not heavy loads are being carried, sex of
members of the element, and whether the members of the element realize that they are being
followed. If footprints are deep and the pace is long, rapid movement is apparent. Extremely
long strides, deep prints with the toe prints deeper than heel prints, indicate running. Prints
can be counted to determine the number of people in the element. If the prints are deep, short,
and widely spaced, with indications of scuffing or shuffling, the person who left the print is
carrying a heavy load. The sex of a member of the element being following can be determined
by studying the size and position of the footprints. Women tend to be pigeon-toed, while men
walk with their feet straight-ahead or pointed slightly to the outside. Prints left by women are
usually smaller and the stride is shorter than that taken by men. If the quarry realizes that they
are being followed, an attempt to hide their tracks may be made. Persons walking backwards
have short, irregular stride. The prints have an unnaturally deep toe. Soil will be kicked in the
direction of movement.
11.11.5.1 Once a clear foot print is found of the quarry, a detailed sketch which includes
precise measurements, should be made. This should include a detailed sketch of the
footwear pattern and measurement of overall foot length, width of heel and toe sections
and any other identifiable marks. This sketch is used to occasionally confirm that the
tracker is following the correct spoor or identify this specific print when intermingled with
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11.11.6 Weathering. Weather may either aid or hinder the tracker. It affects indicators in
certain ways so that the tracker may determine their relative ages. Wind, snow, rain, or
sunlight may, however, obliterate indicators entirely, thus hindering the tracker. By studying
the effects of weather on indicators, the tracker can make a determination as to the age of the
sign. For example, when bloodstains are fresh, they are bright red. Air and sunlight change
blood first to a deep ruby red color, then to a dark brown crust when the moisture evaporates.
Scuff marks on trees or brushes darken with time, sap oozes, then hardens when it makes
contact with the air.
11.11.6.1 Identifying Footprint Age. Footprints are greatly affected by weather. When
a persons foot displaces soft moist soil to form a print, initially, the moisture holds the
edges of the print intact. As sunlight and air-dry the edges of the print, small particles that
were held in place by moisture fall by their own weight into the print. Careful study of this
process by the tracker can lead to a determination of the approximate age of the print. If
particles are just beginning to fall into the print, the tracker should become a stalker. If the
edges of the print are dried and crusty, the prints are probably at least an hour old. This
will vary with terrain and should be taken as a general guide.
11.11.6.2 How Weather Effects Tracking. A light rain may round out the edges of the
print. The tracker must remember when the last rain occurred in order to place these prints
into a proper time frame. A heavy rain may erase all signs. Wind also affects tracks.
Besides drying out the print, litter, sticks, or leaves may be blown into the print. By
remembering wind activity, the tracker may guess the age of the tracks. Trails exiting
streams may appear to have been weathered by rain because of water running from
clothing or equipment into the tracks. This is particularly true if the party exits the stream
in a file. This will permit each person to deposit water into the tracks. The existence of a
wet, apparently watered, trail slowly fading into a dry trail indicates the trail is fresh.
11.11.6.3 Effect of Wind. The effect of wind on sounds and odors is one aspect of the
effect weather has on tracking. If the wind is blowing from the direction of the trail the
tracker is following, sounds and odors may be carried to the tracker. If the wind is
blowing in the same direction as the trail being followed, the tracker must be extremely
cautious since the wind will carry the trackers sounds towards the enemy. Wind direction
can be determined by dropping a handful of dry dust or grass from shoulder height. By
facing in the same direction the wind is blowing, sounds can be localized by cupping the
hands behind the ears and slowly turning. When the sounds are loudest, the tracker is
facing the origin of the sound. In calm weather, when no wind is blowing, the air currents
that carry sounds to the tracker may be too light to feel. The tracker must remember that
the air cools in the evening and moves downhill to the valleys. If a tracker is moving uphill
in the day or at night, air currents will probably be moving toward the tracker, provided no
other wind is blowing. As the sun warms the air in the valleys in the morning, it moves
uphill. These factors should be considered when plotting routes for operations. Regardless
of these factors however the tracker has very few options other the following the spoor.
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11.11.6.4 Lumination Considerations. A tracker should also consider the sun, moon or
artificial light angles. A ground spoor indicator clearly seen when the sun is in the
trackers face can become nearly impossible to see with the sun at the trackers back. As a
general rule, the tracker should be facing into the light source with the track in between the
tracker and light source. Even though that may be the best position for tracking, it may
cause some tactical concern like the ability to effectively engage targets when looking into
the sun.
11.11.6.5 Anti-Tracking Techniques. Anti-tracking techniques are technique used to
disguise the spoor or fool the tracker into self doubt, resulting in the tracker getting further
and further behind the quarry. Walking backward to leave confusing prints, brushing out
trails, moving over rocky ground or through streams are examples of technique employed
to confuse the tracker. Walking on well used trails or path may be used to attempt to have
spoor obliterated by local foot or vehicle traffic. However, the tracker can follow the party
if the tracker is experienced and persistent by using the proper concepts. The evader or
element being followed may use several methods to attempt to minimize trail signs. Rags
wrapped around footwear, or soft-soled tennis shoes may make footprints more rounded
on the edges and less distinct. An element may exit a stream in a column formation or a
scattered, line abreast formation. This reduces the chances of leaving a well-defined exit.
A careful, observant tracker can determine by a study of the signs if an attempt is being
made to confuse the tracker. If the individual being followed attempts to throw the tracker
off by walking backward, the footprints will be deepened at the toe and soil will be scuffed
or dragged in the direction of movement. By following carefully, the tracker can normally
find a turnaround point. A trail can be brushed out. The experienced tracker could easily
recognize this technique. If the trail leads across rocky or hard ground, the tracker should
attempt to circumnavigate the area to pick up the exit trail. This process works in streams
as well. On rocky ground, even the most careful evader could displace moss or lichen
growing on the stones. An experienced tracker can trace these signs. If these methods fail,
the tracker should return to the last visible indicators and then head in the direction of
movement in ever-widening circles until the tracker again falls upon visible signs.
Remember that an evader that attempts to hide the trail moves at a reduced speed.
Therefore, an experienced tracker, who is not fooled by these attempts, gains time on the
individual being followed.
11.11.6.6 Counter-Tracking Techniques. Counter-tracking techniques are methods
employed to harm the trackers or do psychological damage so as to make them lose
interest in continuing the pursuit. Examples are the use of pursue deterrent munitions or
other explosive or improvised booby traps as well as employment of a sniper by the
quarry. Depending on the motivation of the tracking team, the use of these
counter-tracking techniques may discourage or encourage them to continue tracking.
Much thought must be given as to the merits of using booby traps and mines, because they
are nondiscriminatory in nature.
11.11.6.7 Lost Spoor Procedures. The lost spoor procedure is a sequential procedure
designed to incrementally increase the search area until the lost spoor is relocated. Prior to
starting formal lost spoor procedures, the primary tracker conducts a quick scan to
relocate any spoor. If the spoor is not found during the quick scan, the primary tracker
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11.11.7 Remember these general rules when conducting any tracking as part of the
operations. Correctly identify the spoor. Never walk on top of the spoor. Never overshoot the
last known spoor. When following aerial spoor, seek confirmatory evidence. Always know
where you are, maintain visual contact with other team members and anticipate what the
quarry will do. The tracker sets the pace.
11.12 Tactical River and Stream Crossing. The following additional information is provided
in addition to referring to Army field manuals. NOTE: Water temperatures must be determined
and planned for when conducting river/stream crossings, especially in the tactical environment.
11.12.1 Fording. If a wide, shallow (less than 1.5 meters deep) stream is encountered, a
secluded shallow spot for fording should be selected. A security element should cross first
after a suitable observation period of the opposite bank. It should move rapidly across in a
column, the lead person probing ahead with a fathoming stick. If the water is flowing rapidly,
a safety rope should be secured on both banks to prevent falling and being carried
downstream.
11.12.2 Swimming. If a stream is too deep to ford, swim across it. A UDT life vest makes
this a fairly easy task. Put the vest on, inflate the vest until adequate buoyancy is achieved and
breast stroke across. Clear any weapons immediately upon reaching the opposite bank. If the
possibility of crossing streams/rivers exists, the UDT vest should be taken on the operation.
