Professional Documents
Culture Documents
. .
M . lwanaga
Impact on a
Changing World
Program Report 1997-98
Contents
Impact on a Changing World
Program Overview
Wanda Collins, Deputy Director General for Research
The Role of Regions in Cl P's Research
CIP's Research Project Portfolio
Feature Article: Incorporating Pove rty in Priority Setting: CIP's 1998-2000
Medium Term Plan
T. Walker and M. Co/lion
7
11
15
21
Research on Potato
Characterization of Phytophthora infestans Populations in Peru
W. Perez, S. Gamboa, M. Coca, R. Raymundo, R. Hijmans, and R. Nelson
Genetic Diversity among Isolates of Phytophthora infestans from Various Hosts
in Ecuador
L.}. Erselius, H.R . Hohl, M.E. Ordonez, PJ. Oyarzun, F j arrin, A. Velasco,
M .P. Ramon, and G.A. Forbes
He .::: Specificity of Phytophthora infestans on Tomato and Potato in Uganda
and Kenya
L.J. Erselius, M.). Vega -Sanchez, A.M. Rodriqu ez 0. Bastidas H.R . Hohl,
P.S. Ojiambo 1 }. Mukalazi, T. Vermeulen, WE. Fry, and G.A. Forbes
Genotype by Environment Reaction of Potato to the Late Blight Pathogen
G.A. Forbes
Identification of QTLs for Late Blight Resistance in a Cross Between 5. phureja
and a Di haploid 5. tuberosum and Association with a Plant Defense Gene
M. Ghislain, B. Trog nitz 1 R. Nelson, Ma. def R. Herrera, L. Portal, M. Ori/lo,
and F Trognitz
Parasitic Fitness and Temperature Response of New Lineages of Phytophthora
infestans from Peru
J.L. Andrade Piedra, G.A. Forbes, WE. Fry, and R. Nelson
Estimating the Global Severity of Potato Late Blight with a GIS-Linked
Disease Forecaster
R.}. Hijmans, G.A. Forbes, and T.S. Walker
Implementing IPM for Late Blight in the Andes
R. Torrez,}. Tenorio, C. Valencia, R. Orrego, 0. Ortiz, R. Nelson,
and G. Thie le
Understanding Farmers' Responses to Late Blight: Evidence from Peru, Bolivia,
Ecuador, and Uganda
0. Ortiz, P. Winters, H. Fano, G. Thiele, S. Guaman, R. Torres, V Barrera,
}. Unda,}. Hakiza
Sensitive Detection of Ralstonia solanacearum in Latently Infected Potato Tubers
and Soil by Postenrichment ELISA
S. Priou, L. Gutarra, H. Fe rnandez, and P Aley
1
31
39
49
57
67
77
83
91
1 01
111
1 22
123
129
14 1
153
1 61
17 1
1 79
1 85
195
205
2 13
221
229
Research on Sweetpotato
The Causes and Control of Virus Diseases of Sweetpotato in Developing
Countries: Is Sweetpotato Virus Disease the Main Problem?
E.E. Ca rey, R. W. Gibson, S. Fu entes, M. Machmud, R.0.M. M wanga,
G. Turyamuree ba, L. Z hang, 0. Ma, F Abo EL -Abba s, R. EL -Bedewy, and
L.F Salazar.
Economic Impact of Virus-Free Sweetpotato Planting Material in Shandong
Province, China
K. O. Fug lie, L. Zh ang, L. Salaza r, and T. Wa lke r
24 1
249
255
265
271
279
287
295
303
311
31 7
329
33 7
351
357
365
373
381
387
395
40 3
40 9
415
Training in 1997-98
Selected Publications from 1997-98
Staff in 1997-98
Acronyms and Abbreviations
433
439
447
455
42 5
Program
Overview
Impact on a Changing World
1998-2000 Medium Term Plan" by T. Walker and M. Coll ion. This article describes the
process by which C l P's proj ects were chosen based on a pr io rity-setti ng mechanism that
focuses o n th e poverty alleviat io n poten ti al of each pro ject.
Th e fol low ing description s give a sketch of th e research a1ticles w ithin thi s repo rt.
Potato
Research in potatoes du ring 1997-98 emphasized finding a solution to the increasing late
blight prob lem. Late blight is the wor ld ' s most costly pl ant disease in terms of lost production, c hem ica l inpu ts, and environmental co nta m ination. It is parti cul arl y devastating to
smal l, resource-poor farme rs. C IP 's researc h fe atures an integ rated appro ach: from highly
technical mo lecu lar geneti cs to help in g farme rs learn in th e field about recogn iz in g and
manag in g the dis ease; and from wo rkin g wi th th e microscop ic path oge n wh ich ca uses th e
disease to breed ing new resistant cul tivars. The integrated, fu ll spectrum approac h is
necessary to provide sol utio ns that farmers understand and use. Resea rch reports co ver
pathogen bio logy and eco logy, geneti cs of res istance to late blight, breeding for resistance ,
and integrated manageme nt of the di sease. Progress in using molecular genetics, soc ioeco nomi c perspect ives, and geog raph ic inform at io n systems, and part icip atory research
meth ods are repo rted an d lay the fo und at io n fo r bette r contro l of late b li gh t w ithin the next
few yea rs .
W h i le co ntrol l ing the late b li ght disease beca me a ve ry
hi gh pr iority in C IP beca use of the mag nitude and urgenc y of
th e probl em, resea rch progress w ith other serious co nstraints
facing small , poor producers is also cove red in this vo lum e,
in c ludin g:
Deve lopm ent of a sensit ive an d affordable techno logy to
detect Ra lsto nia solanacearum, th e o rga nism w hi c h
causes bacteria l wi lt in soil and tubers.
Taxonomic , popu lat io n, and behavioral informat io n
cr itica l for in tegrated management of three of the most
se riou s potato pests in th e wor ld: A nd ea n potato weevi l,
potato tuber moth , an d leafm in er fly.
Establishm en t of a co re co ll ection of potato ge neti c
resources so th ey ca n be used more effic ientl y.
Us ing potato in intens ified rice-wheat produ ctio ns for
di versi ty.
Eco nomic studi es of potato research cove rin g true potato
utilization tec hn o log ies, global iza ti o n of mark ets, and
in vestin g in potato breeding.
Sweetpotato
Sweetpotato cont inu es to be an im porta nt foo d crop in the wor ld , and in c reasing ly so in
Africa after th e reduc tion in cassava production due to disease outbreaks. C IP's h ig hest
priority fo r sweetpotato rese arc h is in deve lopin g and mak in g ava il ab le c lo nes w ith the
potent ial for yie ldin g h igh leve ls of dry matter per hectare. Hi gh dry matter is esse ntial in
every area of th e develo ping wor ld for sweetpotato to reach its fu l l potential for utilizati o n,
w hether it is for an im al feed, hum an consum pti o n, o r in dustria l proc ess in g.
Prog rnmOverview
Th e Andean ecoregion is a particularly vu ln erabl e ecosystem for agr icu lture. CIP's natural
resource management program focuses on providing sound sc ient ifi c, technical , and
economic bases for policy and techno logy decisions. Resea rch reported here focuses o n
assess in g the risks associated w ith production in these fragi le agricu ltural land s through the
development and use of advanced technological modeling approaches. The development
and app li cat ion of tools and methods to enhance natural resea rch management research
capacity, including the use of microwave remote sensing, G IS, and multichannel radar
im age ry, is also reported. These too ls and methods are app li ed at different spatial sca les,
from the field level to the landscape and regional leve ls.
Natural resource management in the Andes exemplifies an eco reg ional approach to land use ma na gement for
sustainab le agriculture. This ecoregiona l approach,
wh ich uses the tools and methods mentioned above for
research and development of management options, is
implemented in the Andes through the Consortium for
the Sustainable Development of the Andean Ecoregion
(CON DESAN). CONDESAN is also the Andean
Ecoregion partner of the Global Mountain Program, a
more exte nsive res ea rch program for the high mountain
areas of the world, convened and led by CIP. The Global
Mountain Program represents the CG IAR's contr ibuti on
to meeting the objectives of the UNCED acco rd for
sustainab le env ironmenta l development of mountain
areas and involves other international agricu ltural
research ce nters within the CG IAR conducting similar
research in the African Highlands and the Himalayas.
Wanda Collins
Deputy Directo r Gen eral
for Research
l0
Progrom Overview
* The Vietnam
liaison office opened in mid-1999, and does not appear in th e accompanying map.
11
The importance of CIP's reg ional and liaiso n office location s is obvious in this
Program Report. More than half of th e papers report on 1esea rc h conducted w here
CIP has regional and counuy offices, and many loca l collaborators are includ ed as
autho1s.
Location and contact in fo rmation for all CIP offices are in c luded below .
Cl P Headquarters
Lim a, Peru
E-mail: cip@cg iar.org
Website: www. cipotato.org
12
Role of Regions
(ECA)
South and West Asia
(SWA)
Sub-Saharan Africa
(SSA)
(ESEAP)
(LAC)
l3
CIP's Research
Project Portfolio
Impact o n a Chan g ing Wo rld
Late Blight is CIP's highest priority at the moment and this project is highly focu sed on
deve loping, adapting, and integrating technologies for th e management of the world's
worst agricultural crop disease. Th e project integrates biotechnologica l tools for pathogen
epidem iology and developing disease resistance with disease management and control in
farmers' fields through th e Farmer Field Schoo l concept.
Pathogen population bio logy and eco logy (G. Forbes)
Deve lopme nt and app li cat ion of methods for ph enotyp ic characterizat io n of res ista nce
(G. Forb es)
Develo pm ent of tool s: maps, mark ers , ge nes, and databases (M . Bonierba le)
Mark er-ass isted genetic anal ys is of res ista nce (M. Ghis lain )
Diploid pre-breeding for LB resistan ce (B. Trogn itz)
Intermediate breedin g fo r LB re sista nce at the tetrapl o id leve l (J. Land eo)
Gen et ic eng ineerin g for res ista nce to late blight (M. Ghis lain )
Analysi s of genotype by environm ent in te ract ion s (M. Bonierbal e)
Uti I izat ion of imp roved population s for late blight res istance (J. Land eo)
Deve lopme nt of component techn o log ies for integ rated management of late blight
(G. Fo rb es)
Farm er part ic ipatory resea rch and impl ementation fo r in teg rated late b li ght manage ment
(R. Nelson)
Bacterial wilt is the second worst potato disease in th e world. As resistance is difficult to
develop and maintain, CJP 's program concentrates on understanding and diagnosing the
presence of bacteria in th e soil and in tubers. This is used to improve site management,
seed systems, and utiliza tion of ava ilable resistant material. Decreased transmission of the
disease is a key ta1get in control.
Charac teri za tion, detect ion, and eco logy of P solanacea rum (S. Priou)
Integ rated managem ent of bacteri al wilt of potato in Southeast A sia (E . Chu joy)
Integrated co ntrol of potato bacteri al w ilt in East Africa (E . Chu j oy)
Integ rated management of bacteri al w il t of potato in Ch ina (Y. W ang)
Deve lopme nt of components of bacte rial wi lt contro l and IDM (S . Priou )
Integrated control of di seases of potato: bacterial w ilt in South W est Asia (0. Hid algo)
15
Viruses cause serious losses in potato and impede movement of seed and genetic resources. The project concentrates on sensitive, low-cost detection and epidemiological
factors affecting spread. Genetic engineering is used to identify, clone, and transfer genes
of re lated species to potato for resistance; this is combined with traditional methods of
breeding for maximum efficiency in incorporating resistance to a range of viruses.
Studies on potato ph ytoplasmas and their vectors (L. Salazar)
Deve lopment of sero logical techniques for potato virus diagnosis (L. Salaza r)
Molecular tec hniques for detect ion and control of vi ru ses and viro id s in potato
(M. Querci)
Mo lecu lar cha racter izat ion of genetic resistan ce to v iruses and use of natural genes for
transgenic res istance (M. Querc i)
Breeding for virus resi sta nce (M. Bonierbale)
Adaptation and utilization of advanced virus-resistant clones and proge nitors
(M. Bonierbale)
In -v itro eradication of potato v iru ses and multipli cat ion of materials for distribution
(A. Golmirzaie)
Key pests are potato tuber moth (a rapidly growing threa t), Andean potato weevil,
leafminer flies, and whiteflies. The project objective is to combine management practices
into locally adapted packages to reduce chemical pesticide use and increase overall
benefits for farmers. Components in clude biological, cultura l, and resistance aspects of
control.
In creasing efficiency and effectiveness of both informal and formal seed systems is the
target of this project. Varietal introdu ction and diffusion is dependent on the inform al
system, but it must be linked with the forma l and it must emphasize high quality planting
material. Th e project accomplishes this with farm er training and establishment of pilot
seed systems.
Impact of inn ovations in link s betwee n formal and informal seed systems in Ecuador,
Kenya, and the Philippines (C. Cr issman)
Strengthen in g research and production of seed potato in Bolivia (A. Deva ux)
Seed multiplication and varieta l diffusion throu gh the development of a farmer-based
seed system (H. Kidane Mariam)
D iffu sion and production of quality seed throu gh in forma l participatory seed systems in
Bangladesh and Sri Lanka (S. ll angant il eke)
16
ProjectPortfolio
Research and technical assistance for the improvement of seed technologies and the
development of seed programs (0. Hidalgo)
Seed multiplication and varietal diffusion of new potato varieties through the farmerbased seed system in the Philippines, and Vietnam (U. Jayasinghe)
Seed degeneration studies in Southern Peru (L. Salazar)
17
Sweetpotato breedin g and ge rmpl asm eva lua tion fo r SSA (E. Carey)
Breedin g hi gh dry m atte r swee tp ota to adaptable to So uth eas t As ia ( l.C. Mok)
Breeding dual purpo se and early maturing variet ies for SW As ia (T.R. Da ya l)
lntrogress ion of exoti c germp lasm into the Chin ese bree din g program (Y. Wa ng)
Cer mpla sm eva luati o n for ab ioti c stresses (N. Pall ais)
Cermp lasm enhan ceme nt thro ugh population improveme nt and biotech nology (0 .P.
Zhang)
18
Project P01tfolio
as well as the potential for developing country production and postharvest sweetpotato
systems.
Global Characterization (G. Scott)
Impact studies (J. Otieno)
Projections/database (G. Scott)
CIPProgromReportl99798
19
20
P10ject Portfolio
In prior ity setting for its 1998-2 000 M edium-Term Plan, CIP sc ientists and management eval uated 15 projects in a conventional format of eco nom ic proj ect appra isa l
(CIP, 1997). Project benefits depend ed on
th e size of the recommendation dom ain (in
target and sp ill-ove r co untries), probabi li ties
of tec hnologica l success, per hecta re
ben efits of ado p ted tec hnology, and ce ilin g
levels of adoptio n in 20 15 (Wa lker and
Collion , 1997). Estimates for these four
21
Project
Original
Revised'
Original
Revised'
52.0
50.4
47.6
44.2
43.4
40.7
39.7
35.1
34.3
32.8
31.4
29.6
25.8
22.5
16.7
52.0
50.4
47.6
44.2
43.4
40.7
39.7
42.6
34.3
32.8
44.3
41.2
38.0
37.4
28.6
0.787
0.644
0.587
0.560
0.585
0.694
0.367
0.452
0.426
0.466
0.326
0.372
0.321
0.272
0.197
0.787
0.644
0.587
0.560
0.585
0.694
0.367
0.561
0.548
0.572
0.514
0.540
0.498
0.489
0.370
Percentageof people that foll below thepoverty line in countries and provinces where the project is expected to have results.
b Poverty
measure that combinesa poverty line with on estimate of income inequality (TAC, 1996).
22
TAC projectedb
FeatureArlicle
Poverty in China
The conseq uences of poverty in Ch in a
for the project rankin gs warrant more
discussion. First, the use of a national
average in TAC's own priority setti ng for the
CG IAR as a w hole hides a great deal of
interreg ional var iation in poverty (TAC,
1996). For examp le, potatoes in China are
mainly produced in the poorer interi or
mountainous provin ces distant from the
ric her coast (Fi gure 1). Weighting growing
area by provincial esti mates of poverty
shows that potatoes are cul tivated in
regions that are two to three ord ers of
magnitude poorer than comparable regions
where rice is produced.
Low growth and adverse distributional
effects have dampen ed growth in the
poorer inland prov in ces (C hen and
Ravallion, 1996). In four provinces in
sou th ern China, rel iable hou seho ld survey
data on rura l liv in g sta ndards suggested a
range in the incidence of rural poverty of
from 3% to 5% (depend in g on the method
used) in prosperous coas tal Guangdong to
27 % to 42% in poor inland Guizhou.
These interregional differences appear to be
sharper among rural rather th an urban
households (World Bank, 1993). In part,
these differences refl ect competitive
adva ntages of the coasta l provin ces.
Government policies have also co ntributed
to these differences. Seve ral coastal zones
receive preferential treatment for foreign
investment. The government also enforces
a reg istration system that inc reases the cost
of interregional mi gratio n. Geographic
poverty traps are becoming more ev id ent.
Seco nd , the national headcount index
for Chin a looked surpri si ngly low compared
with est im ates for other deve lop in g co untries. In descending order of the inciden ce
of poverty in the TAC database, China
occupies position 116, w ith mean est im ated
poverty lower th an that of all othe r de ve loping co untri es exc ept Oman and South
Korea. Estimated poverty is greate r in many
upp er-m idd le-incom e eco nomi es, such as
Malaysia, Uruguay, and Cyprus , than in
23
N
_p.
900
!00
uo
130
120
>
r;
'"
Nei
40 0
Mot~ol
. ,'
:Il~'f~1 ~
~~
- 20
I
~o o
(XJ O
~~~~~~~~~
100
110
120
130
25
Efficiency
Poverty
TAC
original
Poverty
TAC
revised
SDM
20
SDM
10
TPS
.. "' ---- .
PV ..........
TPs9'' ... ,
., ,
' '
...........
"-;;>(,...
........ .,
..................
SPo.,.
.... ....... ,
,....,,.......
'
',
PV
...":.
PBW
SV
SIPM
----...::---.
--
sv
NRM ........... .
,,,...,..e.fl
PSS
f "'
~iE:::::::::::::
O
ARTC
NRM
-."::,:::o~=ir.,.,,
26
FeolureArlicle
Concluding Comments
In our application , modifyi ng prio rity
setti ng for the geographic incid ence of
poverty did not appreciably change the
effic iency-based results in terms of project
rankings. The extent to w hich poverty
matters to project outcomes depends on th e
incidence and seve rity of poverty in China.
SPD
PIPM
PBW
p.
W o rld Ba nk. 19 93. China: Strateg ies fo r
redu c in g poverty in the 1990s. Th e
Wor ld Ba nk, Was hin gton D .C. , U SA.
14 0 p. + A nn exes .
27
Research on Potato
Impact on a Changing World
31
Potato
Virulence assays
Th e spec ifi c v irul ence of 114 iso lates
w as dete rmined b y inoculation of deta ched
leaflets of a d ifferent ial set of potato
culti vars ca rry in g the 11 kno w n major (R)
ge nes for r es istance . Differenti als we re
obta in ed fro m th e Resea rch In stitute for
Plant Protection , Wage nin ge n, the Netherlan ds. Leaflets col lected fr om th e midd le
part of eac h di ffe rentia l culti va r at 45-60
da ys o f age were inoculated i n in ve rted
Pet ri dishes lined w ith 1.5 % aga r wa ter,
suc h that lea flets lay in th e lid s below the
agar layer. ln ocu la for v iru le nce tests we re
obtained fro m tu b er sl ices inc ub ated for 6
to 7 cl at 1 SC in a mo ist chamber. A 20 -L
drop of a sporan g ia (a ppro x. 5 x 10 3
spo rangia/ml) wa s placed on th e abax ial
surface of eac h leaflet. Each test inc luded
th e susce ptib le cu lti v ar Chata Blanca
(co ntai n ing no know n R genes) as a co ntrol.
Th e virulence assa ys we re repeated at least
tw ice .
Metalaxyl resi stance. A su bset (n = 276 )
of iso lates was p lated on 10% V-S aga r
co ntai nin g metalaxy l at concentrations of 0,
5, 50, and 100 ppm . Isolates w ere co nsidered re sista nt to th e systemi c fungicide if
growth was:::: 40 % of the 0- ppm co ntrol at
any metalaxy l conce ntrat io n. Iso lates we re
consi dered mod erate ly resistant if growth
was redu ced to < 40% of th e co ntro l va lue
at 100 ppm, but not at 5 ppm . Iso lates were
co nsid ered suscept ible if growth was
retarded at 5 ppm to <40% of th e 0- ppm
co ntro l.
Isolation of DNA . Cultures of P. infestans
we re grown in pea broth (filtrate from 120- g
autoc lave d froze n peas per liter) in 5-6
di spos able Petri di shes at 1 SC in a dark
incubator w ithou t shaki ng. Each Petri di sh
was inoc u Iated wi th mycel i um from an
acti ve ly growing co lony in Rye B aga r. After
10 cl ays, th e fungal tissue was harvested b y
vacuum fil tration , froze n at - 70C fo r
seve ral hours, and then lyoph ili zed for 4-5
cl. Lyo philizecl ti ss ue was th en gro und in
liquid N , . DN A was ex tra cted fr om the
powde red myce lium (De Paul o and Powell ,
1995).
3 ECL 1 "'
33
;;
.0
;:
"'
N
"'"'~ ;:';;;
"'
"'
M
r--
.0
;:: ;:
- A
---- -- ---~---
- -= ----- ---
-= ~
Figure 1. DNA fingerprints obtained by (A) AFLP; and by (B) RFLP analysis using the hybridization probe RG57.
Potato
Iso late
CZ
BTLM11
BTLMS
BTLM4
BTLM3
TSP16
1473
684
P02
4
TSP20
TSP10
PCZ101
PPU036
1394
1385
PE96005
PC0018
POX00 1
1021
PCZ033
PCZ098
PCZ024
PPU005
1452
1393
1696
PCZ036
PPU013
US-1
PE84006
PE850019
PE840028
PCZ111
228
PCZ00 1
PCZ110
US-7
US-8
2939
I I
0.72
I I
0.79
I I
0.86
I I
0.93
Origin
Cusco, Peru
Lima, Peru
Lima , Peru
Lima, Peru
Lima, Peru
Lima, Peru
Argentina
Cajamarca, PerU
Ancash , Peru
Junin , Peru
Lima, Peru
Lima, Peru
Cusco, PerU
Puno, Peru
Junin , Peru
Junin, Peru
Junin, PerU
Junin, Peru
Pasco, PerU
Ecuador
Cusco, Peru
Cusco, Peru
Cusco, Peru
Puno, Peru
Junin, PerU
Junln, Peru
Arequipa
Cusco, PerU
Puno, Peru
USA
Junln, Peru
Junin, Peru
Junin, Peru
Cusco, Peru
Jun in, PerU
Cusco, Peru
Cusco, Peru
USA
USA
Ecuador
Mr
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1
A2
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1
Year
198?
1997
1997
1997
1997
1997
1996
1996
199?
1997
1997
1997
1997
1997
1994
1994
1994
1997
1998
1996
1997
1997
1997
1997
1994
1994
1995
1997
1997
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1
A2
A2
A2
1984
1985
1984
1997
1985
1997
1997
1996
Number
n=1
n=1
n=1
n=1
n=1
n=1
n=1
n=1
n=1
n=1
n=1
n=1
n=93
n=2
n=1
n=1
n=1
n=46
n=29
n=1
n=1
n=2
n=8
n=51
n=1
n=1
n=1
n=2
n=31
n=1
n1
n1
n=1
n=1
n=1
n=1
n=2
n=1
n=1
n=1
Genotype
des ignation
(RG57)
PE-7
PE-7
PE7
PE-7
PE-7
PE-7
EC1.4(t)
EC-1.4 (t)
~g:~:: m
EC-1.4{t)
EC-1
EC1
EC-1
EC-1
EC-1
EC-1
EC-1
EC-1
EC-1.2 (t)
EC-1.3 (t)
PE-3
PE-3
PE-3
PE-3
PE-3
US-1.xa
US-1
US1
US-1
US-1
US-1
US-1.xb
PE-2
PE-5
PE-6
US-7
US-8
I
1.00
Coefficient
Figure 2. Annotated dendrogram derived from RFLP data obtained using the hybridization probe RG57, using
the unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean algorithm . *MT = mating type.
carrying known resistan ce genes (differential genotypes). Lineages EC-1, PE-3, and
PE-5 showed broad-spectrum virulence
(Table 1). Most, but not all, isolates of US-1
showed narrow-spectrum virulence. The
isolates resistant to metalaxyl all carried
virulence to between 5 and 10 R genes.
Isolates moderately resistant or susceptible
to metalaxyl were virulent to between two
and seven R genes.
To determin e wh ether the AFLP technique would allow greater differentiation of
diversity, DNA from 43 isolates was
analyzed by AFLP fingerprinting. Among
these, 23 were Peruvian isolates; the others
were control DNA samples . A comparison
of the dendrograms yielded by RFLP and
AFLP fingerprinting reveal ed that, as
expected, the AFLP technique allowed
greater differentiation (Fi gure 3).
Discussion
By analyzin g subsets of the collection by
various methods, it could be concluded that
the P. infestans population in central and
southern Peru is of the new type. Although
all of the isolates tested showed the A 1
mating type, the pathogen population is
now relatively diverse, broadly virulent,
and resistant to metalaxyl.
The P. infestans population has shifted
dramatically since the 1980s. Twenty
isolates collected in the department of Junin
in 1984 and 1985 showed virulence to
between 0 and 2 of the 10 R genes tested,
with the greatest number (40% ) showing
avirulence to all of the genes (Tooley et al.,
1989). In contrast, none of the 25 isolates
collected from Jun in in 1997 showed
virulence to fewer than 4 of 11 R gen es
tested in th is study. The majority of the
35
Table 1. Genotypes of Phytophthora infestans defined by DNA fingerprinting using the hybridization probe RG57,
and their associated characteristics (virulence, reaction to metalaxyl, site of coll ection, and corresponding
number of isolates).
Genotype
EC-1
Virulence
Metalaxyl
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 ,10, 11
1,2,3,4,6,7,8 , 10, 11
1,2,3,4,7,8,10, 11
1,2,3,4,7
1,3,4,7,8,10,11
1.3,4 ,7,8, 11
1,3,4,7,11
1,3,7,11
Comas
Comas
Cusco y Comas
Comas
Cusco y Comas
Cusco
Comas
Cusco
Cusco
1
8
13
2
9
3
1
1
1,3,4,7,8 ,1 0,11
PE-5
1,3,4,7,10,11
Cusco
PE-3
R
MR
R
MR
Pu no
Pu no
Pu no
Pu no
Cusco
Pu no
Pu no
Pu no
Pu no
4
1
Pu no
Pu no
Pu no
Pu no
Pu no
1
1
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
N=
EC-1.2
US-1
36
Site
s
s
s
s
s
R
s
s
s
s
1
1
2
2
1
2
Isolate
PC001 B
PPU 036
PCZ116
if~:c5
PCZ024
1452
1393
1696
PPU005
1473 ----~
PCZ116
PCZ10 1
1021
PCZ09 8
PC Z033
PCZ098
PPU005
PCZ024
1452
1393
1021
1696
PPU 036
PPU0 48
PCZ11 1
PC ZOO I
PPU013
PCZ036
PC001 8
PEB4006
PPU 048
PE8 5001 9
PPU013
PE8 40028
PCZ036
US-1
PE850019
PCZ111
PE840028
228
~---- PCZ001
~----- 14 73
PE84006
US-1
, - -- - - - - U S ?
US- ?------~
- - - 228
- - - 2939
293 9 ;=;::::;=;::::;=:;::::;:::::;:::::;:::::;::::;;::::;:::::;:::::;:::::;::::;::::;:::;:::::;:::::;::::;"
0.69
0.76
0.84
0.92
1.00
Coefficient of similarity
:ECJm~
1.00
0.92
0.84
0.76
0 .69
Coefficient of similarity
RFLP (RG57)
AFLP
Figure 3. Comparison of dendrogram s derived from RFLP analysis using the probe RG57 and from AFLP
Ii ngerpri nli ng.
domin ant popu Iati on in th e And es as
determin ed by this study.
Th e predorn i nant EC-1 l ineage showed
res istance to th e systemic fun gici de
meta laxy l. Farrne rs sti 11 use fun gici des
co nt ai nin g rn etala xy l. Beca use th e syste rnic
fun gic id e is mi xed w ith contact fun gic ide(s)
in th e produ cts, the in effec ti ve ness of the
more ex pensive systemi c produ ct is not
necessa rily appare nt. Farm ers should be
made awa re that metala xy l is no longe r
effect ive.
In thi s stud y, as in oth ers, A FLP fi ngerprintin g revealed rnore di ve rsity th an did
RFLP/ RG57 (K arnoun et al. , 1998). Th is
tec hniqu e merit s further appli catio n in
po pul ation ge netics studi es of P. infestans in
cases w here discrimination is des irabl e.
Acknowledgments
We thank Dr. Ladis lao Palo min o of IN IACusco, and Emi li o Barah o na of IN IA -Pun o
37
38 Potato
39
Characterization of isolates
A t least 10 iso lates fr om each hos t
exce pt 5. tuqu errense and 5. andrea num
we re c haracte ri zed w ith three or mo re
genetic and phenotyp ic markers (Table 1).
Restr iction fragme nt le ngth po lymo rp hi sm
(RFLP ) fin gerprints we re obtained for
iso lates usin g th e moderately repetiti ve
prob e RG 57 (Good w in et al. , 1992). Two
g of DN A from eac h isolate w ere di gested
w ith EcoRI fo r 24 h, th en underwe nt
electroph ores is o n 0.7 o r 0.8% aga ro se ge ls
(56 V, 20 mA) fo r 24 -4 5 h in 1 X TBE .
H yb ridi za tion and detect ion w ere do ne
usin g th e no nradi oacti ve kit ECL '" 4 acco rdin g to th e manu fac turer' s in stru ction s.
M itoc ho nd ria l D NA hap lotypes we re
dete rmin ed by ampli fica ti o n of DN A of
eac h iso late usin g prim ers design ed fo r
sp ec ifi c reg io ns of th e mitochondri al
genom e of P in fes lans (Griffith and Sh aw,
1998). Di gesti on o f th e amplified reg io ns
w ith Cfo l, Mspl , an d EcoRI restrict io n
enzy mes y ield s ba nd patte rn s by w hi ch th e
isolates ca n be c lass ifi ed into four
hapl otypes: la, lb, Il a, and llb (Carter et al. ,
1 990; Griffith and Shaw, 1 998) .
Th e intern al transcr ibed spacer regio n 2
(ITS2) of th e ribo so mal DNA (rDN A) o f P.
4 A m ersh;im , In c.
40
Potato
Table 1. Host species and number of isolates of P. infestans assessed with neutral markers.
Host species
5. tuberosum (pototo)
5. lycopersicon (tomato)
5. phure;a
5. tuquerrense
5. colombianum
5. muricatum (pepino dulce)
5. caripense
5. betaceo (tree tomato)
5. brevifolium
5. tetrapetalum
S. ochrantum
5. andreanum
mtDNA
Mating type
Gpi 0
Pep'
185
125
8
6
17
225
140
38
77
107
92
40
23
8
6
13
16
26
13
22
13
5
3
8
2
10
8
6
16
11
15
9
22
19
22
13
22
22
11
6
0
5
l
11
15
28
13
22
22
23
11
22
Fingerprint
7
4
16
11
4
4
50 to 280 V. Electrop ho resis was terminated w hen the bromop henol blu e dye
re ac hed th e bottom of t he ge l, about 16 cm.
All ozyme ge notypes were scored as
described by Spielman et al. (199 1), w hi c h
represent th e relati ve mo bi I iti es of th e
enzym e all eles to an all ele designated as
100. Iso lates w ith kn own allel es from the
coll ect io n of W. E. Fry, Corn ell Uni ve rsity,
were used for compari so n.
Gpi, Pep, and m atin g type data w ere
combin ed w ith RFLP f in ge1prints as described prev io usly (Fo rbes et al. , 1998), to
c rea te multilocus genotypes. M ultil ocus
ge noty pes of iso lates from 5. brevifolium
and 5. tetrapetalum were co mpared with
publi shed ge notypes o f P infestans taken
from a globa l m arker database (Forbes et
al. , 1998) using clu ster analys is. D ata
anal yses and presentation of res ults we re as
desc ribed previou sly (Fo rbes et al. , 1998).
41
all iso lates was ty pi ca l o f P infestanslimon iform w ith a short pedice l (Erw in and
Rib eiro, 1996) . Sporangial dim ensions
we re cons istent w ith th ose pub I ished for P
infestans (Erw in and Ribe iro, 1996) for al l
iso lates except som e from tom ato , 5.
muricatum, and 5. betacea, w hi c h w ere a ll
large r than those reported prev iou sly.
Althoug h thi s is not co nc lu sive ev iden ce
th at these iso lates we re P infestans, no
other described spec ies accommodates
th em better.
Neutral markers
Ana lyses o f the populations w ith neutra l
m arkers res ulted in th e id ent ificat ion of
seve ra l multilocus ge notypes, w hi c h belon g
to four clon al lineages (Table 2). Ve ry
limited amounts of polymorphism for RFLP
fin gerprints we re found w ithin th e clo nal
I in eages attac king potato, tomato, and th e
w ild spec ies 5. brevifo lium and 5.
tetrapetalum. The limited polymorphism
w ith the popul ations attac kin g potato and
tomato confirms prev ious reports (Forbes et
a l. , 1997; Oyarz un et al. , 1998).
O nl y two plant spec ies we re associated
w ith more th an one clonal lin eage of th e
pathogen ; in both cases the lin eages were
US- 1 and EC-1. On e plant spec ies w as 5.
ochrantum, for w hi c h th ere was a geog raphical separation of the two lin eages
(EC- 1 is found in more northerly sites) . Th e
other was 5. andreanum, for w hi c h both
lin eages we re fo und at th e same site. Ea c h
Table 2. Clonal lineages of Phytophthora infestans found in Ecuador to date and host species from which they
were isolated.
Clonal lineage
Gpi'
Pep'
MtDNA'
US-1
86/l 00
92/ 100
IB
EC-1
90/ l 00
96/ 100
llA
EC-2
l 00/ l 00
76/l 00
New
EC-3
86/100
76/l 00
IA
Hosts
Tomato,
42
Pototo
4
-25
-24
-21 -20a
-20
-16
-14a
-14
-13
-12
-10
-Ba
-7
-5
-3
-2
-1a
-1
43
. . . . - - - - - - - EC3 (EC)
EC2. 1 (EC ) *
.----------1
EC-2 (EC )*
. . . . - - - - - - - - - - - CA-3 (CA ) *
FR I (FR )
CA2 (CA)
BR-I (BO ) *
RW-1 (RW)
RW2 (RW)
EC-1 (CO )
US- 4 (US )
US6 (US )
US-5 (U S)
US-2 (US)
. . . . - - - - - - EE-2 (EE)
. . . . - - - - US- 1 (CA)
- - - RU-1 (RU )
. . . . . - - - - - - US-3 (US )
- - - - - US-2 (AU)
.-------f------
JP-1 (J P) *
Metalaxyl resistance
In ge nera l, the p opula t io ns of P. in festa ns
that we studi ed were se nsit ive to th e
systemi c fung ic id e metalaxy l. Some
iso lates fro m all spec ies had intermedi ate
re sistance, but onl y f ive iso lates we re
res istant, and all came fr om potato. Hi gh
fr equ enc ies of metalaxy l resistance in th e
EC- 1 lin eage have bee n re ported prev iously
(Fo rb es et al ., 1997 ).
- - - - - - CA-5 (C A) *
..-------1.--------
CA-7 (CA ) *
- - - - - - CA-6 (CA )*
. - - - - - - - US-8(US)*
.-------1
1..------
P0-57 (RU) *
IL- 1 (IL)*
US-7(US ) *
ES -1 (ES)
. . . . - - - - - - - CR-1 (CR)
' - - - - - - - - AU- 1 (AU)
1.0
0.5
Genetic distance
44
Pololo
Pathogenicity
Th e prima ry purpose of pat hoge ni c ity
tests was to detect host sp ecific ity amo ng
iso lates of th e sa m e c lon al lin eage fro m
di ffe rent hos ts. Two syste m s we re tested in
thi s stud y. Th e iirst in vo lve d on e iso late
fr om to m ato and three fro m 5. m urica tu m
(5. mu r.) (U S-1 ). Th e seco nd invo lve d o ne
isola te fro m potato and six fr om 5 .
colomb ianum (5. co l.) (EC-1 ). In th e f irst
test, eac h isolate wa s mo st agg ress ive
(ba sed o n les io n length) o n its ow n host.
Th e iso lates fro m to m ato did not attac k 5.
muricatum, but iso lates fro m 5. murica tum
attacked toma to, although less agg ress ively
th an th e iso late fro m thi s ho st (Fi gure 3).
Th e interacti o n betwee n iso late sou rce and
in oc ul ated spec ies w as hi ghl y signi fica nt
(P = 0.0002).
Th e seco nd test gave di ffe rent res u lts.
Isola tes fr om potato and 5. co lombianum
attac ked eac h host w ith equ al aggress iveness (Fi gure 3) . Th e intera cti o n betwee n
isol ate so urce and ino cul ated spec ies was
not signifi ca nt (P = .7355) .
A - S. colombianum
4
Isolates
from
S. colombianum
Isolates
from
potato
0
S. col.
Potato
S. col.
Potato
B - S. muricatum
5
Isolates
from S. murica tum
Isolates
from tomato
0
S. mur. Tomato
S. mur.
Tomato
45
Conclusions
Th e ge netic di ve rsity of this pathoge n in
Ec uador is extremely w ide . Four clonal
lineages were found in association with
46 Potato
References Cited
Andrivon, D. 1996. The origin of
Ph ytophthora in festa ns populations
present in Europe in th e 1840s: A critical
rev iew of histori ca l and sc ientifi c
ev iden ce. Plant Pathol. 45:1 027-10 35 .
Brommonschenk e l, S. H. 1988. Pathoge nicity, co mpatibility, cyto ge netics and
isoe n zy m e pattern s of Brazilian iso lates
of Ph ytophthora infestans (Mont.) de
Bary. M.S. Thesi s, U ni v ersidade Federa l
de Vi<;:os a, Vi<;:osa , Brazi I. 82 p .
Carter, D. A., S.A. Archer, and K.W. Buck.
1990. Restriction fra gment length
polymorphisms of mitochondrial DNA of
Phytophthora in festans . Myc ol. Res.
94:1 123-1128.
Caten, CE. and J.L . Jinks. 1968. Spontaneous variability of single isolates of
CIPPrngrom Report1997-98
47
48 Potato
49
Characterization of isolates
RFLP finge rprints we re obtai ned fo r al l
iso lates from both co ll ections usin g the
moderately repetitive probe RG 57
(Goodw in et al., 1992b). Two g of DNA
from each isolate were digested wi th fcoR I
for 24 h, the n und erwe nt electrophoresis on
0.7 or 0.8 % agarose gels (56 V, 20 mA) for
24-45 h in TBE 1 X. H ybr id ization and
detection we re do ne usi ng the no nradioacti ve kit EC LTM 5 according to th e
manufactu1er's instructions.
M itochon drial DNA (mt D NA) haplotypes
were determi ned fo r th e 1995 col lection by
amplificat ion of DNA of each iso late using
primers desig ned for specific regions of the
mitoc hondrial genome of P infestans
(G1iffith and Sha w, 1 998). Di gestion of the
amp li fied regio ns with Cfol, Mspl and fcoRI
restr iction enzy mes y iel ded band patte rn s
by w hi ch the isol ates co uld be c lassified
in to fo ur hap lotypes: la, lb, Ila, and ll b
(Carter et al., 1990; Griffith and Shaw,
1998).
Collection of isolates
50
Pototo
P P
P T T T
~~~
-21
-20
-16
_ -14a
14
-13
-10
-9
... -7
-5
' -3
Results
-1
2).
51
Isolates
from tomato
86-
100-
Isolates
from potato
~ 3
c:
c:
52
Potato
~ 2
Q)
c:
"'
::!:
Q)
potato
tomato
potato
tomato
B
4
Isolates
from potato
Isolates
from tomato
.i:::
Ci 3
c:
c:
0
'iii 2
~
c:
"'
::!:
Q)
potato
tomato
potato
tomato
Discussion
O ur data c lea rl y show that th e pathogen
popu lati ons attac kin g potato and tomato in
Kenya and Uga nda are different from each
Table 1. Analyses of variance from two experiments that test effects of origin (potato or tomato) of isolates of
Phytophthora infestons and inoculated host species (potato or tomato) on diameter of lesions (cm) in a
detached-leaf inoculation assay involving isolates collected in Kenya and Uganda in 1995.
Source
Degrees of freedom
Mean square
F Value
NT'
NT
l
8
4
43
60
3.71
17.23
21.19
3.37
14.43
0.36
0.25
4
4
24
108
l.52
42.9
30.6
5.43
3.27
0.48
0.38
Pr > F
First experiment
Isolate origin (O)
Host species (H)
0* H
Isolate embedded in Origin (1 0)
Plant embedded in host (PH)
lo* PH
Residual error b
58.78
9.36
40.00
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
NT
Second experiment
Isolate origin (0)
Host species (H)
0*H
Isolate embedded in Origin (1 0)
Plant embedded in host (PH)
10 * pH
Residual error b
NT
NT
63.52
l l.27
6.79
0 0001
0 0001
0 0001
NT
NT = not tested. Mo in effectsof isolote origin ond host species were not tested because of their highly significant interaction,
0 * H. Thisinteraction was tested using the mea n square for theinteraction between individual isolates and plants, Isolate
* Plant (O ' H) This intera ction was also used to test Isolate (0), isolate embedded in origin, and Plant (H), plant genotype
embedded in plant species.
b Based on variance among petridishes, which are pseudo replicationsof the experiment.
0
53
Potato
55
57
Table 1. Sites and trial (years) of participation in the assessment of phenotypic stability of resistance in potato to
Phytophthora infestans.
Altitude
Participating institution'
Country
INTA, Balcarce
Agriculture Canada
Landbrugets Kartoffelfond
Argentina
Ecuador
Fronce
Fronce
Mexico
Scotland
SCRI
CPRO, Wogeningen
Cornell University
Washington State University
Canada
Denmark
Latitude
Longitude
(m)
4600' N
5542' N
00 22' s
4800' N
48 01' N
1912' N
5523' N
63 00' w
0912' E
78 33' w
0400' w
01 43' w
99 35' w
432' w
15
79
3,058
36
100
2,640
110
Netherlands
USA
USA
Trial 2
Trial 3
1,2
1,2
1,2
1,2
1,2
1,2
1,2
1,2
1,2
1,2
1,2
1,2
1,2
1,2
1,2
1,2
1,2
1,2
1,2
1,2
a. INTA = Institute Nocional de Technologio Agropecuario, Argentina; INRA = lnstitut National de lo Reserche Ag ronomique,
Fronce; PICTIPAPA = Programo International Cooperation del Tizon Tardio de lo Popa, Mexico; SCRI = Scottish Crop Research
Institute; CPRO = Centre for Plant Breeding and Reproduction Research, Netherlands.
b. Cultivor set l = Bintie, Choto Blanco, Cruza 148, Monserrate, Sesini, Alpha, and Yungay; cultivar set 2 = Stirling, Teena,
Torridan, Reco rd, Rabiin, Pimpernel, and Eigenheimer.
