Introduction to Econometrics James H. Stock HARVARD UNIVERSITY Mark W. Watson PRINCETON UNIVERSITY a Boston San Francisco New York London Toronto Syney Tokyo Singapore Madrid Menico City Munich Pacis Cape'Town Hong Kong MontrealBrief Contents PARTONE Introduction and Review _1 CHAPTER! Economic Questions and Data 3 CHAPTER2 Review of Probability 17 CHAPTER 3 Review of Statistics 65 PARTTWO Fundamentals of Regression Analysis 109 CHAPTER 4 Linear Regression with One Regressor II! CHAPTERS Regression with a Single Regressor: Hypothesis Tests and Confidence Intervals 148 CHAPTER 6 Linear Regression with Multiple Regressors 186 CHAPTER T Hypothesis Tests and Confidence Intervals in Multiple Regression 220 CHAPTER 8 Nonlinear Regression Functions 254 CHAPTER 9 Assessing Studies Based on Multiple Regression 312 PARTTHREE Further Topics in Regression Analysis 347 CHAPTER 10. Regression with Panel Data 349 CHAPTER II Regression with a Binary Dependent Variable 383 CHAPTER 12. Instrumental Variables Regression 421 CHAPTER 13 Experiments and Quasi-Experiments 468 PART FOUR Regression Analysis of Economic Time Series Data_523 CHAPTER 14 Introduction to Time Series Regression and Forecasting 525 CHAPTER IS. Estimation of Dynamic Causal Effects 591 CHAPTER 16 Additional Topics in Time Series Regression 637 PARTFIVE The Econometric Theory of Regression Analysis _ 675 CHAPTER I7 The Theory of Linear Regression with One Regressor 677 CHAPTER 18 The Theory of Multiple Regression 704Contents Preface s0vii PART ONE CHAPTER I Mw CHAPTER 2 at 22 Introduction and Review 1 Economic Questions and Data 3 Economic Questions We Examine 4 Question #1: Does Reducing Class Size Improve Elementary School Education? 4 Question #2: Is There Racial Discrimination in the Market for Home Loans? 5 Question #3: How Much Do Cigarette Taxes Reduce Smoking? 5 Question #4: What Will the Rate of inflation Be NextYear? 6 Quantitative Questions, Quantitative Answers 7 Causal Effects and Idealized Experiments 8 Estimation of Causal Effects 8 Forecasting and Causality 9 Data: Sources and Types 10 Experimental versus Observational Data 10 Cross-Sectional Data! Time Series Data I! Panel Data 13 Review of Probability 17 Random Variables and Probability Distributions 18 Probabilities, the Sample Space, and Random Variables 18 Probability Distribution of a Discrete Random Variable 19 Probability Distribution ofa Continuous Random Variable 21 Expected Values, Mean, and Variance 23 The Expected Value ofa Random Variable 23, The Standard Deviation and Variance 24 Mean and Variance of a Linear Function of a Random Variable 25 Other Measures of the Shape of a Distribution % Two Random Variables 29 Joint and Marginal Distributions 29 Conditional Distributions 30CONTENTS 24 28 26 CHAPTER 3 at 32 33 34 38 Independence 34 Covariance and Correlation 34 The Mean and Variance of Sums of Random Variables 35 The Normal, Chi-Squared,Student ¢, and F Distributions 39 The Normal Distribution 39 The Chi-Squared Distribution 43 The Student Distribution 44 The F Distribution 44 Random Sampling and the Distribution of the Sample Average 45 Random Sampling 45 The Sampling Distribution of the Sample Average 46 Large-Sample Approximations to Sampling Distributions 48 The Law of Large Numbers and Consistency 49 The Central Limit Theorem 52 APPENDIX 2.1 Derivation of Results in Key Concept 2.3. 63 Review of Statistics 65 Estimation of the Population Mean 66 Estimators and Their Properties 67 Properties of Y 68 The Importance of Random Sampling 70 Hypothesis Tests Concerning the Population Mean 71 Nulland Alternative Hypotheses 72 Thep-Value 72 Calculating the p-Value When oy Is Known 74 “The Sample Variance, Sample Standard Deviation, and Standard Error 75 Caleulatng the p-Value When oy IsUnknown 76 Thet-Statistic 77 Hypothesis Testing with a Prespecified Significance Level 78 ‘One-Sided Alternatives 80 Confidence Intervals for the Population Mean 81 ‘Comparing Means from Different Populations 83 Hypothesis Tests for the Difference Between Two Means 83 Confidence Intervals for the Difference Between Two Population Means 84 Differences-of-Means Estimation of Causal Effects Using Experimental Data 85 ‘The Causal Effect as a Difference of Conditional Expectations 85 Estimation of the Causal Effect Using Differences of Means 87CONTENTS ix 3.6 Using the ¢-Statistic When the Sample Size Is Small 88 The t-Statistic and the Student Distribution 88 Use of the Student ¢ Distribution in