Without a UDT vest, river crossing can become extremely hazardous. Never attempt to ford a
stream directly above, or close to, a deep or rapid waterfall or a deep channel. The stream
should be crossed where the opposite side is comprised of shallow banks or sandbars. Avoid
rocky places, since a fall may cause serious injury. However, an occasional rock which breaks
the current may be of some assistance. The depth of the water is not necessarily a deterrent.
Deep water may run more slowly and be safer than shallow water.
11.12.3 Rope Bridges. Rope bridges provide temporary means for crossing rivers where the
span is not great (less than 20 meters) and where there would be savings in time over other
methods. The technique for installing rope bridges is covered in Army FM 31-72, Maintain
Operations.
11.12.4 Inflatable Raft. If numerous rivers will have to be crossed, a one-person raft may be
a practical method of getting gear and personnel across. The gear is placed in the raft and the
personnel swim along side holding on to the raft. This method becomes especially valuable
when moving injured personnel or survivors who cannot swim.
11.12.5 Improvised Rafts. Rafts can be constructed from natural material in the area or from
ponchos or other gear carried. Care in construction is necessary to avoid having the raft come
apart during the crossing of the river. The Poncho (donut) raft can be used for transporting
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equipment but is not a good vehicle for people. The raft is constructed by using saplings or
pliable willows shaped in the from of a donut and covered with a waterproof cover.
11.12.6 Vegetation Raft. The vegetation raft is built of small vegetation which will float
and is placed within clothing or parachute to form a raft for a survivor and/or
equipment. Plants such as water hyacinth or cattail may be used. A good floating device
can be fabricated by using two balsa logs or other lightweight wood. The logs should be
placed about 2 feet apart and tied together. The operator sits on the lines and travels
with the current.
11.12.7 Boats. Individuals may have an occasion to use an opportune boat found on the
bank of the river that requires crossing. When this method is used, always consider that
someone is going to look for the boat and report it to the authorities. After using the boat, do
not pull it up on the opposite bank and leave. It will give away a critical position. After
crossing the river, get out of the boat where the water is about knee deep, and push it into the
current. Let it drift away.
11.13 Navigation.
11.13.1 Purpose. An operator and/or team on the ground must be thoroughly familiar with
all day/night navigation procedures, maps of the mission area, and navigation instruments
such as the lensatic/saliva compass and GPS receivers. This knowledge can be used
effectively to locate IPs and travel to their location, to pin-point positions for evacuation, for
route selection, or to select air evacuation sites. Most techniques and procedures for
navigation will be found in Army FM 21-26, Map Reading and Navigation.
11.13.2 Maps. Many types of maps exist and careful consideration should be given to
selecting the appropriate map for the mission. The most common and useful map for ground
navigation is a 1:50,000 scale map. Additionally, satellite imagery can be overlaid with
desired grid for critical areas in the mission. Regardless of the type of map used, given special
attention to ensure the map datum is known and loaded into GPS systems being used. Ensure
map datum and a declination diagram is attached to the map for quick reference. All operators
should be familiar with the map legend and symbols which may be critical to mission success.
Prior to use, the date of the map should be checked and considered during mission planning
and execution
11.13.3 Watches. Digital compass/altimeter watch would include watches such as the
Pathfinder and Suunto. Before leaving on a mission, confirm that the altimeter is set to a
known elevation and confirm that the digital compass is calibrated. Using the compass portion
of these watches will rapidly drain battery life. Consider only using these during emergency
situation when no other compass is available
11.13.4 Lensatic Compass. The lensatic compass is the standard issue military compass
and should be included in mission essential equipment. Used for orienting maps,
determining distance and direction, traveling, shooting azimuths and triangulation.
Ensure the luminous parts of the compass are functioning and the dial is free floating
prior to use.
NOTE: Lensatic compasses come in two types, southern and northern hemisphere. Although they
will work in both hemispheres, they will not be accurate outside their hemisphere.
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11.13.5 Silva Compass. The Silva compass is used in a similar fashion to the lensatic
compass. The Silva compass has a unique feature that precludes the user from having to orient
the map to North on the ground. However, once the distance and direction are established, use
of the lensatic for actual navigation should be considered. Instructions for use are provided by
the manufacturer. The numerical graduations on the compass dial may not be tritium based as
in the lensatic compass. There are luminous points on the compass which allow a heading to
be followed after being set. A local modification may be made in which a luminous dot is
made on the direction of travel line directly next to the compass housing. This will allow a
better alignment between the 0-degree mark and the line of travel arrow to dial in a heading
under total darkness.
11.13.6 Wrist Compass. Various small wrist compasses are available which attach to a
watch band. Although these are very useful in maintaining general direction and situational
awareness, they should not be used for precise point-to-point navigation. As with other
navigation aids, this compass should be checked before missions against other navigation aids
for accuracy.
11.13.7 Altimeter Used as a Compass Aid. The barometric altimeter is useful for weather
forecasting and as a navigation aid. The altimeter is used as a navigational aid to determine
elevation above sea level. For navigational purposes, the altimeter is always used in
conjunction with the map and compass.
11.13.7.1 Setting the Altimeter. The user must know present altitude to calibrate the
altimeter to local barometric pressure conditions. This is done by rotating the outer ring of
the altimeter until the altimeter needle reading corresponds to the known elevation. To
maintain the accuracy of the altimeter, periodic checks and the necessary adjustment must
be made from a known altitude at known locations. When the weather conditions have
changed, the altimeter will also have changed. Reset the altimeter from known locations
with quickly changing weather and always at the start of each days activity. Without the
periodic adjustment of the altimeter, the accuracy will be unreliable and result in faulty
readings that could be potentially dangerous. A fall or rise in barometric pressure of 0.10
millimeters of mercury will place the setting 100 feet low or high.
11.13.7.2 Field Applications. The most common and frequent use of the altimeter is to
maintain a given elevation or confirming a location with comparison to map and compass
navigational calculations.
11.13.7.3 Maintaining Elevation. The most basic use of the altimeter is to maintain a
given height while traversing a mountain. Continued travel up and down hill is, for the
most part, unnecessarily tiring for a team enroute to a victim. Maintaining a constant
elevation, as much as the topography of the terrain will prevents the expenditure of energy
that may be required once on scene or during the evacuation of a victim.
11.13.7.4 Confirming Location. In conjunction with the map and compass, the altimeter
may be used to confirm the present position of the user. This is particularly important in
adverse weather conditions such as a snow storm, fog, or low clouds which may prevent
the usual comparison between a suspected position and the surrounding terrain. A team
may believe their location to be on a summit (e.g., when in reality the true location is on a
false summit). If the weather was clear, higher ground could be easily seen. In limited
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visibility, a comparison may be made of the height given on the map for the summit and
the altimeter reading. This comparison will confirm you have not reached the summit and
aid in determining exact position. The altimeter can be compared with a like contour
reference on the map to determine the exact location. A more serious use of the altimeter
is to assist in position location when descending a ridge line with many connecting ridges
at various heights. If a change of direction is indicated which requires leaving the
presently traveled ridgeline for another ridge, accomplish the following procedures.
Determine the altitude of the connecting ridge to be traveled from contour lines on
the map.
Proceed on a compass bearing to the ridge.
Stop when on the ridge line and compare the altimeter with the contour line
elevation on the map.
Check the surrounding contour to compare the rise and fall of the terrain with the
map contours as a back up check.
11.13.8 Pace Count. Along with the compass, maintaining an accurate pace count is vital
for accurate navigation. Operators should determine their pace count prior to each mission
with the gear they will be carrying on a measured 100-meter distance. All team members
should review effects of terrain on pace count as outlined in Army FM 21-26, Map Reading
and Navigation.
11.13.9 Six-Point Navigation Checklist. A six-point checklist should be made, during
mission planning, for each ground navigation leg based on a detailed map study. The checklist
consist of the:
Heading in degrees to the next point
Distance to be traveled in meters.
Pace count for the entire navigation leg.
Terrain description of the terrain to be covered.
Estimated time of travel to the next point.
Point description of what the final point should look like.
11.13.10 Checklist. By completing the checklist and referring back to it during navigation,
the team can ensure it is staying on course and is able to determine its position at all times. It
is critical to use the checklist regardless of GPS availability. This is long-used and proven,
procedure is effective; it can not be over emphasized.