58
Potato
Statistical analyses
Variances for each site-by-year com bi nation were calculated for culti va r, block, and
error effects (Table 2), and examined for
homogeneity between sites. Nonparametric analyses were conducted separately for
each year. Th is test does not require
homogeneity of variances and was developed for determining stability of culti v ars in
multilocation studies (Huehn, 1990a). This
nonparametric approach was used recently
in a similar study done in the USA (Haynes
et al., 1998).
In several cases in this study, values
were missing for certain cultivars at certain
sites. Although use of stabi I ity parameters
Table 2. Mean square errors (type Ill) for cultivar, block, and error effects of stability experiments carried out at sites in nine countries over 3 yr in the genotype x
environment (GXE) study.
Source
Argentina
Canada
Canada
Denmark
Ecuador
France
Mexico
France
Netherlands
Scotland
USA
USA
Landbrugets
CIP
INRA,
PICTIPAPA
INRA,
(CPRO)
(SCRI)
(Cornell)
(WSU)
LeRheu
Kartoffelfond
Ploudaniel
Year l
Cul ti var
0.065
0127
0.357
0.032
0.114
0.086
0.164
Block
0.007
< 0.001
0.001
0.001
0.008
0.003
0.005
Error
0.003
0.002
0.004
0 001
0.041
0.001
0.003
Cultivar
0.020
0152
0.004
0.273
0.048
0.050
0.180
0.116
0.023
Block
0.017
0.005
<0.001
0.007
0.01 l
< 0.001
0.023
0.002
0.006
Error
0.004
0.006
0.001
0.010
0.001
0.001
0.008
0 001
0.001
Year 2
Year 3
3
~
U1
'()
Cultivar
0.003
0.034
0.008
0.018
0.042
0.002
0.031
Block
< 0.001
0.001
< 0.001
0.001
0.001
0.006
0.004
Error
< 0.001
0.003
< 0.001
0.001
0.001
0.049
0 001
Results
Mean square errors in ANOVA vari ed by
site for cu Iti var, b loc k, and error t erm s
(Tabl e 2). For th at reason , nonparam etri c
analyses we re used. Th e two n onparametri c param eters used in th e stud y are
denoted Sl and S2. Sl is th e average ra nk
dev iatio n of a cu lti v ar and for th at reaso n
has rath e r cl ear b io log ical inte rpretatio n.
S2 is th e va rian ce of the ranks and is hi ghl y
co rre lated w ith Sl. Both S parameters are
based o n corrected A UDPCs. The co rrection factor e limin ates the o ve rall effect of
resist ance (Hu ehn , 1990a) and results in
new AUDPC va lu es, w hich may not b e
co mpl ete ly corre lated w ith th e original
va lu es. T herefore, Sl and S2 are paramete rs of stab ility after correcting for res istan ce . Both param eters h ave been eva luated theoreti ca ll y (Hu ehn , 1990a) and in
practi ca l app li cations (Huehn , 1 990b).
Th e Sl and S2 parameters were quite
low in a ll alm ost a ll ca ses (Tabl es 3, 4 , 5) .
None of th e indi v idu al Z statistics we re
c lose to the va lu es for significance at P =
0 .05. N e ither were total Z statisti cs (a
m eas ure of overa ll c ulti va r stab ility )
Table 3 . Mean AUDPC, rank of mean AUDPC, mean of absolute rank differences of a clone (51), approximate test
of significance of 51 (Zl), common variance of ranks (52), and approximate test of significance of 52
(Z2) ; analysis of seven cultivars at seven sites in the lst yr of the GXE project.
Cultivar
Cruzo 148
Monserrate
Seseni
Yungay
Robi jn
Chata Bla nco
Bintje
Total
Mean AUDPC
Rank
51
Zl'
52
Z2
0.08
0.1 l
0.20
0.22
0.30
0.43
0.53
2
3
4
5
6
7
2.48
2.29
2.38
1.24
2.19
2. 10
2.76
0.14
0.00
0.04
4.32
0.04
0.14
0.89
5.57
4.67
3.67
3.95
l.1 4
3.81
3.14
5.29
0.18
0.04
0.00
3.30
0.01
0.30
0.67
4.50
a. Zstatistics ore measures of stability. The tests for the significance of the sum of Zl or Z2 are compared to a )(1 va lue of 14.07.
Individua l Zl or Z2 values are compared to a )(1 va lue of 7.24.
60 Pototo
Table 4. Mean AUDPC, rank of mean AUDPC, mean of absolute rank differences of a clone (Sl), approximate test
of significance of Sl (Zl), common variance of ranks (S2), and approximate test of significance of S2
(Z2); analysis of 14 cultivars at 9 sites in the 2nd yr of the GXE project.
Variety
Stirling
Torrid on
Cruza 148
Monserrate
Teena
Robijn
Seseni
Yun gay
Record
Eigenheimer
Chata Blanca
Pimpernel
Alpha
Bintje
Total
Mean AUDPC
0.04
0.05
0.09
0.15
0.17
0.17
0.21
0 22
0.30
0.35
0.36
0.36
0.38
0.44
Rank
2
3
4
5
6
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Sl
Zl 0
S2
3.67
4.39
3.94
3.94
4.56
3.78
4.50
4.67
367
4.33
6.50
5.06
4.33
3.94
l.32
0.09
0.68
0.68
0 01
104
0.03
0.00
1.32
0.13
4.79
0.24
0.13
0.68
11.14
1000
14.53
l 0.75
12.28
15.44
10.94
14.94
14.94
10.19
13.19
30.36
21.44
13.44
11.75
Z2
1.28
0.10
0.99
0.52
0.02
0 92
0.06
0.06
1.20
0.31
6.54
0.89
0.26
0.67
13.81
Zstatistics are measures of stability. The tests for the significance of the sum of Zl or Z2 are compared to a X2 value of 23.68.
Individual Zl or Z2 va lues are compared to a X2 va lue of 8.49.
Discussion
This research indi cated that horizontal
resistance to LB is relatively stable. Tropically-adapted resistant materials (e.g.,
Cruza 148) were resistant in the temperate
areas of this study, and Torridon and Stirling
from Scotland were re sistant in Quito,
Ecuador. The primary cases of instability
appear to be iso lated eve nts, except for the
repeated increase in susceptibility of
Stirling in Argentina.
61
Table 5. Mean AUDPC, rank of mean AUDPC, mean of absolute rank differences of a clone {Sl), approximate test
of significance of Sl {Zl), common variance of ranks {S2), and approximate test of significance of S2
{Z2) ; analysis of 14 cultivars at 7 sites in the 3rd yr of the GXE project.
Variety
Mean AUDPC
Rank
Sl
Zl '
52
Z2
0.03
0.03
0.09
0.09
0.10
0.12
0.13
0.14
0.17
0.18
0.20
0.21
0.24
0. 28
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
l0
11
12
13
14
6.00
5.52
4.95
2.86
2.38
4.10
2.76
6.38
3.62
4.10
4.76
4.67
5.90
4.95
1.79
0.75
0.09
3 09
4.96
0.29
3.43
2.93
l.02
0.29
0.01
0.00
l.54
0.09
20.28
26.57
21.81
16.81
5.57
3.95
11.24
5. 29
28.33
9.33
14.81
16.29
15.24
23.81
17.1 4
2.52
0.73
0.01
2.70
3.58
0.59
2.84
3.45
l.1 3
0.05
0 00
0.02
l.35
0.02
18.99
Torrid on
Stirling
Teena
Cruza 148
Seseni
Monserrate
Robiin
Yun gay
Record
Pim pernel
Eigenheimer
Alpha
Chata Blanca
Bintie
Total
o. Zstatistics ore measures of stabil ity. The tests for the significance of the sum of Zl or Z2 ore compared too X2 value of 23.68.
Individual Zl or Z2 values ore compared too X2 value of 8.49.
4
- - Bintje
Chata blanca
............ Robijn
Yun gay
- - - Monserrate
Cruza 148
- - Seseni
......
......... .......
1-
.............. -
....................
..
0
Argentina
Canada
Ecuador
France
Netherlands
USA-Cornell
Figure 1. Seven cultivars tested at seven sites in the lst yr of the international genotype x environment (GXE)
experiment.
62
Potato
. Cha ta blanca
Record
Pimpernel
Sesen1
... ..............
..
"" /
-...
/
"\
-----.:"'-~---..,.
~..,...,. ........ -~m ............... .
..... .
\ \
, ............. ......
'
........ . . . . ...
. . . . . ... . ..
Denmark
Argentina
France
LeRheu
Ecuador
Canada
....
Scotland
France
Ploudaniel
USA
Wash.
USA
Cornell
Figure 2. Seven cultivars tested at nine sites in the 2nd yr of the international GXE experiment.
.....
..
.. .... -""
/ /
1 /
1 ~/
All
..........
~,..-@ ~-""*"<>;~;-
.......................... ,'
~<
.................................................................................................. ...................,...:.
............
... ...
----
..I
IO
- - -- - -- ........ - -
- - - I
I>
I.
0
Argentina
Denmark
Canada
Ecuador
France
LeRheu
Scotland
France
Ploudaniel
USA
Cornell
USA
Wash.
Figure 3. Seven additional cultivars tested at nine sites in the 2nd yr of the international GXE experiment.
63
---Bintje
- - - - - Eigenhe ime r
- - -- Alpha
- - - Yungay
...... ......
,,,, ,,,,
~.............
-:
""
---
- - -:,,,,,.,.,.::..:....----~
-1
- -;1.>..- - - - - - - - ;
.....
""
'
Denmark
.,;
.,,.."
'
........................ .....
. .....
........
,.
0
Argentina
-----
France
LeRheu
France
Ploudaniel
Mexico
Scotland
~ ...
USA
Cornell
Figure 4. Seven cultivars tested at seven sites in the 3rd yr of the international GXE experiment.
2.0
1.5
.,,, ..."'
1.0
'
Cha ta Blanca
Record
Pimpernel
Teena
Robijn
Seseni
.....
-"
. -.......... .......
--
,-..' ,'
,'
Stiriling
-- -
'
0.0
Argentina
Denmark
Fran ce
LeRheu
France
Ploudaniel
Mexico
Scotland
USA
Cornell
Figure 5. Seven additional cultivars tested at seven sites in the 3rd yr of the international GXE experiment.
64
Potato
65
66
Pototo
67
Results
Phenotypic data of the PD population
Fie ld eva lu atio ns of the 94 hybr id s used
to develop the genetic maps were compared between the two environments.
Good co rrelation, r = 0.75 and 0.77, were
observed between data sets using ADFA
and AUDPC, respecti vely. Such corre latio n
for data co ll ected in two distinct fie ld
environments under natural i nfestation, is
very high and may ind icate that sorlie Q TL
of resis ta nce to LB are common in both
env ironm ents.
Genetic linkage maps
DNA markers for the two parents are
expected to have a 1 :1 seg regat ion ratio
(pre sence of the band-absence of the band )
in th e F1 c ross between heterozygo us
parents under a pseudo-test cross model.
Several markers displa yed a skewed
segregation tested by a X2 test at P<0.01.
The number of markers w ith skewed
segregation observed from the phu parent is
similar to that reported for other genetic
analyses in plants. In contrast, 24% of
markers from the dih-tbr parent have a
skewed segregat ion at a P<0.01 , which is
unusuall y high. Both female- and malederived genet ic maps have been constru cted using the linkage analysis program
MAPMAKER/EXP v3.0b 2 The phu link age
map consists of 13 link age groups totaling
993.6 cM, of w hich 11 have been anchored
to known potato chromoso mes (Figure 1A3) .
The d ih-tbr lin kage map co nsists of 12
linkage groups totaling 889.9 cM, eac h
with markers anchored to the potato
genetic map (Fi gure 1 B).
68 Pototo
Table 1. Number of markers associated with LB resistance (!-test at P< 0.05) and chromosome assignment of
II
phu
Markers
AD FA-QUI
associated with
AUDPC-Q UI
PS-3
IV
v VI
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
19
0
0
11
0
0
VII
VIII
IX
AUD PC-HYO
0
0
0
0
Total analyzed
168
30
Markers
ADFA-QU I
41
18
AUDPC-QUI
39
22
LB resista nee
ADFA-HYO
0
0
0
0
associated with
36
38
0
0
0
0
0
48
lO
46
18
56
19
4
11
dih-tbr
Ill
AD FA-HYO
AUDPC-HYO
Total analyzed
279
2
15
29
x XI
XII
0
0
11
12
0
0
0
29
29
29
20
29
0
0
10
9
2
0
0
11
29
CI PProgramReport 1997-98
69
Table 2. Candidate genes and markers associated with one of the contrasting phenotypic classes tested by xi
statistics, the PD population, and chromosome assignment to the phu and the dih-tbr maps {-not
mapped).
Marker type
Band/kb
RFLP probe
Rls
CAPS'
Candidate genes
0
STH!Toql/4
PAUEcoRl/3
PAUEcoRl/2.8
PAUEcoRl/2
PAUEcoRl!l .9
PAUNdel/6 9
PAUNdel/6
PAUNdel/5 9
PAU Ndel! 4.4
PAUNdel/4
PAUNdel/3.6
PAUHindlll/5.5
PAU Hindi 11/5
PAU Hindi 11/2 8
PAU Hindi 11/2.7
4CUfcoRl/9
4CUHindi11/8
4CUNdel!4 5
osmotin/fcoRV/13
osmoti n/ Xbol!l 2
osmotin/Xbal/6.8
Total tested'
30
25
29
25
17
33
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
33
34
34
33
33
33
31
21
29
23
16
31
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
27
27
27
27
32
33
33
33
33
33
18
3
9
19
12
5
11
20
l
3
16
31
25
10
70
Potato
5
23
24
5
10
12
26
26
22
9
9
26
8
15
9
9
24
25
9
10
24
9
xi
Observed
6
27
26
8
21
4
22
22
11
12
22
23
l0
24
=
po
Chromosome'
7.78
6.11
4.17
14.8
4.87
6.48
10. l
12.7
5.52
4.37
13.6
22.4
8.67
9.55
8.77
9
9.32
4.15
8.96
8.96
4.19
4.19
5.85
5.12
5.76
6.82
Rgene-like
Acknowledgments
71
II
I
e31r54.e
III
4. 4 -
e4m42.a
N3.7ffl
6.8 17.7 -
5.6 -
20.4 -
6.5 -
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- e36r~
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e45r . '
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7.8 e46r42.d
23.9 -
33.7 -
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e:Ja61. t
e32-n51.e
4.5 10.8 -
14.5 -
10.? -
- - -;>-STM0038
112.7!'f
e45r59.b
N1 . 1750
09. 97r
--~ STM1029
13.5- 1
e.34m34.c
e32rn61. w
e32r61 .d
e36r49 d
13.5 -
19.4 AQJ.1700
e46r42.f
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e33m33 b
4.40.0
10.2 ------
10.3 e3.2(,JJ.f
e34m33. o
VII
VIII
r
~
7
Sl3 it>P219
20.3 -
==~~TM3009
3>"
Z4 .600
00 .4 5 0
12 6
11.45.2
Wl6.700
l .1
G3.950
OO
--,r-- e32
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Jr
I0 .6 _/ -
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E6 .14 00
--~ STMI021
225
45
14 8
e31m58.d
Zl.800
e46m42t
e36m36.d
23.5 -
e3.8~9
. eSTM0024
--0- - -
2.6 -
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IX
e3 1m58 .e
e32T6 1.a
e3 1m48.j
6. 1 10.4 -
e31m58. b
88. 700
302
6 .8
5.8
e34m33. n
_;-+-e4569d I
Tl 18 10
H1 0 2400
J3-1 15 0
12%
Figure 1 A. Genetic linkage map of the phu parent including markers anchored to the potato genetic map:
= SSR, = AFLP, . = RFLP. Genetic di stance in cM are indicated left; markers at right.
Location of QTL associated with field resistance to LB , position (' ), and the respective percentage
of phenotypic variation explained (bottom of bars) . Fi eld dota are ADFA in Huancayo (
and in
Quito (IT] ).
I )
72
Potolo
IV
84. 78r
VI
e32r61.c
e31m36.a
7.1 -
-M~ooSTF\JAc58
11. 2 -
15.4e46m42.e
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13.5-
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11.8 4.0 5.1 3.34.7 -
814. 790
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e31 m48.g
21.2 -
e46m42.b
R6.2100
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BG l. 11 rr
29_3 -
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--~STM00 1 3
32.0 -
e36r36.a
XII
XI
PLG13
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e33m'.34 .c
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12.4 -
35.9
--"'"''M"'"
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PLG12
I~
11 %12%
e46m42 j
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13.5
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14.7 -
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192
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--~
93.950
27. 8 -
16.9 -
--~ 1'58
e36r36.c
23 -
e32r48.e
e34r33.h
10.s e32m34.b
73
II
I
Bl 5.1500
III
A----~ GP313
---STMI~
AM3.1600
21.2 -
BG17.800
14.8 e38r49.b
17.6 e31m36.h
8 .4 -
e32m51 .b
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17.78.8 Z1.1400
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- - - - > STMl020
e38m49.I STMJ025
8.8
e33m33.f
G15.4rr
e31m37.e
20.9 22.a -
e35r61 .e
e32r34.h
e36m50.f
e31 m37 .g
__J.;J.1_~ STMCXJ38
e32m33.I
VII
&45r42.b
&45m60.h
e31 r58.a
~-
VIII
e38m32.f
--~ GP l 2 1
e33m3 2.b
---->
e32m48.d
STM 105 7
8.S -
R13.7 40
C9.l600 STMl02 I
---->
BG4.$40
G9.2700
__ - >STM20I 3
16%
11 %
IX
_an_~ STMCXJ24
23.6 -
M5.550
e::!im48.I
e3Jm61 .c
e:!lm50.k
e39m50.m
23.4 e46m42.b
e38m32.e
e34m34.e
15.1
3.3
13. 3
---->
.A._
e32r3:3. g STM002 8
- - -_:::,..;.STM3009
___
GPl29
e38m32.a
7.3 K3 .175r
12.a -
>
AM12.53r
16.4-
STM1102
- - - - > STMl05i
110.850
Figure 1 B. Genetic linkage map of the dih -tbr parent includ ing mar ke rs anchored to the potato genetic map:
e = SSR, = AFLP, .A. = RFLP. Genetic distance in cM are indicated left; markers at right.
Location of QTL associated with field resistance to LB , position (~ ), and the respective percentage
of phenotypic variation explained (bottom of bars) . Field data are ADFA in Huancayo (
and in
Quito (
D).
74
Pololo
I)
IV
__ -)llo-STRJ Ac58
02.1300
e38r49.e
10.6-
VI
7.1Y18.1250
e39150.I
e31154.t
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4.022.4-
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2.6::;
3.3 / 4.5 / 4.5 /_
4.7
8.5-
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7.3
ALB. 85r
8. 7
G9.700
::_3~1cJP188
--~TM\100
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4.7-
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15.7-
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7.0e46m42.a
8.2e35r48.e
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4.5-
9.3N15.850
.. ~
17.2-
_ Q1.~1JsTMOO I
-w~GP\86
11%
x
5.8
XII
XI
e36m36 .e
- - - -~ STM005
l15.85r
I
e32r61.h
e35m48.c
e36r50.j
e32r48.e
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e32m48 .I
R13.5rr
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BG4.1rrr
8.94.9-
----~STM0003
M4.970
AM171!20
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e36150.b
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R15.970
B5.198r
' 36%
H9340
e31 m36 .j
20.6--
eJlr32.h
8.3 e39r50.j
e32 r49.f
A---
520.1100
e35m48.b
- -ai:m~ STM0030
-)llo-CP58
8451159.a
21%
9.oe33n51 .k
A____>
Cl'l'iO
GP34
75
77
78 Potato
Experiment 2
The interaction between site and temperature was not significant for IP (P =
0.8608), LP (P = 0.2275), LA (P = 0.7171 ),
or SC (P = 0.7946). The isolates collected in
Comas were similar to those co ll ected in
Oxapampa for IP (P = 0.1321), and SC (P =
0.7371 ). Differences were significant for LP
(P = 0.051 ): isolates from Comas sporulated
at 99.8 h.a.i . and those from Oxapampa
at 93.5 h. a.i. Isolates from Oxapampa
ca used les ions that were 0.72 cm 2 larger
than those caused by isolates from Comas
(P = 0.0139).
The effects of temperature were highly
significa nt for all the components (P =
0.0001) (Figure 2). The models that
expla in ed the variab ility of each component as a function of temperature were
highly significant (P = 0.0001 ). The
determination coefficients (R 2) were 0.7318
for IP, 0.9173 for LP, 0.7377 for LA, and
0.5019 for SC. The equations for IP and LP
had a quadratic shape with the minimum
value at 27.28C for IP and 22.99C for LP.
6.0
D
D
US-1
PE-3
EC-1
4.0
Ama rilis
Yungay
Tomasa
Cultivar
Discussion
The displacement of US-1 by a new
population (EC-1 , PE-3) in Peru could not
be exp lain ed by the compo nents of parasitic fitness studied. The three clonal
lineages had simi lar va lu es for IP, LP, and
LA. Unexpectedly, the SC of the old
population was significantly greater than
that of the new population.
Previous reports (Mizubuti and Fry,
1998 Miller et al., 1998; Kato et al., 1997;
Chyc~sky and Punja, 1996) attributed the
displacement of US-1 to a greater aggressiveness of new populations, partly due to
lower va lu es of IP and LP, and high er va lu es
of LA. Day and Shattock (1997) found that
the new populations presented a greater
fitness ind ex (infectio n frequency by
number of sporangia/lesion).
We speculate that the greater aggress iveness of the new Andean populations of P
79
200.0
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-.
160.0
120.0
80.0
I~
4o.o
0.0
=- - -
--
- - =--
1
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
13
18
23
28
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
8
13
18
)
(x10
23
28
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-.
SC
18
13
- - - Latent period -
23
28
- Incubation period
Temperature (C)
Figure 2. Effect of temperature on (A) incubation and latent period, (B) lesion area, and (C) sporulation capacity
in the EC-1 clonal lineage of Phytophthora infestans. Each data point represents the average of eight
isolates at each temperature. Vertical bars indicate the standard error of the mean.
80
Potato
81
82
Potolo
83
Pololo
Discussion
Co un try ave rages we re ca lcul ated usin g
a geo refere nced d atabase of world potato
produ ct io n th at d elin eates th e potato
produ ction zo nes in eac h co untry and
indi cates t he area planted w ith potato in
eac h zone (Hu acc ho and Hijm ans, 1999).
For eac h potato produ ct io n zo ne, th e
fracti on of th e nation al potato area was
multiplied by the ave rage number of sp rays/
ha and then agg rega ted by co untry. The
resul ts we re co mpared w ith ear l ie r estimates of actual fun gic ide use in d eve lop in g
countries. Th ose est imates we re made
ind epende ntl y of th is stud y fo r CIP research
priority settin g (Walker and Col lion , 1997) .
Results
Th e es tim ated number of fun gicid e app li cations req uired for co mpl ete co ntrol of LB in
a susceptible potato variety is shown in
Fi gu re 1. Th ere are stri k in g differences in
LB seve rity between potato p ro du cti on
zones. Th e optimum numb er of sprays is
espec ially hi gh in th e tropical highl and s of
Latin America, Africa, and Asia; in weste rn
Europe, the east coast of Ca nad a, and the
north ern USA; southeast Brazil, centralsouth China, and in m any coas tal areas.
Major potato producing areas with low LB
press ure in c lude north ern China; th e plains
in Indi a and Bangladesh, w here irri gated
potato is produced in the coo l dry season;
and no rth weste rn USA.
By co mparin g Fi gures 1 and 2, one ca n
qualitative ly appreciate th e benefits of a
shift from a susceptibl e to a res istant
cultivar. When com p ared o n a country-bycountry basis, there is an ave rage reduction
of 1 5% in the optimum number of sprays if
suscept ibl e varieties are repl aced by
85
Q)
..0
::>
Do
86
Pototo
c:
E
::>
c..
...
'-.J
co
~
~
co
1-4
9-12
> 12
D s -s
Figure 2. Optimum number of sprays to control late blight in a resistant potato cultivar.
..,.
'
~ !
20
15
0
0
10
15
20
Figure 3. Optimum number of sprays for a susceptible cultivar versus a resistant cultivar. Aggregate values for all
potato producing countries. Line: y = O.BSx; R2 = 0.97.
88
Potato
20
y=x
a Costa Rica
15
a Indonesia
10
a Colombia
a
a a
a Ecuado r
5Cl
mm
Diii
Cl
1111
DD
ma
111
ca
China
Rwanda
Bolivia
a Bhutan
o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
10
15
20
Figure 4. Optimum number of sprays for a susceptible cultivar versus the actual number of fungicide sprays to
89
www.bspp.org.uk/icpp98/abstracts/5 .1 I
9S.html.
Forbes, G.A. and M.C. Jarv is. 1994. Host
resistance for management of potato late
blight. In: Zehnder, G. , R. Jansson, and
K.V. Raman (eds.). Advances in potato
pest biology and management. American
Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN,
USA. p. 439-457.
Fry, WE., A.E. Apple, and J.A. Bruhn. 19 83.
Eva luation of potato late blight forecasts
modified to incorporate host res istance
and fungicide weathering. Ph ytopathology 73:1054-1059.
Greyseels, G., C.T. De Wit, A. Mccalla, J.
Monyo, A. Kassam, E. Crasswell, and M.
Collinson. 1992. Setting agricultural
research priorities for the CGIAR. Agric.
Sys. 40:59-103.
Han , S., R.G. Evans, T. Hodges, an d S.
Rawlins . 1995 . Linking a geographic
information system with a potato simulatio n model for site-specific crop management. J. En v. Qua! . 24:772-777.
Hard y, B., B. Trognitz, and G. Forbes . 1995.
Late blight breeding at CIP. CIP Circular
21 :2-5 .
Haverkort, A.J . 1990. Ecology of potato
cropping systems in relation to latitude
and altitude. Agric. Sys. 32:251-272.
Hijmans, R.J. 1999. Global Climate Surfaces at a 1 0-m i nute Resolution ,
GCLIMl 0, Vers ion 1.0. Production
Systems and Natural Resource Management Department Working Paper 2.
International Potato Center, Lima.
Huaccho, L. and R.J. Hijmans. 1999.
GPOT97, A global geo-referenced
database of potato production for 19951997 . Production Systems and Natural
Resource Management Departm ent
Working Paper 1. Internationa l Potato
Center, Lima .
Luo, Y. , P.S. Teng, N.G. Fabellar, and D.O .
Tebeest. 1998. The effects of global
temperature change on ric e leaf blast
epidemics: A simulation study in three
90 Potato
Methods
We selected seven pilot sites to test the new
approach on the grounds that potatoes
grown by small farmers were the main
crop, LB was the principal production
constraint they faced, and local institutions
were interested in collaborating. In
Cajamarca, Peru, the non-governmental
organization (NGO) CARE was responsible
for four, whereas !NIA (lnstituto Nacional
de lnvestigaci6n Agraria) led a fifth. In
Morochata, Bolivia, the National Potato
Research Program (PROINPA), led two FFS,
and began to involve an NGO, ASAR
(Asociaci6n de Servicios Artesanales y
Rurales). Fixed groups of farmers interested
in learning more about LB and its control
participated at each pilot site.
We developed and refined field guides
for use by FFS facilitators. These contained
different training sessions sequenced to fit a
whole growing season and to progressively
facilitate farmers' acquisition of knowledge
and skills in managing LB. In Bolivia, a
strategy for controlling LB in susceptible
cultivars had already been extensively fieldtested, and th is formed the focal point for
the FFS (Thiele et al., 1998). The strategy
CIPProgramReportl997-98
91
Topic
Type of activity
Introduction to FFS
Group discussion
Field exercise
Hands-on lea rning activity
Seed quality
Group discussion
Tuber blight
Sources of inoculum
Group discussion
Group discussion
Chemical control
Fungicide application
Nozzle selection
Field exercise
Hands-on learning activity
Ba ckpack calibration
Good spraying practice
Results of fungicid e exercise
Genetic resistance
10
11
Positive selection
12
Group discussion
exerci se
Discussion and future plans
92
Pololo
Pilot areas
Bolivia
Peru
Morochata
San Miguel
Collaborating institutions
10 to 20
5
7 to 25
Sessions in FFS
10
12
Emphasis
in fungicide use
resistance
Focus of technological development
Experimental design
Impact indicators
benefits
1999)
93
In the fourth session of the farmer field school in Peru , farmers prepared a spo rangial suspension by was hin g infected foliage. Using a mini-mi croscope and hand
lenses, the farmers observed the sporangia in the wash-water and on th e lesio ns that
were the sources of th e inoculum. They enhanced th eir observations by sketchin g
the spec imens.
H ea lthy potato leaves were dipped in th e spo rangial suspension and th en placed
in plastic boxes (d isposa bl e containers obtained at a loca l supermarket) w hi ch
served as humid growth chambers. Farmers also dipped healthy leaves in clea n
wa ter and placed th em in pl ast ic boxes. Farmers observed changes in the leaves
over the subsequ ent week, and analyzed the res ults in the FFS session a week later.
By ask in g question s about what happen ed and w hy, farmers discove red for
themse lves mechani sms of infection. This exe rc ise provided farmers the opportunity
to know w here late blight comes from and to understand that this disease is ca used
by a livin g entity and not by humid climatic co nditi ons that onl y contribute to its
deve lopment. In thi s way, scientific informati o n helps farmers build new und erstandin g.
94
Poloto
65
65
90
27
13
33
80
26
45
60
27
27
65
40
70
26
Mean AUDPC
1600
1400
1200
without training
1000
800
600
400
638
263
261
115
200
0
0
with training
45
5
Number of applications
CI PProgramReport 1997-98
95
4500
3500
2500
1500
500
High fungicide
L:;;:~ium fungicide
ung1c1de
Genotype
7.00
~1~~----------~---1
6.00
5.00
0
c..
4.00
Cl
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
Genotype
96
Potolo
70
70
70
70
4
4
0
0
Source: Ortiz and Winters, 1998. Part of a baseline study of LB conducted in Cajamarca, Peru, in 1998. Unpublished.
97
Wh i le th ere we re some eleme nts in com mon betwee n the ex peri ences at the two
sites, the1e we re also substant iai di ffe rences. To a ce rtain extent th e expe ri ences
w ere co mpl ementary. In Bo li v ia, th e focus
wa s o n adaptation of an ex istin g tec hn o logy
as fa rm ers tested a strategy fo r c hem ica l
co ntro l w ith a suscepti b le cul tivar. In Peru
the emphas is w as on learn ing to wo rk w ith
res istance, and o n improv in g fa rme rs
know ledge abo ut LB and its manageme nt
w ith o ut p rom ot ing a spec ific strategy. Thi s
co mpl ementa ri ty mean s th at much ca n be
lea rn ed by sharin g inform ati o n betwee n
co untri es and partners.
A ca refu I stud y of th e Ionge r-te rm
impac ts of the approaches take n in Peru
and Bo li via should help us des ign FF S
bette r. Impact studi es are pl ann ed for Peru
to dete rmin e w heth er in th e case of LB ,
enh anc in g kno wl ed ge abo ut bi o log ica l
prin c ip les and increasin g ava il ab ility of
c ulti vars w ith res istan ce res ults in in creased
y ieid s and profits. It is also imp o rtant to
determin e how inform ati o n imparted
th ro ugh FFS spread s, as it may be th at
co mpl ex knowle dge abo ut bi o ph ys ica l
prin c ip les does not sprea d eas il y fro m
farm er to fa rm er. A careful co mpar iso n of
the lo nge r term costs and benefits o f th e
tec hn ology adaptation approac h take n in
Bo li v ia co mpa re d w ith the kn owledge
enh anci ng approa ch ta ke n in Peru sho uld
help us to und erstand th e appro pri ate
we ight to be given to eac h in th e FFS.
It is c lea r fro m the first yea r's ex peri ence
th at an FFS requires co nsiderabl e tim e and
98
Pororo
99
Methods
For each of the four countries, a semistructured questionnaire was the main data
collection tool. Additionally, informal
interviews, focus groups, non-parti cipant
observation, and field eva luations were
used to enhance the validity of the research. Th e research was ca rried out in
collaboration with personn el from the
corresponding national programs.
1 CIP, Lima, Peru.
l0l
Other fungus
Other insects
D Uganda
PTM
13 Peru
Rot
Epitrix
APW ~illill'!~mllll!!m::l~!i!!ifilll
BW !=::=~::=::=:=::=~::=~:==
LB
~~~~~~~~E::::J
0
20
40
60
80
100
l 02
Potato
probl ems in Peru and Uganda. Th e Peruv ian case also appli es to Ecuador and
Boli via. In all countries, however, LB was
not the only problem. Th ere were other
pests that caused conce rn and were
perceived as reducing potato yie lds and
quality. In Uganda , for exam ple, bacter ial
wi lt was ranked as more important than LB.
In Ecua dor, Bo li v ia, and Peru , the Andean
pota to weevil ranked ju st below LB as a ke y
pest (Ortiz et al. , 1996). H ence, in designin g prog rams for the improved management
of potato pests, it is important to recog niz e
that farmers face multipl e problems.
Late bl ight dam age was evide nt during
field eval uations in the Andean countries,
but damage va rie d acco rdin g to a number
of facto rs (Table 1 ). Th e d isease in creased
dur ing th e potato seaso n, and tho se fi e ld s
that were planted late (co inciding with th e
rainy pe1iod) tend ed to ha ve more damage.
Late blight damage was in ve rs ely correlated
to fungicide applications. Plot locat ion and
the cu lli var o f potato that farmers used also
influenced disease damage.
Potato fie lds were eva luated durin g the
grow in g seaso n and also at harvest time in
Peru, Ecuado r, and Boliv ia. In Uganda, th is
part of the study will be repeated in 1999.
Cons idering potato yie ld as a depen dent
va1iab le, and di sease damage as an independ ent va ri abl e and co ntrol Ii ng for ot her
factors, it was clear in Per u, Bolivia , and
Ecuador that LB reduces potato y ields.
Figure 2 illustra tes the negative re lationship
between LB d amage and y ield in four
Bolivian co mmuniti es, w here an R2 of 0.8
was obtained. In addition, data from Peru
and Ecuador also prov id ed evidence of the
devastating effects of this disease at the
field leve l.
A conserva ti ve 20% difference in
severity between approp ri ate and in appropr iate LB contro l can be used as the lowe r
bound to esti m ate losses. Accord in g to
estimates, eac h 20 % in crease in LB seve1ity
reduces y ie ld from between 1 t/ha (i n Pe1u )
to 4 t/ha (in Ecuador). This conservative
I-statistic'
Coefficient
0.3 1
0.002
0.55
- l.2 1
2.06 **
3.10 ***
10.18 ***
- 2.88 ***
- 14.40
l 5.20
- 9.45
- 8.86
l.01
4.35
- 3.74 ***
4.1 0 ***
- 1.84 *
- 2.70
10.08
8.58
- 7568.41
2.4 5 **
2.59 ***
- 10.18
355
Potato varieties:
Amarilis
Concho n
Chou cha
Liberteiia
Perricholi
Yun gay
0.18
l.18
Places
Contumazo
San Miguel
Constant
Number of observations
R2
0.54
' I-sta tistic reference loca tion is Cajomarco and varieties are those that are either native or not used by a substantia l number of
form ers. *, **, ond **' indicate significa nce with 99%, 95%, and 90% confidence, respectively.
l 03
Piusilla
20
18
16
14
ro 12
~ 10
8
"
Qi
;;::
4
2
0
R2 = 0.81
10
15
20
AUD PC
Pata Morochata
25
20
ro
15
"'~
";;::Qi 10
5
0
0
AUD PC
San Isidro
16
14
12
-10
"'~"
";;::Qi
8
6
4
0
0
10
15
AUD PC
Compai\ia Pampa
20
~
Y=21. 18 - 2 .59 AUDPC
A~ = 0 .77
o ~~-'--~~~~~~-'-~~~~
AUD PC
l 04
Potolo
Coefficient
Age
-004
I-statistic'
- l.95'
0.26
2.33* *
Family labor
0.01
0.06
Land owned
0. 53
2. 16**
Potato vo rieties:
Amaril is
-3.66
-0.66
0.84
Ca nchan
0.47
Chaucha
l.38
1.63
Liberteiia
-0.35
-0.62
Perricholi
0.93
l.22
Yun gay
-0.18
-0.37
Planting dote
0.21
3.27***
3.34
4.24***
Places
Contumaza
San Miguel
Constant
3.38
4.29** '
- 286.03
- 3.22 *'*
131
Number of observations
R1
0.56
' I-stati sti creference location isCajamarca and varieti es are those that are either nati ve or not used by a substantial number
of form ers;*,**, *** indicate signifi ca nce with 99%, 95%, and 90% confid ence, respectively.
l 05
Table 3. Main active ingredients used as fung icides by fa rmers in the pilot sites.
Country
Active ingredients
Uganda
Bolivia
Ecuador
18
Peru
13
Most common
Proportion of
active ingredients'
sprays(%)
mancazeb
metalaxyl
prapanocarb
afurace + ma ncazebh
chlorothaloni l
mancazeb
cymoxanil + mancazeb
cymoxnil + propineb
sulfur
melalaxyl + mancazeb
mancozeb
propanocarb
metiram
90
9
44
25
19
25
16
9
6
42
24
19
7
Only the most common active ingredients are included in this column.
) Mea ns both active ingredients were combined in the same commercial product.
b(+
l 06
Potato
Conclusion
According to farmers' perceptions, LB ranks
as the most important pest problem in the
Andean countries included in the study,
and as the second most important pest in
Uganda. Farmers' concern with LB is
understandable considering that, as this
study shows, this disease indeed reduces
potato yields, and is a real threat to potato
production , food security, and farmers '
profits. This suggests that investment in
developing and disseminating control
strategies in developing countries would be
profitable. However, LB is also part of a
complex pest system that depends on
location, type of farmer, and management
strategies. Development of control strategies must be flexible enough to integrate
other local pests of economic importance.
In addition, pest control is only one of
several endeavors for farmers, therefore any
control strategy should be adaptable to
existing production activities and goals.
Farmers' lack of knowledge about
biophysical principles related to pest
control was a common feature in the
participating countries. Any effort to
improve pest control at the field level
shou Id start by providing farmers with
missing information, so that they can
acquire new knowledge. However, to what
extent new knowledg e about biophysical
principles would be reflected in better
decision-making about the control of LB is
a question that remains unanswered.
In spite of the negative effects of fungicide use on peoples' health and the environment, these products are still the
CIP Prngro mReport 1997-98
l 07
l 08
Pololo
16(3):131-137.
Crissman, C. , P. Espinosa, C.E.H. Ducrot,
D .C. Col e, and F. Carpio. 1 998. The case
study site: Physical , health , and potato
farming systems in Carchi Province. In:
C. Crissman, J.M. Antl e, and S.M.
Capalbo (eds.). Economic, environmental, and health trade offs in agriculture:
Pesticides and the sustainability of
Andean potato production. Kluwer
Acad emic Publishers, Norw ell , MA,
USA. p. 85-119.
Mackenzie, D.R. 1981. Sch eduling fungicide applications for potato late blight
with Blitecast. Plant Dis. 65:394-399.
Ortiz, 0. , J. Alcazar, W. Catalan, W.
Villano, V. Cerna, H. Fano, and T.
Walker. 1996. Economic impact of !PM
practices on the Andean potato w eevil in
Peru . In: Walker, T. and C. Crissman
(e ds. ). Case studies of th e economic
impact of CIP-related technolog y. CIP,
Lima, Peru . p. 95-110.
Pilling, E.D. and D.C. Jepson 1993 . Synergism between EB! fungicid es and
pyrethroid insecticide in the honeybee
(Apis mellifern). Pesticide Sci. 39:293-
297.
Repetto , R. and S. Baliga. 1996. Los
plaguicidas y el sistema inmunitario:
Riesgos para la salud publica. World
Resources Institute, Washington, D .C.
109
ll l
113
Potato
Results
Improvement of antiserum specificity
Several antisera had previously been
obtained by immunizing rabbits following
various protocols. The immunization
schedule reported in this paper produced
more specific antibodies and a higher titre.
When immunization was done only with
strain CIP 204, the antiserum reacted with
all R. solanacearum potato strains of
biovars 1, 2T, 3, and 4 tested. The antiserum did not, however, recognize a group of
strains of biovar 2A (data not shown ).
Therefore, two strains, CIP 204 and CIP 104
(biovar 2A), the latter belonging to the
nonrecognized group, were used for
immunization. From the two antisera
produced, antiserum P-359 was chosen
because it recognized all strains of R.
solanacearum tested at 10 8 cells/ml of
citrate buffer. After adsorption of the
antiserum , all 259 R. solanacearum strains
tested were still recognized by the adsorbed
antiserum. The cross-reactions of
saprophytes were significantly reduced
(Table 1). After enrichment, none of the 11
saprophytic bacteria isolated from enriched
Table 1. Cross-reactions obtained with non-Rolstonio solonoceorum bacterial strains in NCM-ELISA using the
crude or the adsorbed antibodies {Ab), and in DAS-ELISA using purified immunoglobulins {lgG), when
in pure culture in citrate buffer at 2 x l0 8 cells/ml without enrichment {- E) and after 48 h enrichment
( + E) from an original concentration of 2 x l 06 cells/ml tuber extract or 2 x 106 cells/ml soil solution,
CIP, 1998.
NCM-ELISA'
Nonodsorbed Ab
Adsorbed Ab
-E
+ E
- E
+ E
-E
+ /+ /+/-
++
+/-
++
Bacteria
Strain (no.)
Erwinia carotovora
subsp. carotovora
Erwinia carotovora
subsp. atroseptica
Erwinia chrysanthemi
Pseudomonas syzygii
Ralstonia pickettii
Burkholderia cepacia
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Pseudomonas putida
CIP 400
CIP 421
+/-
CIP 367
NCPPB 3792
NCPPB 3899
NCPPB 2993
NCPPB 1965
NCPPB 1806
NCPPB 1808
UW443
uw 446
11 isolates
+/++
+
+ /+/+/-
Pseudomonas ce/ebensis
Unknown bacteria isolated
from enriched tuber extracts
Unknown bacteria isolated
from three different soil
extracts
Unknown bacteria isolated
from three different enriched
soil extracts
29 isolates
37 isolates
DAS-ELISA'
Purified lgG
+ E
++
++
++
+
(6/ 11)
Not
done
++
++
+/(7/ 11}
Not
done
Not
done
Not
done
++
++
+/-
++
++
++
++
Not
done
(6/l l)
+ /(2/29}
(11/ 11)
+ /(6/29)
(29/29)
(29/29)
+/(2/37}
+/(10/37)
(37/37)
(37/37)
+/+/Not
done
a. +/-, +, and++ = coloration intensities; +/-equivalent to those obtained with R. solanacearum in citrate buffer at
concentration of l 06 cells/ml, + at concentration of l 07 cells/ml, and + + at concentration of l 08 cells/ml. - = not detected.