Practice 92 3.7. Scatterplot, the Sample Covariance, and the Sample Correlation 92 Scatterplots 93 Sample Covariance and Correlation 94 APPENDIX 3.1 The US. Current Population Survey 105 APPENDIX 3.2 Two Proofs That ¥ Is the Least Squares Estimator of uy 106 APPENDIX 3.3 A Proof That the Sample Variance Is Consistent 107 PARTTWO Fundamentals of Regression Analysis _109 CHAPTER 4 Linear Regression with One Regressor III 4.1 The Linear Regression Model 112 4.2. Estimating the Coefficients of the Linear Regression Model 116 The Ordinary Least Squares Estimator 18 OLS Estimates of the Relationship Between Test Scores and the Student-Teacher Ratio 120 Why Use the OLS Estimator? 121 4.3 Measures of Fit 123 The R? 123 The Standard Error of the Regression 124 Application to the Test Score Data 125 4.4 The Least Squares Assumptions 126 ‘Assumption #I: The Conditional Distribution of u, Given X, Has a Mean of Zero 126 Assumption #2: (XY), Distributed 128 ‘Assumption #3: Large Outliers Are Uniikely 129 Use of the Least Squares Assumptions 130 1n Ace Independently and Identically 4.5. The Sampling Distribution of the OLS Estimators 131 The Sampling Distribution of the OLS Estimators 132 Conclusion 135 APPENDIX 4.1. The California Test Score Data Set 143 APPENDIX 4.2 Derivation of the OLS Estimators 143, APPENDIX 4.3 Sampling Distribution of the OLS Estimator 144x CONTENTS CHAPTER 5 Ba 52 53 54 5.6 57 CHAPTER 6 61 62 63 Regression with a Single Regressor: Hypothesis Tests and Confidence Intervals 148 Testing Hypotheses About One of the Regression Coefficients 149 ‘Two-Sided Hypotheses Concerning 8, 149 ‘One-Sided Hypotheses Concerning B, 153 Testing Hypotheses About the Intercept By 155 Confidence Intervals for a Regression Coefficient 155 Regression When X Is a Binary Variable 158 Interpretation of the Regression Coefficients 158 Heteroskedasticity and Homoskedasticity 160 What Are Heteroskedasticity and Homoskedasticity? 160 Mathematical Implications of Homoskedasticity 163 What Does This Mean in Practice? 164 The Theoretical Foundations of Ordinary Least Squares 166 Linear Conditionally Unbiased Estimators and the Gauss-Markov Theorem 167 Regression Estimators Other Than OLS 168 Using the t-Statistic in Regression When the Sample Size IsSmall 169 ‘The t-Statistic and the Student t Distribution 170 Use of the Student ¢ Distribution in Practice 170 Conclusion 171 APPENDIX 5.1. Formulas for OLS Standard Errors 180 APPENDIX 5.2. The Gauss-Markov Conditions and a Proof ofthe Gauss-Markov Theorem 182 Linear Regression with Multiple Regressors 186 Omitted Variable Bias 186 Definition of Omitted Variable Bias 187 ‘A Formula for Omitted Variable Bias 189 ‘Addressing Omitted Variable Bias by Dividing the Data into Groutss 191 The Multiple Regression Model 193 ‘The Population Regression Line 193 ‘The Population Multiple Regression Model 194 The OLS Estimator in Multiple Regression 196 The OLS Estimator 197 Application to Test Scores and the Student-Teacher Ratio 19865 66 67 68 CHAPTER 7 ma 7.2 7.3 74 CONTENTS Measures of Fit in Multiple Regression 200 ‘The Standard Error of the Regression (SER) 200 TheR? 200 The ‘Adjusted R°" 201 Application toTest Scores 202 The Least Squares Assumptions in Multiple Regression 202 ‘Assumption #1: The Conditional Distribution of u; Given X,.Xqy...X, Has a Mean of Zero 203, Assumption #2: (Xj, Xae-+--Xur¥)is beeeeaAreiid. 203 ‘Assumption #3: Large Outliers Are Unlikely 203 ‘Assumption #14: No Perfect Multicollinearity 203 The Distribution of the OLS Estimators in Multiple Regression 205 Multicollinearity 206 Examples of Perfect Multicollnearity 206 Imperfect Multicollinearity 209 Conclusion 210 APPENDIX 6.1, Derivation of Equation (6.1) 218 APPENDIX 6.2. Distribution of the OLS Estimators When There Are Two Regressors and Homoskedastic Errors 218 Hypothesis Tests and Confidence Intervals . in Multiple Regression 220 Hypothesis Tests and Confidence Intervals for a Single Coefficient 221 Standard Errors for the OLS Estimators 221 Hypothesis Tests for a Single Coefficient 221 Confidence Intervals for a Single Coefficient 223, Application to Test Scores and the Student-Teacher Ratio 223 Tests of Joint Hypotheses 225 ‘Testing Hypotheses on Two or More Coefficients 225 The F-Statistic 227 Application to Test Scores and the Student—Teacher Ratio 229 The Homoskedastcity-Only F-Statistic 230 Testing Single Restrictions Involving Multiple Coefficients 232 Confidence Sets for Multiple Coefficients 234