11.13.11 Global Positions System. GPS is a battery-powered, man-portable system, that
uses satellites to determine present location/position. If the operator is not in an area visible to
the sky (e.g., multiple canopy tree cover, drainages or urban areas) signal strength/accuracy
can be reduced. Operators should be intimately familiar with their individual GPS and the
effects of weather and terrain on signal strength.
11.13.12 Waypoints. Waypoints are spots loaded in the GPS unit that can be referenced by
the user once a GPS fix is acquired. These waypoints can be loaded via serial port prior to a
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mission (such as SARDOT or rally points) or once on the ground using the Mark button.
Waypoints can also be manipulated and loaded without actually being in the location.
11.13.13 GPS Properties. GPS is extremely accurate and highly portable. All operators
will be trained to load/maintain/use the GPS. Training will be documented in members
OJT record. GPS should be used to reconfirm your suspected location. Battery life is
limited in GPS units and they are affected by cold and prolonged use. Once a distance
and direction is established, use the Silva or lensatic compass for traveling.
NOTE: GPSs are mechanical systems and may break. Although highly beneficial for determining
your exact location, you should be proficient in land navigation using map and compass and
terrain following procedures.
11.13.14 Transmitting Coordinates. Many inaccuracies may exist when comparing an
actual site location with its identified map location. These inaccuracies come from reading
and plotting errors, datum transformation errors, symbol displacement errors, and incorrect
specifications. These errors can be compounded if datums are mixed when reporting
positional information. When passing or transmitting coordinates it is important the complete
source of the coordinates be given. In order to avoid confusion, the source will include the
map or chart producer, series, sheet number, edition, date and datum. Inaccuracies may exist
between actual and plotted position. These inaccuracies are caused by errors in reading and
plotting, using incorrect map datum, and GPS inaccuracies as well as other factors. Most
inaccuracies can be prevented by ensuring proper map datum and using approved navigation
and coordinate plotting and reading procedures. When passing coordinates ensure complete
coordinates are passed as well as the map datum to avoid confusion
11.14 Navigation. Navigation is a highly perishable skill that takes considerable practice to
obtain the required proficiency level. Various different terrain and climatic conditions will effect
the ability of a team to successfully navigate to desired points with accuracy.
11.14.1 Desert Environment Considerations. Navigating in flat, featureless desert can be
difficult at best because there are no easily identifiable features. Mirages can create
disorienting images on the horizon. Additionally distances are hard to judge. As a
general rule, multiply distance estimates times three. Occasional sand storms can cause
brownout conditions which are completely disorienting if you continue traveling.
Ensure GPS is available in this environment. Maintain an accurate pace count and plot
the route carefully. If needed, send personnel ahead and direct them onto the desired
course using the compass.
11.14.2 Jungle Environment Navigation.
11.14.2.1 Navigation in thick jungle areas is difficult even for the most experienced
navigators. Operators navigating in the jungle must use various aids. The compass is an
obvious aid, but an individual would never be able to move very fast in the jungle if
constantly moving along a magnetic azimuth. Movement along a terrain feature, such as a
ridgeline, is easier but can be extremely dangerous when establishing a pattern of
consistency. A soldier must trust the compass, map, and pace count. A soldier should not
keep his eyes riveted on the compass; however, it should be used as a check.
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11.14.2.2 The shadows caused by the sun are an easily observed and accurate aid to
direction. Make allowances for the gradual displacement of the shadows as the sun moves
across the sky.
11.14.2.3 Other aids to maintaining direction include prominent objects, the course of
rivers, prevailing winds, the stars, and the moon.
11.14.2.4 Maps are used with caution. When selecting routes, old maps are often
inaccurate. However, native trails normally follow the line of least resistance between two
points, and if a trail is indicated on a map, there is a good probability that it exists or there
is another trail close by. Roads and trails should be avoided. Although they are easy to
move on, they offer little concealment. These are the areas most likely to be under enemy
observation. They are easy to ambush and are very likely to be mined or booby trapped.
Team reconnaissance is the best source of information in selecting routes. All are
instructed to note, sketch, and report all variations from existing maps. Before conducting
a move in the jungle, leaders should make a map and aerial photograph reconnaissance.
This reconnaissance will indicate possible danger areas, obstacles, and roads or clearings
suitable for resupply. Danger areas, such as streambeds and draws, are usually more
thickly vegetated. They offer excellent concealment, but travel along them is slow and
difficult. Aerial reconnaissance can provide some assistance in route selection. Aerial
photographs supplement maps and reconnaissance and are invaluable. In addition,
helicopter aerial observation may be used to advantage in route reconnaissance. Trails
generally exist between native villages, even when none appear on maps. Natives usually
blaze or mark such trails, and operators should be taught to recognize such signs unique to
that AO. Existing trails and streams are used when the direction of movement and the
situation allow it. Streams may be used as trails if they are not too deep or swift. When
rafts or small boats are available, a deep stream is one of the fastest and most dependable
means of jungle travel. When teams move through close, hilly country, individuals should
avoid small saplings. The shaking of overhead branches can be seen and heard at a
distance. When moving through tree cultivations, team members must keep off trails, if
only by walking a few feet off these trails.
11.14.3 Cold Weather Environment Navigation.
11.14.3.1 Map Reading. Map reading and navigation in snow-covered terrain follows the
same principles as in temperate climates. In cold weather operations, however, navigation
and route selection are complicated by snow-covered terrain, which makes terrain look
different and hinders orientation. Weather conditions can reduce visibility. Use of
over-the-snow mobility devices such as snowshoes or skis with equipment loads (e.g.,
sleds) may determine route. Avalanche potential constantly dictates the route. A
snow-covered environment provides many challenges to navigation and route selection.
Deep snow will completely cover tracks, trails, streams, and roads limiting the
effectiveness of the map. Snowdrifts may hide small depressions and draws indicated on
maps. They may even give the impression of small hills. Lakes, ponds, marshes, and
rivers are often covered with snow and ice, which make detection difficult. They may or
may not be suitable to cross. In northern latitudes, increased periods of darkness during
winter months will require more night operations. Aerial photos taken during winter are
difficult to read because of the monotony of detail, absence of relief, lack of contrast, and
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11-25
NEONISHs are classified SECRET and contain a wealth of information about conducting
an NEO or special missions, to include identifying pre-surveyed LZs.
11.14.4.2 Overhead Imagery. Current overhead imagery is also an excellent supplement
to military city maps and can also be substituted for a map. A topographic map or military
city map could be obsolete if compiled many years ago. A recent photograph shows
changes that have taken place since the map was made. More information can be gained
by using overhead imagery and maps together than using either separately.
11.14.4.3 Navigation in Built-Up Areas. Built-up areas present a different set of
challenges with regard to navigation. Deep in the city core, the normal terrain features
depicted on maps may not apply. Buildings become the major terrain features and units
become tied to streets. Fighting in the city destroys buildings whose rubble then blocks the
streets. Street and road signs are destroyed during the fighting if the defenders do not
remove them. Operations in subways and sewers present other unique challenges.
However, maps and photographs are available to help the team overcome these problems.
The global positioning system can enhance navigation accuracy in built-up areas.
11.14.4.4 GPS. Most GPS use satellite triangulation to calculate their position.
Preliminary tests have shown that small built-up areas, such as villages do not affect GPS
signals. However, large built-up areas with a mixture of tall and short buildings cause
some degradation of most GPS. This effect may increase as the system is moved into an
interior of a large building or taken into subterranean areas. Use these systems on the tops
of buildings, in open areas, and down streets where obstacles will not affect line of sight
(LOS) readings.
11.14.4.5 Reference Points. Once in the built-up area, use street intersections as reference
points. City maps supplement or replace topographic maps as the basis of navigation.
These maps enable teams moving in the area to know where they are, and to move to new
locations even though streets have been blocked or a key building destroyed.
11.14.4.6 Map and Compass. Techniques of compass use and pace count can still be
used, especially in a blacked-out city where street signs and buildings are not visible. The
presence of steel and iron in an urban environment may cause inaccurate compass
readings. Subterranean areas must be navigated much the same way. City sewer
departments maintain maps providing the basic layout of the sewer system. This
information includes direction the lines run and distances between manhole covers. Along
with basic compass and pace count techniques, such information enables a team to move
underground.
11.14.5 Mountain Environment.
11.14.5.1 Navigation Techniques. The techniques of navigation are the same for more
moderate terrain, although some additional considerations may be applied.