115
Table 2. Minimum populations of Ralstonia solanacearum detected in inoculated tubers by plating on modified
Kelman 's medium (MKM), NCM-ELISA, and NASH without enrichment (-E) and with enrichment ( +E)
after 48 h incubation of the inoculated tuber extracts in modified SMSA broth at 30(, CIP, 1998.
- E'
Cells/ml
Plating
NCM-
tuber extract
on MKM
ELISA
2X10
2x10 7
2x10 6
2x10 4
2x10 2
20
2
0.2
TE b
a.
+
+
+ /-
NASH
+
Plating
NCM-
on MKM
ELISA
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+/-
NASH
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ /-
+ = detected, - = not detected, +/- = variable among the three rep lications of the whole experiment.
b. TE
116 Potato
+
+
+
+
+
+ E'
R. solanacearum-free tuber extract used for the dilutions of the inoculated tuber extract.
Table 3. Sensitivity of NCM-ELISA and NASH for the detection of Ralstonia solanacearum (Rs) in naturally-infected
tuber extracts without enrichment (- E) and with enrichment ( + E) in modified SMSA broth for 48 hat
30C, Cl P, 1998.
Original
last dilution in
population in the
which Rs could be
population detected
tuber extract
detected in:
after enrichment
NCM-ELISA
Cells/ml
Log 10
SD b
-E
+E
Estimated minimum
NASH
-E
+E
Cells/ml
]QS
lQI
lQ-4
lQ-9
]QI
lQI
8.6
6.7
6.3
2.3
8.4
10.0
]Q9
lQB
7.6
{cells/ml)
8.66x10 5
6.73 x 10 5
6.33 x 10 4
2.30xl0 9
8.40x10 7
J.QQxlQ 8
1.66 x 109
7.60xl0 8
5.938
5.827
4.801
9.360
7.924
8.003
9.220
8.880
0.015
0.046
0.021
0.055
0.021
0.005
0.015
0.023
lQ-5
10-s
1Q4
10 2
ND'
ND
]Q2
10 1
1Q9
lQI
10-1
1Ql
]Q9
]QB
]Q I
ND
l.7
a. Estimated from colony counts after plating on three plates containing modified Kelman's medium incubated for 48 hat 30C.
b. SD
standard deviation.
c. ND
l l7
Table 4. Minimum populations of Ralstonia solanacearum detected by plating on modified SMSA medium (MSMSA), DAS-ELISA without enrichment (- E) and with enrichment ( + E) alter 48 h incubation of the
inoculated soil extracts in modified SMSA-potato broth at 30C. Same results were obtained with the
three replications of inoculated soils, CIP, 1999.
+ E'
- E'
Cells/g soil
Plating an
M-SMSA
+
+
10 7
10 4
102
DAS-ELISA
Plating on
DAS-ELISA
M-SMSA
20
2
0.2
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
SP
a.
b. SE
Discussion
R. solanacearum was successful ly detected
by postenrichment NCM-ELISA (tuber
sa mpl es) and DAS-ELISA (so il samp les)
eve n at low population leve ls in both
in oc ul ated and naturall y- infected extracts.
Sensitivity and non-cross- react iv ity of
postenrichment ELISA was demonstrated in
255 field tuber sa mpl es and 25 field so il
sa mpl es. Th e spec ifi c ity of ELISA using the
adso rbed antiserum was satisfacto ry, in th at
no cross-reaction was detected after
enr ichment (except w ith P ce /ebensis),
w ith out res ulting in a failure to detect all
st rain s of R. solanacearum as reported by
Robinson-Smith et al. (1995).
Postenrichment NCM-ELISA comb in es
the adva ntages of hi gh sens itivity, low -cost
(about $0.30/sa mpl e fo r suppli es), ease, and
speed (6 h after enrichment of the extracts),
and does not require exte nsive labo ratory
equipment. The sensitivity of NCM-ELISA
after a 48 h enrichment was sign ifi ca ntl y
higher than the one obtained w ith IFAS,
indirect ELISA, and PCR (Janse, 1988;
Elphinstone et al., 1996, Ca ru so et al. ,
1998; Seal, 1998). Th e lowe r sens iti vity of
118 Pototo
Table 5. Sensitivity of DAS-ELISA for the detection of Ralstonia solanacearum (Rs) in tenfold dilutions of naturally
infested soil extracts from two different fields without enrichment (- E) and with enrichment ( + E) in
modified SMSA broth for 48 hat 30(, CIP, 1999.
Original
Estimated minimum
population
Rs could be detected in
population detected
in soil
DAS-ELISA (cells/g)
after enrichment
Cells/g 0
Log 10
SD b
-E
+ E
Cells/g
2.5
2.6
5.7
29.0
1.0
1.4
1.6
26.0
54.0
47.0
2.5 x 106
2.6 x 10 7
5.7 x 10 5
2 9 x 10 6
1.0x10 7
1.4X10 5
1.6 x 106
2.6 x 106
5.4X 10 5
4.7x 10 6
6.398
7.4 15
5.756
6.462
7.000
5.146
6.204
6.4 15
5.732
6.672
0.1244
0 0473
0.0106
0.0212
0.1244
0.0883
0.0770
0.0473
0.0685
0.0657
lQ6
lQI
lQS
lQ4
lQI
lQS
lQ6
lQS
6.5 18
5.4 14
6.079
6.447
4.724
6.653
6.017
5.4 62
6.653
6.4 62
6.000
5.792
6.146
6.447
6.000
0.124
0.269
0.061
0.017
0.174
0.013
0.023
0.064
0.097
0.151
0.124
0.100
0.088
0.045
0.000
lQ4
lQ4
lQ4
lQS
lQ2
104
104
lQ-4
lQS
lQS
10 4
lQS
Carhuaz soil
3.3 x l 06
2.6X10 5
1.2x10 6
2.8 x 10 6
5.3 x l 04
4.5 x 106
1.0 x 106
2.9X10 5
4.5 x 106
2.9 x 106
1.0 x 106
6.2X10 5
1.4x10 6
2.8 x10 6
1.0 x 106
10 4
l Q4
lQ4
l05
l Q4 .
330.0
26.0
120.0
28.0
530.0
450.0
100.0
29.0
45.0
29.0
100.0
62.0
140.0
28.0
100 0
a. Estimated from colony counts after plating on three platescontaining modified SMSA medium incubated for 48 h at 30C.
b. SD = standard deviation.
11 9
120 Potato
l 21
122
Potato
(Ry,d)
New strains, multiple virus infections,
and interactions with subviral pathogens
are the main factors leading to the breakdown of virus resistance. During the past
10 yr, a new strain of PVY, tuber necrotic
ringspot disease strain (PVYn"), has become
established in Europe. It causes severe
necrotic symptoms in tubers of PVYsusceptible varieties. It has been reported
that the independently replicating potato
spindle tuber viroid (PSTVd) has a synergistic effect on PVY multiplication (Querci et
al., 1997). They also showed that PSTVd
has the ability to decrease resistance to
potato leafroll virus (PLRV), and to be
encapsidated by this virus and transmitted
by aphids. These factors led us to test the
durability of the Ry 1g gene with respect to
its ability to provide protection against
pyynn, and to provide extreme resistance
against combined infection by PVY and
PSTVd.
<l(
123
124
Potato
ELISA .
Table 1 . Reactions of selected potato varieties and parental clones against PVY 0 , PVYN, and PVY'".
Varieties
PVY
and parental
resistance
clones
genotype
Costonera
Tacno
YY.5
lY.4
Pirolo
Desiree
Atlantic
Bintje
Ryr4i
Ryr4i
Ryal!
Ryal!
Ry""
Ny""
IY"*1.'Ys1o,ny""
'Y"*1.%o, nyl.ii
Foliage reactions
Tuber
reactions
PVY
I
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
H:MN; (-)
MM; H:SN; (+ )
SM,C; H:SN; (+)
SM,C; H:SN; (+)
I
PVYN
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
H:MN; (-)
MM; H:SN; (+ )
SM,C; H:SN; (+)
SM,C; H:SN; (+)
PVY""
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
H:MN; (-)
MM; H:SN; (+)
M,C; (+)
M,C; (+)
pyynn
Necrotic crocking b
a. Reaction to PVY by ELISA is shown in parenthesis. Key reactions: MM = mild mosaic, M= mosaic, SM = severe mosaic;
C= Crinkle; H:MN = hypersensitivity: mild necrosis, H:SN = hypersensitivity: severe necrosis.
b. Also observed on plants infected with PVYN.
CIPProgramReporl 1997-98
125
Table 2. Reactions of selected potato varieties against combined inoculation with PSTVd and PVY.
Varieties
Tuber reactions
Foliage reactions 0
PVY resistance
pyynn
genotype
PVY
PVYN
Costanera
Tacna
Piro la
Ryodg
Ryodg
Rv,,,
(-)
- ; (-)
St; H:MN; (-)
(-)
(-)
St; H:MN; (-)
(-)
(-)
St; H:SN; (-)
Desiree
Atlantic
Bintje
Nytub
ryodg, ryslo, nytub
rv,dg, rv,,. nytub
-;
Spindle shape
Spindle shape
Spindle sha pe,
and severe
size reduction
Necrotic crocking b
a. Reaction to PVY by ELISA is shown in parenthesis. Key reactions: MM = mild mosaic, M = mosaic,
SM = severe mosaic; C = crinkle; St = stunting; H:MN = hypersensitivity: mild necrosis,
H:SN = hypersensitivity: severe necrosis.
b. Also observed on plants infected with PVYH
Discussion
Reaction against PVY 0 , PVYN, and PVY""
Reacti o ns to PVY"" did not differ from
reactio ns to the other strain s. Furthermore,
it was not possible to detect PVY"", PVY 0 , or
PVYN in inoculated pl ants of Ry ac1g -co ntaining va ri et ies and parental c lo nes. Some
unexpected reaction s were obse rved in
plants not ca rry in g thi s gene. Des iree,
understood to ca rry a gene for hypersensitivity (Ny,"6 ), deve loped mosaic symptom s
w ith all strain s in additi o n to the ex pected
hype rsensiti ve rea ction. Ny genes are
kn own to be temperature-se nsiti ve. Temperatures above 22( during the primary
and seco ndary infecti o n cyc les may have
accou nted for Desiree's ove rcom in g the
126
Potato
127
128
Potato
CIP ProgramReportl997-98
129
130
Pototo
131
Neonate larvae of surviving eggs exper ience the same fate, thereby reducing their
chances to burrow into the leaf tissue.
In the laboratory and greenhouse, more
than 90% of eggs were extrud ed; 60% of
those died from dehydrat ion (Sotomayo r
and Cisneros, 1996) . That explains why
potato plants with growing foliage show
sma ll numbers of mined leaves despite high
adult fly populations. Egg extrusion is
hi gher in vigorously gro wi ng potato plants
that are we ll fertilized and irrigated.
LMF population density and potato
plant phenology. It is important to differentiate between the popul at ion densities of
adult and larval LMF. Immigrant ad ults
initiate infestations in small potato plants.
Potato
30
25
20
Damage%
100
adult/plant
--+-- damage
80
---.-
larvae/leaflet
70
90
60
15
50
flowering
40
10
30
20
10
0
0
29
37
44
51
58
79
72
65
86
93
100
107
114
Figure 1. Variation of leafminer fly adult and larvae populations and damage in one cropping season, Canete,
Peru , 1996.
Adults/trap/month
Temperature QC
6000
25
15
10
1000
Flies-96
PC-1 996
1 - - --
Jan
Feb
Flies-97
tsl
PC-1997
Mar
- -- --
Apr
May
---j
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Figure 2. Population densities of th e leafminer fl y in potato fiel ds, and monthly av min daily temperature for
l 33
Larvae/1 00 leaflets
70,ir-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
600
&'.i
Parasitoids
Fly larvae
Celery
Chinese Lettuce
Tomato
Bean
Potato
on ion
Polalo
Table 1. Species of parasitoids of the order Hymenoptera that attack leafminer fly larvae and pupae in the
central coast of Peru, 1998.
Hymenoptera
Subfamily
Species
Parasitism
lchneumonnoidea
Braconidae
Opiinae
Opius scobriventris
Opius sp.
Endoparasitoid
Endoparasitoid
Gonospidium sp.
Endoparasitoid
Eulophinae
Diglyphus websteri
Diglyphus begini
Dig/yphus sp.
Ectoparasitoid
Ectoparasitoid
Ectoparasitoid
Tetratischinae
Dioulinopsis sp.
Endoparasitoid
Entedontinae
Chrysochoris phytomyzoe
Chrysochoris oinsliei
Chrysochoris sp. A
Chrysochoris sp. B
Chrysochoris sp. C
Chrysochoris sp. D
Chrysochoris sp. E
Endoparasitoid
Endoparasitoid
Endoporasitoid
Endoparasitoid
Endoparasitoid
Endoparasitoid
Endopo rasitoid
Chrysonotomyio sp. A
Chrysonotomyio sp. B
Chrysonotomyio sp. C
Ectoparasitoid
Ectoparasitoid
Ectopa rasitoid
Closterocerus cinctipennis
Closterocerus sp.
Ectoparasitoid
Ectopa rasitoid
Elachertinoe
logrommosomo multilineotum
Ectoporasitoid
Miscogasterinae
Holticoptero orduine
Holticoptero sp. A
Holticoptero sp. B
Endoparasitoid
Endoporasitoid
Endoparasitoid
Cynipoidea
Eucoildae
Chalcideoidea
Eulophidae
Pteromalidae
135
Diglyphus begini
Diglyphus
websteri
32.7%
Chrysocharis phytomyzae
8.9%
Chrysocharis sp.
0.7%
~8D~~~""""1- 3.2%
~~~~~~
Ganaspidium sp.
0.5%
C/osterocerus
cinctipennis
1.2%
41.5%
Halticoptera arduine
Others
1.5%
Figure 4. Distribution of species of parasitoids of leafminer fly larvae in potato and other crops in the Canete
Parasitism (%)
90.0
80 .0
70 .0
D Calla o
Caraba yllo
,,
50 .0
r.
''
:-
(;_
40.0
r:".
A-
I
30.0
20.0
0.0
D Canete
60.0
10.0
---,
Aug
Sep
Jan
I
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
nOct
ii
Nov
Figure 5. Occurrence of leafminer fly parasitism in potato and other host plants at three sites on the central coast
of Peru, 1998.
pu pa te th at th ey beco m e vu lnerabl e to
pr dato rs in the soil. In so me fi e ld s, th e
m ost abundant predatms we re Pteros tichus
sp. and Ca/osoma abbreviatum.
136
Pototo
Table 2. Predaceous arthropods reported to feed on leafminer fly eggs, larvae, pupae, and adults in the central
coast of Peru, 1998.
Class
Order
Family/species
Insecta
Coleoptera
Carabidae
Calosoma abbreviatum
Pterostichus sp.
Prey
Pupae
Pupae
Cicindellidae
Megacephala carolinachilensis
Hemiptera
Staphilinidae
Undetermined spp.
Anthocoridae
Orius insidiosus
Pupae
Pupae
Egg
Nabidae
Nobis punctipes
Larvae
Lygaeidae
Geocoris punctipes
Dermaptera
Dipiero
Labiduridae
Undeterm ined spp.
Dolichopodidae
Condylostylus similis
Egg
Pupae
Adult
Empididae
Drapetis sp.
Hymenoptera
Arachnida
Formicidae
Adult
Pupae
Theridiidae
Argiopidae
Lycosidae
Anyphaenidae
Salticidae
Adult, pupae
Adult, pupae
Adult, pupae
Adult, pupae
Adult, pupae
Araneida
137
Total insects/trap/month
1200
~ Pterostichus sp (C
1000
Laba
.
. oleoptera:Carabidae)
' ura nparia (Dermaptera: Labiduridae)
800
600
Nov Dec
Figure 6. Seasonal occurrence of the most abundant predators captured in pitfall traps at three sites on the
central coast of Peru, 1998.
pred ators co incides w ith slowe r pop ul ati o n
growth.
Eve n m o re d iffi cult to eva lu ate is the ro le
of p reda tory fli es th at ca pture and k ill LMF
ad u lts. Species o f Dol ic hopod id ae an d
Emp idi d ae occ ur in large nu m bers near
hu m id areas w ith abun da nt vege tat io n
along th e ce ntral co asta l va ll eys o f Peru.
W hen in secti c id es are no t used, th ey are
abu ncl ant in po tato , bea ns, and oth er c rops
infeste d by LM F. Th ey ac ti ve ly hun t LMF at
rest and in fli ght. Simil ar behav io r is
ex hibited by bl ack fl y (Orapetis sp.) .
Predato ry t rue bu gs are co nstant ly p resen t,
whereas p red ator y fli es occur o nl y occasionall y, bu t usual ly in large num be rs.
fa c to rs co nstitute th e bas is for th e m anageme nt of th e pest. H ypers ens iti v ity of the
grow in g potato leaf that res ul ts in eggextru sio n ca n be furt her sel ecte d fo r as a
mec hani sm of res ista nce agai nst th e fl y. Th e
complex grou p of parasi toid s pl ays an
im po rtant role in reg ul at in g LM F pop ul at io ns o n th e Peru vi an ce ntra l co ast. Th eir
in t rodu ct ion to oth er areas , parti c ul arl y
w here th ere is littl e ra in , mi ght help to
m anage LM F in fes tat io ns .
A lth o ugh it was not pos sibl e to qu ant itati ve ly eva lu ate th e mo rtality produ ce d by
predators of LMF, their pres ence was a sign
of good bi olog ica l co ntrol and co in c id ed
w ith low LM F po pul ations .
Conclusions
Acknowledgements
138
Potato
Literature Cited
Campos, G. 1976. Control quimico d el
minador de hojas y tallos d e la papa,
Scribipalpula absoluta Me yri ck, en el
vall e d e Ca fi ete. Revista Peru ana de
Entomo logia 19 :102 -106.
__ . 1978 . Contro l quimico de la mosca
minadora , Liriomyza huidobrensis, en el
valle de Cafiete . Revista Peru ana d e
Entomologia 21:109-112.
Cisneros Vera, F.H. 1986. Control biologico
de las pl agas co n espec ial refere nc ia al
cultivo de la papa . In: Val en c ia, L. (ed. ).
Memorias d el c ur so sob1e contro l
in tegrado d e pla gas de papa. 1. Curso
Intern ac iona l so bre Control ln tegrado de
Plagas d e Pap a. Bogota, Colombia. 29
Jun - 19 Jul. Centro Internacion al d e la
Papa (CIP) and ln stituto Colombi ano
Agropecuar io, Bogota, Colom b ia. p. 1 01-
108 .
Ewe ll, P.T. , H. Fano, 1<.V. Raman , J. A lcaza r,
M. Pal ac ios, and J. Carhuama ca. 1990.
Farmer man age ment of potato in sect
pests in Peru: Report of an interdi sc iplinary resea rch project in se lected reg ion s
of th e hi ghlands and coast. Food Systems
Resea rc h Ser i es (CIP ), No. 6. CIP, Lima ,
Peru. 77 p.
Fon seca, D. and G. Sanc hez. 1996.
Fluctua c ion pob lacio nal d e Lirio myza
huidobrensis (Bl anchard) y sus
parasitoid es en los cultivos d e papa y
frijol en el v all e de Canete. In: ln fo rme
de lnves tig ac ion. Convenio Universidad
Nacional Ag 1ar ia La Molina y Centro
In ternac io nal d e la Papa , Lim a, Peru .
32 p.
Gonzales, L.E. 199 4. Extru sion d e huevos
de Liriomyza huidobrensis en fo li o los de
papa cultivad a en Huaral (Lima). Revista
Peruana d e Entomo logia 37:111-114 .
Herrera, J. 1963 . Prob lem as ins ectil es del
cul t ivo d e p ap a en el va l le de Ca nete.
Re v ista Peru ana de Entomologfa 6:1-9.
llE (Interna t iona l In st itu te of En to mo logy) .
1996 . Di stribution maps of plan t pests .
Series A: M ap No . 568, December 19 96.
CAB Internat ion al, Wallingford, UI<. 3 p.
36.
Ochoa, P. and M . Carballo. 1993 . Efec to
de vario s in sect icidas sobre Liriomyza
huidobrensis (Diptera: A gro my z id ae) y
su pa1asi to id e Dig lyphus isaea Wa lke r
(H y menopte ra: Eulophid ae) . Manejo
lnteg rado d e Plagas (Costa Rica) 26:8 -12.
Parrell a M. , C. Keil, and J. Morse . 19 84.
Ins ect icide res isten ce in Liriomyza
trifolii . Ca l. Agric. 38(1/2):22 -23 .
Redolfi de Hui za, I. , M. Pala c io s, and J.
Alcazar. 1985 . H ym enopte1a parasito
ides de Liriomyza huidobrensis en papa
cu ltivada en Rfmac , Cat'iete e lea. Re v ista
Peruana de Entomologfa 28:19-21.
San chez, G . and I. Redolfi de Hui za. 1988.
Liriomyza huidobrensis y sus
parasitoid es en papa cultivada en Rfmac
y Can ete, 1986. Revista Peru an a de
Entomol og fa 3 1:11 0-112 .
Sotom ayor, M. and F. Ci sneros . 1 996 .
A lgun as prec isio nes en la reaccio n de
'ex tru sion' de huevos de mosca
minadorJ en plantas de papa. In:
Sociedad Entomol6gica del Peru .
CIPP1og1orn Repo111997-98
139
23.
Spencer, K.A. 19 90 . Host specialization in
th e wor ld Agromyzidae (Diptera). Kluwer
Academic Publish ers, Dordrecht,
Netherlands. 444 p.
Wille, L. 1952. Entomologia Agricola del
PerC1. Segunda Edici6n. Editado por Est.
140
Potolo
Taxonomy of APW
A lth ough spec ies of th e genu s
Premnotrypes are th e mo st w id ely di stributed , th e fir st taxo nomi c desc riptions of
APW w ere o f spec ies in two different
genera. Th e first spec ies desc rib ed was
Ph yrclenus murice us Germ ar in 182 4 . Th e
seco nd was Rhigops iclius tucu manus Heller
in 1906 (Pierce, 191 4). Both we re co llected
in Argentina.
Pi erce (191 4) desc rib ed two new APW
species from infested tub ers in Peru:
Premnotrypes so /ani and Tryp opremn on
latith orax. Th ey we re co nsid ere d th e most
im portant potato weev il spec ies in th e
Peruvia n entomo log ica l li te rat ure fo r many
years (Will e, 1952). In th e in te rim , fo ur new
spec ies had bee n desc ribed : Trypopremnon
san fo rcli Pi erce (1 9 18), Solanophagus vorax
Hu stac he (1933), Plastoleptops solanivora
Hell er (1935), and Premnotrypes
fractirostris Ma rshall (1936) .
Ku sc hel (1956) in c lud ed th e genu s
l4l
Characterization of genera
The following cha racteri zation of genera of APW species is based on conventional taxonomic grouping of species. But the first premise is that the weevils are
adul ts of larvae that developed in potato tubers.
1.
2.
2
Phyrdenus muriceus
142
Pototo
Antenna! scape with abundant scales. Dorsal scal es and setae of rostrum mostly
2
oriented forward.
Antenna! scape without scales. Dorsal scales and setae of rostrum oriented
backward.
9
2.
3.
Base of prothorax with six nodules widely separated forming an arch. Pronotum
dense ly pointed. Rostrum wide. Ocular lobes very prominent. Peru .
3
4
P. solani
Base of prothorax apparently with only four nodules; lateral ones are fused in a
prominent body. Pronotum sparsely pointed . Rostrum narrow, with a deep
suprascrobal naked groove. Ocular lobes slightly prominent. Peru.
P. so/anivorax
4.
P. solaniperda
5.
Antenna I scape short and very thick, does not reach the anterior margin of th e
eyes . Tibia scaly in the lower border. Anterior margin of pronotum with a stron g
elevated structure that divides in two backward, imparting a sigmoid form to th e
whole structure. (See Figure 1C.) Peru.
P. fractirostris
Antenna! scape slender, reac hing somewhat beyond the anterior margin of th e
eyes. Tibia without scales in the lower border. Structure of pronotum different
from that described above.
6
6.
Frans without swelling nea r the eye. Rostrum with strong to moderate dorsal
curvature.
7
Frans with a swelling nea r the eye. Rostrum with a dorsa l curvature less pronounced than above. Elytra transversally convex up to the 7th intergroove,
whose tubercles are similar to those of the 5th intergroove. Elytra fold vertically
to the sides at the 7th intergroove. The 5th intergroove generally ends in a larger
8
tubercle, but without forming a true callus.
7.
Rostrum with strong dorsal curvature. Elytra flat up to the 5th intergroove and
then almost vertical to th e side. Tubercles of the 7th intergroove much smaller
143
than those of th e 5th intergroove. This one general ly end s in thick cal lu s in th e
uppe r part of th e bend ing part. (Figure 1 0 ). Co lombi a, Ecuador, Peru, and
Ve nezuela.
P. vorax
Rostrum with moderate curvature. Elytra transve rsa lly moderately convex . Third
intergroove with a large tubercl e on the upper posterior (bending) part. (See
Fi gure 1 E). Peru.
P. piercei
8.
9.
Antenna! scape thin and reac hin g beyond the anterior margin of the eyes. Th e
3d intergroove end s in th e upper posterior (bendin g) part w ith an elevated
tubercle. Boli v ia.
P. clivosus
Antenna! scape at most may reac h the anterior margin of the eyes. The 3d
interg roove does not have a tubercle larger th an th e upper posterior (bendin g)
part.
10
10. Suture in th e upper posterior (bend ing) part w ith a ca llu s. Peru.
Suture in the upper posteri or (bending) part w ith out a ca llus.
P. suturica llus
11
11 . Prothorax more or less rough and scaly. Th e 7th i ntergroove forms a stron g disc
rid ge. The 3d and 5th intergrooves each have a large tubercle. Behind it th e
elytra fall vertical ly. Bo! ivia.
P. z ischkai
Prothorax somewhat irregul ar but smooth. Few sca les in the disc. The 7th
intergroove does not form a pronounced border that limits the disc. Tubercles in
P. pusillus
odd intergrooves small and blunt. Peru.
Poloto
145
P. solaniperda Kuschel
2
3
4
5
6
P. fractirostris Marshall
P. solani Pierce
P. vorax (Hustache)
10
P. solanivorax (Heller)
11
P. clivosus Kuschel
12
P.
13
14
zischkai Kuschel
Figure 2. Geographic distribution of species of the Andean potato weevil complex in the Andean Region .
Potolo
Life cycles
Life cyc les of APW have been reported
by seve ral autho rs with differe nt levels of
detai l: Ca rrasco (1 961 ), Ti soc (1989) , and
Carba jal (1992) on P /atithora x; Cal vache
(1986) and Munoz and A lcaz ar (1998) o n
P. vorax; A lcaza r (1976) o n P suturica llus;
Carhu amaca and Tova r (1987) on P. piercei,
and Gil (1991) on P. so lanipercla. Th ey
sho w 111any sim i lariti es and few di ffe rences.
Th e li fe cyc les of P. suturica llus, P.
piercei, an d P. vorax are give n in Tabl e 1.
Th e most remarkabl e differences are in th e
nu111b er of larva l in stars (fi ve fo r P vorax
compared with o nl y four fo r the other two
spec ies), and the s111a l ler qu antity of eggs
laid by P. vorax. Differences in time to
co111pl ete larv al i nstars and deve lopm ental
stages may be du e to spec ies- related
differences or different environm ental
cond itio ns, part icul arl y temperature.
Seasonal occurrence
Th ere is one generation a yea r for th e
spec ies of Premnotrypes studi ed and for
R. tucumanus. Th e d eve lo pmental stages o f
th ese weev il s are sync hro ni zed w ith
cli111 ati c co ndition s, the croppin g system,
and th e phenologica l deve lopment of th e
potato p lant. O ur reco rd s in Peru; studi es
by G il (1991) with P. so lan iperda in Pu no,
Peru; and Ca rb aj al (1992) w ith P. latithorax
in Bo li via all indi ca te th e occurrence of o ne
generati o n a yea r. H owever, Ga llegos
(1995) in Ecuador and Ca lvac he (1986) in
Colombi a, wo rk in g w ith P. vorax, cons id er
th at th ere is mo re than one generation a
year w hen potato c rop pin g is co ntinu ous.
14 7
Table 1. Life cycle of three species of Andean potato weevil in days : Premnotrypes suturicallus, P. piercei, and
P. vorax, Peru.
Stage
Egg (d)
Larva I
Lorva II
Lorva Ill
Lorva IV
Lorva V
Pupa {d)
Overwintering adult {d)
Cycle (Egg-adult) (d)
Longevity male {d)
Longevity female (d)
Totol cycle {d)
Ovipositing period (d)
Eggs/female (no.)
P. suturicallus
33
11
9
12
57
26
8
7
9
56
54
52
135
293
277
233
549
127
521
115
291
159
126
434
106
631
Potato
P. piercei
P. vorax
43
16
14
17
18
58
50
66
282
168
193
463
119
374
Natural Enemies
Contrary to what mi ght be ex pected of a
native pest comp lex, natural enemi es for
APW are scarce. For man y yea rs tens of
thou sa nds of larvae have been co ll ected
and observed for th e occurrence of paras itoid s. Non e have been recorded.
Predators are also restri cted in number,
occurrence, and effecti ve ness. Th e on ly
refere nce to effecti ve predators in th e
literature is an ant of the genus lridomirmex
(Ga rm endi a, 196 1 ). That has not been
confirmed in th e areas where CIP has
developed integ rated pest management
programs, in cluding those where in secticides are not used or are used on a limited
sea le. Among vertebrates, toads and birds
act as weevi l predators. But toad popul ations in potato fie ld s are so srnall th at th eir
effect is mea ningless. Birds have been
observed look in g for weev il larvae in
rece ntly harvested potato field s. Aga in , bird
popul ations are low and th eir effect on
weev il populations is limited. A practi ca l
use of this ex peri ence has been the utilization of chi ckens as effecti ve predators at
harvest or shortl y thereafter.
Weevils/1-M trap
70
(%)
100
90
!\
60
l(ll
50
80
',
70
1.1
"\
40
60
50
30
40
20
30
20
10
10
0
0
Oct
N ov
Dec Jan
Feb
Mar
Ap r
May
J un
Ju l
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
-i--
-O-
Migration (plant)
-+-
__...._
Prepupae (%)
---*"-
Pupati on(%)
---7!E--
Figure 3. Seasonal history of the Andean potato weevil (Premnotrypes vorax) in Cajamarca, Peru. 1997.
Some so il -i nh ab itin g ground beetl es
(Ca rab id ae and Ten ebrionidae) are general
predators (Harpa lu s turmalinus, Hylitus sp.,
and Metius sp.). Ground beet le have a
limited chance to capture neonate larvae
because larvae are exposed for on ly a short
tim e before they penetrate the so il. Although groun d beetl es readily eat weevil
eggs when th ey are offered, in nature th e
eggs are in sid e straw or other plant debris
and safe from predation.
The o nl y pathogen ab le to develop
disease in APW is the fungus Beauveria
brongniartii. Conditions favorable for the
ep izoot ic are heavy rains and co ncentrated
weev il populations . Th e multipli ca tion and
practical use of th e pathogen is under study.
Host Plant Relations of Potato Weevils
Th ere are two, co mmonl y accepted
misinterpr etat io ns related to th e host range
of the two groups of weevils present in
potato fields.
149
Table 2. Host plant relations of the Andean potato weevil and other species of weevils commonly found in potato
fields . Huancoyo, Peru, 1998.
Weevil species
Plant species'
Premnotrypes
suturicallus
Adioristus sp.
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-}
(- )
(+ )
(+)
(+)
(+ )
(+ )
(+ )
(+)
(+ )
(+ )
( +)
(+)
(- )
(+ )
(+ )
(-)
(-)
(- )
(+ )
(+ )
(+ )
(-)
(-)
(+ )
(-)
(- )
Scotoeborus sp.
Naupactus sp.
(-)
(- )
Conclusion
Controve rsial aspects in the literature
related to th e ta xonomy and bionomi cs of
th e APW comp lex ha ve been c larified wi th
this work. Rev iewed taxo nomic keys w ill
help to id entify APW species. Th e upd ated
geographi ca l distribution of the species life
cyc les and host range w ill help to interpret
th e evo lution of th e weev il compl ex.
Acknowledgement
The aut hors are gratefu I to Professo r
G iovann i Onore, Departamento de
Biologfa, Pontifi c ia Universid ad Cat6 1i ca
del Ecuador for re view in g th is paper.
Literature Cited
Agost ini E. and H . Vil te. 1982. Estud io
mo rfol6gico y biologfa de Rhigopsidius
tucumanus Hell er (Co leoptera:
Curcu lionidae) plaga de la papa en la
Queb rada de Hu ama hu aca y Pun a de la
prov incia de Juju y. Rev. Ag ron. de! Nor
Oeste A rgentin a 19:1-4.
A lca la, P. 19 79a. N ueva espec ie de!
Genero Premnotrypes piercei 1914
(Co leoptera : Curculionidae). Rev. Per.
Ent. 22( 1):63-64.
150
Pololo
15 l
J. Tenorio 2,
Populations dynamics
Seasonal patterns of PTM abundance.
Moth popul ation s were monitored in potato
fi elds and stora ge sites using ex perim ental
sex ph ero mo ne traps in Santa Clot ilde and
Urquil los, and light trap s in Carhuap acc ha.
Five field s, two in Santa Clotild e and three
in Urqui l los, we re selected for the fi eld
tri als. Fi ve stora ge sites we re monitored,
two in Carh uapa cc ha and three in
Urquillos. One trap by each fi eld and store
wa s used . Modifi ed water pan traps (Bacon
et al., 1976, Raman and Booth, 1983) we re
placed at ground leve l. Rubb er septa
impregnated wi th a 2: 1 mixture of (E,Z) 3J
tetradeca d ienyl acetate and (E)-3tetradece ny l acetate (Gri epink et al., 1995)
CIP Program Report 199798
153
154
Poloto
Behavior
Egg-laying preference. Th e ovi pos iti on
prefere nce of the moth was i nvestigatecl on
three levels . Th ese in cl ud ed prefe renc e of
soil vs plant, pa rts of th e p lant (lowe r,
midd le, and upper), and the microhabitat
prefe rr ed (ax ill ae, sterns, leaves). We also
evaluated th e effect of potato deve lopment
stages (vegetative growth, tuber initiation,
tuber bulking) on oviposition. The ex periment was carr ied out in the green ho use in
th e C IP station in H uancayo . Twelve potato
pl an ts in pots (cv Yungay) were used per
deve lopment stage. Potato plants were
pl anted seque ntiall y eve ry 30 cl so that
plants of d iffere nt ages could be infested at
the same time. Each group of plants was put
in cages w here fifty mated couples of 5.
tango lias we re relea sed. After 10 cl, plants
were cut at the base of the ste rn and
evaluated to dete rmin e number of eggs laid
in the upper, middl e, and lower t hi rd of the
plant. Once all plant mate rial was removed
from pots , potato sl ices were put on the so il
surface to determine the numb er of eggs
laid in the so il. For this exper im ent, a
factoria l des ign wi th three factors (2x3x3)
was used . D ata on the number of larvae
per plant was analyzed by ANOVA and
means were com pared using Fis her's least
significa nt difference (LSD) procedure.
Plant infestation preference. Th e
obj ective of th e in festat ion prefe rence
exp eriment was to determi ne the locat ion
of initi al plant damage (lowe r, middl e, or
upper leve l) caused by neonate larvae
according to the stage of development of
th e potato plant (vegetat ive growth, tub er
ini tiation, tube r bulkin g). This ex peri ment
was ca rri ed out in th e green house at th e
CIP stat ion in Huan cayo . Twenty potato
pl an ts (cv. Yungay) we re planted in pots fo r
eac h developmental stage; th e plan ts we re
p la nted seque nt ial ly eve ry 30 cl so that
p lants of differe nt stages co uld be in fested
at the sa me ti me. Each 20-plant group was
subdivided in to 4 subgroups of 5 plants;
each plant was a repli cate. In each gro up
50 neona te larvae of 5. tangolias we re
rel eased on so il , and o n th e lowe r, midd le,
and upper parts of the p lant. Th e eva lu ation
CIP ProgramReportl99798
155
A
Moths (N 9/trap/wk)
600
Field at 2,800 m
500
400
300
200
100
o t__~~~~~:::::~~~~~~~~~...._.,_===~~~
IPotato
II
Vegetable
1~~
Potato
11
Vegetable
1~s
Potato
1~s
8
400
300
Store at 2,800 m
200
100
0 J
>3,600
N D
M A M JJASOND
2,800
1994
I >3 ,600 11
1995
11
M A M J
A S 0
GM~
2,800
1,996
~~~~~~~~~~~
Figure 1. Andean potato tuber moth population in Urquillos, Cusco, Peru , 1994-1996.
the second peak. Adult populati o n drastica ll y decreased when there was no potato
cro p in the field due to lack of food and low
temperatures at night (frost).
Life cycle
Studies show that, in rustic storage, 5.
tango lias completes its life cyc le in 105
da ys at 13C (Santa Clotild e and
Carhuapaccha) and only 70 days at 17.4C
(Urquillos). Egg la y in g capacity was not
significantly different (P=0 .05) betwee n
loca tio ns, averaging 178-185 eggs/fe male.
Accumu lated natural morta lity of immature
stages was high averaging 75 % in Santa
Clot ild e and Urquillos and 57% in
Carhuapaccha (Tabl e 1 ). 5. tangolias was
found to develop three to five ge nerations
in a yea r (Tab le 1 ).
156
Pololo
Pest survival
In Urquil los, potato stems and tub ers
sho we d no dama ge at harvest. Th at mi ght
be the result of the adequate use of c ultural
practices such as irrigation , hilling up , and
timely harvest. In addit ion , stores close to
the fields may be a source of food and
refu ge for the pes t throughout the year.
Th at m ay have had an influence on th e low
!eve l of damaged tubers in the f ield .
Sampl es fro m th e field that had been
rotated (U rqu i I los ) averaged 6.4 pota to
tubers/ m 2 , but th ey we re not dam aged by 5.
tangolias (Tabl e 2). Observatio ns from th e
remainin g population in the field showed
the presence of larvae and pupae in dri ed
tubers and stems 3 months after harvest.
Moths
(N2/trap/wk)
Tubers
damaged(%)
160
100
80
120
60
80
40
40
0
20
J
I
N
Potato
1996
11995
Figure 2. Andean potato tuber moth store population and tuber damage, Carhuapaccha, Junin, Peru, 1997.
Moths (No/trap/wk)
1000
Flowering and maturity
Flowering
800
Hilling up
Harvest
Flowering
Harvest
400
200
0
Potato
M
A
M
I _M_i_no_r_s_ea_s_o_
n _cr_o~
p~
planting ~
1996
Figure 3. Andean potato tuber moth field population in Santa Clotilde, Cajamarca, Peru, 1996-97.
Moths re maining in storage facil iti es
whe n there are no stored tubers ensure pest
persistence in stores. At higher altitudes,
the moth is introduced to potato fields
every year with the seed.
Evaluations in the fields and stores in
Carh uapacc ha showed that the pest had
spread from 3,020 to 3,800 m. Moths are
transported to the stores in harvested tubers
and returned to the fields in seed tubers.
157
Table 1. Life cycle (in days) and natural mortality(%) of And ean potato tuber moth in stores, Peru.
Department/Community
Av. Temp. ( Q
Stage
Egg
Larva
Pupa
Total
Longevity
Oviposition period
Egg/female
Mortality
Egg
Larva
Pupa
Total
Generations/year
0
Cusco/Urquillos
17.4
Junfn/Carhuapaccha
12.6
Cajamarca/Santa Clotilde
13.0
9
40
22
71
24
25
184
16
58
32
106
23
23
178
17
57
31
105
33
25
185
31
28
15
74
5
4
28
26
58
4
12
46
18
76
3
Table 2. Damage and remain ing population of Andean potato tuber moth in th e field and in stores, Peru.
Department/Community
Fields
Fields with da maged plants(%)
Plants withdamagedstems(%)
Damaged tubers(%)
Remaining tubers/m1 (no.)
Rema ining population/ m1 (no.)
In stems
In tu bers
In soil
Stores
Damaged tubers(%)
Remaining popu lation (no.)
In roofs
In wa lls
Cusco/Urquillos
Poto to
0
0
0
6.4
0
0
0
0
100.0
61.6
2.1
4.1
16.9
11.8
3.3
1.8
90.0
82.0
21.8
4.3
9.4
4.5
4.9
88.0
130
8.0
5.0
90.0
14.8
5.8
9.0
80.0
158
Junfn/Carhuapaccha
Oviposition preference
1 00~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
80
60
40
20
Soil
Lower
Plan t
Conclusions
Ax illa
Leaf
Stems
Upper
20
15
10
Vegetati ve growth
Upper
Medium
Tuber initiation
Tuber bulking
159
lab
:1
0
!b
10
20
40
30
50
60
70
References
1
BO
Tuber damage{%)
Pupation (%)
0.1-0.5 f------~I
o.s-1.s ,___~_1a
c=:::J ab
o 6-2 .s
tJ b
0.6-3 .5
~----~--~-~
20
40
60
80
Pupation depth(%)
160
Potato
2013.
Palacio s, M. and F. Cisneros. 1997. Integrated m ana ge m ent for the potato tub er
moth in pilot units in the Andean Reg io n
and the Dominican Republic. lntern ationa I Potato Center Program Report
1995-96. Lima-Peru.
Raman , K.V. and R.H. Booth. 1983.
Evaluation of Technology for Integrated
Control of Potato Tuber Moth in Field
and Storage. Technology Eva lu;:ition
Series No. 1 0, CIP. 1 8 pp.
16 1
162
Potcto
larval development
Th e b ioass ay co nsisted of test in g th e
effects of transform ed potatoes o n larva l
deve lopme nt. Tub ers of three transge ni c
li nes of the c lo ne LT- 8/B t2 (44.9, 34 .1 , and
34.2) pl us an un tra nsformed co ntro l were
ex posed in a sli ced for m to 30 neo nate
larvae eac h. Each trea tm en t was repli ca ted
5 ti mes. Larva e were coun ted, meas ured
and weig hed dai ly un til they d ied o r
pu pate d.