11.14.5.2 The altimeter is very useful for navigating in mountainous terrain and can be
used as a second azimuth to obtain a resection from a map. With known elevation, an
operator can trace the back-azimuth according to the map contour line as indicated with
the altimeter.
11-26
11.15 Combatives.
11.15.1 Purpose. The purpose of this section is to provide an overview of various combative
disciplines. A comprehensive combatives program is critical for operators involved in the
mission today. Recovery team members may find themselves in close proximity with the
enemy and other non-belligerents where lethal force may not be needed or stealth is required.
The information contained in this attachment is not all-inclusive and may be adapted to fit the
situation.
11.15.2 General. GUARDIAN ANGEL personnel may be trained in several different
fighting disciplines. Combatives training covers three basic dimensions of fighting: ground
fighting, standing grappling, and up fighting.
11.15.2.1 Ground Fighting. The warfighter is engaged in hand-to-hand combat with the
enemy while on the ground. Examples of this fighting discipline are submission grappling
and brazilian jiu-jitsu.
11.15.2.2 Standing Grappling. The warfighter is engaged in hand-to-hand combat while
standing in such close proximity that punching and kicking are ineffective. Examples of
this fighting discipline are Greco-Roman wrestling and Judo.
11-27
11-28
12-1
CHAPTER 12
REINTEGRATION OPERATIONS
12.1 General. Reintegration is a critical task that allows the Department of Defense to gather
necessary intelligence and SERE information while coordinating multiple activities and protecting
the health and well-being of returned isolated personnel. Combat rescue officers (CRO), SERE
specialists, intelligence debriefers, SERE psychologists, and others who assist the recovered
isolated personnel to decompress and reintegrate to their unit, family and society are key to
accomplishing this task.
12.1.1 Reintegration Preparation. Planning for the reintegration process begins prior to
deployment and continues once in country.
12.1.1.1 Pre-Deployment Preparation. Personnel recovery team members should have
an in depth knowledge on general guidance, their roles, and specialized taskings as part of
the reintegration process (e.g., transfer of custody, team chief, and SERE debriefer).
Whenever possible, PR exercises and training should incorporate a reintegration tasker.
PR teams should have a reintegration kit as part of their team equipment (See Table 12.1
and Table 12.2, Reintegration Kit.)
12.1.1.2 In-Country Preparation. Once in theatre, team chiefs will need to ensure that
all members of the reintegration team are available, trained, and knowledgeable on their
roles and tasks involved with the returnees. Coordination and contact procedures for all
team members needs to be available. Training may need to be provided for all critical and
non-critical support personnel involved in the reintegration process. (See Table 12.3,
Phase 1 Reintegration Team Contacts). Additionally, all individuals assigned to the team
must ensure that they provide AOR departure information to the team chief to help ensure
their replacements are available and the contact sheet may be updated.
12.1.2 Planning Considerations. Reintegration is both a service and joint operational
mission. Reintegration is a component responsibility and will be conducted under
supported/supporting relationships for the joint force commander.
12.1.2.1 Whenever possible, reintegration consists of three mutually exclusive phases:
initial reception (Phase I), transition point (Phase II), CONUS evacuation/reintegration
(Phase III).
12.1.2.2 Prior to developing or implementing PR plans, consider general reintegration
guidance. The majority of captive or missing personnel will be returned to US military
control in an OCONUS area as part of a negotiated settlement. During an armed conflict,
some personnel may be returned to US control before a negotiated settlement or
termination of hostilities. This would generally be a result of early release or reintegration
for medical reasons, as a result of prisoner exchange, or return of retained medical or
religious personnel whose services are no longer needed to care for other prisoners.
12-2
12-3
12-4
12-5
12-6
12.1.3 General Debriefing Guidance. The debriefs are designed to obtain specific
information regarding the experience of recovered isolated personnel. SERE and intelligence
debriefs may run separately or concurrently as dictated by mission circumstances, but must be
coordinated with one another. The SERE debrief must be allowed to follow accepted
protocols as established by the Joint Personnel Recovery Agency (JPRA) to produce verbal
and visual recordings that are essential to the JPRA SERE analysis and development of
lessons learned. If any debriefer determines, suspects, or has prior knowledge that the
recovered isolated personnel have experienced an encounter with NAR, the debriefing will
stop until JPRA provides a qualified NAR debriefer who can properly debrief the recovered
isolated personnel to protect sensitive information. The trained debriefer will also stop the
debriefing process if it becomes apparent that information reviewed may indicate possible
violations of the UCMJ. The debrief will then follow the reintegration team SOP or consult
with a judge advocate.
12.1.3.1 Decompression Protocols. An inherent and critical part of the reintegration
process is the decompression protocols. The long-term successful reintegration of
recovered isolated personnel into military and social/civil environments is directly affected
by proper decompression. Protocols have been established to maximize the benefit of
decompression and, at the very least under normal conditions, require a minimum of 72
hours to be effective. Deviating from established protocols can have a severe impact and,
under certain circumstances, create permanent psychological trauma to the recovered
isolated personnel. From past detention incidents, this trauma has manifested itself in
recovered isolated personnel separating themselves from military service, having
dysfunctional family relationships, and, in severe cases, committing suicide. Some of the
decompression protocols include: normalizing physical and emotional reactions to their
isolation experience; providing an opportunity to predict and control their environment;
allowing them to repeatedly tell their story in a positive manner; allowing a group of
recovered isolated personnel from the same event to have time together to rehash their
experience in a positive manner; allowing individual down time to come to grips with the
whole event; assisting them in developing an action plan for dealing with the media,
integrating into family, returning to duty, etc.; offering and providing follow-up care after
the formal reintegration process is over.
12.1.3.2 Debriefing Location. To the greatest extent possible, when more than one
person is returned, all returnees should be moved to the same OCONUS and CONUS
debriefing locations to facilitate their psychological adjustment. Historical reintegration
experiences consistently indicate that the returnees benefit greatly from the opportunity to
achieve closure with one another, thus improving their ability to eventually move beyond
the captivity experience and continue with their lives.
12.1.3.3 Confidentiality. The returnee debriefings shall be obtained under an expressed
written promise of confidentiality. Debriefings shall be treated as privileged information
under the provisions of 10 U.S.C. 1506(d)(1). The debriefs are the property of DoD and
12-7
shall not be released to the public. Immediately after the medical screening, the returnee
should be presented with a Promise of Confidentiality document found in DD Form
2810, Promise of Confidentiality, to inform the returnee that debriefings will remain
confidential to the extent authorized by law. (See Table A2.9, DD Form 2810Promise
of Confidentiality.)
12.1.4 Combat Rescue Officer/SERE Specialist Responsibilities. Combat rescue officer
(CRO) and SERE specialists are assigned to theater or component commands. They ensure
coordination with the JPRC/PRCC occurs in all matters relating to the reintegration process.
The JPRC/component PRCC should be staffed with CROs and SERE specialists. These
individuals will serve in the JPRC/PRCC in multiple capacities (director, assistant director,
search and rescue duty officer [SARDO], search and rescue liaison officer [SARLO], and
watch supervisor.) SERE specialists are subject matter experts in the reintegration process;
responsible for the SERE debriefs. The SERE specialist will be consulted and deferred too
during both the reintegration planning and execution phases.
12.1.4.1 CRO/SERE specialists within the JPRC/PRCC architecture will coordinate
personnel recovery operations within the theater and component area of operations (AOR).
This includes all operational aspects of theater and component level reintegration. (See
Table A2.1 and Table A2.2, JPRC/PRCC Reintegration Checklist.)
12.1.4.2 When specifically directedJPRC, ICW JPRA will ensure information
pertinent to reintegration activities involving nonconventional assisted recovery (NAR)
operations is collected and disseminated as required. The focal point for NAR is generally
the unconventional assisted recovery coordination center (UARCC).
12.1.4.3 Whenever possible, the CRO will be assigned as the reintegration team chief.
The reintegration team chief will designate, task organize, and direct reintegration team
responsibilities. (See Table 12.5 and Table 12.6, Reintegration Team Tasks Organization,
and Responsibilities.) If a CRO is unavailable, a SERE specialist can function as
reintegration team chief.
12.1.4.4 The reintegration team chief will maintain a file on each recovery action, IP, and
person declared missing in action until the incident is declared closed and a duplicate file
is transferred to the JPRC/JPRA. This file will provide the identity, status, probable
location, and personal authentication date of the personnel who become isolated or who
are declared missing in action. The file has conventionally been numbered by the JPRC
assigned mission number, year group followed by the sequential numbering of PR events
that year. Example products to include in this file are the search and rescue incident report
(SARIR), search and rescue situational report (SARSIT), and search and rescue request
(SARREQ) found in Chapter 3 of the Joint Publication 3-50.2, Doctrine for Joint Combat
Search and Rescue. The mission folder should also contain electronic and hard copy
coordination relating to the mission (MIRC, facsimile, and news reports). Ensure that hard
copy documentation regarding duty status of the IPs is provided from the component prior
to closing out a mission folder. Message traffic from the joint- or service-level personnel
offices reporting the status of personnel as MIA/KIA, duty status whereabouts unknown
(DUSTWUN), or returned to military control (RTMC) should be saved for historical
12-8
12-9
12-10
12-11
reintegration team, JPRA, the returnees command authority, and when indicated, key
medical staff. Additionally, theater level coordination by the JPRC will develop
connectivity with reintegration CONUS-based representatives. Special staff,
functional staff, and mission area experts need to be present or available at the initial
reception point. (See Table A2.13 and Table A2.14, JPRC INTEL Checklist; Table
A2.15 and Table A2.16, JPRC Legal Counsel Checklist; and Table A2.17 and Table
A2.18, JPRC PAO Checklist; and also Table 12.4, Reintegration Team Task
Organization and Responsibilities.)
12.1.5.1.3 Return to Duty. When the returnees command authority decides to return
the individual to duty, the returnee will be transported back to their unit as the situation
permits. At the returnees unit, continued debriefings (intelligence, operations, and
SERE) can occur with proper coordination with the returnees chain of command. If
the decision is to delay returning the individual to the unit and continuing the
reintegration process, the returnee will be transported and escorted to the theater
transition point for continued medical care, decompression, or debriefing as required.
In either case, ensure that returned personnel are aware of the requirement to withhold
classified materiel pertaining to their event by completing the form found in Table
12.7, Nondisclosure Agreement.
Table 12.7 Nondisclosure Agreement.
1. I, ___________________________, understand that the information concerning covert or
sensitive evasion and recovery plans, procedures, organizations, programs, and equipment
belongs to the United States Government. I understand that disclosure of this information is
punishable under title 18, United States Code, Section 798 Disclosure of Classified Information, as amended.
2. I do solemnly swear/affirm that I will never divulge, publish, or reveal by word, conduct, or
by any other means such classified information or knowledge, except in the performance of my
official duties and as specifically authorized by the Joint Personnel Recovery Agency (JPRA).
3. I understand that no change in my assignment or employment will relieve me of my obligation under this agreement and that the provisions of the agreement will remain binding upon me
even after termination of my service with the United States Government.
4. I take this obligation of my own free will, without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion.
WITNESS_____________________
NAME________________________
SSN__________________________
RANK/GRADE________________
ORGANIZATION_______________
SIGNED __________________________
NAME ____________________________
SSN ______________________________
RANK/GRADE ____________________
ORGANIZATION ___________________
12-12
12-13
or Isolated Personnel. Phase III does not have a prescribed time limit and depends on
coordinated needs of the Service, SERE and intelligence debriefers, and the SERE
psychologist.
12.1.5.3.1 Medical Attention. During Phase III, returnees shall receive all required
medical and psychological treatment. Returned military personnel shall remain under
the care of a physician until the member is pronounced fit for duty, discharged, or
retired.
12.1.5.3.2 Debriefs. Qualified and trained military service SERE and intelligence
specialists and debriefers shall debrief each returnee in-depth under JPRA supervision.
This debriefing will include questions regarding their knowledge of wartime incidents
involving personnel declared killed in action/body not recovered in an effort to account
more fully for those individuals. If the returnee was not given an opportunity to sign a
DD Form 2810 (see Table A2.9, DD Form 2810Promise of Confidentiality) during
Phase I, provide the returnee an opportunity to do so now. These debriefings will last
as long as necessary, but will not be conducted in a manner that is physically or
mentally stressful to a returnee.
12.1.5.3.3 Conclusion of Phase III. For military personnel, Phase III will conclude
only when required SERE and intelligence debriefings are concluded, and the returnee
is declared fit for duty, discharged, or retired. There is no set time limit for Phase III
processing. Military service personnel will not return to duty until all medical
(including psychological care), intelligence, personnel, and casualty issues are
addressed.
12.1.6 After-Action. SERE psychologists will follow-up with recovered isolated personnel,
as needed, for at least one year. All POWs are eligible for follow-up medical and
psychological services at the Robert Mitchell Center for Repatriated POW Studies.
Intelligence organizations may require follow-up contact with recovered isolated personnel to
pursue additional intelligence requirements, particularly to support investigations of
unresolved POW/MIA incidents.
12-14
A1-1
ATTACHMENT 1
References.
USSOCOM Publications
8.
A1-2
as required
antiaircraft artillery
automated airfield information file
after-action reports
airborne battlefield command and control center
alternating current/aircraft commander
airspace coordination area
air component commander
allowable cargo load
airspace control order
aircrew chemical warfare defense ensemble
aerial delivery
administrative control
alternating door exit procedures
advanced echelon
aeromedical evacuation
air expeditionary force
air education and training command
Air Force
airborne forward air controllers
Air Force component commander
A1-3
Air Force Civil Engineering Support Agency
Air Force Contingency Supply Squadron
Air Force Instruction
Air Force Manual
advanced force operations
Air Force Office of Special Investigation
Air Force Policy Directive
Air Force Reserve Command
Air Force Rescue Coordination Center
Air Force Speciality Code
Air Force Special Operations Command
Air Force Special Operations Forces
Air Force theater hospital
Air Force Weather Agency
above ground level
air-to-ground missile
air interdiction/area of interest
alternate insertion and extraction
air report
automated information system
air land
azimuth monitor
actual mechanical advantage
air mission brief
airborne mission commander
airfield marking patterns
advanced MOUT techniques/training
air national guard
American National Standards Institute
area of operations
Air and Space Operations Center
area of responsibility
air operations squadron
armor piercing incendiary
alternate rally point
advance rescue craft
airfield rescue firefighter
air rescue service
Assistant Secretary of Defense
air support operations center
air terminal area
air-to-air recovery
air traffic control
air traffic control and landing systems
assistant team leader
A1-4
ATO..................................
ATV..................................
AUC .................................
AUTO CAD .....................
AWACS............................
AWADS............................
AZ ....................................
BAO .................................
BC ....................................
BCM.................................
BDA .................................
BDO .................................
BFT ..................................
BIT ...................................
BLS ..................................
BOS..................................
BW ...................................
C2 .....................................
C3 .....................................
C3I....................................
C4I....................................
C4ISR ...............................
CA ....................................
CAC.................................
CADS...............................
CAF..................................
CAM ................................
CANLS ............................
CAOC ..............................
CAP..................................
CARP ...............................
CAS..................................
CASH...............................
CBR .................................
CCIR ................................
CCL..................................
CCN .................................
CCP ..................................
CCT..................................
CCTL ...............................
CD ....................................
CDE .................................
CDS..................................
CEM.................................
A1-5
control electronics unit
call for fire
career field education and training plan
coordinated fire line
combined force land component command
crash fire and rescue
change of operational control
controlled image base
combat information center
combat intelligence system
Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Instruction
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Manual
combat mission ready
course of action
chain of command
Code of Conduct
Code of Conduct continuation training
combatant command
Commander, Air Combat Command
Commander of Air Force Forces
communications security
concept of employment
concept of execution
concept of operations
concept plan
continental United States
combined operational picture
control point
chemical protective overgarment
collective protective shelters
central processing unit
close quarters combat
combat rescue
control and reporting centers
crew resource management
combat rescue officer
combat rubber raider craft
container release system
combat supply activity
Chief of Staff, United States Air Force
combat search and rescue
combat search and rescue task force
contingency SERE indoctrination
commence search point
combat survival training
A1-6
CT ....................................
CUBE...............................
CW ...................................
CWDE..............................
CWT.................................
DA....................................
DA....................................
DACO ..............................
DAMA .............................
DAP .................................
DAR .................................
DCM ................................