Ston1ge
H arves ted tub ers we re eva lu ated fo r
stability of Bt gene ex press io n ove r th e
length of the storage pe ri od (4 months) in
CIP 's Sa n Ram on Stat io n (m id -eleva tio n
j ungle). A free -cho ice test was co nducted
und er d iffuse -li ght stme co nditi o ns, usin g
10 lin es in 1995 and 27 lin es in 1996 of th e
c ulti var LT-8. Treatm ents co nsisted of 5
tu bers re pl ic ated fo ur tim es in a co mpletely
rand om ized block des ign.
A ll treat ments in c lud ed ex pos ure to an
arti fic ial PTM in fe stat io n. New ly emerged
163
'
.
"
[ii
it'!'
'
10 11 12 13 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 18 1 9 20
.. -
..
'
"'
Figure 1. Hybridization of genomic DNA of transgenic LT-8 lines with the Bt gene :Lane C: DNA of non-transformed
LT-8. Lanes l to 19 : DNA of transgenic LT-8 lines . Lane 20: positive control (isolated bt probe) .
Table 1. Molecular characterization of transgenic lines by quantification of CrylA(b) protein {means of 2 assays in
ng/ mg soluble proteins) and by copy number of cry/A{b) gene.
Clone
LT-8 / Bt-l /DST 24-2
LT-8 / Bt-1/DST24-3
LT-8 / Bt-l /DST 34-l
LT-8 / Bt-1/DST34-2
LT-8 /Bt-1 /DST 34-3
LT-8 / Bt-1 /DST 34-5
LT-8 /Bt-2 /DST 36-1
LT-8 / Bt-2 /DST 36-4
LT-8 /Bt-2/DST 36-5
LT-8 /Bt-2 /DST 36-8
Sangema /Bt-1 I DST 39-1
Sangema /Bt-1IDST39-2
Sangema /Bt-1 I DST 39-3
Sangema /Bt-1 I DST 39-4
ng bt toxin/mg protein.
b Not determined.
164
Potato
CrylA{b) protein'
5.64
2.50
1.99
4.86
6.26
3.55
10.87
1.18
6.00
9.37
2.28
1.94
4.71
ndb
3
l
l
2
nd
2
2
2
mortality on all transfo rm ed lin es. The nontransformed check showed 37.2% mortality
(Tab le 2) . Evaluations of 17 transformed
Sangema at 10 days showed high mortality
(100%). All lin es showed better larval
co ntro l than the non-transformed check.
Larva l mortality in the chec k was 20%
(Tab le 2). The damage caused by larvae in
the transgeni c lin es was very low. The
neonate larvae ha ve to feed on the leaves
for th e Bt toxins to work. The effect of th e
tox in on th e larvae often ca uses stunted
growth and feedin g inhibition , leadin g to
death (F igu re 2).
Larval development
Infestat ion w ith neonate larvae on
transgenic lin es showed no effect for the
first 3 days. The fou rth day, morta lity
in creased drasticall y until all larvae had
died at the seventh day. Larvae fed on nontransformed plants we re still ali ve after 10
days (F igure 3).
Durability of tuber resistance storage
Transgenic potatoes res istant to PTM
larvae accord ing to leaf and tuber bioassays
were also tested for durability of th e tuber
Table 2. Mortality in potato tuber moth foliage and tuber assays of potato transgenic lines expressed as percent
of infested larvae.
Clone
Cruza l 48/Bt2/{8 lines)
CRUZA- l 48/Bt2/ (l Line)
CRUZA-l 48/Bt2/ (+ 22 lines)
CRUZA-148 (control)
LT-8/Btl/ {37 Lines)
LT-8 (control)
(Only foliage was tested)
Sangema/Bt2/ (+ 17 lines)
Sa ngema (control)
Leaf<'
Tuber'
7 days
50% be
l 00.00 a
l 00.00 a
47.55 be
10 days
All 100%
37.2
l month
50% cde
86.67 b
l 00.00 a
22.22 e
l 0 days
100.00
20.00
NT
NT
100.00
20.84
Means followed by the some letter ore not significantly different (Waller-Duncan test, p = 0.01).
NT = not tested.
l 65
mortality
100 80
-+- LT-8
--- 44.9
-+- 34.1
---- 34.2
60 40 -
20
Time
1998.
res istance in storage. All transge ni c lin es
tested (3 7 of LT-8 and 4 of San ge m a)
rem ain ed uninfested over at least 6 mo nths
of sto rage w hil e the non-transfo rm ed pl ants
166
Potato
Resistance management
Based on past experience w ith i nsecticid es, there are seve ral option s available for
managing potential res istance to Bt.
Refugia. Thi s consists of providing a
"refuge" for susceptible in sects for dilution
of selection pressure by planting nontransfo rm ed cultivars or other host plants
within and/or aro und th e crop. Also, th e
use of time and tissue-specific promoters
allows th e gene exp ress ion in targeted area s
only.
Seed mixtures or mosaics. Mixing
susceptibl e and resi sta nt seed at planting
provides unprotected pl ants harboring
susceptibl e insects w ithin the field.
Rotation. Th e impact of crop rotation on
se lect ion intensity con tributes to the
persistence of the Bt gene in the ecosystem,
thus influ enc in g th e potential development
of resistance. This w ill have to be eva luated in relation to th e target pest population
dynamics and dispersal to other ho st pl an ts.
Evaluations of other systems indi cate that
under so und IPM prog ram s, the in co rp oration of Bt genes in potato is feas ibl e from
th e Bt resistance potenti al. Howeve r,
spec ial ca re w i 11 have to be taken to avoid
cros s-res istance as th e same genes are used
for Lep idoptera on several crops as biopesticide sprays. Also, broa d-spectrum
in sect ic ides should never be used aga in st
ad ults to prese rve susceptible immi grants
and natural enem ies in the system. Time
and tissue-specific promoters (i.e., ex pressin g Bt genes in tubers) may be ab le to
minimize th e m ajor drawbacks assoc iated
l 67
168 Pototo
Phthorima ea operculella
(Lepidoptera:Ge lec hiidae) res istance in
potato by ex press ion of the Ba cillus
th uringiensis Cry lA(b) insecticid al c rystal
protein. J. Eco n. Entomol. 88(5): 1469 1476.
McGaugh ey, W.H. 1985. Insect res ista nce
to th e biologica l insecticid e Bacillus
thuringiensis. Science 229:193-195.
McGaugh ey, W. and M. E. W halon . 1992.
Ma nagi ng in sect res ista nce to Ba cillus
th uringiensis to xi ns. Science 258: 14511455.
Peferoe n, M., S. Janse ns, A . Rey na erts, and
J. Lee mans, 1990. Potato plants w ith
engi neered res istance against ins ect
attack, In : Vay da, M. and W . Park (e ds.)
Mol ec ul ar and cel lular biology of the
pota to. CAB, Tu cso n, AZ. p. 193-2 04.
Perlak, F.J ., TB. Stone, Y.M. M uskopf, L.J.
Petersen , G.B. Parker, S. A . McPh erso n, J.
Wy man, S. Love, G. Reed, D . Bi ever, and
D .A . Fi sc hhoff. 1993. Geneti ca lly
imp roved potato: Protecti on from
damage by Co lorado potato beet les.
Plant. Mo l. Biol. 22:313 -321.
Rama n, K.V. 1988. In teg rated in sect pest
man ageme nt for potatoes in develop in g
countri es . In tern at ional Potato Cente r
Circular 16(1 ).
Roux, 0., R. Von A rx, and J. Baumgartn er.
1992 . Est imati ng potato tuberworm
(Lepi dopte ra:Gelech iida e) dam age in
sto red potatoes in Tu nisi a. J. Eco n.
Entom o l. 85:22 4 6-2250.
Sambrook, J., E.F. Fri tsc h, and T. Maniais.
1989. Mo lec ular c loning: A Lab oratory
manu al, 2"c1. Ed. Co ld Spring H arb o r
Laboratory Press , New York, USA.
CIPProgromReportl997-98
169
Potatoes in Indonesia
Potato in Indon es ia is typically grown in the
upland s und er humid tropical conditions.
Production has increased, but at th e cost of
environm ental degradation due to unb alanced and heavy use of exte rnal inputs
(fe rtili ze rs and pesti c id es) and indi scr iminate forest clea ring as potato farm ers so ught
disease-free and nutri ent-ri ch, virgin soi ls.
Pest and di sease probl ems have become so
serious that fa rmers co mm o nly apply
mi xtures of pestic id es to th e potato crop at
intervals of only 2-4 d. Th e leafmin er fly
(LMF) (Liriomyza huidobrensis Blan chard ),
an exotic pest introdu ced into Indon es ia in
1994, is spreading rapid ly and has become
a major threat to potato cultivati on. Its
presence triggers frequ ent, mostly broad spectrum insecticid e applications, but with
little success (Rauf and Shepard, 1999) .
Thi s trend of increas ing pesticid e
ap pli cation, agg ravated by the mon etary
crisis th at hit Indon es ia in 1998, caused
l 71
West Java
Central Java
District
Vicinity to city
Cultivation system
Bandung (BO)
Near
Intensive vegetable
crops
Potato marketing
Maior potato
cultivation constraints
(farmers' perception)
Local partner'
Local market
Leafminer fly,
late blight,
bacterial wilt
TP4 (farmer
trainer network)
Baniarnegara (BN)
Far
Intensive vegetable
crops, extensive
subsistence crops
Local market
Leafminer fly,
late blight,
viruses
YPPSE
(local NGO)
North Sumatra
Simalungun (SI)
Far
Intensive vegetable
crops, extensive
subsistence crops
Export
Bacterial wilt,
late blight,
leafminer fly
YCD/WE
(local/int'I NGO)
a. TP4 = Pangalengan IPM Farmer Tminers Tearn, YPPSE = Foundation for Development and Socioeconomic Progress, YCD =
Foundation "Love the Village", JTTK = Tanoh Karo Formers' Network, WE = World Education.
172
Potato
l 73
Potato yields
Potato yie lds obtained by the respondents during the 1998 dry season and the
199 8/ 99 wet season varied greatly across
and within stud y si tes (Figure 1), ranging
from 1 .0 to 28.0 t/ ha with an average of
10.5 t/ha, 0.4 t/ ha of wh ic h was unmarketable due to tuber rot, mainly caused by R.
solanacearum. No rm ally, the wet season is
considered the best seaso n for growing
potatoes in the study areas in West Java and
North Sumatra. Farmers cu lti vate under
rainfed water supply, with a yield pote ntial
25-30 t/ ha . In the study site in Central Java,
w here rainfed wa ter supply is abundant
throughout the yea r, the dry season is
considered the best season for potato
cultivation, w ith a yield pote ntial of around
20 t/ha. Th e relati vely high incid ence of LB
during the wet season is tackled w ith h igher
frequencies of fungi c ide app lication,
although not always very effective ly. Figure
2 shows this ineffectiveness by the frequency of cases w here LB was id ent ified as
a major cause of low yields durin g the wet
season despite intens ive pesticid e use. The
1998/ 99 wet season was an extraordinary
season for LB , particularly in North
Sumatra, due to in creased rain as a res ult of
the La N ina phenomenon. Furth ermore,
LMF, commo nl y regarded as a dry season
pest and despite recent qui esce nce,
reo cc urred during the North Sumatran wet
season. In West and Central Java, th e 1998/
99 wet seaso n was co nsidered relative ly
fa vora ble for potato production. LMF
occu rre nce , however, continued to inc reas e
causing major damage to potato crops for
th e majority of participati ng farmers.
Several farmers who had planted before th e
onset of rai ns reported thrips damage. Earl y
crop growth was poor due to drought,
aggravated by th e high incidence of thr ips
during the first part of the growi ng seaso n.
Yield (t/ha)
30
25
-j
Unmarketable yield
D Marketable yield
I
I
20
15
I
~
10
>------
nM
Banjarnegara
'98 DS '98/'99 WS
Bandung
'98/99 ws
Simalungun
'98/99 ws
nnn~~
Tanah Karo
'98/99 ws
Figure 1. Potato yields in Indonesian study sites during the 1998 dry season (DS) and 1998/99 wet season (WS).
174
Pototo
Yield (t/ha)
30
25
t---
Leafminer fly
Late blight
Th rips
Baterial wilt
20
15
0
0
A
A
..
A
A
10
A
A
10
15
20
25
Figure 2. Relation between number of pesticide applications per season and yield. One data point represents one
farmer. The marker style for each data point indicates the major production constraint identified by the
farmers .
Farm ers' culti vat ion pract ices w ere
poo rl y related to y ields, indi ca ting th at
fa rm ers had no sound tec hn o log ies and
practi ces to in c rease yi elds and manage
th eir produ c ti o n constraints. Labor all oca ti o n to th e potato c rop , in c ludin g hired
labo r and an o pportunity cost fo r house ho ld
labo r, range d fr o m US $4 6 to 60 4/ ha. That
impli es low labor efficien cy for a large
po rtio n of fa rm ers, p arti c ul arly th ose w ith
small fi elds.
Ferti I izer m anage m ent practi ces va ri ed
w id ely, with total inorga ni c NPK doses
rangin g fro m 25 to ove r 2, 000 kg nutri ents/
ha w ith an ave rage of 60 9 kg/ ha. Ave rage
fe rtiliz er appli cat ion rates we re 245 kg N/
ha, 215 kg P/ ha, and 178 kg K/ ha. Farm ers
obtainin g th e hi ghest yi e lds appli ed fertilize r at moderate rates . In th e absence of
adapted, recomm ended rates, fa rm ers
depend on th eir own ex p eri ence and
175
,_
D Labor
,_
Inputs
,_
D Net return
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
,_
.-
ii
LJ
ii
-1,000
-2,000
-3 ,000
Banjarnegara
'98 dry '98/'99 wet
Bandung
'98/'99 wet
Simalungun
'98/'99 wet
Tanah Karo
'98/'99 wet
Figure 3. Economic analysis of the potato enterprise in Indonesian study sites during the 1998 dry season (OS)
and 1998/99 wet season (WS). Gross income consists of the sum of production cost (labor and inputs)
and net return (US$1 = 8,500 Rp in 1998). Each bar represents the crop of one farmer.
systems in the major production areas in
Ind onesia, the problems farm ers face, the
effort they expend, and opportunities for
improving potato cu lti vation . Th e need to
deve lop more eco logica ll y and eco nomica ll y susta in able cultivation practices
beca me an apparent overarching concern.
In particular, farmers demand ed new, more
effectiv e pest management measures to (1)
provide better opportunities to benefit from
the potential of potato cu ltivation, and (2)
m ake potato cultivation less polluting. This
study provides the foundation for future
collaborative IPM development program
planning. We identified major resea rch
areas that need attention (LMF, thrips, and
BW management; soil nutrient management; and a hea lthy seed supply system). In
add iti on, the assessment triggered high
interest in participating in follow-up
adapted technology development act ivities
within the farming communiti es.
References Cited
CBS (Central Burea u of Statistics). 1998.
Statistica l yearbook of Indonesia . Centra l
Bureau of Statistics, Jakarta, Indon es ia .
CIP/ FAO (Intern ational Potato Center and
the Food and Agricultural Organi za tion
of the United N at ions). 1995. Potatoes in
the 1990s: Situation and prospects of the
wor ld potato economy. FAO, Rome,
Italy.
Rauf, A. and B.M. Shepard. 1999.
Lea fmin ers in vegetab les in Ind ones ia:
Surveys of host crops, species compos ition , parasitoids and control practices.
Paper prese nted at the CABl-FAO
Workshop on Leafminers in Southeast
Asia held 1-5 Feb. 1999 at Cameron
Highlands, Malaysia.
l 77
l 79
Table 1. Comparison of dihaploid induction efficiency of S. phureja pollinator clones IVP-35 and IVP-101 in
tetraploid clones/lines of S. tuberosum, Peru, 1997-98.
Males
Females
Nonspotted seeds
Plants grown to
Survival
Di haploids
Di haploids
sown
maturity
(%)
(no.)
(%)
(no.)
(no.)
IVP-35 IVP-101
IVP-35 IVP-101
IVP-35 IVP-101
IVP-35 IVP-101
IVP-35 IVP-101
Group l
Achirona
569
134
569
134
99.l
80.7
44
32
7.7
23.8
Ccompis
73
247
73
247
91 .2
68.0
39
15.8
75 .0
7.7
Desiree
97
81
83.5
100.0
12.3
4.9
MF-1
133
65
133
296
80.l
93. l
00
Serrano
70
74
70
74
39.3
44.8
11
8.6
14.8
Stirling
14
73
14
73
38.9
61.3
39
28.6
53.4
TPS-13
13
13
68.4
50.0
23. l
66.7
TPS-67
57
24
57
24
49.l
32.4
3
2
3.5
8.3
206
435
206
435
89.6
92.2
11
14
5.3
3.2
60
60
17.6
53.6
50.0
3.3
MF-11
21
15
21
15
84.0
100.0
00
0.0
TS-9
14
14
73.7
40.0
0.0
0.0
12.0
22.7
Group 2
Atzimba
TPS-7
Group 3
Average
181
facto rs co ntro l I in g th e resp o n se o f pa rth enoge neti c seed produ cti o n are prese nt but
need co nfi rmation throu g h furth er in ves tiga tio n s.
Th e above discu ss io n stil l leaves th e
qu estion of w hat p art cy top las mi c influ e nce
pl ays o n th e i ndu c ib i I ity o f p arth enoge n etic
haploids. Th erefo re, we po l Ii natecl 14 sister
c lones fro m a cross ca rry i ng ide nt ical
cytop las m w ith th e two po llin ato r c lones.
D ata o n seed s set/berry, and th e pe rce ntage
of seeds w ithout th e embryo spot are g ive n
in Tab les 2 and 3. Th e res ults cl ea rl y show
th at seed s set/berry va ri es w id e ly betwee n
the siste r c lo nes in res p o n se to th e two
pol lin ator c lones (Tab le 2) . Simil arl y, th e
p erce nta ges of seeds w itho ut th e em b ryo
sp ot a lso va ry w id ely b etwee n th e siste r
cl o nes in res po n se to th e two p o l lin ato r
clon es (Tab le 3). Th at suggests th e ro le of
cytop las m probab ly is no t su c h th at it ca n
influ en ce nuclear facto rs d eterminin g th e
parth e noge netic indu cti o n abi lity of th e
seed p arent.
Tab le 3 indicates th at nu c lea r factors
govern th e i nclucti o n of pa rth en oge neti c
Table 2. Comparative seed set/berry with 5. phureja pollinator clones IVP-35 and IVP-101 involving
14 tetraploid female sister clones of
Males
Females
IVP-35
Ratio
IVP-101
35 :101
4.2:1
C95LB-22.9
28
C95LB-22.l 4
49
12
C95LB-22.8
37
C95LB-22. l 5
39
11
3.5:1
C95LB-22 .3
63
20
3.2:1
C95LB-22.2
57
l8
3.1 :l
C95LB-22.6
61
21
2.9: l
C95LB-22.7
44
16
2.8:1
C95LB-22.5
24
2.6: 1
C95LB -2 2.ll
35
15
2.3:1
2.3:1
4.2:1
3.9: 1
C95LB-22. l 2
30
13
C95LB-22 .l 3
51
28
1.8:1
C95LB-22 .l
25
21
1.3:l
C95LB-22 .l 0
l0
0.6:1
182
Potato
Table 3 . Comparative percentage of seeds without embryo spot with 5. phureia pollinator clones IVP-35 and IVP101 involving 14 tetraploid female sister clones of 5. tuberosum, Peru, 1997-98.
Males
Total seeds
(no.)
Females
(no.)
(%)
IVP-35
IVP-101
IVP-35
IVP-101
IVP-35
IVP-101
143
164
11.5
25.8
63
0.5
14.3
C95LB-22. l
l,247
636
C95LB-22.2
1,552
441
C95LB-22.3
1,315
237
30
0.7
12.6
C95LB-22.5
723
2,803
221
402
303
30
1,214
2,043
l , 112
1,181
426
101
73
30
1.0
29.7
415
31
60
14.4
20.5
C95LB-22.6
C95LB-22.7
C95LB-22.8
C95LB-22.9
C95LB-22.l 0
C95LB-22. ll
C95LB-22. l 2
C95LB-22. l 3
C95LB-22. l 4
C95LB-22. l 5
140
22
l.l
0.0
224
46
1.0
15.7
197
16
1.0
9.6
206
26
135
10.0
12.6
346
3
178
14.7
39.0
293
184
57
9.0
19.4
550
47
0.8
8.5
591
119
45
0.2
0.9
20.l
300
3.7
18.4
Average
15.0
183
Potato
l 85
Potato
Duplicates
Duplicate groups
within groups
None (unique)
1-2
3-5
6-10
11-15
16-20
21-30
31-50
51-75
76-100
101-125
126-150
276
1,204
747
482
194
60
27
37
19
11
7
4
l
Table 2. Means (x), standard error (SE), and x 2 tests of frequency distribution for morphological descriptors for
the whole (2,379 accessions) and core collection {306 accessions) of andigena potato cultivars. Descriptor
states transformed into a 0 to 9 scale' except for predominant flower and tuber skin color, which
combined color and intensity in a two-digit score. R1 values were calculated for each morphological
character in the whole collection considering a maximum of six clusters and the highest values are shown
in bold face, CIP, Lima, Peru, 1998.
Morphological
Character
Whole
Plant habit
2.77
Stem color
2.93
Stem wing shape
l.25
No. pairs primary
lateral leaflets
5.32
Pin
No. primary interjected
leaflets on rachis
12.82
Sin
No. secondary interjected
leaflets on petiolules
7.06
Pde
Pedicel color
4.70
Klx
Calyx color
4.57
Fwl
Predominant flower color 17.92
Fw2 Secondary flower color
4.45
Fw2d Distribution of secondary
l.01
flower color
Fwsh Corolla shape
5.80
Ant
Anther pigmentation
0.28
Pst
Pistil pigmentation
l.65
Frc
Fruit color
l.26
Frsh Fruit shape
2.17
Tskl Predominant tuber skin
16.17
color
Tsk2 Secondary tuber skin color 3.93
Tsk2d Distribution of secondary
3.76
tuber skin color
Tsh l Tuber shape outline
5.85
Tshx Odd tuber shape
0.96
Tey
Tuber eye depth
5.09
Tf1
Predominant tuber flesh
2.27
color
Tf2
Secondary tuber flesh
l.30
color
Tf2d Distribution secondary
0.55
flesh color
Phb
Ste
Stw
Pin
SE
Core
SE
Classes
x2
(no.)
colcu-
In clus-
lated
ters
P>x2b
R1
0.014
0.035
0.010
2.79
3.00
l.30
0.042
0.107
0.030
5
7
3
175
. 2.86
l.03
0.781
0.827
0.598
0.008
0.175
0.026
0.018
5.34
0.053
l.61
0.952
0.359
0.128
13.17
0.382
18.94
0.015
0.560
0.161
0.036
0.027
0.096
0.596
0.038
6.70
4.74
4.36
17.72
4.36
l.23
0.466
0.103
0.085
0.301
0.183
0.115
9
9
7
8
8
10
3.44
6.90
10.56
5.74
10.87
12.28
0.904
0.547
0.103
0.570
0.144
0.198
0.763
0.061
0.046
0.102
0.022
0.004
0.023
0.015
0.034
0.018
0.023
0.164
5.68
0.35
1.67
l.31
2.13
16.67
0.072
0.049
0.104
0.061
0.070
0.467
7
6
8
8
8
9
16.18
4.293
3.684
9.156
12.98
17.51
0.003*
0.508
0.815
0.242
0.073
0.025
0.003
0.008
0.229
0.003
0.008
0.859
0.065
0.053
3.84
3.75
0.193
0.157
l0
8
8.69
l.09
0.466
0.993
0.045
0.066
0.032
0.054
0.031
0.018
5.81
0.73
5.02
2.32
0.099
0.136
0.093
0.061
8
10
5
7
7.05
17.79
0.60
7.87
0.424
0.038
0.897
0.248
0.001
0.004
0.005
0.015
0.058
l.59
0.185
5.55
0.475
0.056
0.028
0.69
0.090
7.88
0.343
0.045
187
188
Potato
V=
* min(r-l,c -1)
Table 3. Number of accessions in the whole (W) and core (C) collection of andigena potato cultivars according to
geographic data from their collection site, CIP, Lima , Peru, 1998.
Country
State,
Square root
department, or
province
Argentina
Bolivia
Colombia
Ecuador
Guatemala
Catamarco
Jujuy
Salta
Unknown
Oruro
Potosi
La Paz
Chuquisaca
Cochabamba
Torija
Unknown
Boyaca
Cundinamarca
Quindio
Santander
Santander del Norte
Cauca
Nari no
Tolima
Valle
Bolivar
Caiiar
Chimborazo
Cotopaxi
Tungurahua
Carchi
lmbabura
Pichincha
Azuay
Loja
Unknown
Huehuetenango
Queza ltenango
San Marcos
Solola
3
42
41
6
50
59
35
4
8
3
161
39
13
3
6
4
13
46
2
4
18
11
34
15
10
25
31
6
8
16
20
6
9
10
2
1.7
6.5
6.4
2.4
7.1
7.7
5.9
2.0
2.8
1.7
12.7
6.2
3.6
1.7
2.4
2.0
3.6
6.8
l.4
2.0
4.2
3.3
5.8
3.9
3.2
5.0
5.6
2.4
2.8
4.0
4.5
2.4
3.0
3.2
1.4
2
6
0
7
10
6
2
3
24
6
3
l
2
3
7
l
2
4
3
6
3
3
5
6
2
2
4
l
3
2
3
189
Table 3 (cont.)
Mexico
Limo
2
11
7
109
85
50
Junin
99
Posco
53
88
152
39
10
42
19
4
6
288
110
455
12
23
2,427
Mexico
Pueblo
Veracruz
Peru
An cash
Huonuco
Apurimoc
Ayocucho
Huoncovelico
Amozonos
Cojamarco
La Libertad
Lamboyeque
Piura
Cusco
Pu no
Unknown
Venezuela
Merida
Trujillo
Total
190
Potato
1.4
3.3
2.6
10.4
9.2
7.1
9.9
7.3
9.4
12.3
6.2
3.2
6.5
4.4
2.0
2.4
17.0
10.5
21.3
3.5
4.8
1
3
3
10
9
7
10
7
11
12
6
4
6
4
2
2
22
13
23
4
5
306
Table 4. Matrix of measures of association between the morphological descriptors' recorded in the whole andigena collection using Cramer 's Vmethod ; values above 0.30 are in
boldface, CIP, Lima, Peru, 1998.
=o;
~
g
-0
-0
-0
--0
Phb
Ste
Stw
Pde
Klx
Fwl
Fw2
Fw2d
FwSh
Ant
Pst
FrC
FrSh
Tskl
Tsk2
Tsk2d
Tsh l
Tshx
Tey
Tfl
Tf2
Tfd2
Phb
Ste
Stw
Pde
Klx
Fwl
Fw2
Pst
FrC
FrSh
Tskl
Tsk2
Tsk2d Tsh 1
Tshx
Tey
Tf1
0.07
0.07
0.08
0.08
0.13
0.08
0.05
0.06
0.06
0.03
0.05
0.09
0.10
0.07
0.06
0.06
0.06
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.06
l
0.07
0.21
0.17
0.17
O.ll
0.07
0.06
0.13
0.19
0.09
0.08
0.27
0.14
0.14
0.09
0.09
0.06
0.06
0.1 3
0.12
l
0.12
0.08
0.10
0.08
0.10
0.05
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
O. ll
0.09
0.09
0.09
0.09
0.13
0.06
0.05
0.06
0.37
0.26
0.15
0. 12
0.07
0.07
0.1 0
0.07
0.08
0.16
0.12
0.1 3
0.08
0.06
0.09
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.34
0.17
0.16
0.06
0.07
0.09
0.08
0.08
0.18
O. ll
0.09
0.07
0.07
0.08
0.06
0.08
0.07
0.49
0.23
0.11
0.15
0.12
0.09
0.13
0.19
0.19
0. 13
0.12
0.13
0.13
0.10
0.19
0.11
0.30
0.07
0.07
0.09
0.08
0.06
0.18
0.1l
0.08
0.08
0.07
O.ll
0.07
0.09
0.07
l
0.06
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.07
0.13
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.05
0.09
0.08
0.06
0.05
l
0.08
0.05
0.23
0.12
O.ll
0.06
0.04
0.07
0.05
0.12
0.13
0.37
0.11
0.08
0.06
0.06
0.04
0.07
0.06
0.06
0.06
0.12
0.07
0.06
0.08
0.08
0.12
0.05
0.03
0.04
0.32
0.28
0.12
0.15
0.13
0.18
0.24
0.18
0.48
0.09
0.08
0.09
0.09
0.13
0.10
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.07
0.09
0.09
l
0.30
0.10
0.09
0.09
0.26
0.05
0.06
0.50
0.40 0.56
l
0.04
0.07
0.09
0.13
0.1l
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.06
0.04
0.04
0.05
0.07
0.20
0.06
0.05
0.16
O.ll
0.09
0.06
0.06
0.05
0.09
0.18
0.17
0.31
0.20
0.08
0.06
0.07
Tf2
Tf2d
a. Phb = plant habit, Ste = stem color, Stw = stem wing shape, Pde= pedical color, Pin = pairs primary lateral leaflets (no.), Pin = primary interiected leaflets an rachis (no.), Sin = secondary interiected
leaflets an petialules (no.), Pde= pedicel color, Klx =calyx color, Fwl = predominant flower color, Fw2 = secondary flower color, Fw2d =distribution of secondary flower color, Fwsh = corolla shape, Ant =
anther pigmentation, Pst = pistil pigmentation, fr( = fru it color, Fr Sh = fruit shape, Tskl = predominant tuber skin color, Tsk2 = secondary tuber skincolor, Tsk2d = distri bution of secondarytuber skin color,
Tshl = tu ber shape outline, Tshx = add tuber shape, Tey = tu bereye depth, Tfl = predominant tu ber flesh color, Tf2 = secondary tuberflesh color, Tf2d = distribution of secondary tuber flesh color.
Discussion
As th e culti vated potato col lecti on was
assembled at CIP, the prese nce of num erous
dupli ca te access ions of th e sam e culti va r
was quite evident. Therefo re, duplicate
id enti ficat ion wa s the first step to rat ionaliz e th e size of co llection to be maintained.
Th at was also the onl y way to sec ure the
clon al conserv ation of th e most diverse
sample o f Andean potato culti va rs. Th e
maintenance costs of the fi eld ge nebank
and in vitro collection of andigena were
redu ced by about 78 %, th e sam e proportion as the number of duplicates id entified.
Earli er, effo rts to minimi ze redund ancy in
th e potato collection was one of the most
impo rt ant ste ps in selecting a co re co ll ec ti on. W ith such a high leve l of duplication,
it is hi ghl y unlikel y that any rand om sample
192 Potato
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to CIP scienti sts who
contributed data on the reacti o ns of va rious
accession s to biotic and abiotic stresses; to
F. de Mendiburu for ass istance in stati stical
analyses; and to D. Spooner and M .
Boni erb ale for their re v ie w and hel pful
co mm ents.
Table 5. Means (X), standard errors (SE), and XJ. tests of frequency distribution for reaction to diseases and pests
of accessions in the whole and core collection of andigena potato cultivars. Descriptor states transformed
into a 0 to 9 scale' except for tuber dry matter (%), CIP, Lima, Peru, 1998.
Resistance to
Whole
Core
Classes
xi.
P>xzb
SE
SE
(no.)
calculated
506
6.61
0.02
95
6.26
0.07
8.186
0.085
304
5.09
0.03
55
4.76
l.32
5.193
0.268
Synchytrium wort
Mocrophomina
745
37
6.70
5.32
0.02
0.03
85
10
6.7
5.5
0.06
0.10
4
3
0.821
l.289
0.844
0.525
charcoal rot
Erwinia soft rot
Potato virus X
Potato virus Y
Potato leofroll virus
361
1739
1726
2505
7.75
5.52
5.68
6.74
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.02
42
206
204
289
7.52
5.31
5.62
6.71
0.09
0.09
0.09
0.05
4
3
3
3
2.732
6.86
5.778
4.551
0.435
0.032
0.056
0.103
1107
6.74
0.02
107
6.57
0.07
8.689
0.034
1096
6.62
0.02
107
6.14
0.10
25.558
0.001
566
6.77
0.02
36
6.72
0.06
0.25
0.882
480
6.60
0.02
54
6.74
0.06
l.248
0.536
1124
6.01
0.02
106
5.85
0.07
0.21
0.981
1756
7.41
0.03
218
7.29
0.10
5.793
0.215
572
8.15
0.03
62
7.35
0.12
21.08
0.0001
785
24.14
0.06
114
24.06
0.16
0.944
0.815
Phytophthora blight
in leaves
Phytophthora blight
in tubers
Globodera pa/Iida
race po2
Globodera pa/Iida
race po3
Globodera pa/Iida
Cusco population
Globodera ros
tochiensis
Meloidogyne
incognito acrita
Phthorimaea tuber
moth
Premnotrypes
Andean potato weevil
Tuber dry matter
content
0
References Cited
193
194
Pototo
195
Pololo
.......
. .- ..
~,.. ~'.
. _,
'
ii--' .) "
. ,.,
...... - ...
;-
-./ ,.
Figure 1. Typical rustic seedbed in the highlands of Bolivia. Women and children take an active part in seedbed
management.
fa rm ers to plant their seedbeds. In this case,
because of the bigger tubers, between 8 to
12 kg of seed was required. Th e PROINPA
seedbed d es ign and management were
adapted by farmers according to local
co nditions in each area . Initially, the
monitoring process emphasized seedbed
management, i.e., recordin g data on
cultivars used, quantity of seed, yield,
production costs, and data for seedbed
const ruction, and separating investment
and labor costs.
Taking into consideration th e production
system and farmers' requireme nts, four
categor ies of cultivar were multipli ed.
Category 1. Commercial cultivars
required by the market and includ ed in the
formal seed system. Basic or certified seed
from seed organizations was used.
Category 2. Native and introduced
cultivars of local comm ercial importance
grown principally in the highl ands and not
197
198 Pototo
Results
Yield (kg/rn 2 )
6 .-~--~----~~~~~~~---
5
4
i~i
~I~
o L_~~~~--~~--~~~~~~
N=
478
40
106
Waycha
Gendarme
!millia negra
Native
Variety
Yield (kgirn ')
6 .-~~~~~~~~~~~~~-
Yield evaluation
Yield data for 1996 and 1997 1 in Northern Potosi, were analyz ed by cultivar in the
630 seedbeds (F igure 2A). Th e h ig hest y ield
of 5.6 kg/ m 2 was obtain ed w ith th e com m ercial cul t ivar Wayc ha. Th e 1996 ave ra ge
y ield of 2.7 kg/ m 2 was signi ficantly h ig her
than the 1 .4 kg/m 2 obta in ed in 199 7
beca use of El Ni no. Multipl e reg ress ion
ana lys is of yield aga in st site, cu ltiva r, seed
size , seed qua I ity (bas ic and ce rti fied), and
years showed significance only for a site
th at appea rs to be high er than th e others
(average of 3,958 m). Th e R2 for the
reg ress ion was low, R2 = 0.371 1 w hich
m ea ns th at factors contributing to y ield
other than tho se in c lud ed were mo1e
impo rtant, e.g ., ge neral ma nagement of th e
seedbeds by th e farme rs. Th e y iel d va riab i lity betwee n farmer s un d erscores the
importance of seedbed manageme nt. Th ese
data show that by red ucing cl im atic ri sks
and im p rovin g c rop man age m ent p ractices
in the seedbeds, fa rm ers ca n obtain a hig h
production and mu c h better seed multiplica tion ra tes th an in open fi e ld s. Average
seedbed production was m o re than 25 t/ha
in 1996, and 14 t/ha in 1997. Fi el d produ ction in t his area in norm al years is between
5 and 7 t/ ha, and is even lowe r in bad
yea rs.
In ce ntral Potos i, average seedbed y ie lds
we re higher, 2 .4 kg/m 2 in 1995 1 3.6 kg/m 2
in 1996 1 and 3.1 kg/m 2 in 1997; hi ghest
yield was 6 kg/ rn 2 (Figu1e 2B). Multiple
reg ress ion analyses of facto rs such as
T
4
97
36
16
26
Revoluci6n
lrnillia
negra
Desiree
Selected
clones
Genda rme
Waycha
Native
Variety
l 99
Economic evaluation
The co nstru ct io n costs of th e seed beds
vari ed betw ee n d i ffe rent a1eas and w it h the
ad ap tatio ns m ade by fa rm e1s. The labo r
co sts to buil d the seed bed s va ried fro m
US $2 0 to US$ 3 1 by seed bed de pend in g o n
th e ca1e taken in th e con stru ction and the
d istance farm ers had to brin g clea n soil for
th e seed beds . Cas h costs fm m ateri als,
m ainl y fo r th e p lasti c co ve r, va ri ed fro m
US$25 to US $40 acco rd in g to far m er' s
ad ap tati o n of the system . In so me cases,
farme rs repl aced the p lasti c sheets w ith
em pty fe rti Iize r ba gs redu c in g th e cas h
co sts to aro un d US $ 15 . Th e effect of th e
ty pe of cover on y ield depends o n th e
w eather co ndi tio ns, th e pl ast ic cove r helps
to m aintain a hi gher ave rage m ax imu m
temp erature in the seed bed s w hi ch all ows a
fa ster deve lop ment of th e cro p and al so
som e protecti o n against frost. But it w as
ob se 1ve d th at th e fe 1ti I izer bags we re as
effic ient as th e p lasti c cove r and th ey also
protect th e crop fro m frost. W ith an extern al
Year1
Year3
Year2
Year4
Field
mutiplication
Seedbed
3 to
5 kg
of
seed
"h...
I
30 to 80 kg
:
:
:,
:
I
300 tO 700 kg
3 to 5 kg of seed
I~I
ci
40 to 70 kg
~-,-1#~--F-~--
:, hfff_'~ ~ @. \~.,,
~~-
~:
845 tO 3,520 kg
3 to 5 kg of Seed
I~ I ~
mult=tioo
30 to 70 kg
Figure 3. Seed flow from the seedbed combining multiplication in seedbeds and in open fields. Results from three
case studies, 1994 to 1997.
200
Potato
Material
Production costs
Labor
Total Costs
Inputs
Labor
Total
Inputs+
mat.
Minimum
Maximum
Average
5.0
7.8
6.4
6.3
10.0
8.1
6.3
23.9
14.4
11.3
31.7
20.8
5.0
8.0
6.5
11.3
18.0
14.6
22.6
49.7
35.4
Table 2. Cost of seed at different productivity levels and based on two labor opportunity costs in 630 seedbeds,
1996 and 1997 (US$/kg).
Productivity
Seed cost:opportunity
kg/seedbed
8.75 (minimum)
98.3 (maximum)
34.5 (mean)
Average
Minimum
Maximum
2.9
0.3
0.7
l.9
0.2
0.5
3.9
0.3
l.O
Average
Minimum
l.7
l.3
0.1
0.4
0.1
03
Maximum
2.1
0.2
0.5
201
Farmers' evaluation
Of the 305 farme rs interviewed in
nmth ern Potos i, w here more bed s we re
in sta ll ed, more than 95 % accepted th e
seedbed tech nology, 74.5% are interested
in buildin g more seedbeds, and 27.5%
have alrea dy in sta ll ed a seco nd on e
(Loredo and Choqu ehu anca, 1997). Ei ghtyfo Lff percent had set aside a specific pl ot in
open fi elds to multiply th e seed from the
seedbed s. Some constraints we re also
menti oned. Access to hea lth y seed for th e
seedbeds was mentio ned by 80% of th e
farm ers. Th ey wa nt to be sure th at in the
fu tu re th ey w ill have access to good seed
fo r th eir nurseries. Anoth er aspect of
Conclusions
Th e seed bed is a simpl e techno logy to
renew fa rmer' s seed and improve potato
prod ucti vity that has been used by many
fa rm ers in the hi gh lands w here the technol ogy was val idated. Farmers adapted the
Table 3. Agroeconomical evaluation of see d produced in seedbeds of 9 farmers , co mpare d with farmers ' see d,
after one field multiplication, Loyaza, Bolivia, 1995-97.
Seedbed
yield
Average
202
Pololo
Marginal rate
Seedbed
Farmer
of return
seed
seed
(%)
3.3
12.0
8.4
163
1.7
2.3
4.7
3.1
5.4
73
118
(kg/m
Maximum
Min imum
2
)
8.1
References Cited
Agu ile ra, J. 1995 . Producc i6n de tuberculos
- Se rnill;:i de p apa en ca m a proteg id a.
Manual Tecnico 1/9 5. PRO INPA,
Toralap;:i Experim ent Stat ion,
Coch ab;:irnba, Bo li v ia. 11 p.
Ben t ley, J. and D. V;:isques. 1998. Th e seed
potJto syste m in Bolivia: Organizati onal
growth ;:ind m iss in g l inks. Network Paper
No. 85. Overseas Deve lopment Inte rn ation al (OD I), Lo ndon , En gla nd . 11 p.
D eva ux, A . an d A. Gandari l las . 1998 . Mas
y rn ejor papa, Logros d e PROI N PA.
PROCAMPO. Rev ista de l Desa rrollo
Rura l CID/Bo li v ia 8 1 (Feb.):31-35 .
Loredo, V. and L.Choquehuanca. 19 97.
Prorno c i6n y Producc i6n de Sern ill a de
Papa, utili z;:i nd o ln ve rnad eros RC1 sticos, a
ni ve l de hoga res campes in os en el nort e
de Potos i. Corn ite ln ter institu c ion al de la
Papa-Norte de Poto si (CI PA NP),
Ll al lag u;:i, Potosi, Bo l ivia. 39 p.
Programa Naciona l d e Sem illas-D irecc i6 n
Naciona l d e Semil las-Secretaria
Nacional d e Agricu ltura y Ganad eri a
(SNAG). 1996. ln forme Anua l 1996. La
Paz, Bo li v iJ. 94 p.
Terrazas, F. , V. Suarez, G. Gardner, G.
Thi ele, A. Devaux, and T. Wa lker. 1998.
Diagnosin g potato producti v ity in
farme rs' fiel d s in Bo li v ia. Social Science
D epartm ent Wo rkin g Paper No . 19 98 -5.
lnternat io n;:i l Po tato Center, Lim a, Peru.
7 p.
A strategy needs to be d eve loped w ith
deve lopm ent in st itution s to supp ly hea lth y
seed for th e seed bed s and to re;:ic h the
fa rm ers of the in formal sys tem. Indi ge nou s
mark etin g c hannels shou ld be take n into
co nsid eration and bette r use d to link th e
forma l to th e trad ition al sys tems (Bent ley
and Vasq ues, 1998) . There is also a need to
co ntinu e tec hni ca l fo llow up in co l labo ration w ith NGOs and farm ers' co mmunities,
emph as iz ing ge nder impli cat ions,
po stharv es t acti v ities, seed mu ltipli ca tion in
open fi eld s, and seed mark etin g fo r those
w ho w;:int to spec ialize in that Jrea.