DCO .................................
DCP..................................
DEA .................................
DED .................................
DEU .................................
DIA ..................................
DLIFC...............................
DLS ..................................
DM ...................................
DME ................................
DO....................................
DOC .................................
DoD..................................
DoDI.................................
DOS .................................
DPMO..............................
DPSS ................................
DR ....................................
DSF ..................................
DSN .................................
DTD .................................
DTED...............................
DTG .................................
DUSTWUN .....................
DZ ....................................
DZC .................................
DZSTL .............................
E&E .................................
E&R .................................
EA ....................................
EALS ...............................
ECAS ...............................
A1-7
electronic countermeasures
essential elements of friendly information
essential elements of information
elevation/electro-luminescent
electronically linked mission overlay
emergency locator transmitter
Air Force Expeditionary Medical Support
electromagnetic pulse
emergency medical treatment
emergency medical technician paramedic
electro-optical
explosive ordnance disposal
evasion plan of action
expedient personnel decontamination system
external personnel system
emergency rescue
evasion and recovery
engine running on-load/engine running off-load
en route rally point
extended surface operation
engineering technical letters/estimated time of landing
evasion chart
electronic warfare
extraction rally point
Federal Aviation Agency
forward air controller
forward air control posts
front accessory gear
forward area limited observing program
familiarization/forward area manifold
federal aviation regulation
forward area refueling point
forward area rearming and refueling point
fire detection center
forward edge of the battle area
Federal Emergency Management Agency
friendly force information requirements
foreign internal defense
foreign intelligence and security services
flight level
forward-looking infrared
forward line of own troops
frequency modulation
field medical card
forward observer
A1-8
FOB..................................
FOL ..................................
FOV .................................
FRAB ...............................
FRAGORD ......................
FRIES...............................
FRN..................................
FSB ..................................
FSCL ................................
FSCM...............................
FTX ..................................
FZFG................................
G.......................................
GB ....................................
GBD .................................
GCA .................................
GCU .................................
GD....................................
GDI ..................................
georef ...............................
GFC..................................
GI&S ................................
GLO..................................
GPS ..................................
GMRS ..............................
GRADS ............................
GRG .................................
GVO.................................
GZ ....................................
HAARS ............................
HAHO ..............................
HALO ..............................
HAR .................................
HARP...............................
HAZDECS .......................
HE ....................................
HEDP ...............................
HEEDS.............................
HEI...................................
HEIT ................................
HF ....................................
Hg.....................................
HGRP...............................
HLZ..................................
HMX ................................
A1-9
host nation
host nation support
hectopascals
high performance waveform
high-risk-of-capture
hot refueling supervisor
high-speed low-level aerial delivery system
human intelligence
humanitarian/disaster release operations
high velocity
high value target
immediate action drills
International Civil Aviation Organization
immediate close air support
internal communication system/individual combat skills
interactive defensive avionics system
in-flight emergencies
identification, friend or foe
instrument flight rules
instrument landing system
instrument meteorological conditions
individual movement techniques
international maritime satellite
isolated person/evader
intelligence preparation of the battlespace
infrared
immediate reaction force
initial rally point
infrared target scene simulation system software
intermediate staging base
isolated personnel report
intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance
Judge Advocate General
joint airdrop inspection
JSLIST approved material
joint casualty collection point
joint communications electronic operating instructions
joint combat search and rescue
jump clearing team
joint interrogation and debriefing center
joint force air component commander
joint force commander
joint forces command
John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School
joint force special operations component commander
A1-10
JIC ....................................
JIDC .................................
JM ....................................
JMD .................................
JDD ..................................
JMFU ...............................
JMO .................................
JOC ..................................
JOG ..................................
JOPES...............................
JSTARS............................
JRTIC................................
JPRA ................................
JPRC ................................
JSOA ................................
JSOAC .............................
JSOTF ..............................
JSRC ................................
JTF ...................................
JTTP..................................
kbps ..................................
K-DUCK ..........................
KDU.................................
kg .....................................
kt/hr ..................................
LAN .................................
LAPES .............................
LARS ...............................
LAW.................................
LBE ..................................
LCC..................................
LCE ..................................
LEA..................................
LEP ..................................
LGB .................................
LiS02................................
LOA .................................
LOAC...............................
LOC .................................
LODA ..............................
LOS ..................................
LP.....................................
LPD ..................................
LPI ...................................
LRC..................................
A1-11
laser range finder
load releasing hitch
logistic staging area
limited surface operation
laser target designator
lay up points
landing zone/linear structure
landing zone controller
landing zone safety officer
mechanical advantage
mobile aircraft arresting systems
military airborne control officer
major command
military amphibious reconnaissance system
military assumes responsibility for separations of aircraft
mobile Army surgical hospital
military antishock trousers
multi-mission advanced tactical terminal
maximum ordinance
multiband inter-/intra-team radio
manual command line of sight
modified combined obstacle overlays
mission design series
aeromedical evacuation
mission execution forecast process
Marine Expeditionary Force Special Operations Training Groups
meteorological conferencing
mission essential task list
meteorological and oceanographic
mission enemy terrain time troops available, and civilians
mean effective wind
military free fall
military grid referencing system
medium and heavy equipment/material handling equipment
mission capability
maritime interdiction operations
mission report
minimum interval takeoff
multi-band beacon
mobile microwave landing system
main operating base
mechanism of injury
military operations other than war
mission-oriented protective posture
military operations on urbanized terrain
A1-12
MPA .................................
MPE...................................
MPI ..................................
MPP .................................
MR....................................
MRSP...............................
MRTB ..............................
MSA.................................
MSD.................................
MSL..................................
MSR .................................
MSS .................................
MTA .................................
MTW................................
N.......................................
NAF .................................
NAR .................................
NAS..................................
NAS ................................
NASA...............................
navaids .............................
NBC .................................
NCOIC .............................
NCST................................
NEO .................................
NEONISH ........................
NFA..................................
NFPA................................
NGA.................................
NIIRS ...............................
NIMA...............................
NIPRNET..........................
NiMH ...............................
NLT ..................................
NM ...................................
NOK.................................
NOWS..............................
NRO.................................
NRTD...............................
NTM.................................
NVD.................................
NVG.................................
OA....................................
OBM ................................
A1-13
obstacles, cover and concealment observation key terrain avenues
of approach
operational detachment alpha
overhead delivery system
operational exposure guidance
operating instruction
officer in charge
operations other than war
observation point/observation post
operational preparation of the battlefield
operational control
operational deception
operations plan
operations order
operational security
operational risk management
objective rally point
on-scene commander
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Office of Strategic Services
operational testing and evaluation
over-the-air distribution
over-the-air rekeying
over the horizon
observed weather advisory
Pacific Air Force
Public Affairs Office
precious cargo
pre-crisis action
pavement classification number
peak dynamic force
pursuit deterrent munitions
potential energy
personal emergency escape systems
personal flotation device
pilot flight planning system
precision-guided missile
point of impact
probability of incapacitation
pilot balloon
pilot in command
positive identification
priority intelligence requirement
pilot reports
person in the water
A1-14
PJ......................................
PJTL.................................
Pk ......................................
PLANORD.......................
PLF...................................
PLGR ...............................
PLS...................................
PM....................................
PMP .................................
PMSV...............................
PNF ..................................
POD .................................
POL ..................................
POTUS.............................
POW.................................
PPE...................................
PPF...................................
PR.....................................
PRCC ...............................
PRIR.................................
PRK..................................
PRO..................................
PRP ..................................
PRX..................................
PSP...................................
PUC..................................
PYSOP .............................
PZ.....................................
QRF..................................
QRP..................................
RCC..................................
R&S .................................
R/SAOC ...........................
RAM ................................
RAMCC ...........................
RAMZ ..............................
RAS..................................
RATT ...............................
RATTV.............................
RC ....................................
RCC .................................
RCDU ..............................
RCP ..................................
RDIC ................................
REDS ...............................
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rapid equipment lowering systems
rescue combat air patrol
rescue escort
radio frequency
restricted fire areas
request for information
rescue jumpmaster
remote miniature weather sensor
recovery operations
rules of engagement
Republic of Korea
rescue operations in urban terrain
restricted operating zone
rally point/release point
rocket-propelled grenades
random points of impact
revolutions per minute
rescue squadron
rescue wing
reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition
recovery team
returned-to-duty
returned to military control
rule of thumb
recovery vehicle
remote video terminal
remote video terminal
rotary wing
radar warning receiver
runway
surface-to-air
situational awareness
Secretary of the Air Force
selected area for evasion
special aeronautical information request
SAFE area intelligence description
size activity location unit time equipment
surface-to-air missile
lead rescue escort support
special access program
search and rescue
search and rescue concept of operations
search and rescue standard operating procedures
search and rescue duty officer
search and rescue incident report
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SARLO ............................
SARREQ..........................
SARS IT...........................
SAT ..................................
SATCOM .........................
SATPHONE .....................
SAW .................................
SCA..................................
SCNS..................................
SDS ..................................
SEAD ...............................
SEAL ...............................
SELF-SAR .......................
SERE................................
SF .....................................
SFARTAEC......................
SFAUCC ..........................
SFW .................................
SIPRNET..........................
SIR ...................................
SITREP ............................
SKE ..................................
SL.....................................
SLACO ............................
SLDA ...............................
SLT...................................
SMAFU............................
SMC .................................
SME .................................
SMU.................................
SO ....................................
SOC..................................
SOCCE.............................
SODARS..........................
SOF ..................................
SODA...............................
SOFA................................
SOLE ...............................
SOPMOD.........................
SOR..................................
SORTS .............................
SPECAT ...........................
SPIE .................................
SPINS...............................
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supplemental intelligence report
single point refueling
single para scuba deployment system
special reconnaissance
search and rescue lights
search and rescue unit
small scale contingencies
static systems safety factor
SAR security team
special tactics
special tactics group
security team leader
special tactics officer
special tactics operation center
special tactics squadron
special tactics team
special tactics weather operator
special tactics weather team
small unmanned aerial vehicles
special operations forces laser acquisition/marker
tether duck
terminal area
terminal attack control
tactical air coordinator-airborne
tactical air navigation
tactical control
tactical air control parties
tactical satellite
trans-oceanic abort landing
theater airlift liaison officer
tasking order
target acquisition weather software
terminal control operations
time critical targeting
tactical decision aids
time-distance-factor
terminal instrument procedure
task force
toxic industrial materials
tactics improvement proposal
team leader
theoretical mechanical advantage
tactical munitions dispenser/target intelligence packages
technical note
training
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TOC..................................
TO&E...............................
TOF ..................................
TOT..................................
TPP....................................
TRB..................................
TRP ..................................
TST ..................................
TTP ..................................
TUC..................................
TWG ................................
UAR .................................
UARCC............................
UARM .............................
UAV .................................
UBA .................................
UCW ................................
UDM ................................
UHF .................................
USAFE.............................
USC..................................
USCENTCOM.................
USEUCOM ......................
USMTF ............................
USPACOM.......................
USSOCOM ......................
USSOUTHCOM ..............
USTRAINSCOM.............
UTC .................................
UTM.................................
UW...................................
UXO.................................
VAC..................................
VAMP ..............................
VFR..................................
VHF .................................
VIRS ................................
VISOB .............................
VL.....................................
VLZMP ............................
VMC ................................
WAN ................................
WDI .................................
WCMD.............................
WIC..................................
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weapons of mass destruction
war and mobilization plan
wireless messaging terminal
war on terrorism
white phosphorous
war reserve material
wind streamer vector count
weather
zone availability report
zone marker
Terms.
air component commanderThe Commander Air Force forces or joint force air component
commander, joint force special operations component commander, or joint special operations air
component commander.
airlift coordination cellThis is a cell within the air operations center which plans, coordinates,
manages, and executes theater airlift operations in the area of responsibility or joint operations
area. It normally consists of an airlift plans branch, an airlift operations branch, and an airlift
logistics branch.
Air Force Weather Agency (AFWA)A strategic weather center at Offutt AFB, Nebraska,
providing strategic atmospheric data and strategic analysis/forecast products required by the
regional operational weather squadrons, combat weather teams (CWT), joint METOC forecasting
units, and STWT or STWO worldwide. AFWA provides the centralized repository for global
observations and forecasts that are databased at AFWA and, in turn, disseminated to DoD weather
data users worldwide. In addition to global observations and forecasts collected from worldwide
sources, AFWA collects meteorological satellite data from multiple sources. Based on global
analysis of available data, AFWA creates global analysis and forecast products to meet the
strategic forecast requirements of its customers.
airmanshipAir Force airmen providing joint forces specific tactics, skills, and abilities defined
by the unique Air Force mission and requiring the specialized training and qualifications only
found in AF airmen.
air mobility elementThe air mobility element is an extension of the Air Mobility Command
Tanker Airlift Control Center, deployed to a theater when requested by the geographic combatant
commander. It coordinates strategic airlift operations with the theater airlift management system
and collocates with the air operations center whenever possible.
airfield marking patternA system of designations that differentiate between the various types
of airfield markings.
air report (AIREP)A pilot report made over areas where weather information is limited or
nonexistent (e.g., over an ocean or denied combat zone).
air mission commander (AMC)A general term applied to an airborne force combatant
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maneuver brigades and battalions employ FALOP. The belt weather kit is normally used by the
S-2 to make limited measurements of weather conditions. Additionally, the S-2 provides
estimates of other weather and environmental conditions they may observe. The report is
encoded and forwarded to the closest CWT or JMFU.
forecast reference notebook (FRN)A local publication containing information on forecasting
for locations for which the unit has forecast responsibilities.
ground force commander (GFC)A general term applied to a ground forces combatant
commander, authorized to exercise combatant command (command authority) or operational
control an employed ground force.
ground-marked release systemA procedure used by ground forces to determine and mark the
release point for an airdrop.
gustThis is rapid fluctuations in wind speed with a variation of 10 knots or more between peaks
and lulls.
helicopter landing zoneThis is a specified ground area for landing helicopters to embark or
disembark troops and/or cargo. A landing zone may contain one or more landing sites.
Hostage Survival TrainingA form of Code of Conduct training that prepares military
personnel to meet their obligations while being held hostage by terrorists. DoD Directive 1300.7,
enclosure 3, is the basis for this training.
horizontal consistencyA weather data provided in one product must be consistent to data
provided in another product for the same area and time. For example, MCF/MEFs must be
consistent with all other products, including current observation, weather warnings and watches,
and so forth. Elements within each MCF/MEF must also be consistent; for example, if heavy
snow showers are forecast, the visibility will be restricted appropriately. Strong gusty winds or
hail would generally be expected if severe thunderstorms are forecast. Product consistency
prevents customers from receiving conflicting information.
infrared target scene simulation system software (IRTSS)This is a UNIX-server, (hosted by
AFWA and the OWSs) full-physics, tactical decision aid capability that illustrates the weapons
eye (sensors spectral response) view of the target area.
joint force air component commanderThe commander within a unified command,
subordinate unified command, or joint task force responsible to the establishing commander for
making recommendations on the proper employment of assigned, attached, and/or made available
for tasking air forces; planning and coordinating air operations; or accomplishing such
operational missions as may be assigned. The air component commander is given the authority
necessary to accomplish missions and tasks assigned by the establishing commander.
joint force commander (JFC)A general term applied to a combatant commander, sub-unified
commander, or joint task force commander authorized to exercise combatant command
(command authority) or operational control over a joint force.
joint meteorological and oceanographic (METOC) forecasting unit (JMFU)The element
responsible for theater-level weather planning and coordination. Coordinates for the utilization of
STWT, CWT (A), and CWT to effectively provide data coverage for the theater.