203
205
206
Poloto
Log base 2
Hectares ('000)
512
256
'
128
,...
64
6
~,.
5
4
...
32
16
8
2
Sesame
2
0
0
1946
1956
1966
1976
1996
1986
Figure 1. Area of selected post rainy season and summer crops in West Bengal, 1946-4 7 to 1995-96. (Source:
Log base 2
15
32.7
Potato
14
16.3
13
8.1
12
4.0
Wheat
11
2.0
10
1.0
0.5
0.2
0.1
1946
1956
1966
1976
1986
1996
Figure 2. Yield of selected post rainy season and summer crops in West Bengal, 1946-47 to 1995-96.
207
Price (Rs/t)
10,000
8,000
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1 997
1998
Figure 3. Real prices {1990 = 100) by week in the Calcutta wholesale potato market, January 1991 to July 1998.
208
Potato
Jul
Sequence
May Jun
--
(135 days)
Potato
Kufri Jyoti (120 days)
II
II
Sesame
B-67 (90 days)
Aman rice
IR-36(100 days)
Potato
Kufri Jyoti (120 daz:s)
I I
Aman rice
Aman ricepotato-boro
rice
Potato
Kufri Jz:oti (120 days)
Potato Kufri
Jyoti (75 days)
Aman rice
I I
Aman rice
11
Bora rice
IR-36 (100 daz:s)
Bora rice
IR-36 ~100 dalsl
Bora rice
IR-36 (1 oo days)
Boro rice
IR-36 (100 days)
I
I
I
I
Figure 4. Typical rice and potato cropping sequences in the surveyed villages.
heavy or in areas where drainage is problematic. These areas are restricted to the
double cropping of rice .
The most surprising feature of the
sequential cropping systems depicted in
Figure 4 is the dominance of a moderately
long-duration rice variety to start the
sequence. The cultivar of preference in the
rainy aman season is still Swarna Mahsuri,
a 135-to-140-day variety characterized by
high yields, good cooking quality, and wide
adaptabi I ity. Earlier ma tu ring varieties,
such as IR-36 are available, but farmers are
willing to accept lower boro productivity if
water for the summer season is readily
available. This strong preference for a
moderately long-duration rice variety to
initiate a triple cropping sequence suggests
that the conventional wisdom about the
catalytic role of high yielding varieties of
rice in facilitating the place of potatoes in
the cropping system is somewhat misplaced.
The optimal planting time for potato is
mid-November, and the turnaround time
between aman rice and potato is 10-15
days depending on soil texture. Therefore,
209
210
Pototo
211
212
Potato
21 3
Results
Th e eco nomic assessment shows th at TPS
has mi xed prospects. Of the nin e generalized location s, TPS seedling tuber tec hn o logy was most profitable in Chacas, Peru ,
quite attracti ve in th e north eastern hill s of
Indi a and th e Ni le Delta of Egypt, and
marginally profitable in the northeastern
plains of India (Figure 1). In the other five
sites, fa rm ers lost the eq ui va lent of more
th an US$1 00 per hectare (relat ive to c Ion ally
Table 1. Description of recent on-farm research comparing TPS technologies with clonal seed tubers.
Country
Agroecology
Fields
Farmers
India
India
India
India
Indio
Egypt
Egypt
Indonesia
Peru
Total plots
Northeastern plains
Northeastern hills
Northcentral plains
Western arid zone
Deccan Plateau
Desert
Delta
Highlands
Highlands
214
Potato
119
24
22
11
14
7
40
67
11
Clonal
TPS seedling
seed tubers
tubers
transplants
99
20
17
10
11
3
26
32
11
229
99
15
17
13
14
13
42
45
34
8
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
53
11
269
TPS
(US$/ha)
2,727
3000
3000
516
1000
484
474
0
-1000
-607
-771
-2000
-2 ,14 2
-3000
Peru
Chacas
Egypt
Delta
India
NEH
India
NEP
Ind ia
WAZ
India
NCP
India
DP
Egypt
NRA
In dia
Ind ia Ind ones ia
NEH(TP) NEP(TP)
Figure 1. Difference in net economic benefit (USS/ho) of TPS technologies from clonal tuber seed. (Source :
Chilver 1997.)
Yield
With a few notab le exception s, th e
co nventional wisdom about th e eco nomic
adva ntages and di sadvan tages of TPS
relat ive to clonal tuber seed was confirmed.
Th e symmetri ca l pattern in Figure 2 of yield
differences between th e two technologies
suggests that productivity on aggregate was
pretty much the same. Average seed ling
tuber yield s w ere mark edly hi gher in the
Peru site, significantly lowe r in the hi ghlands of Indones ia, and not signifi can tl y
different from average yields of clon ally
propagated mate ri al in th e oth er seven
location s. Th e Indones ian resu lts were
(t/ha)
15
10
-10
-15
Peru
Chaca s
In dia
NCP
Egypt
Delta
India
NEH
In dia
DP
India
NEP
India
WAZ
Figure 2. Difference in yields (t/ho) of TPS technologies from clonal tuber seed. (Source: Chilver 1997.)
CIPProgrnm Repmt 1997-98
2 15
Seed costs
As ex pe cted, th e sav in gs in seed costs
w ere a ma rke d adva ntage for th e TPS
seedlin g tuber technology. The ave rage
savin gs in seed co st ranged fr om about
US $1 O/ ha on the northc entral pl ains of
Indi a to about US $400/ ha in the northe astern hill s. Th e d ifference in th ese two
re gions large ly re flec ts differenc es in see d
prices. Tuber seed in w estern Uttar Prad es h
on th e north ce nt ra l pl ain s is read i ly avail ab le . But to rea ch th e north ea stern hills, th e
mater ial is tru cked ac ro ss th e pl ai ns up into
the mountain s of Assam. The remotene ss of
the no rtheas te rn hill s and transport diffi culties makes goo d qu ality tub er seed a dea r
comm odity.
Lowe r seed rates co ntri buted pro porti o nally mo re to the sav in gs in seed cos ts th an
did lower seed prices. U sin g TPS tec hn o logies, les s seed per ha was need ed in all th e
locati o ns . But lower per unit pri ces for TPS
seedlin g tubers we re nota bl e on ly in three
settin gs, th e north eas tern hill s and the
Decca n Platea u of India and th e hi ghland s
of Ind o nesi a. Th e co mm erci aliza tio n of
seedlin g tubers by large dea lers in Egypt led
to sub stan t iall y hi gher pri ces per unit of
materi al for propagation; so mu ch so th at
the ad vantage of a 1.8 t/ha lower seed rate
w ith seedlin g tu be rs did not tran slate into
an eco nomi c reality. Howeve r, in three of
the nine sites, the savings of usin g TPS
seed lin g tubers over c lon all y propagated
2 16 Potato
Output price
Pa1ti al budgetin g res ults al so supp ort th e
hypo th es is that repla cin g cl onal tuber seed
w ith seedlin g tu bers is acco mp anied by a
fall in output pri ce . Bu t output pric e
d iscrim inat ion aga in st seedl in g tubers was
not as wid es prea d as ex pected .
Tw o of the expecte d co nsi deration s
poi ntin g to lower prices for th e outpu t of
TPS seedl ings did not mate ria li ze. Exce pt
for Peru w here the TPS progeny ma tu red
ea rlier th an the c lonal check , fa rmer s
harvested the produ ction fro m seedl in g
tu be r and the con ve nti onal see d techn o logy
at the sa me t im e; th erefo re, pr ice differences associ ated w ith seasonal ity we re not
a fa ctor. O nly in Indon es ia did the later
maturity of TPS prog eni es re sult in so mew hat lower (4%) prices relati ve to the ea rly
maturin g va ri ety Gran o la. No r d id we find
tang ibl e differences i n pri ces betw een TPS
and clon al output in th e sam e grade
c lass ifi ca ti on. Thi s po siti ve findin g fo r TPS
ind icates that th e proge ni es are suffic ientl y
homogen eo us to compete in th e marketpl ace in thes e co u ntries w here fr es h tab le
cons umptio n is th e do min ant fo rm of
ut i lization. Ind eed, farm ers co mmented
th at the sh in ier offs prin g of seedlin g tu bers
we re eve n slightl y prefer red in some
location s.
The ca use of price di spari t ies betwee n
TPS and c lonal seed tec hnol og ies cente rs
on the potenti al fo r TPS to re sult in a
sma ller di stributi on of tub er size . Thi s
d isadva ntage was most sal ient in th e
D ecc an Pl ateau in Karn ataka w here the
output of seedlin g tub ers fetch ed about
U S$ 15 pe r ton less th an the production of
c lonall y propagate d m ate rial. The bulk (or
85 %) of th e produ cti on of th e dom i nant
c lone Ku fri Jo yti belon ged to th e grad e 2
category; w h i le 75% of the output of
seed lin g tube rs was des tined fo r the
2 17
Y = -1258.5+65 .6x
500
400
300
200
100
i--........................................................................................................~..........---...........,.............................,
25
10
30
-100
-200
-300
Seed cost
Value of production
Jin %
-400
Figure 3. Association between comparative profitability of TPS utilization technologies and seed cost as percent of
value of productio n in clonal tub er seed.
Apply in g even th is very simp le empirical
rule is not w ithout difficulty, but the
problems are not insurmountabl e. Est imates are needed on farmers' yie ld, seed
rate, price of tuber seed, and price of output
at harvest. There is no substitute to in vesting in well focused, albeit limi ted, diagnost ic researc h in farmers ' fields and in loca l
markets to obtain these estim ates . The
temptation to use national or FAO data on
yield levels and import data o n seed costs
shou ld be resisted. Yield sampling in
farmers' fie ld s show that officially published
estimates often und er repo rt per hectare
potato producti v ity by 30% to 100%
(Pak istan-Sw iss Potato Development
Project, 1991; Terrazas et al., 1998).
Imported propagation material is usuall y
multiplied seve ral ti mes before it becomes
cost effective to produce potatoes dest in ed
for the fresh market.
The Ind onesian highlands is an apt
example where th e use of the wro ng data
can give spu r ious resu lts o n the prospects
218
Potato
Concluding Comments
These evaluations bring out two positive
d eve lopm ents in TP S technologies. First,
for a given d istribu tion of tuber size, price
differences between TPS progenies and
clones were not statistically different.
In deed, at times the sh in ier output of
seed Ii ng tubers fetched more attractive
prices than the output of clonal seed .
Second, t he fact that these evaluatio ns
cou ld be carried out indi cates that the
supp ly of TPS is not a problem or should
not be cons idered to be a constrain t in
tech nology assessment. Sufficient material
References Cited
219
22 1
1995-97, or about 2.4% of global production for these same years (FAOSTAT, Jun e
1998). Recent estimates of potato exports,
in cludin g processed produ cts, place th is
tota l at about 4% of globa l produ ction , or
roughly double the percentage for fres h
potato and seed alon e (FAO, 1995). To put
these figures in perspect ive, globa l rice
ex po rts represent an estimated 3% of the
world's annua l rice produ ction (Th e
Eco nomist, 1993).
Expo rts of table and seed potatoes from
deve loping cou ntri es averaged 1.2 million
tons in 1995-97 or about one percent of
produ ction (FAOSTAT, June 1998). Imports
were at the same leve l. The volume of this
trade has tripled over the last three and a
half decades. During 1995-9 7, major
exporters were Egypt (32 1,000 t), Turkey
(191 ,000 t), Indones ia (91,000 t), and
Morocco (79 ,000 t) . For th e M editerranean
co untri es, these exports consist of ea rl y or
winter table potatoes shipped to European
Union markets under spec ial trade arrangements. Many of these same co untri es also
import seed potatoes from European seed
producers because co mparab le growing
cond iti ons and similar consumer tastes an d
preferences are highl y co mpl ementary.
Egypt alone earns we ll over US$25 million
Table 1. Import and export, in tons, of table and seed potatoes in Latin America, 1994-96.
Brazil
Venezuela
Cuba
Mexico
Trinidad and Tobago
Uruguay
Nicaragua
Others
Total'
Source: FAOSTAT, March, 1998.
Totals do not sum exactly due to rounding.
222
Potato
Imparts
Exports
(000 t)
(000 t}
95
72
32
31
27
19
13
73
363
Argentina
Colombia
Guatemala
Honduras
Mexico
Ecuador
Chile
Others
Total
79
36
25
3
145
Table 2. Imports of frozen french fries, in tons (t), into Latin America and the Caribbean from the USA, Canada,
and the Netherlands, 1991-92 and 1994-95.
1991-92
Southern Cone
Brazil
Chile
Uruguoy
Argentina
Andean Region
Ecuador
Colombia
Peru
Venezuela
Central America and
the Caribbean
Guatemala
Dutch Antilles
El Salvador
Jamaica
Honduras
British Virgin Isles
Bahamas
Dominican Rep.
Costa Rica
Othersb
Mexico
Total
1994-95
Total
USA
Netherlands
Canada
503
218
134
2,833
1,780
252
159
653
2,863
20
24
83
2,737
18,722
12,159
3,726
930
1,908
3,587
947
191
220
2,229
10,651
5,986
612
3,483
572
42
21 ,799
13,874
2,192
1,016
4,717
8,898
16
495
1,608
6,778
51,173
32,019
6,529
5,429
7,196
12,527
963
12,512
447
1,676
227
480
316
36
2,752
189
314
6,192
15,158
33,366
14,599
3,942
1,543
1,492
1,399
1,210
302
801
794
609
2,506
33,316
70,224
1,842
15,518
3,140
2,715
31,959
7,082
4,258
1,492
3, 11 4
1,559
302
1,378
849
609
11,315
34,470
130,129
997
987
10
10
150
1,543
20
7
16
83
1,221
1,516
6,109
428
359
227
480
316
36
2,317
73
314
1,560
14,618
22,773
1,333
575
108
149
502
1,320
1,493
4,910
19
1,317
435
116
1,493
2,490
3,139
540
8,103
42
l,715
349
577
55
1,787
12,535
7,022
1,155
47,370
Total
729
1,828
9,007
223
Table 3. Distribution of McDonald 's restaurants by region and country, 1987 vs. 1995.
Region/Country
1987
1995
Tota l Pacific
Total Europe/Africa
Total Latin America
Argentina
Brazil
Colombia
Costa Rico
Chile
Guatemala
Mexico
Panama
Puerto Rico
Uruguay
Venezuela
Others
U.S.A
Canada
Total
951
755
99
3
37
0
4
0
3
5
8
2,735
2,710
665(l,160)
75
243 (505)
22
14
21
15
132
15
75
0
3
14
7,567
539
25
286
11,368 (12,406)
902 (l,062)
9,911
18,380 (23,726)
Source: McDonalds Corporation {1992, 1995) (Figures in parenthesis are for 1998 and are taken from the McDonald's web site)
224
Potato
W ith co ntinu ed growth in total pop ul ati on, urban area popul ati ons, touri sm, and
hopefull y per ca pita in co mes in the deca des ahead, the qu estio ns th at emerge are:
Wh at is the most Ii kely scenari o fo r the
future evo luti o n of th e po tato trade in Latin
Am eri ca? And perhaps of more importance,
w hat ca n countries w ith limited resources
ava il ab le fo r research and deve lopment of
th e po tato sector do about it ? Given th e
w id e range of parti c ipants, a typo logy of
co untri es m ay help cl ari fy th e releva nt
opti ons ava il abl e to th e d ifferent types .
The M ex ica n case is parti cul arl y notew orthy beca use current tariffs on fresh
potatoes are still above 200% but are
sch edul ed to fa 11 to ze ro by 2004 . Al th ough tariffs on processed potatoes are
onl y a fracti on o f thi s leve l, qu otas di sco urage unlimited imports. Imports in M ex ico,
like more rece ntl y in Braz il , have also
tempo raril y stag nated fo r ph ytosa nitary
reaso ns and deva lu ati o ns durin g th e 199 0s.
N oneth eless, potato imports have co ntin ued to ri se throughout th e deca de (Tabl e 4).
Rece nt studi es suggest th at, given current
differences in th e costs of produ cti on and
Table 4. Mexico : Potato imports from the U.S.A . by type of product, in 000 t, and% distribution of product,
Fresh
Frozen
Chips
Other
Total
1990-92
1994-96
15
11
9
5
40
36
29
23
12
100
22
34
16
15
25
39
18
18
87
100
225
226
Pololo
Conclusions
Gl oba li za ti o n has tak en root in th e Latin
Am eri ca n potato trade. A ll indi ca tors are
th at such trade is hi ghl y sustain abl e and is
lik ely to ex pand rap id ly in the deca des
ahead. Some Latin American co un tr ies
have w itnessed faster exp ansion in potato
imp orts o r ex ports than others have. From
thi s co ll ec tive experi ence the following
acti o n reco mmendations are suggested for
Latin American gove rnm ents.
227
228
Potato
229
230
Pototo
(3) NVPT
=I.
i=l
t=l
(1 + r )
Where
.r
Q*B
NVPr
Pi
Q
Ys
Ci
r
v; 1
g;
= Size of production;
s;
t;
Discount rate;
Proportion of area sown to variety i in year t;
= productivity gain attributed to variety i.
23 1
Table 1. Comparing parameter assumptions on the economic fea si bility of wheal and potato breeding programs.
Parameter assumptions
Benefits
Rate of genetic gain
Testing
Crossing
Price (US$1/t)
Adoption
Varietal success
Average varietal age (years)
Wheat
6.35/kg/yr
l 0/kg/yr
Real price trend
0.635%/yr
1%/yr
150
Annually
5
Once in a decade
15
5
12
5
12
3
35,000
3
50,000
12%
70
12%
50
232
Potato
Potato
Table 2. Size of threshold production to justify investing in a testing or a more expensive crossing program and
the number of national programs that have over-invested relative to this economic criterion for wheat
and potato.
Inefficient programs
(number of programs)
Program
Wheat
Potato
Wheat
14,800
111 ,400
25,000
200,000
2
19
Potato
capacity
Testing only
Crossing
233
----------.
G
6
------- e
...
...
JI' '..
Other strong NARS
(9 countries, 26.6%
production)
China (45.5%
production)
------e
...
G----. ------ e
West Africa
(2, 0.1%)
Andes
(5, 6.2%)
Southeast
Asia (4, 1 .3%)
Figure 2. Spatial and institutional priorities for generating international public goods from potato breeding.
234
Potolo
235
236 Potato
237
Research on Sweetpotato
Impact on a Chang ing Wo rl d
241
2 4 2 Sweetpototo
Table 1. Frequencies of detection of sweetpotato viruses from surveys conducted at various sites.
=;;
Location
SPCFV
SPLV
SPMMV
C-6
SPMSV
SPFMV
SPCSV
SPFMV + SPCSV
5/106
0/ 182
0/183
2/87
no
0/106
6/182
13/ 183
0/87
no
6/106
13/182
4/183
0/87
no
no'
0/182
0/183
0/87
no
no
no
12/183
2/87
no
58/l 06
40/182
43/183
72/87
256/890
105/lQbb
no
59/183 b
61/87 b
237/890'
57/ l 06
11/381
8/381
5/381
7/381
5/381
18/381
no
4/382
5/382
6/106
no
no
67/382
+d
yes
0/115
15/ 115
0/115
0/115
0/115
93/115
no
no = not assayed.
E. African strain detected by use of monoclonal antibodies.
' NCM-ELISA test, SPCSV strain not yet identified.
d + signifies detected by PCR, but frequency not quantified.
0
=
~
~
~
~
./;>.
34/183
59/87
155/890
Reference
Gibson et al. 19980
Corey et al., 1998
Solazar, 1998
Salazar, 1998
Proin et al., 1998
Results
Results of virus surveys conducted in
China, Egypt, Indon es ia, Ken ya, Peru, and
Uganda are presented in Tabl e 1. SPFMV
was assayed at all sites and was detected
w ith hi gh frequen cy. SPCSV was not
assayed at all si tes, but w here assayed , it
was detected at hi gh frequencies , similar to
SPFMV. In Uga nd a, 54 % of th e plants
sam pl ed had SP VD, bein g infec ted by both
SPFMV and SPCSV. At si te s in Java,
Ind onesia, about 65 % of th e SPCSVinfected sa mpl es were also infected with
SPFMV. In Egy pt, th ere w as also combined
infecti o n, but the frequency of SPCS V was
not quantified. In Peru, the fre qu ency of
comb in ed infecti o n by SPFMV and SPCSV
was 34% of the sampled plan ts . Th e
serotype of SPCSV was only determined
durin g surveys in Uganda and Peru. In
both countries, th e so-cal led East A fri ca n
serotype was detec ted , not the West Africa n
seroty pe. Th e remaining v iru ses, except for
C-6, w hi c h was only detected in the lri an
Jaya ge rmpl as m collection at Lemba ng,
Ind ones ia, were ge neral ly detected at a low
frequency but on eac h of th e co ntin ents
su rveyed.
Yield loss assessment trials in Chin a
(Tabl e 2) demonstrated a significant benefit
to usin g pathoge n-tested planting m ater ial
at both Jin an and Xuz ho u. Th e effect of
using pathoge n-tested planting material was
greate r at Jin an, w ith a signifi cant ly hi gher
y ield from pathogen-tested pl ant in g
m ater ial than from far m-deri ved material for
eac h cultivar. At Xuzhou the pathogentes ted pl antin g m ater ial o nl y yie ld ed
signifi ca ntly more fo r two of the cul tiva rs
eva lu ate d . Ho weve r, the mean y ield from
pathoge n-tested pl antin g materi a I was
cons istentl y high er th an from farm-derived
material.
In the Ugandan tria ls (Table 3), no
sig ni fica nt effect of using pa thoge n-tested
pl antin g material was detected. The mean
yield of pathogen-tes ted plantin g m ater ial
was not co nsistentl y hi gher. Howeve r, in
three of fou r trials, th e m ea n y ield from
2 4 4 Sweetpototo
Discussion
Th e find ing that SPFMV was predom in ant at
each site sam pled is in line w ith previous
in for m ati o n abo ut th e cos mopo litan
di stribution of t hi s virus. In th e countries
w here it was assessed-Egypt, Ind ones ia,
Peru, and Uganda-SPCSV was present in
as hi gh a propo rti o n of v irus symptomexpressi ng pl ants as SPFMV, often in
association wi th th e latter. This appea rs to
indi ca te a broader distribution and importance of SPV D than h as previously been
repo rted. Th e detecti on of th e East Afr ica n
strain of SPCSV as th e predominant form in
Peru also indicates a w id er di str ibuti o n o f
this serotype th an was previo usly re ported
(H oye r et al. , 1996). Prelimin ary resu lts
have indi cated the presence of SPCS V in
China (L. Salazar, CIP, Lim a, Peru , 1999,
pers. com m .).
The results of th e presen t stu d y indicate
th at SPVD may be the most important v irus
disease of sweetpotato globall y. Until now,
its globa l impact has been overlooked. Th at
is largely because diagnostic to o ls have not
been readily ava ilabl e fo r SPCS V, so only
SPFMV was ubiquito usly detected. Furth er
survey work is required to confirm th e
occ urrence and prevalence of SPVD and its
causal agents (SPFM V and SPCS V) aro und
th e wo rld. Further wor k is al so required to
clarify the biological sign ifican ce of
di fferen t seroty pes of SPCSV. Because of a
lack of ant ise ra against a number of
addit ional sweetpo tato v iru ses reported in
th e literature, these have not yet bee n
wide ly surveyed. One o r more of th em
co uld also be important.
Resu lts from Chin a of yiel d com par iso ns
of sweetpotato vari eti es using pathoge ntested and fa rm-deri ved planting materials
(Table 2) indi ca te th e large y ield gai ns th at
ca n be m ade usi ng this tec hn iqu e. Ind eed,
Table 2. Fresh storage root yields (t/ha) of five major sweetpotato cultivars grown from pathogen-tested and
farm-derived planting materials at two sites in China in 1997.
Cultivar
Planting
material
source'
Jinan
Xuzhou
Lashu No. 7
PT
F
PT
Lushu No. 8
PT
Beijing 553
PT
F
PT
43. l (36%**)
31.6
46.4 (35%**)
34.6
39.9 (23%**)
32.4
39.4 (47%**)
26.9
37.7 (75%**)
21.5
Xushu 18
Fenghsoubai
PT = Pathogen-tested, F = Farm-derived.
bSignificant according to LSD (0.01) = **or LSD {0.05) = *,not significant = ns.
Table 3. Fresh storage root yields (t/ha) of three sweetpotato cultivars grown from pathogen-tested
and farm-derived planting materials at three sites in Uganda during two seasons.
Cultivar
Planting
material
source'
Tanzania
PT
Bwanjule
PT
F
PT
F
Wagabolige
Nakabango
Kachwekano
Namulonge
(1995)
(1995)
(1996)
(1995)
15.0 (19%)
12.6
5 9 (-40%)
9.9
6.3 (-40%)
10.5
39.8 (39%)
28.7
28.2 (28%)
22.l
20.8 (-13%)
23.8
l l.5 (-14%)
13.4
19.3 (7%)
18.0
20.4 (l 6%)
17.6
13.8 (50%)
9.2
11.0 (29%)
8.5
9.4 {-8%)
10.2
245
246
Sweetpototo
24 7
248
Sweetpototo
249
Sweetpototo
Province
Heated greenhouse
500 virus-free
cuttings
County
First year
Spring Summer:
A-M-J-JA-S
Township
Second year
SpringSummer: AMJ-J-A-S
Farmer
Third year
Spring-Summer:
A-M -J-J-A-S
Farmer's field
April: 1,000 ha
July: 1o,ooo ha
120,000 tons
of commercial
roots
100
- - - - - - -- - - - -
90
BOf----------7''------~----o
70 1---------r'---=,.,..c_-~--1
60f---- - - - - T - - -+----,,.-<'--------j
Estimation of benefits
According to the sweetpotato multiplication program, virus-free plants were
estimated to have reached 84% of the
sweetpotato area in Shandong Province by
1998. This estimate includes areas planted
to new and first and second generation
planting material. Among the 30 villages
surveyed, virus-free roots were first used
in 1995 and by 1998 had spread to 78%
of the sweetpotato area in the vi IIages
(Figure 2).
sor---- ----;"--T--+----------<
4or------ -+--,,_- + - - - - --- -----<
30 f - - --
20
10
Summer crop
Total Crop
'-----"~~---~--~
1995
1996
1997
1998
251
Assumptions
Internal rate
Annual net
of return
(million US$)
benefits at full
diffusion
(%)
l. Baseline assumptions
2. Adoption peaks at 90%
3. Costs of research, extension, and
seed multiplication doubled
4. Yield improvement estimate halved
5. Costs doubled and yield improvement
halved
(million US$)b
202
202
550
145
620
168
170
467
124
170
234
62
132
151
40
' Net present value is calculated assuming a real discount rate of l 0%.
b Figures in 1998 US dollars.
253
254
Sweetpototo
7:67-71.
Compared w ith SPWF, SLWF is becoming one of the most important crop pests
because of its higher rate of increase
(Bethke et al. , 1991 ), wider range of
thermotol erance (Salvucci et al., 1998),
efficient transmission of a group of
geminiviruses (Gilbertson et al., 1998), high
levels of resistance to insecticides (Byrne et
al., 1998), more honeydew production
(Byrne and Miller, 1990), and a wider range
of host plants (Byrne et al., 1990).
255
Sweet potato
257
Table 1. Treatments used in 5 different trials with selective compounds (entomopathogens, plant-derived
insecticides, mineral oil , and a chitin inhibitor) against sweetpotato whitefly. Checks included are
absolute checks and insecticide-treated checks. Canete Valley, Peru , 1998.
Technical name
Trade name'
Concentration/
dosage
Preliminary
experiment
Tl
Buprofezin
Aquitin
0.1%
T2
T3
T4
TS
Rotenone
Extracta 50 WP
Vertisol
Vektar
Ace
Carbo for 75 WP
0.1 %
l xl 09 conidias/bottle
l xl 09 conidias/bottle
0.2%
Verticillium leconii
Entomophthora virulento
Tb
Tl
Detergent
Treated check: corbofuran
Absolute check
Tl
T2
T3
T4
Rotenone + buprofezin
(Rotenone and pyrethrum) + buprofezin
Rotenone + buprofezin
Check
Rhotenox l 0 EC + Aquitin
Rhotenox-SP + Aquitin
Extracto 50 WP + Aquitin
0.4% + 0.1 %
0.4% + 0.1 %
0.1 % + 0.1%
Experiment 2 Tl
T2
T3
T4
Rotenone
Rotenone and pyrethrum
Roten one
Check
Rhotenox l 0 EC
Rhotenox-SP
Extracto 50 WP
0.4%
0.4%
0.1%
Experiment 3 Tl
T2
T3
T4
TS
Oil mineral
Oil mineral + rotenone
Treated check: endosulfon
Treated check: corbofuran
Check
Triona -5
Triono-5 + Extracto 50 WP
Thiodan 35 EC
Carbofor 75 WP
1%
1%+ 0.1 %
0.15%
0.2%
Experi men! 4 Tl
T2
T3
T4
Verticillium leconii
Entomophthora virulento
Beouverio bossiana
Vertisol
Vektor
Bouveril
l xl 09 conidias/bottle
l xl 09 conidias/bottle
Sx l 011 conidias/bottle
Experiment l
Check
2 58
Sweet pololo
Table 2. Ocurrence of canopy inhabitant predators' in sweetpotato infested with white fly Bemisia tabaci in the
Spiders
Chrysoper/o externo
Orius sp.
Hyo/aides sp.
Nobis punctipennis
Rhinocloo sp.
Aknisus sp.
Scymmus sp.
Coccinelids
Condylostylus similis
1995
1994
Predators
No
101
3
57.4
l.7
5
18
4
1996
%
No
15
45.5
7.3
113
9
7
2.8
10.2
2.3
8
24
9
3.9
l l.7
9.4
18
26
10.2
14.8
18
30
8.8
14.6
176
0.6
100
8
205
3.9
100.0
38.4
3.1
2.1
1.4
2.4
2.4
0.3
4.3
10.l
32.l
1.3
3.2
100.0
No
93
Syrphidae
Geocoris sp.
Total
0
3
13
30
93
8
8
292
259
punc tipes.
Th e most abundant so il inh ab iting
predators w ere a carabid beetl e
(Pterostichus sp.) and one species of
ea rw ig (Labiduria riparia) (Table 3).
Parasitoids. Three genera of paras itoids
we re recorded in th e Canete Va ll ey (Table
4). As in other parts of South Am eri ca and
Table 3. Soil inhabitant predators captured by pitfall traps in sweetpotato fields in Canete Valley, Peru, 1998.
Pterostichus sp.
Labiduria riparia
(Coleoptero: Carobidae)
(Dermaptero: Labiduridae)
Year
1994
1996
1998
94.8
44.9
350.7
306.4
100.0
26.0
Parasitoids
Locality
La Molina
Platygasteridae
Amitus sp.
Encarsia sp. prob. bicalor De Sontis
Encarsia porteri (Mercet)
Encarsia (Prospaltel/a) sp. (A)
Encarsia sp. (B)
Eretmocerus sp.
0
260
Sweelpololo
Canete
vs
vs
vs
vs
vs
vs
Table 5. Variation in the level of parasitism of the sweetpotato whitefly Bemisia tabaci, on sweetpotato during
the last 11 years, Canete Valley, Peru, 1987-1988.
Year
Parasitism (%)
Nymph/leaf
Minimum
1987
1989
1.9
2.4
1994
1995
1996
20.5
39.8
46.4
1998
853.5
Selective compounds
Preliminary trial. Buprofez in was very
effecti ve aga in st nymph s, redu cin g the
w hitefly popu lat ion of 32. 1 nymph/c m 2 to
0.9 nymph/c m 2 in 14 d (98% mortality). No
signi f ica nt differences in nymph number
were observed between other trea tments
(rotenone, entomopathogens, and detergent) and the chec k, but a dec rease in the
adult popul ation in the field was observed.
Plots treated w ith carbofuran had an
increase in whitefly popul at ions from 62.7
nymph s/c m 2 to 102.9 nymph s/c m 2 in 14 d.
In the tri als discussed below, rotenon e and
buprofez in were mixed for bette r wh itefly
co ntro l.
Identifica tion of nymph s affected by the
different trea tments was one of the main
difficulti es faced durin g th e ex periments.
Becau se nymphs and pupae are immobil e
and fixed to th e undersid e of th e lea f
surface, movement could not be used as a
sign of li fe. In addition, most products
(e ntomopathogens, rotenon e, min eral o il ,
and buprofez in) are intrin sically slow
actin g. Mortality does not occur as fast as
w ith co nventional in sect ic ides. It was also
difficult to sp ray the und erside of th e leaf
surface eve n w ith the spec ial nozz les used.
Maximum
Average
4.0
5.0
70.0
27.0
41.2
28.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
0.0
261
Table 6. Leaf average nymph population per square cm at the indicated days after application per treatment,
Canete, Peru, 1998.
Before
treatment
Treatment
Exp. l
Rotenone
Rotenone and pyrethrum
Roten one
Check
Exp. 2 Rotenone
First application
+ buprofezin
Second application
14
3.7
12.3
a
a
a
5.8
5.l
7.5
7.3
5
11.2
11.7
11.7
21.9 a
7.5
4.9
0.7
36.5 a
33.4 a
35.7 a
6.4
7.5
8.5
5.7
7.2
9.l
0.6
0.8
13.3
34.9 a
30.6 a
34.6 a
20.9 a
13.9
11.7
13.3
14.3
8.9
8.2
11.8
10.2
16.2 a
6.1
4.6
21.3 a
24.2 a
15. l a
20.9 a
5.6
9.9
6.6
6.4
ob
14.3
15.5
23.6
34.6
27.6
0
0
0
2.7
9.3
14
2.4
l.2
4.7
ab
5.2
21
ab
b
ab
2.03 a
1.2 a
3.2 a
2.73 0
0.3
0.26
0.1
0.4
3.5
0.5
0.83
3.7
0.85
0.83
+ buprofezin
Rotenone + buprofezin
Check
Exp. 3
Verticillium /econ ii
Entomophthora virulenta
Beauveria bassiana
Check
+ rotenone
b
b
6.6
2.8
2.3
1.8
2.1
4.4
6.9
5.7
0
6.7
9.7
9.8
2.2
2.3
2
7.6
4.5
be
ab
3.8
3.1
2.7
7.8
4.2
b
ab
ab
0
0
0.4
0.78
3.48 ob
2.6 ob
2.45 ob
ab
5.35 a
3.6 ab
Within a column, means followed by a common letter do not differ significantly at P=0.05 by DMRT.
262
Sweetpototo
Conclusions
Al I treatments- entomopathogens, rotenone, mineral oil, and buprofezin-contributed to controlling whitefl y by killing
nymphs. Mortality probably was higher
than the level recorded due to their slow
action. The compounds tested are consid-
84: 40 7-411 .
Byrne, D.N. and W.B. Miller. 1990. Ca rb ohydrate and amino acid comp os iti on of
263
264
Sweetpototo
265
266
Sweetpototo
Results
Formation of embryogenic callus
The in cubated shoot ap ice s responded
actively to the cu lture conditions. After 3 to
4 days, most of them started to produce
wh ite, friable ca llu s. This callus was nonembryogenic and grew rapidl y. A few of
shoot apices directly formed embryogenic
callus. This type of embryoge ni c cal lu s
grew mu ch slower than the non-em bryogenic cal lu s. Four to five weeks after
in cubation , emb ryogen ic cal Ii were formed
on the surface of the non-embryogenic cal Ii
(F igure 1 ). Th ese two kinds of embryogen ic
cal Ii (the one directly formed from the shoot
apices and the one fo rmed on the surface of
the non-embryogenic cal Ii ) we re easi ly
distinguishable from the non-embryogenic
cal Ii because of their bright-yellow and
compact appearance. Both embryogenic
calli were used to initiate embryogenic
suspension cu ltures . A ll of the eight tested
cu Iti vars successfu 1 ly formed an embryogenic ca l lus, alth ough there is variation in
the frequency of embryogenic callus
formation (Ta ble 1 ).
Establishment of embryogenic
suspension cultures
Using embryogenic cal Ii derived from
shoot apices of eight cultivars, we have
deve loped a system of embryogen ic
suspension cu ltures, w hich has hi gh
potential for regeneration. When maintain ed in liquid MS me dium containing 2.0mg/ l 2,4-D, the cel ls proliferated rapidly
and dispersed we ll (Figure 2). The embryogenic suspension cu ltures consisted of
bright-yellow and com pact embryogenic
cell-aggregates and free cells. After 20
weeks of initiation, approximate ly 20,000
embryogenic ce ll-aggregates about 1.0 mm
in size were obtained from a single embryogenic callus derived from a shoot apex in
all eight cultivars.
Regeneration of plants from
embryogenic suspension cultures
After 20 weeks of the initiation protocol,
the re generation ability of embryogenic
Table 1. Formation of embryogenic callus from shoot apices in eight sweetpotato cultivars.
Cultivar
Origin
Shoot apices
Incubated
Gaozi No. l
Koganesengan
Kakei No.14
Lizixiang
Nongdahang
Tamayutaka
Xindazi
Xushu 18
China
Japan
Japan
China
China
Japan
China
China
Discussion
The structure, co lor, and pattern of the
embryogenic ca lli formation from shoot
apices of the eight culti va rs were very
similar to th ose reported by Liu et al. (1992
and 1993). The formed embryogenic calli
were used to initiate embryogen ic suspension cultures. The embryogenic suspen sio n
No.
No.
57
27
16
5
98
61
29
14
5
7
28.1
18.5
85.2
68.5
51.8
26.4
16.7
21.9
115
89
56
53
30
32
267
resu Its indicated that 1 00% of eel I-aggregates about 1.0 mm in size produced
somatic embryos and plants in all 8 tested
cultivars.
2 6 8 Sweetpototo
269
2 70
Sweetpototo
This paper desc ribes th e Agrobacteriummed iated tran sfo 1mation of sweetpotato
with a soybean kunitz tryps in inhibitor
(SKTl-4) cONA c lone and th e analysis of
recombinant SBTI produced in sweetpotato
cell s aga inst trypsin and sweetpotato lea f
proteina ses .
2 71
pKTl4
LB
RB
PHB
I
NOS
GUS
2'
EE; .H
I
35S NPTll
PHB
ocs
NOS KTI
35S
'
500*bp
Figure 1. Diagram of T-DNA region of plasmid pKTl-4. Coding regions for n-glucuronidase (GUS} , neomycin
phosphotronsferase II (NPTll}, and Kunitz trypsin inhibitor (KTI) genes are transcribed between TR 2'
(2 '} or Cauliflower mosaic virus 35S (35S} promoter sequeneces and nopaline synthase (NOS) or
octopine synthase (OCS} terminator sequences . The direction of transcription is shown by the arrowhead . Relevant restriction enzyme sites are indicated: Pac I (P}, Hind Ill (H}, Barn HI (B}, Eco RI (E}.
Left border (LB) , right border (RB}, base pairs (bp}.
and 0.05 mg/L gibberellic acid ) for multiplication. After 2 mo they we re tran sferred to
auxin-free media for regeneration.
Leaf segm en ts of Maria Angola, followin g inoculation and co-culture, were
culti vated in medium G24D for 2 mo for
embryoge nic cal Ii induction. Th ese ca l Ii
were evaluated for GUS activity and
positi ve cal Ii we re transferred to MS30-Vit
medium for embryo deve lopm ent.
GUS test of SKTl-4 transgenic lines
GUS expression in transform ed plants
was evaluated by hi stoc hemical assay as
desc ribed by Jeffe rs o n (1987). Leaves, roots,
and stem segm ents were incubated in
phosphate buffer pH 7 with X-gluc (5bromo-4-ch loro-3-i ndo Iy 1-beta-D-glu curon i c acid ) substrate. Blue stainin g of the
tissue denoted positive reaction.
Kanamycin resistance evaluation of
SKTl-4 transgenic lines
Three petridishes w ith five leaf segments
(each segment co rre spo nding to a different
leaf) we re cultivated for each putative
transgenic line. In cluded in each petridish
were two leaf segments of a kno w n trans-
272
lweetpototo
Electrophoretic analyses
Express io n of proteinase inhibitors in th e
leaf ti ss ues was v isualized by pol yac ryla -
Primer name
SKTl2.1(forward)
SKTl2.2 (reverse)
Melting temperature (C )
Corresponding sequence
Sequence
ATGAAGAGCACCATmc
52
TCACACACTGCGAGAAAG
54
273
'"
"'- u.:;,,
J'
Results
Transformation
Calli were obtained in different parts of
the exp Iants, mainly at the cut edge of the
petiole . Most positive cal Ii were small,
green, and round. After 2 mo in G240
medium, all calli proliferated. All established calli lines were confirmed GUS
positi ve. Most developed cal Ii were light
green or yellowish, friable cal Ii. Embryogenic orange cal Ii were also obtained in
Jonathan and Jewel. In regeneration media
without auxins , a total of 50 transgenic
lines have been obtained. Through somatic
embryogenic regeneration of leaf segments,
22 transgenic lines of Maria Angola have
been obtained.
2 74
Sweelpoloto
Table 2. List of transgenic clones with SKTl-4 gene ready for bioassay.
Pl -318846-3 92 (1 .3)
Jewel 6 {1.1)
Jonathan 3R (1.1)
Jonathan 21 (1.7)
M. Angola 63 {1.1)
M. Angola 104 {l .2)
M. Angola 104 (1 .4)
M. Angola 104 {1.7)
M. Angola 106 {l .l)
Southern blot
To date eight transge ni c lines of Pl 3 18846-3 have bee n confirmed through
South ern bl ot. Total DNA of transfo rmed
and untransform ed control was di gested
with BamHI to release th e intern al fragment
(65 3 bp) corres pondin g to th e SKTl-4
cDN A. The SKTl-4 probe did not hybridi ze
with DNA of th e co ntrol pl ant (non transgeni c) but did with DNA of all Pl -3 1884 6-3
transge ni c lin es tested, show in g th e insertion of the SKTl-4 gene in th e tran sformants.
PCR analysis
Th e SKTl-4 gene w as targeted w ith
spec ifi c primers and amplifi ed by PCR from
DNA of in vitro tran sgeni c pl ants. Twentyfour transgeni c lin es of Jewe l, Pl- 3 18846-3,
Mari a Angol a, and Jo nath an have been
co nfirm ed for the in se rtion of SKTl -4 gene.
C-
-! ...
mix
....
Jl
10
11
12 13
14
15 16
--
Figure 3. PCR amplification of 16 putative transgenic plants with SKTl-4 gene. The absence of the band in
negative control (C-) and the band of the same weight (653 bp) in the positive control (P) .
275
Trypsin inhibition(%)
140
1201---------1 1---;::====;--1
1001-------j
sol-----,..--
O Young
Ill Middle
O Mature
601-------1
-40 L___
2--3--4--=--5--=--6-7::----;8;-----;9;--
276 Sweetpototo
(young) leaves (Figure 4, clone 4). Increased inhibitory activity was also noted
for older leaves, suggesting th e presence of
recombinant SBTI in mo st of the leaves.
Given the occurrence of SBTl-sensitive
trypsin activity in sweetpotato weevils
(Zhang et al., 1997), clones 3 and 4 (Figure
4) may rep resent interesting candidate lin es
for the development of sweetpotato weevil
mana gement strategies.
These two Pl-318846-3 lines (89 1.3 and
89 1 .4) are part of a group of transgenic
lin es expressing active SBTI that are in the
multiplication process for bioassay. Continued efforts are need ed to find the most
appropriate co m bi nation of protea se
inhibitors, for enh ancin g the exp ression of
pl ant defense proteins in sweetpotato, and
for designing strategies to introduce protease inhibitor-expressing plants into
integrated pest managem ent systems.
Acknowledgements
277
J. Arredondo3,
and G. Scott1
279
Tablel. Origin and predominant root flesh color of 106 sweetpotato clones selected from the gene bank
held at CIP, Lima , Peru.
Origin
Clones {N)
North America
Mexico'
United States
Central America and
Caribbean
Cuba
Puerto Rico
South America
Brazil
Peru
Sub-Saharan Africa
Burundi
Kenyo
Nigeria
Rwanda
Uganda
Middle East and
North Africa
East and Southeast Asia
and the Pacific
Chino
Japan
Korea
Papua New Guinea
Philippines
Taiwan, China
Thailand
Tonga
South and West Asia
Bangladesh
Sri Lanka
Oceania
Total
(10)
l
9
(8)
7
(18)
3
15
(11)
Yellow
(1)
(9)
l
8
l
(7)
(l)
6
(6)
l
(4)
(8)
Sd
2
2
(3)
8
(3)
(5)
(57)
(27)
5
5
2
9
5
15
15
l
(2)
106
(11)
2 80
Sweetpototo
(19)
7
l
2
10
3
2
3
10
3
(l)
(l)
.l
46d
20
Assessed visually ofter cross sectioning fresh roots according to the method described by Huaman (1991 ).
b Including yellow/orange- to orange-fleshed clones.
cIncluding bred lines developed at CIP.
d One clone was strongly pigmented with anthocyanins.
0
Orangeb
40
Sample preparation
Washed and unpeeled sweetpotato roots
we re cut longitud in ally in on e hal f and two
qu arters after removin g the extremities. One
half was used for starch extract ion, one
quarter fo r fl our prepa ratio n, and the other
quarter for dete rminin g DM co ntent.
Starch. Root hal ves were sliced and
thoroughly mi xed. A subsample of approximate ly 1 kg was mace rated in a kitch en
blender w ith tap water (1 :1 v/v) fo r 2 min at
max imu m speed and filtered th ro ugh a
muslin cloth. Th e res idu e was resuspended
in tap water (1 :2 v/v), mace rated, and
filtered in th e sa me way. The two filtrates
were pooled, passed through a 250 m
sieve and adjusted to 4 L with tap water.
Starch was all owed to settle for 3 hat room
te mperature (20-2 4C) and th e supe rn ata nt
was di sca rd ed . Th e sta rch was resuspended
in 2 L of tap water, filtered throu gh a 75 m
sieve and left to settle in a tra y for 2 h. This
last step was repea ted three tim es w ithout
th e sievin g step, and using deioni zed water
instea d of tap water for the last two
wash ings. Th e recove red starch was dried
28 1
Statistical analysis
PROC M EAN and PROC CORR procedures (SAS, 1992) we re used to ca lcul ate
the descriptive statistics and Pearson's
correlation coeffic ients betwee n var iables.
Temperature (oC)
Viscosity (RVU)
700
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
100
Temperature profile
600
80
500
CPV
400
60
300
40
200
20
Tp
100
10
15
20
25
30
Time (min)
Figure 1. Typical RVA viscosity profiles of sweetpotato starch suspension of 9% (dwb/w) in distilled water
observed in 106 clones selected from the gene ban k held at CIP, Lima , Peru . Position of posting
temperature (Tp), peak viscosity (PV), hot-paste viscosity (HPV), and cool-paste viscosity (CPV) is
indicated. Profiles A (CIP440029, Feng Shou Bai, China , white /cream-fl eshed clone) and B (CIP440068 ,
llTA-TIS 5081 , Nigeria, yellow/orange-fleshed clone) correspond to the lowest and highest PV values.
282
Sweetpototo
Table 2. Variability of root dry matter and total starch content, extractable starch, and starch physicochemical
properties' among l 06 sweetpotato clones selected from the gene bank held at CIP, Lima, Peru.
Variables'
Range
19.9 - 45.4
ll.l - 33.5
6.5 - 25.7
5.1 - 7.0
18.6 - 27.l
70.2-76.6
410 - 600
161 - 243
242 - 342
0.31 - 0.52
l. 22 - l.62
Mean
34.9
21.6
17.3
6.1
21.8
73.8
494.0
204.0
285.0
0.41
1.4
Standard
Coefficient of
Deviation
variation{%)
4.5
4.5
3.6
0.5
l.3
1.4
38.0
16.0
23.0
0.04
0.08
13
21
21
9
6
2
8
8
8
10
6
Literature rongeh
13. 6 - 48.2
5.3 - 28.4
/-/
5.9 - 6.8
8.5 - 38
66.5 - 86.3
329 - 428
127 - 203
208 - 284
0.35 - 0.55
l.40 - 1.67
Analyses were done at least in duplicate, except for extracta ble starch, and starch amylase content and posting properties.
Dry motter and total starch (Woolfe, 1992); Amylase and Tp (Tian et al., 1991); Storch pH and posting properties, except
Tp (Collado and Corke, 1997).
' Fresh weight basis.
d 14% moisture content.
' Storch posting properties: Tp= Posting temperature, PV = Peak viscosity, HPV = Hot-paste viscosity, CPV = Cool-paste viscosity,
RVA = Rapid Visco-Analyzer unit.
0
283
Number of clones
60 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~---,
50
A O White-cream D Yellow
QOrange Purple
40
21
30
16
3
20
14
10
0
25
20
30
35
40
45
50
Dry matter(%)
Number of clones
60
50
28
40
30
3
20
10
0
15
10
14
12
14
6
7
20
25
30
60
50
20
40
20
30
20
21
10
10
0
Starch properties
8
Latex
284
Sweetpoloto
Table 3. Sweetpotato clones selected for high extractable starch and low latex production' in fresh roots from the
gene bank held at CIP, Lima, Peru.
CIP
Name
Origin
Number
Predominant
Latex,h
Dry matter
(%)
starch
(%,fwb)
187016.l
18701 6.3
188004.3
440041
440046
440341
440376
Caplina
Peru
TN89.315
Peru
LM88.113
Peru
Papota
Puerto Rico
Viola
Puerto Rico
101273
Thailand
Woksaken Papua New Guinea
White/cream
White/cream
Yellow
White/crea m
White/cream
Yellow
White/cream
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
41.0
39.8
39.4
39.3
38.9
38.4
39.2
27.3
25.6
24.8
25.9
25.5
24.4
26.8
21.4
20.0
22.6
23.3
21.0
20.2
21.7
' Analyses were done at least in duplicate, except for extractable starch.
bA
ssessed visually using the scale 0= latex not discernible, 3= little latex, 5=some latex, and 7=abundant latex.
' Fresh weight basis.
285
286
Sweelpololo
287
288 Sweelpololo
Plant material
Selected sweetpotato cultivars from
Kenya and Ugand a and others from CIP's
pathogen-tested li st (CIP, 1998) were grow n
in Kabete, Kenya (a ltitude 1,800 m , amb ient
temperature 20.3 3C, and annu al
rain fa ll , 1,046 mm ) using a sta nd ard
rand o m co mpl ete bloc k design. Storage
root flesh co lo rs of th ese cultivars ranged
from w hi te to ora nge. Samples of eac h
cultivar we re taken for carotenoid analysis
in a two-stage random sampling. Three
plants were rand om ly selected and three
medium-sized storage roots taken at
random from eac h plant. These were used
for carotenoid extract ion and analysis.
289
Table 1. Relationship between the flesh color and carotenoid contents of different sweetpotato cultivars.
Cultivar name
CIP440057 (Tl Bl l)
Cl P400014 (Ca mote amarillo)
Un known
CIP420009 (Japan Tresimesino Selecto)
CIP440015 (W-220)
CIP420010 (Teoboza)
CIP420027 (Zopollo)
CIP420004 (Momolo)
SPK 004 (Kokomego 4)
Cl Pl 87004. l (LM87.009)
CIP440377(NG 7570)
CIP440186 (Tainan No 15)
Cl Pl 87004.2 (LM87.045)
Kemb 10
CIP420047 (Estrella)
Kl48
CIP440224 (CNl 517-139)
CIP440154 (Xiong shu 6)
CIP420053 (Copodito)
CIP420031 (Cascajo morado)
CIP440228 (CARI 9)
CIP400002 (Morado moravi)
CIP440025 (Xushu 18)
CIP420008 (Maria Angolo)
KEMB 33
CIP440162 (Mabrauko)
CIP440078 (TIS70357)
CIP440023 (W-228)
KSPl l
Ex-Diano
CIP440062 (TIS2534)
CIP440160 (Philippine)
CIP440066 (lhuanco)
Cl Pl 88001.l (LM88.002)
CIP440094 (NC 1582)
KEMB 20
CIP440144 (IRA502)
CIP440131 (Noveto)
Con tinued on next page.
290
Sweetpototo
13-carotene
8823.5654
7195.4 2169
7451.5 718
6931.7 4620
8389.9446
8942.5 2021
4692.0 550
2671.9 83
2715.5 212
1700.3 70
1009.0 500
1700.3 213
1289.2 109
1006.9 402
604.l 71
834.6 80
736.2 83
460.9 70
722.5 72
784.8 50
473.3 49
290.2 13
168.2 23
390.9 28
336.3 20
137.0 11
248.8 39
239.2 50
159.6 9
191.7 24
138.3 2
158.5 5
112.l 10
106.8 11
99.7 15
93.4 21
69.8 27
68.5 29
7983.9 339
6271.0 1312
6234.3 92
6175.0 4251
6023.l 465
5144.5 1001
4085.0 10
2217.2 311
2130.0 109
1071.3 101
847.0 351
832.l 286
747.4 76
627.0 219
485.8 14
473.3 lll
448.4 90
274.0 42
249.l 78
199.3 124
174.4 93
161.9 17
lll.8 45
110.6 10
99.7 37
49.8 9
39.3 7
37.4 7
19.6 2
19.1 2
16.7 2
Traces
Traces
Traces
Traces
Traces
Traces
Traces
Tobie 1 (cont.)
White/yellow
White
White
White
62.3 22
56. l 22
Traces
Traces
Traces
Traces
Traces
Traces
Table 2. Total carotenoid contents of 4 sweetpotato cultivars grown at Kabete, at different root ag es.
12 weeks
0.43
3.39
0.85
0.05
0.02
0.14
0.16
0.0 1
16 weeks
075
5.47
2.58
0.08
0.04
0.34
0.15
0.03
20 weeks
0.91
6.91
3.09
0.06
0.04
0.39
0.38
0.01
24 weeks
l.13
5.17
3.03
0.16
0.43
0.08
0.08
0.01
29 1
Tota I pro-vitamin A
(~ car o tene
2500
Sw eetpotato flou r
Wheat !lour
2000
Buns
Chapatis
Mandaz is
Processed products
Conclusions
Orange-fleshed sweetpotato roots
contained higher total carotenoid and ~
carotene content than white- and creamfleshed roots. Carotenoids from orangefleshed sweetpotato are highly vitamin
A-active and their consumption in Africa
where vitamin A deficiency is prevalent
should be e ncouraged.
Twel v e weeks after planting, th e y ield
and amount of pro-vitamin A present in
roots of orange-fleshed culti v ars were
high enough to potentially provide
292
Sweetpototo
adequ ate dietary pro-vitamin A. Piecem eal harvesting should be started then.
Incorporation of flour made from orangefleshed sweetpotato roots into buns,
chapatis , and mandazis si gnificantly
enriched the products in pro-vitamin A.
Result s of this study suggest that incre ased consumption of orange-fleshed
sweetpotatoes in either fr esh or processed form can contribute to all eviating
dietary deficienc y of vitamin A.
Acknowledgement
V. Hagenimana ' s research is partially
funded by the Department for International
Development (DFID ) of the United Kingdom, Crop Postharvest Research
Programm e [R7036]. DFID accepts no
respon sibility for any information provided
or v iews ex pressed. HPLC carotenoid
analyses we re conducted at the International Li ves tock Research Institute Nairobi
Kenya.
'
'
References Cited
Almeid a-Muradian , L.B. de, MVC. de
Penteado , and V.L.P. de Ferreira. 1992.
Relationship betw een carotenoid content
and Hunter colour param eters of Brazilian sweetpotato. Revista Espanola de
Ciencia Y Technologia de Alim entos
36:611-619.
Ameny, M.A. and P.W. Wilson. 1997.
Relationship between Hunter color and
~-carot e n e content in white-fleshed
African sweetpotato. J. Sci. Food Agric.
73:301-306 .
CIP (Int ernational Potato Center). 1998.
Pathogen-tested sweetpotato germplasm
for distribution. Fourth Edition. CIP, Lima,
Peru.
Craft, N .E. 1992 . Carotenoid reversedphase HPLC methods: Referen ce compendium. Methods Enz y mol. 213:185205.
Data, E.S., F.G. Villamayor, Jr. , Reoma, and
D.R. Anzano, 1987. Yield and chemical
composition of cassava and sweetpotato
11 :305-321.
Low, J., P. Kinyae, S. Gichuki, M.A.
Oyunga, V. H age nim ana , and J. Kab ira.
199 7. Combating vitamin A defici ency
throu gh the use of sweetpotato. Res ults
from Phase I of an action resea rch
project in South Nyanza, Kenya. Internation al Potato Ce nter (CIP), Lima , Peru.
Onueme, l.C. 1982. Th e tropi ca l tuber
crop s: Yams, cas sav a, sweet potato, and
cocoyams. En glish Language Book
Society and John Wiley and Sons,
Chichester, UK.
Pfander, H . 1992 . Carotenoid s: An
ove rview. Meth. En zy mol. 213:3-13.
Purce ll , A.E. 1962 . Carote noid s of goldrush
sweetpotato flakes. Food Technol. 1 6: 99-
102.
Purcell, A.E. and M.W. Walter, Jr. 196 8.
Carotenoids of centennial va riety
sweetpoato, lpomoea batatas. J. Agric.
Food Chem. 16:769 -770.
Roe ls, O.A., M. Trout, and R. Dujacqui er.
1958. Carotene balances on boys in
Rwanda where vitamin A defici ency is
prevalent. J. Nutr. 65:115-127.
Rose, C.J. 1 970. Comparison of sin gle and
progress ive havestin g of sweetpotato
(lpomo ea batatas (L) Lam.). Papua N ew
Guinea Ag ri c. J. 30 :61 -64 .
Ruddat, M. and 0.H. Will Ill . 198 5. Hi gh
performance liquid chrom atog raphy of
ca roteno ids. Meth. Enzymol. 111 : 1 89-
200.
Simon, P.W. 19 97. Pl ant pi gments for
co lor and nutrition. HortScience 32:12-
13.
Simonn e, A. H, S.J. Kays, P.E. Koehler, and
R.R. Eilenmiller. 199 3. Assessment of 5ca rotene content in sweetpotato breeding lin es in relation to di etary requirements. J. Food Comp . Anal. 6:336-345.
Smit, N.E. 1997. Th e effect of the indi genous cultural practices of in-ground
storage and pi ece mea l harvesting of
sweetpotato on yield and qu ality losses
ca used by sweetpotato weevils in
Ugand a. Agri c. Environ . Sys. 64:191 -
200 .
293
2 9 4 Sweelpolalo
295
2 96
Sweetpololo
Acceptability trial
An acceptabi 1 ity tria 1 was conducted
w ith mothers and infants li ving in periurban areas in Huascar and Bayovar, Canto
Grande, San Ju an de Lurigan cho District,
Lima.
297
Table 1. Ingredients of six weaning food formulations, CIP, Limo , Peru , 1997.
Weaning foods' (g/90g rationb)
30% fat
33% fat
Dry ingredients
White sweetpotato'
Orange sweetpotato'
Wheat flour
Soybean flour
22.07
6.89
Rice flour
Maize flour
Whole powdered milk
Soybean protein (PAS)
Sugar
Vegetable oil
Ronoxan A
Mix of minerals/vitamins
Tricalcium phosphate
Magnesium sulfate
Natural cinnamon
8.36
6.89
27.54
3.93
5.90
7.38
0.01
0.09
0.55
0.25
0.15
21.79
21.67
22.07
6.92
4.92
9.84
9.84
27.54
l.97
5.90
6.89
0.01
0.09
0.55
0.25
0.15
22.07
7.38
22.07
4.92
4.92
8.40
6.92
27.69
3.96
5.93
7.42
0.01
0.09
0.55
0.25
0.07
10.33
9.83
27.53
1.97
5.90
6.88
0.01
0.09
0.55
0.25
0.07
8.85
7.87
27.54
3.93
5.90
5.41
0.01
0.09
0.55
0.25
0.15
11 .80
l 0.82
24.59
2.95
5.90
5.90
0.01
0.09
0.55
0.25
0.15
" Weaning foods: l) orange sweetpotato + wheat, 2} orange sweetpototo + soybean, 3) white sweetpototo + wheat, 4) white
sweetpototo + soybean, 5) orange sweetpotato + wheat, 6) orange sweetpotato + soybean.
b To be consumed in two feedings/day.
' Before drum drying: orange sweetpotato fresh wt 129 g, white sweetpototo 116 g.
Sweetpototo
Table 2. Peruvian Ministry of Health's requirements for an instant weaning food, and the results of nutritional
analyses of six weaning foods, CIP, Lima , Peru, 1997.
Weaning foodsb
Requirement'
Fat33%
2
Ration
Energy (kcal)
350-400
Moisture (%)
< 5%
Protein (12-15% total kcal) 48-60 kcal
l 00-120 kcal
Fat (25-30% total kcal)
Sugar (g)
Up to 11 % CHO
::;2.0
Fiber (g)
Energy density (kcal/g)
1 to 1.5
Gelatinization (%)
> 94
Retinal (g)
400
Chemical score(%)
> 85%
cx-tocoferol (mg/kg)
300 max.
0
375.0
2.7
55.0
83.7
11.0
1.7
1.1
97.8
510.0
> 100%
60
Fat30%
390.0
3.2
54.4
114.6
10.9
1.7
1.2
98.5
563.0
> 100%
60
396.0
2.7
59.2
129.6
11.6
2.8
1.2
98.3
75.3
> 100%
60
385.0
3.4
49.6
113.4
10.8
2.5
1.1
98.0
101.0
> 100%
60
373
377.0
2.6
3.2
53.2
47.8
73.4
88.0
9.7
9.9
1.5
1.8
1.1
1.1
98.0
97.6
518.0
500.6
> 100% > 100%
60
60
FONCODES (1996).
Wea ning foods: 1) orange sweetpototo + wheat, 2) orange sweetpotato + soybean, 3) white sweetpotato + wheat, 4) white
sweetpotota + soybean, 5) orange sweetpototo + wheat, 6) orange sweetpotato + soybean.
Table 3. Analysis of the amino acids of the weaning foods formula vs chemical score for preschoolers.
Chemical
scoreb
(mg/g protein}
lsoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine + cystine
Phenyalanine +
tyrosine
Threonine
Valine
0
35.5
81.1
67.3
30.6
49.6
87.7
66.9
35.4
49.1
92.1
70.0
37.8
44.4
84.6
67.2
29.8
48.1
89.9
65.0
42.8
28
66
58
25
86.0
41.0
38.1
83.7
45.9
52.5
94.3
45.9
52.l
89.7
43.2
48.l
92.8
44.4
52.4
63
34
35
Weaning foods: 2 = Orange sweetpotato + soybean (33% fat), 3 = white sweetpotato + wheat (33% fat), 4 = white
sweetpotato + soybean (33% fat), 5 = orange sweetpotato + wheat (30% fat), 6 = orange sweetpototo + soybean
(30% fat).
For children under 5 yr old (FAO/WHO/UNU, 1985).
299
Production cost
We prepared preliminary estimates of the
costs and returns to production of the
wea ning food. They were based in part on
actual trial runs at the Canete plant,
assuming a raw material price for
sweetpotato of US$0.03/ kg. We made one
set of calculations assuming the plant
running at 100% capacity and a second set
assuming a 70% use factor. The costs of
wa ter, gas, or electricity we re not quantified.
Assuming the plant running at 100%
capacity, the cost per ration ranged from
US$0.16 to US$0.17 for th e six formulations. Assuming operation at 70% capacity,
the cost per ration ranged from US$0.16 to
US$0.18 (Table 4). The estimated costs
using both assumptions were well below
Table 4. Final characteristics for the selection of weaning food, 90g ration, CIP, Lima, Peru, 1997.
Weaning
food'
4
2
5
6
3
0
300
Acceptability
Fiber
Fat
Retinal
Modified
(%)
(g)
(%)
(g)
costs (USS)
82
80
75
70
66
2.46
33
33
30
30
33
101
563
518
500
75
1.74
150
1.80
2.84
Sweetpototo
0.17
0.17
0.18
0.16
0.18
30 l
302 Sweetpotato
303
AFLP protocol
A modified DNA miniprep procedure of
Doyle and Doyle (1990) was used to extract
DNA. Th e AFLP techniqu e is described by
Vos et al. (1 995). DNA restriction uses the
enzyme combination fcoRl /Msel. Afte r
adapter li ga tion , DNA fragments are
amplified using polymeras e c hain reaction
304
Sweelpototo
Table 1. Name, collection number, and origin ol 80 sweetpotato cultivars from the collection held at CIP.
No. Name
l
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
l0
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
Cuba 9
Linea 96
Cuba 3
Linea 475
Unknown
Columbiaorado
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Camote Blanco
Santa Rosa (A)
Camote Morado
(ornate Morado
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Gumbs
Lover's Nome
Six Weeks White
Ras ta
Papa Blanca
Jiquima
Nigua
Pata de Gallina
Unknown
3-c-n
Tunita
Verna de Huevo
Unknown
De Dulce
Blanco Papa
Camote de Dulce
Bunuelo
lrizo Blanco
Unknown
Niguilla
Unknown
Camote Dulce
Collection
Country
No.
of origin
CTX 34
CTX 9
CTX 5
CTX 16
DLP 3874
DLP 3892
DLP 3837
DLP 3834
DLP 4617
DLP 4678
DLP 4686
OLP 4675
GUA 494
GUA STRA
GUA 940
GUA 948
OLP 4545
DLP 4494
DLP 4521
DLP 4558
SVG 12
SVG 24
SVG 27
SVG 8
INVT 72
INVT 51
INVT 63
INVT 74
CSDA 22
3-C-N
DLP 1567
SOSA 33
DLP125 7
DLP1149
DLP 1435
DLP1231
DLP 1484
DLP 1405
DLP 1186
DLP 1397
DLP1157
DLP 1498
Mexico
Mexico
Mexico
Mexico
Panama
Panama
Panama
Panama
Nicaragua
Nicaragua
Nicaragua
Nicoragua
Guatemala
Guatemala
Guatemala
Guatemala
Honduras
Honduras
Honduras
Honduras
El Salvador
El Salvador
El Salvador
El Salvador
Cuba
Cuba
Cuba
Cuba
Dominican Rep
Dominican Rep
Dominican Rep
Dominican Rep
Ecuador
Ecuador
Ecuador
Ecuador
Ecuador
Ecuador
Ecuador
Ecuador
Ecuador
Ecuador
No.
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
Name
Catemaco
Unknown
Chaco Morado
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Patatilla
Chaco Columbiaorado
Morado
Unknown
Unknown
Blanco
Morada
Unknown
Exquisita
Camota
Morado
Blanca
Unknown
Horse Money
Tis-2544
Clipperu
Tis-5093
Papota
Sunny
Mojave
Toquecita
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Collection
Country
No.
origin
DLP 868
DLP 869
DLP 2869
DLP 2902
DLP 2884
DLP 842
DLP 824
DLP 806
DLP 2868
DLP 2896
DLP 1870
OLP 1685
OLP 1731
DLP 1793
OLP 1858
DLP 1736
OLP 1771
OLP l 011
DLP 1792
OLP 2104
OLP 3205
DLP 3247
DLP 3211
DLP 3232
SPV 44
SPV 43
SPV 65
SPV 55
DLP 3433
DLP 253
RCB IN-199
DLP 909
DLP 1921
RCB IN- 90
ARB 355
ARB 455
DLP 2298
ARB 97
Venezuela
Venezuela
Venezuela
Venezuela
Venezuela
Venezuela
Venezuela
Venezuela
Venezuela
Venezuela
Colombia
Colombia
Colombia
Colombia
Colombia
Colombia
Colombia
Colombia
Colombia
Colombia
Jamaica
Jamaica
Jamaica
Jamaica
Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico
Peru
Peru
Peru
Peru
Peru
Peru
Peru
Peru
Peru
Peru
CI P P1ogromRepo1t 1997-98
305
E38/ M38
5'-GACTGCGTACCAATTC ACT-3'
E33/M38
5'-GACTGCGTACCAATTC AAG-3'
E38/ M32
5'-GACTGCGTACCAATTC ACT-3'
5'-GATGAGTCCTGAGT AA ACT-3'
5'-GATGAGTCCTGAGTAA ACT-3'
5'-GATGAGTCCTGAGTAA AAC-3'
E36/M37
5'-GACTGCGTACCAATTC ACC-3'
5'-GATGAGTCCTGAGT AA ACG-3'
E38/ M34
5'-GACTGCGTACCAATTC ACT-3'
E36/M33
5'-GACTGCGTACCAATTC ACC-3'
5'-GATGAGTCCTGAGTAA AAG-3'
5'-GATGAGTCCTGAGTAA AAT-3'
E36/M34
reg io ns to exa min e th e reg io nal co ntri buti o n to total mol ec ul ar d ive rsity (Excoffier et
al. 1 199 4).
Results
AFLP profile, similarity and cluster
analysis
Th e eight primer co mbin ati o ns generated
2 10 po lymo rphic and c lea rl y sco rab le
frag ments ac ross the 80 culti va rs. Th ere
w ere no reg io n-spec ific markers (prese nt in
o ne reg io n but abse nt in th e oth er). H oweve r, th e mea n gen eti c simil ariti es va ry
co nsid erab ly betwee n reg io ns, rangin g fro m
0.592 fo r Ce ntral Ameri ca to 0.660 for
Peru -Ec uado r (Tabl e 3).
Th e ove rall geographi c prox imi ty is low
as refl ected by th e U PG M A dendrogram
(Fi gure 1). No clu sters c lea rl y di stin gui shed
c ulti va rs fro m Central A meri ca, Ca ribbea n,
and Co lo mbi a-Venez uela. Within eac h
c lu ster, howeve r, culti va rs fro m th e sa me
geographi ca l ori gin s tend to gro up togeth er.
In sharp co ntrast w ith th e c lose r re lati o nship between culti va rs fro m Ce ntral
306
Sweetpololo
A meri ca , th e Ca ribbea n, and Co lom bi aVe nez uela, the Peru vian-Ecu ado ri an
culti va rs we re c lea rl y distin gui shab le from
th e oth ers. All of th e 40 culti va rs fro m Peru Ecu ado r we re gro uped into o ne sing le
c lu ster at a hi gher si mil arity leve l.
Th e mea n si mil arity and th e U PGMA
dendrog ram both suggest that Ce ntra I
A meri ca n c u lti va rs apparentl y have th e
hi ghest geneti c di versity, w hereas Peru Ecuado r c ulti va rs have th e lowest. Th e
Car ibbea n and Co lo mbia-Ve nez uela
c ulti va rs have an intermediate leve l. Th e
c lu ster analys is demo nstrated a substa nti al
reg io nal d iffe renti ati o n in th e Latin A mer ica n sweetpotato c u ltivars. Swee tpotatoes
fro m Peru-E cuado r co ntributed most to th e
reg io nal di ffe renti ati o n.
Table 3 . Number of AFLP-generated polymorphic markers and mean similarity in sweetpotato cultivars from four
Accessions
Polymorphic fragments
Mean similarities
(no.)
within regions
within regions
(no.)
Central America
Colombia-Venezuela
Caribbea n
Peru-Ecuador
24
20
16
20
21 3
210
202
195
0.592
0.611
0.639
0.660
reg ions (0. 1007), in d icatin g th at sweetpotato from Pe ru -Ec uador has th e most
differenti at ion thu s co ntributed most to th e
betwee n-reg io n va ri ati on. Thi s res ult fully
agreed w ith the obse rved groupin g patte rn
of Peru- Ecuador culti va rs in th e clu ste r
analys is.
There is a signi fica nt geographi c pattern
of di versity d istri buti o n (Tab le 4). The
Central A meri ca reg ion co ntain s th e most
intern al d ive rsity (0. 1990), w hereas the
Peru- Ec uador reg ion co ntains the least
(0.1 677) . The inte rm ed iate within-reg ion
di ve rsities we re fo und in Colombi aVenez uela (0.1837) and th e Caribbean
(0.1795). Thi s pattern is th e sam e as th at
based on mea n simil arity and clu ster
analys is. It thu s co nfirms the hi gher leve l of
genetic di vers ity in Central A meri ca. Th e
di versity leve l decreased as sweetpotato
was di spersed from th e center of ori gin
toward th e so uth and the east.
Discussion
Th is study is the first case of ap pl y ing A FLP
fin gerpri nts fo r d ive rsity assessment in
sweetpotato. The hi gh po lymorphi sm of
A FLP makes it a powe rful tool for
genotypi ng a large numbe r of access ions. It
is suitab le for geneti c diversity assessment
in large sweetpotato gene banks.
Au stin (1988) postul ated that the ce nter
of ori gin of I. batatas was somewh ere
betwee n the Yucata n Penin sul a of M ex ico
307
0.64
0 .80
0 .96
1.12
OLP 3874
OLP 3892
OLP 2869
OLP 2868
OLP 2884
OLP 4521
OLP 4558
GUA 494
GUA 948
OLP 1011
GUA STRA
OLP 4678
OLP 2902
CSDA 22
SOSA 33
OLP 2896
GUA 940
INVT 72
INVT 74
CTX 34
OLP 3232
INVT 63
OLP 1567
SPV 65
3-C-N
SVG 27
SVG 8
OLP 3247
OLP 4686
OLP 4675
Panama
Panama
Venezuela
Venezuela
Venezue la
Honduras
Honduras
Guatemala
Guatema la
Colombia
Guatemala
Nicaragua
Venezuela
Dominic Republic
Dominic Republ ic
Venezuela
Guatemala
Cuba
Cuba
Mexico
Jamaica
Cuba
Dom inic Republic
Puerto Ric o
Dominic Republic
El Salvad or
El Salvador
Jamaica
Nicaragua
Nicaragua
INVT 51
CTX 9
SPV 43
SVG 24
CTX 16
SPV 55
SVG 12
SPV 44
OLP 4494
OLP 1736
OLP 3211
OLP 3205
OLP 4545
OLP 4617
OLP 868
OLP 869
OL P 1793
OLP 1771
OLP 1792
OLP 1397
ARB 455
OLP 1149
OLP 1435
OLP 1405
OLP 1257
OLP 1498
OLP 253
OLP 3433
RCB IN-199
OLP 2298
ARB 355
RCB IN-90
OLP 909
OLP 1921
OLP 1231
OLP 1484
OLP 1186
OLP 1157
ARB 97
OLP 842
OLP 806
OLP 824
OLP 1870
OLP 1858
OLP 1685
OLP 1731
OLP 2104
OLP 3837
OLP 3834
CTX 5
Cuba
Mexico
Puerto Rico
El Salvador
Mexico
Puerto Rico
El Salvador
Puerto Rico
Honduras
Colombia
Jamaica
Jamaica
Honduras
Nicaragua
Venezuela
Venezue!a
Co lombia
Colomb ia
Colomb ia
Ecuador
Peru
Ecuador
Ecuador
Ecuador
Ecuador
Ecuador
Peru
Peru
Peru
Peru
Peru
Peru
Peru
Peru
Ecuador
Ecuador
Ecuador
Ecuador
Pe ru
Venezuela
Venezue la
Venezue la
Colombia
Colombia
Colombia
Colombia
Colombia
Panama
Pa nama
Mexico
Figure 1. UPGMA dendrogram of 80 sweetpotato varieties based on simple matching coefficients from AFLP
mar ke rs. J = Regional differentiation of Peru-Ecuador varieties and the lower internal diversities in
the region.
308
Sweetpotoio
Table 4. AMOVA format for the extraction of components of AFLP variation of sweetpotato clones between
regions, and between individuals within regions.
Variation source
Df
SSD
MSD 0
Variance component
Totalh {%)
P value'
3
76
1.593
14.129
0.531
0.1859
0.0174
0.1859
8.55
91.45
< 0.001
Central America
Colombia-Venezuela
Peru-Ecuador
Caribbean
Total
23
19
19
15
79
4.5758
3.67 45
3.1868
2.6920
15.722
0.1990
0.1837
0.1677
0.1795
Peru-Ecuador
Caribbean
1000
Table 5. Genetic distances between sweetpotato cultivars from four Latin American regions
(Distances = PhiST between pairs of regions) .
Regions
Central America
Colombia-Venezuela
Central America
Colombia-Venezuela
Peru-Ecuador
Caribbean
0.0000
0.0391
0.1269
0.0234
0.0391
0.0000
0.1130
0.0622
0.1269
0.1130
0.0000
0.0622
0.0234
0.0622
0.0622
0.0000
0.0631
0.0714
0.1007
0.0493
309
3 10 Sweetpototo
Sweetpotato (/pom oea batatas) was intro du ced to Chin a ove r 400 yea rs ago. Its hi gh
yield, w id e adaptability, tol erance of abi otic
stresses, and ve rsatili ty ha ve co ntributed to
its tradition al and co ntinuin g imp ortan ce in
Chin ese ag ri culture. Sweetpotato rank s
fo urth amo ng crop s in pl anted area, about
5.6 million ha, with mea n yi eld s higher
than those alm ost anyw here else in th e
world. In th e 19 50s and 1960s, th e crop
was used mostl y fo r foo d and fee d, w ith
only 10% of total produ ction go ing to
sta rch extractio n and foo d pro cess in g. In
th e 1 990s, th at has ri se n to about 45 % of
tota l produ cti on. Gi ve n the ch anges in use
pattern , it is c lear th at hi gh dry matter (OM )
or hi gh starch co ntent is becomin g more
imp ortant. M ost Chin ese culti va rs have low
or mod erate DM co ntent of <3 0% (XSPRC,
1993) . O ve r th e la st 20 yea rs, ma ny
prov in cial breedin g prog ram s wo rked to
in crease DM co ntent and yi eld w ith li ttle
success. Gi ve n th e lac k of progress , th ere
appea rs to be a need fo r an infu sion of new
so urces of geneti c di ve rsity.
Chinese Sweetpotato Breeding:
Past and Present
3 11
Crosses
Seeds received
Seedlings planted
Clones selected
1992
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
33
100
80
30
14
160
148
1,700
8, 100
6,700
2,650
1,483
12,000
20,520
600
3,571
4,000
1,010
920
8,600
12
34
70
22
30
400
Origin
CIP-Lima
CIP-Limo, CIP-Bogor
CIP-Limo, CIP-Bogor, (JP-Nairobi
CIP-Limo, CIP-Bogor
Shuttle-breeding fa milies
CIP-Limo, CIP-Bogor
CIP-Limo, CIP-Bogor
3 13
Table 2. Multilocation trial of introduced high OM-content clones {Group I), China , 1998.
Clone
Xuzhou
DM
FY
(%)
(t/ha)
Chengdu
DY
DM
(t/ha) (%)
FY
DM
DM
FY
DY
28.4a
39.4
4.lab
3.9 b 1.6 e
6.2 b 2.4 be
34.0
19.7
33.3
31.6
8.5
11.3
5.1 b 2.2 e
8.2ab 3.3abc
12.4a
4.3a
36.2
34.4
10.2
AB95002.3
AB97001 .1
30.4
8.5c
28.2 l 4.4abe
2.6 b
4.lab
190070-1
31.8
12.1be
3.8ab
33.3
194039-1
30.2
21.2ab
32.3
Xushu 18
24.4
24.2a
6.40
5.9a
13.5 e
17.1 b
30.3
30.7a
13.2 e
13.2 e
9.2a
3.7 (
41.6
3.7 e
38.5
4.5 be
43.6
5.5 b
40.6
35.1
9.3a
DM = dry matter content, FY = fresh storage root yield, DY = dry matter yield.
a. Mean separation within columns by Duncan's multiple range test at P = 0.05.
Sweetpotato
DY
5.9a
3 14
FY
30.2 19.5ob'
28.3
DY
Mean
(t/ha) (t/ha)
AB94001.8
32.3
27.8
Jinan
l 1.2a
29.9
15.5
22.4
6.4
2.6
3.4
3.5
5.1
6.5
Table 3. Single-location trial of introduced high OM-content clones (Group II), Xuzhou, China, 1998.
Clone
AB94002.7
AB95002.7
AB94078. l
AB95012 .4
Xushu 18
OM
DM(%}
FY (t/ha)
29.7
32.8
33.7
4.9
1.46
10.8
13.8
25.0
24.0
8.4
20.6
3.54
4.65
2.10
4.94
DY (t/ha)
Conclusion
In Chin a, popul ar sw eetpotato culti vars
mostly have low to medium OM content.
Two major reason s for th is are th e narrow
gen eti c base and th e high yi eld focus of
breedin g programs. Rece nt deve lopm ents in
starch process in g from sweetpotato in
Chin a require culti va rs w ith hi gh OM
content and hi gh sta rc h co ntent. Co l labo rative resea rch w ith CIP makes the exc hange
of geneti c resources possibl e w ith unprecedented speed. As a result, a number of
high OM clo nes have bee n se lec ted and
introdu ced. Th ese materi als are und er
evalu ati on in many prov in ces w here
sweetpotato is important. Th ese prelimin ary
result s indi ca te it is possibl e to se lect
culti va rs for hi gh OM content, hi gh yi eld,
and w id e adaptability in Chin a. Thi s effort
will have a major impact in many prov in ces
w here starch process ing is a major so urce
of fa rmers' in co me.
References Cited
Gen eral Seed Co mpany of Chin a (GSCA).
1989. Stati sti ca l table on major crop s in
Chin a. GSCA, Bejin g, Chin a. 93 p.
31 5
3l6
Sweelpololo
3 17
indi geno us knowledge. Others are extremel y detai led , lon g-t erm docum entation
of local practices usi ng participatory rural
appraisa l, ethnob ota ni ca l tec hniqu es, and
mon ito rin g of loc al ge rmpl as m col lect ions .
Th e st udi es und ert ake n by UPWARD
(Users' Perspecti ve w ith Agricultural
Re searc h and D evelopme nt), a CIP network, have id entifi ed fo ur major
sweetpotato production system s: (1) sh ifti ng
cultivation in hillsid e and mountain areas,
(2) home garden s, (3) upland rotations , an d
(4) low land postrice system s (Prain , 1995) .
Th e last is th e mo st co mm erc ial ized
produ cti o n system in Southeast As ia and by
vol um e the most impo rt ant sys tem in
Vietn am, In do nes ia, and the Phil ippi nes.
Th e different systems in fl u- enc e farmer
mai nte nance of swee tpotato di ve rsity.
318
Sweetpototo
Cultivars
Cultivars
Cultivars
Cultivars
Cultivars
Cultivars
present 1994
present 1998
present 1994
present 1998
1994
present 1998
Heloleke osli
Hupuk
Hopoye
Muson
Nomukero
Musaneken
Abukul
Alukulek
Kilooke
Helokeke boru
lnin
Juaiken
Duok
Ebe osli
Fibisok
Ogopem
Nobokum
Hulok
Hupoleke
Kilu
Hupuk Sumunoh
Pilko
Pogo re ken
Pulugio
Heloleke osli
Hupuk
Hopoye
Mu son
Nomukero
Musaneken
Abukul
Arukulek
Kilooke
Helokeke boru
Ponoi
Tuke osli
Puluk
Mikmok
Musaneken baru
Saporeken
So lisike
Suweol
Sobolok
Tabogole
Tinto
Tamue
Welelom Sumunoh
Welelum Boru
Wenoboge Moloh
Wenoboge
Wereneh
Heloleke Hulek
Heloleke Wologin
Yibiloken
Wosilolo
Kumbuk Aidek
Moyugwe
Juoiken
Hibisok
Nobokum
Hulok
Pilko
Mikmok
Soporeken
So lisike
Suweol
Tabogole
Tinto
Tamue
Welelom Sumunoh
Welelum Boru
Wenoboge
Wereneh
Kofiar
Suweol boru
Legel pilodok
Kokum eko
Musan baru
Kentong
Wiyayuken
Tinto hitom
Juoiken boru
Wopem
Tinto putih
Kulomeke
Tinto meroh
Yokik
Ho book
Lisuge
Boruke
Alu age
Wosilolo
Wortel
319
35
18
Clust er 1
Helaleke (34.9% )
Mus an (16%)
14
10
Cluster 2
6
Cluster 3
25
30
Figure 1. Distribution ol 47 sweetpotato culti vars in 30 beds, Wagawaga , Irion Jo ya, Indonesia , 1994.
45
Cluster 1
Helalek e (42.9%)
Musan (24 %)
35
25
Clu ster 2
Clu ster 3
15
..
5
I
'
15
20
25
30
Figure 2. Distrib ution of 47 sweetpotato varieties in 30 beds, Wagawaga , Irio n Jo ya, Indonesia , 1998.
Cl uster 3 in volves c ulti vars that appear
Sweetpototo
321
Table 2. Sweetpotato cultivars planted in the Maambang genebank over five seasons.
First planting
Second planting
Third planting
Fourth planting
Fifth planting
Klarin
Klarin
Klarin
Klarin
5-fingers
5-fingers
5-fingers
5-fingers
5-fingers
lgorot Pulo
lgorot Pula
lgorot Pulo
lgorot Pulo
lgorot Pula
Topal
Topal
Topal
Topal
Topal
Ameriko no
Amerikano
Amerikano
Amerikano
Am erikono
Biloko
Bilaka
Bilaka
Bilaka
lgorot Puti
lgorot Puti
lgorot Puti
lgorot Puti
lgorot Puti
Kamada
Kamada
Kamada
Komada
Kamada
Valencia
Valencia
Valencia
Valencia
Kinampay
Kinampay
Kinampay
Kinampoy
Kinampay
Kaligatos
Kaligatos
Kaligatos
Kaligatos
Kaligatos
Tinangkong
Tinangkong
Tinangkong
Tinangkong
Kapitlok
Kapitlok
Kabohol
Kabohol
Sil-ipon
Sil-ipon
Kaligatos
Kabohol
Sil-ipon
Magtuko
Magtuko
Maranding
Senorita
Imelda
Kitam-is
Ma randing
Senorita
Imelda
Ki tam-is
Lila
lnitlog
Total
Additions
Losses
11
Klari n
Lila
lntilog
PNGL
PNGL
Kawakwak
Kawakwak
Pl6
Pl 6
NPSP
PNSP
Sa layaw
Sala yaw
UPLSP
UPLSP
Kabato
Turay
Kabato
Turay
19
17
17
13
+ 9
-1
+ 3
-5
+8
-8
+ l
-5
322
Sweet po to to
Klarin
Plant Vine
Leaf
Leaf
Immature
type color
vein
shape
leaf col.