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raised-angle markerA device used to mark the point of impact during airdrops. A
triangular-shaped marker constructed of bright orange material, 6 feet wide at the base
(minimum) and 6 feet high (minimum), displayed at a 60-degree angle into the direction of flight.
ram air parachute systemUS Army equivalent of a High Glide Ratio Parachute.
refractive indexA measure of the amount of refraction or bending of an energy wave (visual
light, infrared, radio, and others) passing from one density to another in a medium such as air or
water. The apparent bending of a stick when placed in a pool of water is an example.
regimeA synoptic and/or mesoscale weather pattern that effects a location.
release pointThe point over the drop zone where personnel or equipment should exit the drop
aircraft.
rule of thumb (ROT)A concise, empirical forecast rule providing a specific answer that can be
verified objectively.
safety zoneA distance established by agreement between the air mission commander and the
supported forces commander subtracted from the DZ trailing edge to reduce the potential for
off-DZ drops. For peacetime personnel airdrops, the safety zone will never be less than 200
yards. Do not compute safety zone distances for airdrops supporting unconventional warfare
forces as defined by the Joint Strategic Capabilities Plan, Annex E or high-altitude
low-opening/high-altitude high-opening airdrops.
sea stateDescribes wind-generated waves on the surface of the sea.
ski landing areaA designated area for LC-130 ski operations not meeting the criteria for a
Skiway but marked and maintained IAW this instruction
skiwayA designated area for LC-130 ski operations marked and maintained IAW this
instruction. Skiways must have a published instrument or visual approach procedure and be
located near a surface camp with support facilities to include weather reporting, shelter, first aid,
food, communications, and grooming on a continual basis.
skiway landing area control officerAn experienced LC-130 pilot or combat controller
experienced in LC-130 ski operations responsible for certifying a skiway landing area.
slant-range visibilityThe distance a pilot can distinguish objects that are both forward and
beneath the pilots aircraft. For example, looking down at an angle as the pilot approaches a
target or a runway.
special mission unit (SMU)A generic term to represent a group of operations and support
personnel from designated organizations that are task-organized to perform highly classified
activities. STWTs are capable of operating with these elements as required for mission success.
station keeping equipmentAn aircraft avionics system used to maintain formation position in
instrument meteorological conditions. When used in conjunction with an adverse aerial delivery
system lead aircraft, instrument meteorological conditions airdrops are possible. C-130, C-141,
and C-17 station keeping-equipped aircraft have an instrument meteorological conditions airdrop
capability when employed with a ground-based zone marker.
special operations forcesThose active and reserve component forces of the military services
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designated by the Secretary of Defense and specifically organized, trained, and equipped to
conduct and support special operations.
special operations low levelC-17-, C-141-, and C-5-qualified aircrews that support special
operations using nonstandard procedures and criteria, including operations using night vision
goggles. Air Mobility Command provides night vision goggle-trained C-130 crews capable of
using procedures similar to special operations low-level aircrew.
special tactics teamUnited States Air Force special operations consisting of combat control,
pararescue, and combat weather personnel who are organized, trained, and equipped to establish
and control the air-ground interface at an airhead in the objective area. Functions include assault
zone reconnaissance and surveillance, establishment, and terminal control; combat search and
rescue; combat casualty care and evacuation staging; special operations terminal attack; and
tactical weather observations and forecasting.
ST combat weatherman (CWT)A fully qualified member of an ST CWT capable of operating
with any SOF organization to conduct METOC-C and trained to operate in all SOF mission areas.
ST CWT(Special Tactics Weather Team)This is an Air Force special tactics team
comprised of highly skilled tactical operators selected, organized, equipped, and trained to
collect, analyze, tailor, and report meteorological and oceanographic data critical to military
operations in permissive, semi-permissive, non-permissive, and austere locations. ST CWT can
deploy independently or as attachments to other SOF units. Teams employ by the most feasible
means (formerly known as special operations weather team tactical element [SOWT/TE]).
special tactics operations center (STOC)This is the operating center for special tactics
elements operating from forward locations. Planning, coordination, and command and control of
special tactics forces occur from a STOC.
surface observationsThese are weather and environmental observations measured or
estimated on the land or water surface and usually reflecting surface conditions. Cloud cover and
estimated upper-level winds are exceptions.
surface windsThese are wind speed, direction, and gust speeds measured over the land or
water.
tactical decision aids (TDA)These refer to the manual look-up tables and matrices or are
computer-driven algorithms by which such a product is generated. These tables provide the
critical thresholds that effect operations, systems, and personnel adversely. The tables, together
with a current forecast, are used to prepare an aid to the mission.
theater airlift liaison officerAn officer specially trained to implement the theater air control
system and to control tactical airlift assets. Theater airlift liaison officers are highly qualified,
rated airlift officers with tactical (airdrop) airlift experience and assigned duties supporting US
Army units.
thermal/IR crossoverThermal crossover is said to occur when the temperature of a target is
the same temperature as its background. This would cause the target to appear invisible to IR
sensors. Depending on cloud ceiling, this usually occurs soon after BMNT and soon after EENT.
tidal currentThe alternating horizontal movement of water associated with the rise and fall of
the tide. In relatively open locations, the direction of tidal currents rotates continuously through
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360 degrees diurnally or semi-diurnally. In coastal regions, the nature of tidal currents is
determined by local topography as well.
tideThe periodic rising and falling of the oceans, large lakes, and the atmosphere. It results
from the tide-producing forces of the moon and sun acting upon the rotating Earth. This
disturbance actually propagates as a wave through the atmosphere and through the surface layer
of the oceans.
time cross sectional chart/compositeA representation of meteorological elements or features
and their variability in space and time. Time cross sectional charts/composites supplement, refine,
or help develop METOC products.
trafficabilityThe capacity of a soil to withstand traffic, especially the traffic of military
vehicles.
trailing edge of a drop zoneRepresents the imaginary line extending between the left and right
rear corners of a surveyed drop zone.
unilateralDescribes an Air Force-only operation. A unilateral mission will not be considered a
joint operation merely because the parachutists or loads are from another service, for example, an
Air Force reserve airlift unit conducting training airdrop missions using Army paratroopers or
when Army paratroopers jump with Air Force personnel on an Air Force units operation.
upper-level winds or winds aloftThis is the flow of air measured in speed and direction above
the surface. There is no distinct demarcation between winds aloft and surface winds, although
winds above 100 meters are usually referred to as winds aloft.
US Air Force Formal Survival Training ProgramThis program includes Code of Conduct
training courses as well as additional training in areas such as post-egress procedures and specific
environments.
vertical consistencyWeather features are 3-dimensional, but products are often 2-dimensional.
Vertical consistency ensures the proper vertical structure is maintained across different products.
visibilityThe greatest distance that prominent objects can be seen and identified by the unaided,
normal eye. Visibility distances increase when NVG or other infrared devices are used.
visual initiated release systemA method of positioning aircraft for airdrop by verbal
instruction from the drop-zone controller.
visual meteorological conditionsWeather conditions where visual flight rules apply;
expressed in terms of visibility, ceiling height, and aircraft clearance from clouds along the path
of flight. When these criteria do not exist, instrument meteorological conditions prevail, and
instrument flight rules must be followed.
weather warningA special notice provided to a supported agency when an established weather
condition of such intensityas to effect operations, pose a hazard to life or property, and requires
protective actionis occurring or is expected to occur.
windchill factorsThese factors are revised temperature values, based on the effect of wind and
temperature combined on exposed skin. This windchill temperature is the effective temperature
for troops. The effect of windchill differs individually because of body chemistry but is an
acceptable operating standard.
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4. RANK/GRADE
5. SERVICE
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ATTACHMENT 3
Page
General Information.........................................................................................................................2
Biographical Information.................................................................................................................4
Military Biographical Information...................................................................................................4
Premission Preparation ....................................................................................................................5
Events Leading Up to Isolation .......................................................................................................6
Incident Details ................................................................................................................................6
Survival & Evasion .........................................................................................................................7
Contacts with Local Populace........................................................................................................13
Cultural Aspects.............................................................................................................................14
Preparation for Recovery ...............................................................................................................14
Recovery Phase/Conventional Assisted Recovery (Planned)........................................................15
Non-Conventional Assisted Recovery (Planned) ..........................................................................15
Unplanned Contacts .......................................................................................................................15
On-Scene Military Forces ..............................................................................................................20
Unassisted Recovery......................................................................................................................21
Capture and Detainment Methodologies .......................................................................................21
Information Gathered at Capture ...................................................................................................23
Movement Phase............................................................................................................................23
Tactical Interrogation .....................................................................................................................25
Permanent Facility .........................................................................................................................27
Captivity Conditions and Treatment ..............................................................................................37
Escape From Capture, Movement, and Fixed Facility Phases ......................................................39
Detention........................................................................................................................................45
Interrogation...................................................................................................................................48
Exploitation....................................................................................................................................53
Resistance ......................................................................................................................................57
Communication and Organization .................................................................................................60
Lessons Learned ............................................................................................................................63
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UNCLASSIFIED//FOUO
AFTTP 3-3.8
UNCLASSIFIED//FOUO