5332
32
Petiole
Root
Skin
Flesh
Extracts of farmers'
pigment shape
color
color
characterizations
830
100
vegetable, forage;
Five Fingers 7
6755
72
634
442
salable
Early maturing;
leaves far
vegetable;
roots sweet, watery;
Amerikano
3131
95
126
543
lgorot Puti
5332
62
230
200
salable
Profuse vines; few big
roots; roots sweet,
powdery
Profuse foliage, good
for weed control,
forage; roots sweet,
dry
lgorot Pula
5334
92
230
l 00
Topal
3151
95
930
196
Kamada
5332
23
520
100
Key: Plant type = l erect, 9 extremely spreading. Vine color = l green, 9 totally dark purple. Leaf vein color = l yellow, 2
green, 3 purple spots main rib, 4 purple spots several veins, 5 main rib partially purple, 6 main rib mostly purple, 7 all veins
partially purple, 8 all veins mostly purple, 9 lower surface and veins totally purple. Leaf shape (combination of 4 numbers): l"
Outline = l rounded, 7 almost divided; 2dType of lobe = l none, 9 very deep; 3'd Lobe number; 41h Shape of central lobe = 0
absent, 9 linear. Immature and mature leaf color (combination of 2 numbers) = l yellow-g reen, 9 totally purple. Petiole pigment
= l green, 2 green with purple near stem, 3 green with purple near leaf, 4 green with purple both ends, 5 green with purple spots
th roughout, 6 green with purple stripes, 7 purple with green near leaf, 8 some petioles purple, some green, 9 totally/mostly purple.
Root shape = l round, 9 long, irregu lar or curved. Skin color (combination of 3 numbers): main = l white, 9 dark purple;
intensity = l pale, 3 dark; secondary = 0 absent, 9 dark purple. Flesh color (combination of 3 numbers): main = l white, 9
strongly pigmented; second color = 0 absent, 9 dark purple; distribution of color = 0 absent, 9 covering all.
CIPPtogrnmReport 199798
323
32 4 Sweetpoto to
Conclusions
Th ese findings have implication s for in situ
conservation strateg ies. A more co mprehensive analys is of dominance sugges ts th at
evolution to wa rd mo dern sweetpotato
agriculture dominated by a single cultivar is
not in ev itabl e. Even if sweetpotato were to
become a more co mm ercia l crop in
W agawaga, the maintenance practices are
res i I ient enough to in corpo ra te one or two
comme rci all y dominant culti va rs wi thout
overall dec lin e in variability. Maambong
also gives reason for optimism. There th e
same kind of cultural sal ience characterizes
several cul tiva rs besides those dominant in
pl ant density. Moreover, in the upl and,
particularly the hi I lside env ironm ents of
th ese regio ns, there is isomo rphi c va riability. That is, geneticall y diverse cul tiva rs
w ith simil ar cultural sa li ence are fou nd at
different sites in a reg ion. One co uld
therefore envision a netwo rk app roac h to in
situ co nservat ion. Sets of culturally sa li ent
and genetica ll y hi ghl y diverse cu ltiva rs
could be maintain ed in se lected sites w ithin
a region. The co ntributi on of the national
genetic resou rces conservation system
toward this type of fa rm er-led co nserva tion
shou ld focus on five thi ngs.
1. Pub li c recognition of the va lu e of lo ca l
germp lasm and loca l knowledge of it.
2. Public recognition of the particip ation of
site represe ntatives in a nati onal conse rvation effort.
325
3 . Simple reward syste m in vo lv in g agr ic u 1tura I seeds and low- input tec hnologies.
4. Facilitating access to exoti c germp lasm
from other sites and from bre eding
progra ms.
5. Supporting continuing di ve rsifi catio n of
use and the cultural sa lien ce of di ffe re nt
c u Iti va rs.
Alt hough the kind s of lowland s represe nted by Central Luz on are unlik ely to
become repositor ies of ge net ic d iversi ty, in
situ conservatio n strateg ies at least sho uld
attempt to increase loca l diversity throu gh
div ersify ing uses (Amihan -Vega and
Bacus mo, 1999 ). Th at cou ld help to avo id
th e se ri o us co nse qu en ces tha t v iru s disease
is now hav in g on th e mono-culti va r cro p in
Central Luz o n .
References Cited
3 2 6 Sweelpololo
327
1 CI P, Lima, Peru.
global , reg ional , and sub-region al perspecti ve. Deve lop ments in Asia, China in
parti cul ar and Sub-Saharan Afri ca me rit
parti cular attentio n as upw ard trends in
output are link ed to the chang in g rol e of
sweetpotato in local food systems. Th e
resul ts prese nted se rve as the basis for
recomm endat ions for policymakers and
res earch scientists and are aimed at building on the loca l mom entum to fully ex ploit
sweetpotato's untapped potential in th e
new mil lennium.
329
Cro p
Soybean
Lentil
I
I
17,004
_J
Wheat
6, 130
2,014
Maize!
1,782
11
Potato
1,550
14
1,419
16
Cassava
Rice
Swee po tato
1, 112
17
881
18
Sweetpototo
1995-97
Region/country
Production
Area
Yield
Production
Area
Yield
{000 t)
(000 ha)
(t/ha)
(%)
(%)
(%)
2
Asiab(n = 31)
Chino
Indonesia
Vietnam
Africa' (n = 39)
Uganda
Rwanda
Malawi
Kenya
Burundi
Latin America (n = 31)
Brazil
Argentina
Cuba
Peru
Developing countries
125,058
117,848
2,013
1,675
6,957d
1,888
967
962f
725
663
1,850
655
339
220
191
l 33,865d
7,178
6,160
212
292
l,519d
513
150
991
74
108
247
58
20
60
11
8,944d
17
19
10
6
5d
4
6
lOf
10
6
7
11
17
4
18
15d
l.l
1.2
-1.2
l.l
2.1
3.7
l. 9
n.a.
4.7
1.7
-1.2
-2.3
-0.3
0.4
0.7
l. l
0.8
l.O
-0.4
-1.7
l.5/2.7'
0.9
0.5
25.3
3.7
1.0
-1.7
-1.5
-1. l
-2.6
3.6
0.8d
2
l.4
-1.5
-2.3
0.6
2.6
3.5
2.1
n.a .
3.2
1.7
-1.0
-2.7
-1.8
0.9
-1.2
-1.0
-0.3
-0.l
-1.5
-1.l
l.9/2.3'
2.8
l.5
14.0
3.8
1.4
-2.2
-2.9
-3.9
0.2
-0.7
O.Od
2
2.5
l.l
2.7
l.l
l.l
l.l
0.5
-0.5
-0.4 -0.4/0.3
0.1
-1. 9
-0.2
-1.0
n.a.
9.7
-0.1
l.5
-0.1
-0.4
-0.2
0.5
0.4
l.5
l.5
2.9
-0.5
-2.8
l. 9
4.3
0.8d
2.1
Sou rce: Scott and Maldonado, {1999); (Source for Malawi data only, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, Malawi).
al. 1961-63 to 1995-97, 2. 1985-87 to 1995-97.
bAsia (excluding Japan, Israel) + Oceania {excluding Australia, New Zealand).
' Excludes South Africa.
dfotals do not include data far Malawi.
' includes data for Malawi.
1
For 1995/96 to 1997/98.
and (2) the lac k of division in the share of
output devoted to food consumption
between fresh roots and processed products, e.g., noodles made from starch.
Consequent ly, a ny ana lysis of th e trends in
utilization for sweetpotato must be done
w ith cons ide rab le ca uti on.
Average ann ual per cap ita co nsumption
of fresh roots for 1994-96 is estimated at:
Africa, 9 kg; Asia, 18 kg; Oceania, 73 kg;
Latin America, 2 kg; Japan, 9 kg; and USA,
2 kg (FAOSTAT, Jun e l 998). In contrast to
potato, per cap ita sweetpotato cons umpti on
in Canada, Europe, and Australia is ex-
33 l
6.0
-4. 0
-5.0
'-------'---~--~--~--~
to
20
15
25
Table 2. Distribution of the uses of sweetpotato in Africa, Asia , Latin America , and the industrialized countries,
1961-63 and 1993-95.
1993-95 (%)
Total (ODO t)
Food
Feed
Processing
Seed
Waste
Net export'
AF
AS
LA
IC
AF
AS
LA
IC
2,755
84.8
3.7
0.0
1.1
104
0.0
87,143
79.7
14.5
0.0
0.2
5.5
2,578
65.8
24.5
0.0
0.2
9.5
00
7,483
60.1
23.6
10.7
3.8
1.8
5,748
85.3
2.9
00
0.7
11 .0
0.1
120,771
49.9
44.6
0.2
0.0
5.2
0.1
1,628
71.1
18.5
0.0
0.3
9.6
0.6
2,284
65.5
19.3
9.1
3.5
2.6
332
Sweelpolo lo
Sweetpotato Production
Driven by strong demand for feed and
starch, growth rates for sweetpotato output
and area planted have turned upward in
China after years of decline (Figure 2).
Trends for other countries and regions have
been mixed (Table 1 ). Given weaknesses in
the data, these figures should be interpreted
with caution.
Asia. Sweetpotato production in Asia
has been characterized by four trends. (1)
The continued overwhelming dominance of
China with recent positive growth rates
reversing an earlier decline. (2) Shrinking
area planted in sweetpotatoes-a trend that
accelerated in much of the region during
the last ten years. (3) Leveling off of yields
as the rate of growth has slowed in many
countries, including China. As sweetpotato
cultivation has been pushed onto more
marginal land and average yields have
improved to 17 t/ha, it has become more
difficult to maintain the rate of growth of
improvement in yields. (4) The possible
shift in the future prospects for regional
sweetpotato production due to recent
changes in relative prices for sweetpotato
versus traditional substitutes such as
imported wheat flour, as a consequence of
the economic crises in Southeast Asia.
Latin America and the Caribbean. For
much of this region, production and area
planted to sweetpotato is most important in
smaller, poorer countries such as Cuba,
Haiti, and Paraguay. In Cuba, a recent
sharp decline reflects the pressure on
sweetpotato yields resulting from a shortage
of chemical pesticides in the current
transition to biological control of important
pests. In bigger and/or wealthier countries,
the decline during the last decade represents more of a long-term trend toward
highe1-value crops, the use of farmland for
alternative purposes, or the migration of
small farmers to other occupations outside
agriculture. In Peru, production and yields
rose spectacularly over the last decade as
agro-climatic conditions improved, the
general economy went through structural
adjustment, and many small growers turned
CIP Program Report 199798
333
3 34
Sweetpototo
A Word of Caution
Any review of the re cent tre nd s in
sweetpotato prod uction, consumption , and
us e in developing countries would be
incompl ete were it not to draw attention to
discrepancies in data for this commodity. It
is difficult to est im ate produ ct ion for a crop
produced by smal l farmers on non-contiguous p lots , harves ted several tim es a year,
and not sold through regulated domestic
marketing channels or trad ed abroad in
appreciable quantities. Therefore, FAO
statistic ians frequently resort to using the
availab le national statistics to estimate
production , area, and y ield . U nfortunate ly,
there are ofte n dis crepancies between FAO
figures and national data. For example,
FAO reports Malawi produces no
sweetpotato, while Ministry of Agriculture
figures show the coun tr y harves ted over
800,000 t during 1995-97 (Phiri, 1998).
Th is is not an isolated case, especially
w hen one goes beyo nd the national
statist ics and compares tho se figures with
data gathered in farm surveys as reported in
the gray literature or consults with com modity spec iali sts based in the countries
th emse lves. Similar problems apply in the
case of the figures for utilization. In conc lu sion, readers are adv ised to use these
" trends" wi th cautio n.
Conclusions
335
33 7
338
Sweelpololo
Democratic
Republic of
the Congo
Lake Victoria
Ro ug hly defines the stud y area which incl udes high altitude, temperature zones in the
north west, pastoral dry to sem i-arid rangeland in the area around Lake Kyoga and grassland
in th e north and east.
District boundaries and nam es shown here reflect th e situati on at the tim e this study was done .
339
1987-89
Crop
Production
1995-97
%
{0001)
Matooke (cooking banana)
Cassava
Sweetpotato
Maize
Millet
Sorghum
Beans
Potato
Groundnuts
Rice
Soybean
Sesame
Pigeon peas
Cowpeas
7,267
3,313
1,683
474
569
335
341
207
134
13
35
38
38
14,446
Production
{000 t)
50.3
22.9
11.6
3.3
3.9
2.3
2.4
1.4
0.9
0.0
0. 1
0.2
0.3
0.3
9, 153
2,2 53
1,888
804
525
330
282
360
120
BO
83
72
58
46
16,055
57.0
14.0
11 .B
5.0
3.3
2. 1
1.8
2.2
0.7
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.3
340
Sweetpototo
Table 2. Uganda sweetpotato and cassava production, variation(%) and ranking, 1987-89 versus 1995-97.'
Cassava
Sweetpotato
District
Production
1995-97
Change(%)
VS
1987-89
Ranking
District
1995-97
1987-89
127
105
98
98
94
93
92
91
80
72
1,888
Change(%)
Ranking
1987-89
1987-89
VS
(000 t)
(000 t)
Mbale
lganga
Hoima
Apac
Kitgum
Masindi
Ku mi
Gulu
Kamuli
Soroti
Total
Production
5.6
2.8
l.l
7.9
39.5
22.2
-2.8
48.3
1.2
3.4
12.2
2
3
7
11
9
5
13
8
10
Mb ale
lgonga
Apac
Arua
Kitgum
Gulu
Lira
Ku mi
Kamuli
Nebbi
Total
169
169
141
139
125
119
118
117
107
100
2,253
-37.4
-12.8
-27.4
-41.7
-12.3
4.6
-33.8
-38.7
-39.l
-26.2
-32.0
l
5
4
2
11
16
7
6
8
13
Price trends
In the North ern Region, the increase in
sweetpotato production (151,000 t) was
341
Table 3. Food crop production in the Eastern and Northern regions of Uganda, 1987-89 vs. 1994-96. 1
1987-89
Crop
Production (000 t)
1994-96
%
Production (000 t)
East
North
East
North
East
North
East
North
1,024
631
l, 198
186
259
9
122
85
49
3,563
138
349
854
105
167
2
28.7
17.7
33.6
5.2
7.3
0.2
3.4
2.4
1.4
7.3
18.5
45.5
5.6
8.9
0.1
4.1
7.6
2.4
1,401
794
782
345
261
84
84
8
46
3,882
222
36. l
20.5
20.l
8.9
6.7
2.2
2.2
2.2
1.2
9.9
22.4
29.4
l l. l
9.5
0.7
4.8
9.5
2.6
77
142
46
1,880
500
656
247
212
17
107
211
59
2,230
Consumption
Roots and tubers, including matooke,
account for some 44% of the average daily
caloric intake of 2194 kcal in Uganda (FAQ
STAT, 1998). The decline in cassava
production and the concomitant rise in
matooke and sweetpotato output have
shifted the percentage that each commodity
contributes to the diet. Sweetpotato's share
declined from 12% in 1984-86 to 10% in
1 994-96. Cassava's share shrank from 19%
to 10%.
34 2
Sweetpolalo
Table 4. Regional and selected district human development and poverty indices, 1996.
Region
Central
0.4970
Eastern
0.3620
0.3353
0.3230
Ka mu Ii
Soroti
Kumi
lgango
Northern
Kitgum
Gulu
Lira
Apoc
Western
Uganda
0.3170
0.2644
52.0
51.0
48.4
45.7
59.5
0.3 179
0.3496
53.2
51.5
0.3670
0.3730
46. 9
39.3
39.3
0.2985
0.3661
0.4046
on sw eetpotato in rural areas both pe rce ntage-w ise and nomin all y w ere hi gher than
for cassava in 1993/94, th ereby effecti ve ly
reve rsing th e situ ati o n th at ex isted in 1989/
90 . Fo r cassava, th e percentage dec lin e in
ex pend itures in urban a1eas was less
pron oun ced th an for sweetpotato, but not
eno ugh to co mpensate fo r th e mo re rn odest
ri se in ru ra l areas. As a res ult, th e ave rage
percen tage of total food ex penditures
devoted to cassava nati o nw id e decl in ed,
w hereas th at fo r sweetpotato remain ed
co nsta nt.
Conclusions and Recommendations
Sweetpotato produ ct io n has stea dil y
increased in U ga nd a ove r th e last 10- 15 y r.
Th e in c rease in sweetpotato o utput,
343
Ugandan Sh./kg
500
- - Fresh cassava
Sweetpotato
400
1.5
300
200
1: ~"~. . . . . . .
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997 1998
Figure 2. Trend of nominal and relative monthly prices for fresh cassa va and sweetpotato prices in Kampala ,
Uganda, December 1988 to Dece mber 1998. Source: Statistics Department, Ministry of Finance,
Planning and Econom ic Development, as presente d in Ferris et al., 1999.
(000 t)
1400
1200
--
-= -
1000
--
- --
800
-
400
200
.....
1988
1989
.-
1994
1995
--
1996
1997
,...
-~
Sweetpotato (East)
D Cassava (East)
D Sweetpotato (North)
D Cassava (North)
,_
600
1990
1991
1992
1993
Figure 3. Cassa va and sweetpotato production in Eastern and Northern Regions of Uganda , 1988-97. Source :
Ministry of Agriculture.
344
Sweet polo to
Table 5. Expenditures on roots and tubers as a percentage of total food expenditures, Uganda.'
1989/90
Urban
Food expenditure
(000 Uganda Sh.)
31.57
Total roots and tubers
8.0
Potatoes
0.8
Sweetpotato
3.7
Cassava
3.4
Yams
0.1
Yams/other tubers
Matooke (cooking banana)
1993/94
Rural
National
Urban
Rural
National
22.23
14.4
0.9
6.4
6.9
0.3
23.45
13.3
0.9
5.9
6.3
0.3
75.66
10.9
0.8
2.1
1. 9
33.26
24.l
0.7
39.59
19.7
0.7
5.9
5.5
0.0
8.4
00
7.6
6.0
7.7
7.3
0.0
however, represents only a minor percentage of the total decline in cassava production. The data further show that the
precipitous drop in cassava output in
certain districts was only w eakly related to
changes in sweetpotato production. But at
the regional level, particularly the poorer
Northern Region, the shift to sweetpotato in
response to the decline in cassava output
was more pronounced. The recent rebound
in cassava production has been accompanied by increases in sweetpotato output.
Average monthly retai I prices over the last
10 yr for Kampala, the capital, and four
regional urban markets indicate that
sweetpotato and cassava prices tend to
move together. More important,
sweetpotato is now less expensive than
cassava. Food expenditures for
sweetpotato in rural areas have also
increased.
The impacts of the various trends in the
role of sweetpotato in Ugandan food
systems then are as fol low:
Sweetpotato has achieved a higher
relative and absolute importance in
cropping systems, given the simultaneous sharp decline in cassava
production .
345
3 4 6 Sweetpototo
sweetpotato-producing countries.
International Potato Center (CIP). Lima,
Peru. (brochure.)
Smit, N. 1997. The effects of indigenous
cultural practices of in ground storage
and piece meal harvesting of sweet
potato on yield and quality losses caused
by sweet potato weevil in Uganda. Ag.,
Ecosys. Env. 64:191-200.
34 7
Research on
Potato and Sweetpotato
Impact on a Changing World
351
Ingredients
Propagation Conservation
Tuber
induction
MSb(I L)
Stock l
Stock solution
25
Sucrose (g/L}
0.1
Gibberelic acid (mg/L}
Espermidine (mg.IL}
Naphthalene acetic acid
(mg.IL)
Sorbitol g/L
Benzylaminopurine
(mg.IL}
Chlorocholine chloride
(g/L}
Phytagel (g/L)
3.5
pH
5.6
18 - 20
Temperatu re range
0
Stock l
25
Stock 2
30
80
Stock 2
30
Stock l
30
20
0.5
20
40
0.5
3.5
5.6
6- 8
5.6
18 - 20
3.5
5.8
23 - 25
3.5
5.8
23 - 25
3.5
5.8
18 - 21
3 52
Table 2. Number of accessions per Solanum species conserved in vitro and interval between subcultures.
Solonum species
andigena
stenotomum
phureia
tuberosum
chaucha
gonioca!yx
Juzepczukii
aianhuiri
Other
Total
3 yr
4 yr
5 yr
Total
569
57
37
38
23
15
4
6
184
933
666
54
37
24
23
6
8
3
125
946
1,555
129
66
68
61
31
14
8
280
2,212
70
5
9
8
2,860
262
149
138
108
53
27
17
607
4,204
0
18
113
353
Table 3. Percentage of plant survival evaluated after 22 months of storage with three teatments of a modified
culture medium for medium-term storage of sweetpotato.
Mo
2% mannitol
1.5% mannitol
2% sorbitol
2% sorbitol
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
100
98
92
87
85
82
22
66
354
76
71
100
96
88
82
77
70
63
57
51
2% sorbitol
100
94
84
79
70
61
53
43
37
355
356
357
358
Table 1. Trends and projections for potato and sweetpotato in developing countries, 1987-97 vs. 1993-2020
according to different scenarios.
Potato
Category
1987-97
l 993-2020Ab
Sweetpotato
1993-20208'
1987-97
0.84
l.85
2.71
1.3
2.75
2.66
2.76'
-4.6
4.9f
0.9
2.2
l 993-2020Ab
1993-20208'
0.27d
0.97d
l .25d
0.35d
1.1 Od
l.4Sd
0.44d
l.81 d
l .25d
0.6d
l.51
0.SOrl
2.23d
l .46de
0.4d
1.91
Source: Scott et al. (1999) and FAOSTAT (June 1998, accessedJuly 1998).
Note: Developing countries as defined by FAOSTAT.
Calculated for the period 1985-87 to 1995-97, without central Asia in the case of potatoes.
b 1993/baseline scenario.
' 1993/ high demand and production growth scenario.
dThe growth rate projections are for sweetpototo and yam combined with a ratio 80/20 for sweetpotato to yam. China produces no
yam.
' Total food, feed, and industrial (non-food, non-feed) demand.
1See Table 2.
and in come growth rates , slower demographic expansion and more rapid economic growth in creas in g demand for meat
in Ch in a, w ith an oppos in g scenario in SubSaharan Afr ica, also dri ve the di chotomy.
Projected production growth rates are
va riable and driven by yie ld increases.
Average ann ual growth rates in produ ction
from 1993-2 020 for potato (2 .02%) and
sweetpotato (1.25%) are domin ated by
growth rates in y ield (1. 50% and 0.97 %,
respectively) (Tab le 1). However, in
rel ation to rece nt actual trend s in produ ction in th e period 1987-97, th ese est im ated
production growth rates are less than half
th at for potato, and 25 % high er fo r
sweetpotato (Tab le 1). Whereas in abso lute
terms th e projected in creases from 1993 to
2020 in area planted in potato (1.0 million
ha, or 15%) and in syveetpotato (0.9 million
ha, or 8%) are by no mea ns insignific ant,
the projected average ann ual dec lin es in
(IPProgram Report 1997-98
359
Table 2. Total value of selected commodities for developing countries, 1993 vs. 2020 according to different
scenarios.
2020Ah
1993
20208'
Price Production Value Total Price Production Value Total Price Production Value
(USS/t) {000 t) (USS)
(millions)
(USS)
(millions)
(USS)
Total
(%)
(millions)
160
94,336
15,094
4.1
137
161,994
22,193
3.9
145
194,006
28,131
4.9
Sweetpotato 80
124,703
9,976
2.8
56
154,722
8,606
1.5
68
163,369
11,186
1.9
422,573
38,586
105
654,504
50,076
8.8
714,584
60,946 10.5
48.0
Poto to
tubersd
All cereals'
Soybean
57,705
15,176
4.1
All meat1
88,326 137,752
37.4
Total
1993 share of R& Tin all
commodities
Share of R&Tin cereals +
R&T+ soybean
368,136
24,839
4.4
106,203
182,831
566,030
360
PototoondSweelpototo
4.3
250,467 43.3
578,567
10.5
8.8
105
16.7
15.8
18.6
24, 958
Conclusions
Th e impli ca tions of th ese proj ection s for
th e locat ion of potato and sweetpotato
produ cti o n in th e year 202 0 and the val ue
of produ ctio n for these cro ps can be
summ arized bri efl y.
36 1
1993
= 219
million t
Other
5%
Saharan
Africa 3%
Sub-Saharan Africa
3%
China
19%
China
24 %
India
7%
America
China
38%
India
China
12 %
49%
Others
5%
Latin America
63
6%
Other
6%
C==1
C==1
Sweetpotato
Potato
WANA
6%
Figure 1. Potato and sweetpotato production (million t) in developing countries 1993 vs. 2020, according to the
HOP scenario. (Source: Scott et al., 1999.)
362
2020
Sub-Saharan
Afr ica 2%
Chi na
26%
China
37%
Chin a
27%
In d ia
9%
Others
3%
30%
Ind ia
15%
La tin
Ame rica 8%
8%
= US$41 .7 billion
WANA
8%
[===:J
[===:J
Sweetpotato
Po tato
America 7%
Figure 2. Value of potato and sweetpotato production (USS billion) in developing countries 1993 vs. 2020,
wo uld make, as we ll as co ncrete suggestio ns on how the imp rove ments mi ght be
impl emented .
Impact
Thi s joint effort of CIP and IFPRI to
an alyze hi stori ca l trends and generate
comm odity pro jecti ons has res ulted in two
major impacts . Fi rs t, CIP, in co njun ct io n
wit h CIAT as wel l as llTA, and FAO are
cur re ntly pre parin g th e next set of proj ection s fo r potato, sweetpotato, cassava, and
yam fo r TAC. Thi s more pro- acti ve approac h w i 11 redu ce th e need for pos tpubl ica ti on debates about th e acc uracy o f
parti cul ar fi gures .
363
References Cited
36 4
International boundary
National capi ta l
Uganda
Democratic
Republic
of the
Congo
@Kigali
RWANDA
c~wda
Democrat ic
Repub lic
or the
Congo
un di
CIPProgromReportl997-98
365
Potato
Most farmers increased their cropp in g
intensity from one to two or even three
366
Sweetpotato
The presence of a ready market encouraged a noteworthy increase in the number
of plantings of sweetpotato by near ly all of
the farmers interviewe d, even more so than
potato (Table 2). Eighty six percent of them
went from one to two plantings per yea r,
and reduced the areas dedicated to maize,
beans, peanuts and vegetables. O ve r half of
them plan ted new cu lti va rs avai lable on the
Mulungu station- aga in even sli ghtl y more
so than in the case of potato. Th e new
cultivars had been se lected primarily for
earliness and hi gh y ield. Karebe II and
Mugande are regional farmers' cultivars
Table 1. Sampled households reporting major annual crops in areas surrounding refugee camps in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo before arrival of Rwandan refugees in July 1994.
Site
Mulungu"
Bugobe
Kalehe
Ludaha
Nyangezi
Total
Altitude (m)
1,850
2,000
< l,800
l,965
l,500
Sample size
32
22
24
28
22
128
l 00
JOO
100
100
100
JOO
Beans
100
82
92
79
91
89
Maize
JOO
82
50
JOO
82
83
Cassava
l 00
64
100
21
100
77
Potato
65
100
JOO
25
100
Vegetables
19
82
50
71
19
48
Soybean
50
37
67
21
37
42
Sorghum
31
72
37
21
45
38
Peanut
19
83
36
27
Mulungu is the research station of the lnstitut Notional d'Etudes et de Recherches Agricoles.
Conclusions
The in c reased incom e from the sale of
potato and sweetpotato was used to
increase the wealth and status of th e
farm e rs. Dowries, livestoc k, home improvements, and consumer ite ms such as bicycl es and radios were the most com monly
mention ed. School fees and improved diet
and hea lth for their families were rated as
somewhat less importa nt, which m ay imply
that the most basi c n eeds of these farm
house holds were already met.
Th e departure of th e refuge es m ea nt that
the ex traordinary surge market demand
return ed to pre-crisis levels, and labor was
no longe r so easily available. About half of
the farmers said that they lost money in the
season when the Rwa ndans left , but this
may also have been partially due to the
36 7
Table 2. Impact of the presence of Rwandan refugees on potato and sweetpotato production in areas surrounding
refugee camps in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1994-1996.
0
Mulungub
Altitude (m)
Sample size
1,850
32
Farmers responding ( %)
l. Increased number of plantings per year?
No
0
6
94
98
From l to 2
6
13
From l to 3
2. Reduced other crops to grow more potato?
No
25
19
69
Yes'
50
Less beans
38
Less maize
25
25
Less cassava 1
6
Less sorghum 1
6
Less peonur
0
Less vegetables9
6
69
Bugobe
2,000
22
9
91
0
0
100
0
17
65
18
0
86
0
86
14
6
84
10
86
14
18
82
0
0
82
28
0
18
0
17
0
17
0
0
21
18
21
21
28
19
6
51
20
14
28
19
27
19
64
36
82
9
9
9
9
0
0
100
94
35
0
0
0
72
45
36
100
100
100
45
l 00
100
l 00
55
25
13
13
25
90
100
25
81
82
13
75
63
63
6
82
91
45
36
27
55
83
8
36
17
67
14
14
0
7
75
25
l 00
64
36
l 00
0
0
l 00
85
21
14
14
0
42
100
17
0
17
92
100
l 00
50
92
0
17
29
43
8
8
14
7
17
8
19
27
50
50
31
38
35
19
6
75
19
Nyangezi'
Total
1,500
22
106 128
Ludaha
1,965
28
24
13
13
13
0
13
0
368
Kale he
< 1,800
27
15
12
14
73
68
57
36
27
28
18
74
22
29
30
27
26
18
0
47
l0
9
6
20
20
7
56
34
100
64
0
7
43
40
72
68
45
27
47
5
21
l 00
100
l 00
l 00
l 00
l 00
79
l 00
0
l 00
l 00
l 00
55
100
9
80
75
72
65
97
83
64
91
54
42
86
86
79
14
13
95
60
d. P = potato, S = sweetpotato.
e. 'Yes' response not documented for sweetpototo production.
f. Applicable for potato production only.
g. Applicable for sweetpotato production only.
References Cited
Ewe ll, P.T. 1992. Wo rkin g with NARS in the
PRAPACE network to develop an information system for monitoring and
evaluation. Discussion paper for
Meeting of CGIAR Social Scientists held
17-20 August 1992 in The H ag ue,
Netherlands.
Rueda, J.L., P.T. Ewell, T.S. Walker, M. Soto,
M. Bicamumpaka, and D. Berrios. 1996.
Economic impact of high-yielding, lateblight resistant cultivars in the eastern
and central African highland s. In:
Walker, T.S. and C.C. Crissman. Case
studies of th e economic impact of CIPrelat ed technology. Internation al Potato
Center (C IP), Lima, Peru.
Scott, G. 1988. Potatoes in Central Africa: A
study of Burundi, Rwanda, and Zai1e.
CIP, Lima, Peru.
Tanganik, M. and P. Phezo. 1998. Impact
socio-economfque de la presence des
refu gies Rwandais a l'est de la
Republique Democratique du Congo sur
la production des pomme de terre et
palate douce. INERA-Mulun gu, Bukavu,
Ki vu Sud, D.R. du Congo. (M imeo. )
Tardiff-D o uglin , D. 1991. Th e marketing of
sweetpotatoes in Rwanda:
Commercialising a perishabl e crop under
adverse co nditions. Unpubli shed PhD
dissertation. Department of Agric.
Economics. Cornell, Ithaca, NY, USA.
World Bank, 1992. African Development
Indi cators . 1992. Washington, D.C.
369
Research on Natural
Resource Management
in the Andes
Impact on a Changing World
J.
Hijmans 1
Altiplano cannot be used for crop production and have a land cover of natural grass
and shrub th at is used for graz ing. Where
crops ca n be grown, co ld and dry condition s allow for on ly a small numb er of
crops. Potato is by far th e most important
crop, accountin g for 63% of th e gross va lu e
of crop production (OEA, 1996). The potato
area is about 63,000 ha (G-DRU, 1996;
INEI , 1996). Potato y ields are low at 5.2
t/ ha in the Peru vian part and th e northern
Bolivian part of the Altiplano, and 3.6 t/ha
in the southern part (OEA, 19 96; G-DRU ,
1996).
Th e growing season in the Alt ipl ano is
betwee n O ctobe r and March, when the
warmest tim e of the year co in cides w ith th e
rain y season. In the agr icultural zones,
ma ximum temperature is around 18( and
minimum temperature aro und 4( durin g
th e grow in g seaso n (INTECSA, 1993; Frere
et al., 1975). There is an ave rage frost-free
period of about 140 d for the north ern
Altiplano and 110 d for the south ern
Altiplano (L e Tacon, 1989). Precipitation is
hi ghest, around 800 mm/year, in th e
north east and near Lake Titicaca and
lowest, about 200 mm, in the southwest.
Production risk for potato is hi gh, es peci ally
beca use of drought, hail , and fro st. Drou ght
is a rec urrent prob lem th at can be especially dama ging in El Nino years, such as
happened in 1942-43 and 1982-8 3 (OEA,
1996).
The severe poverty is partly due to the
harsh climate that limits option s for agr icultural production . About 65% of the economically active population is engaged in
ag riculture (OEA, 1996). Large parts of th e
69.,.
7P
le
Bolivia
16 '
Peru
".
. ... x .
. -A
. . .' ...
.,
... .: : .
OiUro.
18 '
nv ers
19 ""
g.uu~h
Chile
oi
C<>i~~
kil ometers
50
71
10
69 ""
or
Figure 1. The Altiplano (TOPS system) , distribution of potato production and sites of the weather stations used
for the construction of the extreme temperature maps.
For 5. tuberosum subsp. andigena, frost
dam age is likel y to occur w hen the temperature drops to -2C or lowe r (Ca rrasco et
al., 19 97). Th e refo re, we wi ll focus on the
occ urrence of -2C eve nts. 5. tuberosum
subsp. tuberosum, the potato culti vated
3 74 Natural Resource Management in the Andes
outside the Andes is sli ght ly more susceptib le a nd frost dam age may occ ur at -1 C.
Othe r culti vated potato spec ies suc h as 5.
ajanhuiri and 5. curtilobum suffer da mage
betwee n -3 a nd -5( (Huanco, 1992 ; Tapia
and Saravia, 1997), w he reas 5. juzepczukii
andige na.
Fro st ri sk can be as sessed w ith data from
c l imate station s, as wa s do ne fo r th e
Al tipl ano in Peru by Morion (1 989) and in
Bo li via by Le Tacon (198 9) . H oweve r, gi ve n
th e hi gh spati al vari ability of temp erature
and frost risk , c lim ate stati o ns are too fa r
apart to draw ge neral con c lusi ons for the
potato growing areas in th e Altipl ano. For
th e prese nt stud y, m aps o f the probabi I ity of
ex treme minimum temp erature eve nts w ere
375
Results
Frost risk is lowest in th e w armest parts of
the Altip lano around Lake Ti ticaca and in
the relatively lo wer parts in the southeast. It
is hi ghest in the eastern Alt ipl ano an d in th e
hi gh parts of the ca tchm ent (Fi gure 2). Tabl e
1 prese nts the prob ability of extreme
tempera tu re events for the potato area in
the Alt iplano.
Of the 63,000 ha area plan ted to potato,
on ly 4% ha s a neg li gible risk of a -2C
eve nt, and 1 8% has a -2( eve nt less than
once eve ry 10 yr. Twenty-five percent of the
potato area has an extremel y hi gh fros t ri sk,
w ith a prob ability of a -2 ( eve nt once
eve ry 3 yr (>3 3.3 %) or more. All the area in
this latte r class is most like ly planted w ith
potato species oth er th an 5. tuberosum.
This assumpt ion is supported by Canahua
and Aguilar (1992) and Huanco (1992) who
est imate th at about one-third of the total
potato area on th e Peruvian Altiplano, is
planted w ith bitter potatoes, of w hi ch 60 %
are 5. juzepczukii, and 33% are 5.
curtilob um (Ca nahua and Agui l lar, 1992). It
is also supported by Rea 's (199 2) estimate
that 15% of the potato area in Boli via is
planted to bitter pota toes . On the A ltiplano
there are relati ve ly more bitter potatoes
than in most other zones in Bolivia.
Table 1 indicates that the introdu ction of
potato cult iva rs w ith increased fro st
tole ran ce co uld stro ngl y redu ce frost
damage. If frost tolerance in potato increases from -1 to -2(, and damage onl y
occ urs at -3( and lower, the percentage of
th e current potato area w ith a frost eve nt
less th an once eve ry 1 0 y r nea rly doubles,
increa sing fro m 18 to 32%. W ith a furth er
in cre ase of to lerance to -3 C, there w ould
be anoth er 15% in creas e of the current
potato area with a frost event less than once
eve ry 10 yr.
70"
os
69 *
61
10
71*
67'
-wl
IW
-14
-w 1 11s
-u
Peru
Peru
11 -
11
J8
-ii::
Prnbabilty [%] of a
-3C event in
19
19"
CJ0- 3 2
CJ3.3 - 99
CJ 10-33 .2
CJ 333- 100
co
-w
16 '
'"
CJ
CJ
CJ
CJ
Chile
50
20
JOO
71) *
69 *
50
20
c
11
0-3 .2
3.3- 9.9
l O 332
333- 100
Chile
ki lo1Cie te1s
b lo m e l~r:;
os
61 '
1 1
;;;:
63 .
'--J
'--J
69 *
Figure 2. Probability of a -2( (A) and a -3( (B) event on the Altiplano between December and March.
100
70
Table 1. Distribution (%)of the potato area (63,000 ha) in the Altiplano over the extreme temperature
probability classes (for the period December to March).
0
Temperature (
Probability
C)
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
2
4
4
14
8
24
52
16
15
42
34
9
34
38
25
3
(%of yr)
< 3.3
3.3-10
10-33.3
>33.3
2
31
66
57
57
36
25
378
References Cited
Aguirre, G., J. Calderon, D. Buitrago, V.
Iri arte, J. Ramos, J. Blajos, G. Thiele, and
A . Devaux. 1999. Ru st ic seed bed, a
bridge between formal and traditional
potato seed systems in Boliva. Impact on
a Changing World. CIP Program Report
1997-98. Lima, Peru. p. 195-203.
Canahua, A. and P.C. A guilar. 1992.
Agroecologica de las pap as ama rgas en
Puno. In: Rea, J. and Vacher, J.J. La papa
ama rga . I m esa redonda: Peru - Bolivia,
La Paz 7-8 Mayo 1991. ORSTOM, La
Paz, Bolivia. p.57-61.
379
3 80
Table 1. Major processes that are simulated and environmental factors that affect those processes in the N
sub model of SUBSTOR-Potato {DSSAT v3).
Process simulated
Crop Ndema nd
Growth
Development
Soil Nsupply
Mineralization/ immobilization
Nitrification
Denitrification
N0 3 leaching
Urea hydrolysis
Uptake
382
60
~~~~~~~~~~~~~
50 -
......
40 30 -
20 -
.. "
.......
......'"
..1"
1
1
1
10 L ~-.L.._
~~1 ~~-~
~-~
~~
10
20
30
40
50
60
Crop N demand
Crop N demand is th e product of th e
expec ted yie ld and internal N requirement,
w hi ch ca n be thought o f as th e minimum
amount of plant N assoc iated with max imum yield (Stanford and Legg, 1984).
A lthough a growin g crop may take up more
than th e minimu m N needed , extra N
(l uxury co nsumption) does not usu all y
resu lt in any yield benefit. Th erefor e, to
optimi ze N manageme nt and avoid its
ineffic ient use, it is important to know th e
expected max imum yie ld and its assoc iated
internal N requirem ent. Maximum y ield,
however, is not a co nstant. For a singl e
cultivar, maximum yi eld will vary from site
to site and year to year du e to the intera ction of genetic traits w ith photoper iod,
temp erature, so lar radiati on, wa ter, nutrient
avail ability, and mana ge ment. Many of
these interactions can be ca ptured in th e
SUBSTOR model .
383
60
50
40
30
20
10
50
100
150
200
250
300
384
Soil N supply
Nitrogen supplied by the soil comes
mostly from two sources: 1) mineralization
of soil organic N during the growing
season, and 2) mineral N initially present in
the soil profile at plant in g. Both sources
should be considered when estimating the
amount of supplementa l N needed by a
growing crop. Howeve r, the importance of
initia l min eral N tends to diminish in high
rainfall environments where significant
leaching can occur.
Since the mineralization of soil organic
N is a biological process, the amount of N
made available depends primarily on the
leve l of microbial activity and the amount
of carbon (C) substrate. Fo r most minera l
soils, th e C:N ratio in SOM is fairl y constant
at 10. That ratio favors a net release of N to
availab le mineral forms un less OM is added
wi th C:N ratios greater than 25. At a C:N
>25, there is usually a loss of plant ava ilable N as it becomes tied up through net
immobili zation.
The amount of mineral N present in the
soil profile at planting (ini tial mineral N)
often has a substantia l impact on the need
for supplementa l N, particularly in less
humid environments. In itial mineral N
usually va ri es across sites and years, with
the amount largel y determined by management and growth of the previous crop and
the residual N left from earlier applications .
If rainfall is not excessive, much of the
initial mineral N can remain available to a
crop throughout the growing season.
The process desc riptions in SUBSTOR
enab le captur in g the interaction of these
sources of available plant N w ith crop N
demand for innumerable combinations of
so i I type, weather, cu Iti va r, and ma.nagement. For example, simulation could be
used to examine how soil N supply might
vary across years for different quantities of
SOM and mineral N present at planting.
Moreover, a simu lation study like the one
Sources of supplemental N
In SUBSTOR, suppl emental N ca n be
add ed as a min eral fertili ze r or as a pl ant
res idu e such as gree n manure (G M ).
A lgori thm s d ea lin g w ith th e transfo rma ti on
of anim al manure have not ye t bee n
in clud ed, althou gh efforts to do so are
underw ay. Nitrogen management practi ces
th at ca n be exa min ed with th e model
in c lud e th e effect of va ryin g N rates, tim e of
appli ca ti on, pl acement depth , and fert ili ze r
so urce. Th ese pra cti ces ca n be studi ed fm
th eir effect not only on tub er yi eld , but also
0 11 nitrate leachin g or economi c return s.
Such studi es can be simulated for a sin gle
growin g season , or ac ro ss many seaso ns, to
qu antify th e imp act of wea th er var iability
and its associ ated risk .
A si mul ation exa mpl e that illu strates how
the model mi ght be used to es tim ate th e
y ield benefit of alternativ e N manage ment
opti ons is shown in Fi gure 3. In thi s exampl e, SUBSTOR w as run for 19 season s
usin g dail y wea th er data from Hu ancayo .
1.0
~-~---~----~-~
0.8
0 .6
0 .4
0 .2
0.0 '-----'-------'---~---'--'-----~
30
10
20
0
40
60
50
Tube r fresh weig ht (Vha)
Conclusions
Nitrogen manage ment ca n be imp rov ed
throu gh the in sight pr ovid ed by comprehen sive c rop simul ati on mod els such as
SUBSTO R. As a continu all y evo lv in g too l,
su ch models have th e potential to help
re sea rchers and fa rme rs better understand
how soi I, cro p, wea th er, and manage ment
factors in te ract to affect crop N demand,
soil N suppl y, and fertili ze r use effi c iency
on a site-spec ifi c basi s. Any number of
man age ment sce narios can be examin ed
and co mpared for th eir impact, not onl y on
econ omi c return s but also on the potenti al
385
3 86
387
389
Table 1. Variables, coded values, and treatments used for the application of the response surface method in a
simulated study of an alpaca production system in the dry puna of the Altiplano, Peru , 1991.
Code
Variables
-1.662
-1.00
0.00
1.00
1.662
0.56
6.233
62.4
0.70
6.913
63.25
0.90
7.913
65.2
1.10
8.913
67.25
1.24
9.533
68.6
Treatments:
1- 8, factorial part; 9- 14, axial
part; 15, central part repeated
sixtimes
Code
SR
GR
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
{%)
per d)
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1.682
1.682
0
0
0
0
0
-1
1
0
0
-1 .682
1.682
0
0
0
-1
1
-1
0
0
0
0
-1.682
1.682
0
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
0.56
1.24
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
6.9
6.9
8.9
8.9
6.9
6.9
8.9
8.9
7.9
7.9
6.2
9.5
7.9
7.9
7.9
63.2
67.2
63.2
67.2
63.2
66.2
63.2
67.2
65.2
65.2
65.2
65.2
62.4
68.6
65.2
' Weighted values correspond to posture use, 3 mo for roinfed posture and for 9 mo bafedal. The ranges of growth rotes for rainfed
pasture isfrom 0.57 kg to 3.93 kg DM/ha day, and for bofedal from 8.12 to 11.40 kg DM/ha day. The digestibi lity of rainfed
ranged from 53.6 to 60.4% and of bafedal, 67.4 to 71.4%.
3 90
Table 2. Regression coefficients to generate the response surface and variable levels that maximize the surface'.
Regression coefficients
Poro meters
Fiber (kg)
Meat (kg)
Intercept (b 0}
Stocking rate (SR)
Growth rate (GR}
Digestibility (D)
SR x SR
SR xGR
GR xGR
D x SR
D x GR
D x D
Ri
167.0
-51.6
15.3
3.8
-20.3
-4.4
-8.8
-0.5
0.8
-7.2
0.68
2934.7
-1178.2
175.3
59.4
-324.3
17.0
-392.2
-33.3
-13.2
-152.9
0.76
Income (USS}
2123.30
-818.90
138.40
43.90
-238.60
0.60
-254.50
-21.00
-6. l 0
-107.20
0.76
Fiber (kg)
Meat (kg)
Income (USS}
SR
GR
0.62
8.98
65.93
213.70
0.52
8.05
65.96
4,040.80
0.54
8.14
65.93
2,858.90
Maximum obtained
0
Regressioncoefficientsaccordingta:
Y = /3
i=]
i=l
391
3000
2 50 0 1---+--+-,.:IZ
20001--~~
1500~~~~~~~~~~~
1000U-+-~~~~~~~~
5oof-t-f---t--rll~~~~~~~~
oL-L----+----+-+-1--r~~~~~~~~~
-500 LJ--1---++-HI~
-1000
-1500
-2000~~~~~~1~-~~~~~
di
~\of\..
..tj-m~a a c:::; Cl?
di ~ O? O"i o o
;::
0)
,.._
...!.
ao,__.cy"'.>""1-dil.{)m"'
.,._ ........
Stocking rate
Head/ha
.
.,._
0 0 r--.:
L{)
rorom
f'....
.....-.....-
Growth rate
\<g oM/ha per daV
Figure 1. Response surface describing the simulated gross income of an alpaca production system as a function of
changes in stocking rate and pasture growth rate at 65% pasture digestibility.
maintained constant at 65% and levels of
stocking rate and pasture growth rate vary.
Changes in both stocking rate and pasture
growth rate are extremely sensitive. It is
important to show that when the stocking
rate is greater than 0.9 head/ha, income
decreases sharply. As a matter of fact,
stocking rates greater than 1 head/ha make
the system collapse in 5-7 yr (Arce et al .,
1994).
Figure 2 depicts an attempt to quantify
the path of implementation of the recommended management options to maximize
gross income. Three phases are identified:
1) existing, 2) adaptation, and 3) stable
(Leon-Velarde and Quiroz, 1994). The
existing phase has low producti v ity and an
income level that appears to have been
stable for man y years. The adaptation phase
is one in which technical changes take
place. The stable phase (resilient) is one of
higher production level quantified by the
asymptotic value in the logistic model.
3 92
Conclusions
The paper shows how systems anal ys is and
composite central , rotatable designs can be
jointly used in agricultural systems to
search for optimum ranges of technological
alternatives. Our illustration was an alpaca
production system. But the principle applies
to any condition in agricultural research
w here a stochastic systems analysis tool
such as a validated simulation model exists.
Regarding the alpaca system, the results
showed that existing levels of income can
be substantially increased. Implementing
such changes, however, could take up to a
decade. The simulation also showed that in
6
5
.---~~~~~~~~~~~~~--,--,~......,.....~~,--,---,-,
Phase IInitial
sustainability
Phase 11technical
increments
3
2
1
10 11
12 13 14
Year
Figure 2. Simulated yearly gross income increase when the practices that maximize incomes ore implemented in
References Cited
Arce, B. , C. Aguilar, R. Canas, and R.
Quiroz. 1994. A simulation model of an
alpaca system in the dry puna of the
Andes. Agri. Sys. 46:205-225.
Box, G.E.P., W.G. Hunter, and J.S. Hunter,
1978. Statistics for exper im enters. John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. NY, USA. 653 p.
Brown, D . and P. Rothery. 1993. Models in
biology: Mathematics, statistic s, and
computing. John Wil ey & Sons, In c., NY,
USA. 688 p.
Cochran, W.G. and G.M . Cox. 1957.
Experimental designs. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. NY, USA. 616 p.
John, J. and M.H. Quenoville. 1977.
Experiments design and ana lysis. 2nd Ed.
Garden Griffin & Company Ltd. , London,
UK. 296 p.
393
357-406.
Quiroz, R. , C., Leon-Ve larde, and W .
Bowen . 1999. Farming systems research
from a modeling perspective: Experiences in Lati n Amer ica. In : Collinson , M.
(ed.) . The history of farm in g systems.
CAB International , NY, USA.
54:693-707.
395
1993).
Land vegetation. The agr icu ltu ral zo ne
incl ud es potato , barl ey, oat, alfalfa, and
quinoa, al l cu ltivated in sma ll plots. Th e
crop rotat ion begins with potato, fo ll owed
by any of the cerea l crops for th e nex t 2 or
3 yr.
Practicall y the entire A ltiplan o is a
natural grassland, varying accordi ng to
c lim ate and soil. It is richest in forage in
marshy areas, w hi ch yie ld more than 2.5 t
d ry ma tter (D M)/ ha per yea r. Th e product ivity of meadows, where grasses predorn in ate, ranges from 1 to 1 .6 t OM/ ha. O n
some types of scr ubl and , however, production drops to between 130 and 210 kg OM/
ha. The productivity of scrub or a grassancl-shrub meadow is also low, 150-2 10 kg
OM/ ha . Consequentl y, animal -carryi ng
capacity var ies great ly.
Grasslands are composed of differe nt
associations of pl ant spec ies. Th ey vary in
396
Classification method
The quantitative ana lys is of the im age
was clone through a supe rv ised c lassification. Th e sequent ial steps are summar ized
below.
1. D efinition of the eight land covers into
w hi ch the ima ge was to be segmented:
wate r, ll ac hu , totora, crops/pasture,
grass lan ds, mi xed rangeland , bofeda l,
and v i I Iages.
2. Selection of 25 wi ndows of 3 x 3 pixels
(or training sites) for each of the 8 land
cove r types li sted above. Th e training
si tes we re chosen o n th e basis of v isual
in terpretation of the im age, aid ed by a
good know ledge of the area, plus field
data.
3. Use of the trainin g data to est im ate the
parameters of the class ifie r algorithm,
and to assess th e accuracy of the class ifi-
39 7
Equation 1.
0 2 ri!iJ
Equation 2.
1
Equation 3.
0 2 ; (x) = (x-x i ) 1 * f' - 1 * (x-x i ) - 2* LnPriori
Equation 4.
(-05*Df
Prij/x) =exp
(x)4
Where,
2
Ln = natural logorithm
Pr O/x) = probability that a pixel at a location X belongs to a class j
of (x) =distance between the pixel at location X and the centroid of the class j
exp= exponentia function
k =a class where the observatim in the pixel at location X is not included in the calculatim
399
Table 2. Backscatter statistics (dB) of training sites for land-cover type classes at L-Band and C-Band
frequencies.
Class
sx
cr0, HV
sx
-33.00
-2 5.37
-11.98
-16.58
-20.49
-9.97
-23.09
-3.35
l.00
0.40
0.39
0.58
0.38
0.86
0.58
0.43
-38.61
-36.49
-21.67
-2 2.55
-28.94
-22. 40
-32.99
-14.40
0.38
0.37
0.32
0.46
0.37
0.47
0.40
0.36
-39.92
-11.18
-10.52
-18.46
-2 4.40
-20.00
-17.53
-6.85
0.08
0.55
0.87
0.70
0.78
0.98
0.58
0.57
-25.93
-18.69
-14.23
-17.23
-22.22
-20.37
-19.04
-12.43
0.22
0.37
0.31
0.33
0.27
0.18
0.26
0.34
cr0, HH
L-Band
Water
Llachu
Totaro
Crops
Grasslands
Mixed rangelands
Bofedal
Village
C-Band
Water
Llachu
Totaro
Crops
Grasslands
Mixed rangelands
Bofedal
Village
4 00
Table 3. Confusion matrix of land-cover types derived from the Bayesian classifier.
Mixed
From class
Water
Water
100
Llachu
0
Totaro
4
Crops/pasture 0
Grasslands
0
Mixed
0
rangelands
Bofedol
0
Village
0
Error Rate
Grasslands rangelands
Llachu
Totora
Crops
0
92
0
0
0
0
0
0
80
12
0
0
0
0
12
84
0
0
0
0
0
0
92
8
0
0
0
0
8
88
4
0
0
0
0
0
16
0
0
0
20
16
Conclusions
Space borne polarimetri c rad ar data were
used to map aq uatic and semiarid vegetati on in the A ltipl ano. L- and C-bands and
two po lari zation mod es (like-po lari zed
bands HH and cro ss-po larized bands HV)
were used to c lass ify eight land cove r
cl asses. A thematic map was produ ced w ith
a cl ass ification acc uracy of 89%. Thi s
accuracy mi ght be improved if the image is
first corrected for the topog raphi c effect,
wh ich requires a hi gh-reso luti on DEM.
Some of the classes require a multitemporal
analysis, including at least two seaso ns, to
be co mpl etely spectrall y sepa rated. The HV
band s co ntributed more to the di sc rimin ati o n than th e HH bands.
Th e results provide new possibi li ties for
monito rin g land use changes in se mi arid
co nditi ons. Despite the fact th at most
vegetation presented simil ar spectral
attributes, particularly for optica l RS, radar
im age ry proved a good alternati ve for
separatin g eve n very simil ar cl asses such as
grass land s and mixed ran geland . The
ca pability of monitorin g croppin g systems
durin g th e rainy season gives rada r RS a
cl ea r advantage over opti ca l sensing.
Furth erm ore, different c lasses of aq uatic
12
Bofed al
Village
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
0
80
0
0
100
4
0
20
Total Error
11
0
References Cited
Anderson, J.R., E.T. H ard y, J.T. Roach , and
R.E. Witm er. 1976. A land use and land
cover classification system for use with
remote se nso r data: U.S. Geologi ca l
Survey Profess iona l Paper 964. USGS,
Washin gton, D.C., USA.
Col lot, D.D. 1982. Mapa de vegetac i6n de
la bahia de Pu no. Revista Ecologia en
Bo li via 2:241-261.
Defri es, R.S. and J.D.G. Townshend. 1994.
NOVI deri ved land cover class ifi ca tion at
globa l sca les. Int. J. Remote Sens.
15( 17):3567-3586.
GS/OAS (Genera l Secretari at of the Organization of Am eri ca n States). 1996.
Diagn6sti co Ambi ental del Sistema
Titi caca-Desagud ero-Poop6-Salar de
40 l
UK . p. 149-180 .
Rao , C.R. 1973. Lin ear stat ist ical inference
402
495 p.
35:2 43-256.
J.
403
404
Model analysis
Our analysis of the WEPP model in this
initial study focuses on measured and
simulated data obtained from the clean
fallow plots only. Soil is often left bare
Table 1. Runoff and soil loss measured for four different management systems at six locations with different
slopes in San Ramon, Peru, from 21 January to 24 June 1991 (Pastor, 1992).
Slope(%)
Treatment
Treatments
30
35
40
45
50
60
mean
25.77
21.83
23.39
48.38
29.84
27.77
29.67
34.58
41.30
33.33
38.06
27.39
38.97
51.16
38.90
0.45
0.65
1.82
3.12
1.51
0.79
l.06
3.96
8.39
3.55
0.69
0.92
3.13
9.76
3.62
Runoff (mm)
Natural vegetation
Sweetpotato/contour"
Sweetpotato/up-downb
Clean fallow
Slope mean
42.18
30.95
59.10
62.85
48.77
41.57
26.24
44.69
50.99
40.87
38.25
26.29
38.52
43.40
36.62
52.84
29.36
33.53
60.05
43.95
Soil loss (mg ha1)
Natural vegetation
0.44
Sweetpototo/contour"
0.6 l
Sweetpotato/up-downb 2.42
Cleon fallow
14.88
Slape mean
4.58
0.48
0.80
3.33
13.03
4.41
110
0.98
3.21
11.38
4.17
0.86
1.42
4.01
7.74
3.51
Model inputs
The weather file for simulating erosion
from the clean fallow plots was assembled
using daily rainfall recorded in
pluviometers at the experimental site. Daily
temperature and solar radiation values were
obtained from the CIP-San Ramon weather
station located about 1 km from the
experimental site. Rainfall intensity was not
recorded at the site, so we estimated values
for the duration and intensity parameters
405
Runoff (mm)
4
(A)
3
2
-....
.....:.;:-:
-~
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Rainfall (mm)
Soil loss (t/ha)
2.0
(B)
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
....
u.-.---._.,L.!:l!'----,___:_
__.::..
_____
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
__J
70
Rainfall (mm)
Soil loss (t/ha)
:l
2.0
.-----------~---~
(C}
0.8
..
0.4
0.0 ............
I
4
Runoff (mm)
Probability of exceeding(%)
100
Measu red
Simulated
80
60
40
20
2
Runoff (mm)
Probability of exceeding(%)
100
80
--- ~ ...
Measured
Simu lated
60
40
20
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
407
Runoff (mm)
40 ,-----------------~-----~----~ so
30
201 \.
40
10 L.. .. : .,.. .
20
_ __ _,_. -~~..........--=
- -W- - - ' 0
10
Conclusions
This initial analysis of the WEPP erosion
model has shown that it can be an effecti ve
tool for studying the hydrologic and erosion
processes that drive soil loss in the Andes.
The model should be particularl y va lu ab le
for focusing on the quantitative relations
and interactions between soil , weather,
topography, slope, and management factors
that determine runoff, soil loss, and deposition on a site-spec ific basis. Nevertheless,
we must caution that this study should not
be see n as a va lidation of the WEPP model
for Andean conditions . More rigorous
testing of mod el assumptions is needed.
That w ill requir e more complete experi mental data sets than the one used in this
study.
The results presented in this study
represen t our first attempt at wo rkin g w ith
th e WEPP model and collating the type of
measured data needed to param eteriz e and
evaluate the model. The runoff plot study
used in this analysis was certainly not ideal
for model testing as show n by the lack of
some on-site measurements needed to
parameterize the model. It did at least start
us on the road toward a better understandin g of model assumptions and data inpu t
Na turn l Resource Management in the Andes
References Cited
12
408
32:15 -22.
Near in g, M.A., L.J. Lane, and V.L. Lopes.
1994. Mode lin g soi l eros ion. In : Lal, R.
(ed.). Soil erosion research methods.
Second edition. St. Luci e Press and Soil
and Water Conservation Society, St
Lu c ie, FL, USA. p 127-156.
Pa stor, R.P. , 1992. Evaluacion de la eros ion
hidr ica en la zona de Chanchamayo Junfn , Uti li zando como cobertura vegeta l
el cultivo de camote (lpomoea batatas
L.). Eng. Thesis. Universidad Nacional
Agraria, La Molina. Peru. 144 p.
CON DESAN, the Consortium for the Sustainable Development of the Andean
Ecoregion, ca rries out eco region al research in the Andes in the context of the
CGIAR approach. Operating under the umbrella of CIP, CON DESAN is a consortium of more than 75 assoc iated groups, including universities, N GOs, com muni ties, and loca l government agencies. CIP's natural resource man agement program
develops methodological tools for use in meeting the resea rch and development
objectives of CON DESAN whose ecoreg ional approach contains three objectives.
Sustainable natural resource management.
Improved rural in comes and emp loym ent.
Increased community input and co ntro l of the landscape.
To meet th ese objectives, energy is invested in both research programs and
ben chmark integrated research/development programs. The former are developing
mu ch needed tools for improved natural resource management and monitoring,
participatory methodologies, and productive technologies, whereas the latter are
working at the frontier of increasing agricultural productivity, resource use, and
community control. In al most all cases, the activities are inter-disc iplinary, multiinstitutional, and strive to develop a participatory agend a.
The resea rch agenda for the Andes is a work in progress, initiated with a se ri es of
Andean-wide project planning by objective (PPO) exerc ises. In the broadest terms,
the Consortium is focusing on four "cross-Andean " research components.
1. Soil and water management. Methodologies for the eva luation and rehabilitation
of natural resource -G IS, remote sensin g, ex-ante and ex -post watershed model ing, and promoting com munity management of natural resou rces.
2. Agrobiodiversity in Andean roots and tubers and pasture species. Identifying
409
These research activities primaril y take place in the field at " research sites, "
where both the energy and funding originates from the research agenda. Several
examples are:
San Gabriel (Ecuador): Tradeoffs project.
Lake Titicaca fringe (Peru/ Bo li via): Remote sensing project.
San Antonio/Rio Recio/ Rio Guadalajara (Colombia): Ex-ante anal ysis of watershed management proj ect.
Pensil vania (Co lombia): Joining entrepreneurs and local and national governm ent
authorities in in vesting in the hillsides.
San Jose de Min as (Ecu ador), Sucse (Peru ), and San Juan de Miel (Bo livia):
Develop ing the local arracacha industry: methodologies for working w ith cottage
industries.
Two compan ion themes are part of the cross-Andean portfolio: developin g
human resources and comrriunications. In addition to conducting workshops, in the
case of human resources, CONDESAN is working to im prove postgraduate educat ion in agricultural production and natural resource management. With respect to
comm uni cation, INFOANDINA is the Consortium ' s information netw ork w ith nearly
500 participants. It is focusing on improving communications between Consortium
members, providing access to the "gray literature," and conducti ng forums on key
development issues.
Research and Development Agenda: Work at the Benchmark Sites
4l0
1. The site selected represe nts a "typical" location within an important Andean
ecology (e.g., the green Andes, semi-arid inter-Andean valleys, the high plains). A
good database already exists at the site.
2. Local organizations are willing to collaborate to address an important productivity/natural resource management issue. This normally requires building a multidisciplinary and multi-institutional team, with a shared resea rch/development
agenda.
3. The benchmark sites are in different stages of development. Some have solidified
teams with a second round of funding; others are still forming and debating their
research agenda. Ideally, the team develops an integrated funding proposal,
funding from one or several sources are secured, and the research/development
activities begin. Over time, the "round table" of team members is strengthened
and new research and development activities are designed. Descriptive titles and
themes for the benchmark site projects are shown below.
Themes
Comments
Cochabamba, Bolivia
4 11
The Future
Although not yet fully realized, the expectation is that the cross-Andean methodologies, research findings, and discussions will increase the effectiveness of the
benchmark teams, and that the benchmark successes will serve to focus the crossAndean themes. The future has a threefold thrust.
Research activities will result in new and user-fri endly tools for natural resource
management, better parti cipatory methodologies, and improved technologies.
The Consortium will grow stronger as the model of sh ared-risk, shared-ben efit,
multi-institutional teams has greater success.
The ability to have a real impact on sustainable rural development in the Andes
will increase as the synergism of the cross-Andean methodology and in-depth
benchmark site research activities take off.
Joshua Posner
CONDESAN Coordin ator
4l2
Research on
Andean Roots and Tubers
Impact on a Changing Wo rld
4 15
Canna production
Elderly rural in forma nts in var iably state
th at th e use of cann a as pi g feed has a long
trad iti on in Vietn am. In th e 1950s and
1960s, w hen ri ce harvests we re as low as 2
t/ha, cann a rh iz om es also ente red the
human di et to a co nsid erabl e deg ree. In
so me areas, ca nn a was prod uced t o a much
larger extent tha n toda y. At the tim e, so me
sta rch was ex tra cted and used rath er
un spec ifica ll y as a thi ckener. Beg innin g in
th e late 1960s and ear ly 1970s, the prin cipa l use of ca nna starc h fo r th e manu facture
of ce lloph ane noodl es emerge d and has
si nce fu eled the expans ion of ca nn a
produ cti on.
Cann a is gro w n in all mounta in ous
prov in ces and al so in som e low-ly in g area s.
Acco rdin g to offi cial estim ates, so me
20, 000 ha of cann a are cropp ed in northern
Vietnam. In the fi ve leadin g ca nna-prod ucin g di stri cts of Tanh H oa Prov in ce (Red
Ri ve r D elta) alone, 2,93 0 ha we re reg iste red in 1998 . Rece nt ev id ence suggests
th at from 4,000 to 5,000 ha are grow n in
the South, princip all y in the prov in ces of
Dong N ai, So ng Be, Tay Ninh , Gia Lai, and
Lam D ong. Other roots and tube rs used fo r
starch in Vietnam in cl ude cassa v a (Ma n i ho t
escu lenta) fo r a range of seco ndary processed pro du cts suc h as maltose and
ferm entati on produ cts, and ku dz u (Pu erari a
/obata), a tube rou s legu me y iel ding a hi ghly
pri zed sta rch us ed in a traditi onal soft drink.
In north ern Vietn am, cann a is cropped
pr in c ip all y in th e hi ghl and s (300-1 ,200 m)
of Hoa Binh and Son La prov in ce s, whi ch
bord er Laos and Ch in a, and in the Red
Ri ve r Delta at sea leve l. Croppi ng is str ictly
sea son al, beg innin g at the on set of rain s
and last in g fo r 10-1 2 mo. Propagation is by
api cal rhi zo me secti o ns th at are eith er
immed iately re pl anted or stored fo r 2- 3 mo
to allow fo r staggered harve stin g.
In th e rice-d om inated c rop pin g sys tems
of th e Red Ri ver D elta, cann a is mostl y
relegated to th e least fertil e and unirri gated
upl and s such as ri ve r dams, backy ard s, and
4l6
Starch sto re
and
selling room
Farm
house
l _ _ - s helter
c:?
'
f - - - + -- i '
Washing
tank
Road
""l
Basin for
washing
canna
rhizomes
Worker
Grater
5m
41
Figure 2. Rural women workers washing canna pulp in Moc Chau starch factory, Son La province, northern
Vietnam, 1995.
remaining fiber may be passed on to
workers at another tank (Figure 1) who
repeat this process to extract add ition al
starc h and the fiber is finally discharged.
The starch sediment accumulating in the
recta ngul ar tanks is shove ll ed into circular
was hing tanks and is given a number of
was hes by sti rrin g it in clean wate r. After
eac h was h, the starch is al lowed to settle
for an hour or so and a lighter, brown sl urry
on top of the firm starc h cake is scraped off.
Once supernatant water of th e final washin g is siphoned off, any free wate r rem ai nin g on th e sta rch sedi ment is soaked up
w ith hyg rosco pic mate rials . Bags filled w ith
as h, or bricks that have been dr ied over a
heat source and then coo led, are co mmon ly used . The final wa ter co ntent of the
sta rch as it co mes out of th e sed imentati on
tank is 46.5-49.0% (wet wt basis).
The farmer-extracted starch i 11 Vietn am
ranges from between 10 and 15% of fresh
rhi zo me we ight (Tabl e 1), w ith three out of
four observations being between 10 and
4l8
Table 1. Parameters of starch extraction from canna rhizomes in Vietnam and Andes (in % of rhizome fresh
matter unless otherwise specified).
Locality
Cultivar
Soluble
Dry matter
solids
0
Farmer
starchh
Laboratory
Extractable
Extraction
starch'
starchd
efficiency
Brix
(%)'
% rhizome fresh matter
Vietnam
Hai Hau, Nam Ha,
sea level, 2014' N
Hai Hau, Nam Ha,
sea level, 2014' N
Tu Ly, Hoa Binh, 300 m,
2053'N
Tu Ly, Hoa Binh, 300 m,
2053' N
Moc Chau, Son La,
1000 m, 2050' N
Moc Chou, Son La,
l 000 m, 2050' N
MH1400
5.0
MH1401
MH1402
22.5
10.l
3.8
13.9
73
10.8
4.3
15.1
72
21.0
6.2
MH1403
26.7
27.1
MH1170
4.5
24.7
10.9
6.3
17.2
63
MHll 71
4.9
22.5
14.5
4.4
18.9
77
MHIF1335
6.4 1
23.8
11.3
4.7
16.0
71
MHIF1344
9.1 1
22.l
9.0
2.0
11.0
82
MHll73
5.5
23.8
13.4
6.0
19.4
75
Andes
Briceno, Colombia,
2050 m, l 0 37' N
Las Delicios, Colombia,
1800 m, 157' N
Palate, Ecuador,
2350 m, 119' S
All starch contents are expressed as starch with 20% humidity (wet weight basis)
Starch extracted by former
' Starch extracted from process residue
d Extractable starch is the sum of former and laboratory starch and approximates the potential starch yield achievable with
better extraction equipment.
Ratio former/total starch
1 calculated by difference
0
4 19
Table 2. Commodity retail prices for carbohydrate products, Hanoi, December 1995.
Commodity
Comments
Conno noodles
Canna starch
Rice noodles
Cassava storch
Cassava flour
Wheat flour
lndico rice
Japonico rice
White sugar
Brown sugar
Poto toes
Price (dong/kg)
7500-8000
7500
6000
3500
2500
6000
4000
8000
6500-6800
5500
2500-4000
Noodle making
A small proportion of canna sta rch is
destined for unspecifi c househ o ld uses or
processed into min or products such as
ca ndies, cakes, and rice papers . Overw helmin gly, howeve r, canna starc h is
processed into noodl es.
420
Figure 3. Canna noodle production in Huu Hoa village, Hanoi, Thantri District, 1995. Man applying starch batter
a bamboo rack.
(IP Progrom Report 1997-98
42 1
423
424
1 CI P, Lima, Peru.
2 Universidad Ca t61 ica, Quito, Ecuador.
3 Nestle Resea rch and Development Center, Quito, Ecuador.
425
Field cultivation
Ten yacon accessions, for wh ich attributes are gi ven in Table 1, we re grown in
natural soil in an open-sided, insect-proof,
quarantine greenhouse in the Tumbaco
Valley near Quito, Ecuador, under thermic
and light conditions close to the surrounding equatorial environment at 2,500 m
altitude. Monthly mean temperatures varied
from 14.6C to 16.0C, with average daily
minimums ranging from 4 to 8C and
maximums from 23 to 29C. Monthly
sunshine was 110-230 h. Before planting,
samples taken from the sandy soi I had a pH
of 7.2-7.5. Nitrogen content of the soil
ranged from 22 to 30 g/ml soil (low), P
content 80-200 g/ml (high), and K content
0.29-0.68 meq/100 ml soil (medium to
high ). Three to four plots per accession
were used in a completely randomized
design .
Table 1. Geographical attributes and mitotic chromosome number of yacon clones used in this study.
Accession'
Year
Country
Province
Locality
Altitude (m)
Latitude
Longitude Mitotic
collected
chromasames
ASL 136
AW 5075
ARB5027
ARB5073
ARB5074
ECUl 243
HN1013
MHG919
MHG923
MHG927
0
1992
1991
1991
1991
1991
1984
1992
1991
1991
1991
Peru
Peru
Peru
Peru
Peru
Ecuador
Argentina
Bolivia
Bolivia
Bolivia
Cajamorco
Cajamorco
Lima
Cajamorca
Cajamorca
Az.uay
Jujuy
Cochabamba
Cochabamba
Cochabamba
Chota
Cancan
Tintin
Sucre
Sucre
Cum be
Barcena
Pairumani
Parocti
Locotal
2,900
2,600
3,200
2,600
2,600
2,560
l,900
2,600
2,100
l,800
0633'S
071l'S
l220'S
0656'S
0656'S
03lO'S
2358'5
l 72 5'S
l 7lO'S
l 7lO'S
7838'W
7819'W
7547'W
7808'W
7808'W
7809'W
6526'W
6620'W
65SS'W
6545'W
87
58
58
58
58
58
58
58
58
58
Accession ECU 12 43 is maintained by lnstituto Nacional de lnvestigaciones Agropecuarias, Quito, Ecuador; all other accessions are
kept in the CIP genebank.
err - S/ l 9 and
Gr,ur1ans = G,01a1-
0p
= Ffr uctans /
Gfruclans
c (F
Fructa ns
Results
Chemi ca l co 111pos ition of yacon relati ve to
root fresh matter (FM) is shown in Tabl e 2.
Compo site factors relative to root OM are
shown in Tab le 3. For all 10 access ions low
val ues and nar row ranges of OM (98- 136 g/
kg) and carbo hydrate co ntent (89 -127 g/ kg)
we re found, es pec iall y w hen accession
AW 5075 was exc lud ed. Carbohydrates
accounted fo r 9 1-9 4% of OM. Discount in g
the outlyin g access io n AW5075, th e
access ions also had narrow ran ges for
fructan s (50-89 g/kg FM, 52 -6 6% OM ) and
total free suga rs (18 -3 1 g/ kg FM, 14- 29 %
OM). By con tras t, AW5075 had a mu c h
redu ced fructan co nte nt (3 1 g/ kg FM , 32 %
OM) and co rrespo ndin gly high free suga r
co ntent (42 g/ kg FM, 43 % OM). Thi s
accession m atured precoc iousl y and, whe n
harvested, had started develo pin g new
sprouts.
+l
Fru eta n s =
G fruc la ns )
42 7
v;
or
O:J
14
3.6-4.3
18-42
2.3-5.9
3.9-21.1
l 0-19
DP
3.1-4.1
112-464
148-224
Fiber (g)
Fat (mg)
Energy (kcal)
1,843-2,946
Potassium (mg)
2,282
240
87
5,027
174
244
3.6
15
17
25
10
12
43
19
12
18
58
32
27
23
(%)
C.V.
2,859 ab
291 abc
68 def
5,630 ab
148 c
191 cde
3.6 abc
3.3 de
2.64 b
12.6 a
12 cd
1,969 c
197 d
84 bede
4,881 abc
224 a
289 be
3.5 bed
3.5 cde
2,267 be
240 abed
94 be
5,071 abc
170 be
171 de
3.3 cd
4.7 ab
2.36 c
10.6 abc
9.0 c
2.84 ab
15 be
19 a
4.2 a
24 bed
3.6 de
31 b
103 b
204 d
92 bed
245 abed
1,843 c
4,357 be
4,931 abe
1, 999 c
197 ab
177 be
2,361 abc
302 ab
131 a
5,369 abc
168 be
2,327 abc
232 bed
76 edef
5,015 abc
165 be
224 cd
309 a
2, 946 a
182 d
2,065 c
2,382 abc
4,944 abc
56 f
156 e .
112 e
101 b
194 cde
118 de
331 b
234 bed
464 a
4.0 a
61 ef
3.6 abe
3.1 d
3.4 bed
4.1 a
3.8 ab
3.7 cde
6,014 a
2.7 e
2.7 e
3.8 bed
4.3 abc
3.7 cde
2.37 c
4,275 c
2.34 e
2.35 c
2.86 a
1. 95 d
11.1 abc
155 c
11.8 ab
10.8 abc
10.2 be
l 0.7 abc
9.9 be
11 d
4.3e
163 c
12 bed
13 bed
13 bed
10 d
16 ab
2.14 cd
3.9c
5.6c
9.3 be
6.6 be
2.8 d
3.3 ed
3.0 d
11.4 b
18d
3.9 be
20cd
4.0 b
3.9 be
72 b
112 be
120 be
MHG927
22cd
74 b
68 b
4.0 be
24 bed
3.7 cde
58 be
114 b
123 b
118 be
111 be
MHG923
MHG919
2.4 d
5.9 a
59 be
100 cd
109 cd
111 be
102 bed
HN1013
ECUl 243
50 c
100 cd
109 ed
ARB5074
Accessions'
311 b
3.7 abc
4.9 a
2.07 d
10.6 abe
14 bed
7.5 be
9.4 be
21.l a
4.5 b
2.8 d
2.3 d
2.8 d
4.6 c
26 bed
27 be
42 a
3.6 e
61 be
19 cd
62 be
31 d
105 be
115 be
ARB5073
3.8 bed
104 be
114 be
ARB5027
89 d
98 d
AW5075
4.3 a
4.2 a
89 a
127 a
136 a
ASL 136
Means followed by a common letter are not significantly different at P < 0.05 by DMRT.
182-309
Phosphorus (mg)
56-131
Calcium (mg)
4,275-6,014
2.7-4.9
Protein (g)
Ash (mg)
2.38
l. 95-2.86
F,/Gro, ratio
3.7
10.7
9.0-12.6
3.4
26
3.9
62
8rix
8.5
31 -89
Fructons (g)
106
89-127
115
Mean
98-136
Range
Variable
Accession
Total
Carbohydrates
Fructans
93
91
66
32
43
ARB5027
91
54
24
ARB5073
ARB5074
91
53
46
22
29
52
53
23
22
19
ASLl 36
AW5075
ECUl 243
HNlOl 3
92
91
MHG919
MHG923
92
94
93
58
60
MHG927
93
60
Total free
sugars
Free
glucose
Free
fructose
Free
sucrose
14
2.0
2.3
3.4
21.6
8.5
19.5
2.5
3.9
8.3
6.4
5.4
16
2.1
3.8
2.6
2.7
8.7
11.l
6.1
4.9
3.2
13.3
12.0
14.7
9.4
12.l
11.3
10.l
15
2.3
3.6
9.1
its production potential. At a root produ ction of 50 t/ha, which underestimates yi eld
potential of yacon under reasonab le soil
fertility, ASL 136 wou ld have yielded 4.5 t
fru ctans/ ha. From th e sa me root producti on,
fru ctose and sucrose tota lin g 5.8 t/ha could
have been obta in ed throug h hydro lysis of
fru ctans and from free sugars (calculat ions
not shown).
Free glu cose and fru ctose were among
th e most variable root parameters; wi th C.V.
32% for fre e glucose and C.V. 58% for free
fru ctose. Th ere was a sign ifi cant and hi ghly
negative correlation between fru ctans and
free fructose (-0.88, Tabl e 4) indi ca ting th e
interrelati on of these metabolites in depolymerization. Interestin gly, free fructose
was positively correlated to DP (0.42),
whi ch suggests th at polymer elongation
in creased w ith the size of the fructose pool.
Conve rse ly, high glu cose conce ntrations
are associated with lowe r DPs (r = -0.68),
perh aps beca use th ey in crease the number
of fructan mol ecules competing for free
fru ctose. Although th ere were signific ant
differences of DP betwee n access ions, th e
range was narrow 3.6-4.3 (C.V. = 6%). The
ratio of total fructose to glu cose (F 1j G 101 )
indi cates th at in a syrup obtained after ac id
hydrolysis of yacon root ca rbohydrates,
fru ctose would be present at a concentra-
CIPProgramReport 1997-98
4 29
Table 4 . Pearson correlation coefficients' of chemical variables of yacon root fresh matter.
Dry
Free
Free
Free
Total
molter
glucose
fructose
sucrose
sugars
Variables
Free glucose
-.13
Free frucose
-.77 a
-.16
Free sucrose
-.58 a
.13
Total sugars
-.76 a
.08
.94 a
.91 a
.95 a
-.14
-.88 a
-.75 a
-.90 a
.86 a
-.20
-.69 a
-.57 a
-.71 a
.Fructans
Brix
-.04
DP
-.68 a
.42 a
.03
Principal component 2
1.0
D ARB5074
D ARB5073
1.0
1.5
0 MH927
0.0
OMHG923
I ARB5027
D
ASL136
-1 .6
-1.6
-.07
l
.01
DAW5 075
* ECU12 43
-1.6
-1 .6
Principal component 1
.A. Arg entina O Bolivia * Ecu ad or 0 Northen Peru I Central Peru
.20
.84 a
P< 0.01.
430
DPb
.75 a
-1 .0
-1 .6
Brix
Dry matter
Fructons
Hi ghes t OM and fru c tan yields (accession ASL 136) were assoc iated with
dodecap lo id y compared w ith octoploidy in
the ot her access ions. Thi s pro vides a
pointer fo r id entify in g superio r ge rmpla sm
and for breeding yacon.
Ba sed o n Table 2, nutri ent remova l from
th e fi eld pert root FM ca n be ca lcul ated as
0.4-0.8 kg N, 0.2 -0.3 kg P, and 1.8-2.9 kg
K. Th ese data allow an approximation of
minim al fe 1tilizer requirements for yaco n.
The ranges fm nutri ent removal per 100 kg
solubl e ca rbohydrate produced (fru ctans
and free suga rs) are 0. 5-0.9 kg N , 0.2 -0.4
kg P, and 2.3-3.2 kg K. These figures
identi fy yaco n as not on ly high in N-use
effici ency but also demanding in its K
requirements.
D es pite its hi gh fru ctan productivity,
yacon is unlikely to beco me a so urce of
purified di eteti c sweeteners or fr uctose
products in the nea r future. Th at is because
of seve ral factors in c ludin g 1) lack of
suitab le extraction tec hn o logy and indu strial sca le production , 2) co mpetition from
very low pric ed, hi gh-fructose sy rup s fr om
corn starch, and 3) protectionism of suga r
markets .
It is more likely th at processed yaco n
produ cts requiring little or no refinin g cou ld
be targeted as a natural o r low-ca lori e food
to a hea lth-co nsc iou s c li entele. Entrepreneuri al far mers in Brazi l and Japan have
al ready seized this o ppo rtunity and are
produ c in g a number of pro cesse d yacon
produ cts fo r nich e mark ets (Grau and Rea ,
1997; Kak ih ara et al. , 1997). One suc h
produ ct co nsists of air-dri ed tuber sli ces,
w hi ch resem ble dri ed ap ples. Current
res ea rch at C IP examines proc ess in g
par ameters bearing o n fin al product qu ality.
Anoth er pote ntiall y interesting produ ct
is unrefin ed ya con syrup. It co uld be
mark eted as a di eteti c sweetener th e
con sistency of hon ey and possibly pri ce d
at th e sa me level. Yaco n sy rup-makin g in
rur al And ean settin gs co uld find mu ch
431
432
Training
Impact on a Changing World
Course focus
Activities
Participants
372
Potato
Sweetpotato
Andean roots and tubers
Natural resources management
18
18
3
6
Total
45
123
1,019
23
25
27
888
474
50
(IP-facilitated activities
CONDESAN
Other Peru-based
Total
911
433
Potato
Trainin g courses and works hops in potato
addressed six subject matter areas. Courses
in th ese areas va ri ed in content according
to spec ific needs. Th e cou rse theme,
numbers of participants, acti v ities, and the
countries rep rese nted are show n in Tab le 2.
Courses o n improved potato propagation techniques and sanitary control are in
continuous demand because there is an
urgent and co nstant need to produce higher
quality seed of new ly developed genet ic
mater ials that have improved produ ct ivity
and res ista nce to pests and di seases . The
program co ntent of these acti v iti es in c ludes
agronomic aspects, formal and inform al
seed syste ms, sanitary co ntrol procedures,
seed sto rage and mark et in g, and organization al aspects of seed p rograms. All topics
are from the perspective of an integrated
seed potato industry.
Activities
Participants
43
Countries represented
Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador,
Ethiopia, Guatemala, Kenya,
Nicaragua, Peru, Venezuela,
2
3
34
63
112
120
Kenya
Sri Lanka, Thaila nd
Guatemala, Peru
Panama, Peru, Venezuela, USA,
18
372
88
Seed production
5
3
6
11
Total
25
Total
CIP-facilitated group training in Peru
Natural resources management
Posthorvest and marketing
IPM
434 Training
63
310
472
888
Activities
Participants
93
Countries represented
Cameroon, Dem. Rep. of the Congo, Ethiopia,
Ghana, Indonesia, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi,
Malaysia, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nigeria,
Philippines, Rwa nda, Senegal, Tanzania,
Thai land, Zambia
12
338
11
Zambia
China, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Uganda, Zambia,
32
Total
l8
474
Zimbabwe
435
Activities
Germplasm conservation
Participants
25
21
Total
50
436
Training
Countries represented
Individualized Training
N ati o nal sc ienti sts fro m Afri ca, As ia, and
Latin Am eri ca rece ived trainin g at CIP
laborato ri es and fa c iliti es at Lim a headqu arters and CIP's reg ion al office in Na iro bi ,
Kenya (Ta bl e 6) . Trainin g subj ects fea tured
w ere potato seed produ ction ,
mi cropropagati o n and ti ssue culture
tec hniques, ad va nced methods fo r viru s
characteri zati o n, anti sera produ cti o n and
detect ion tec hniques, as we ll as biotec hn olog ica l trainin g co nce ntratin g on meth ods
such as RFLP, A FLP, RA PD, and geneti c
mani pul ati on in potato.
wo rks hop fo r th e co nse rva tion and utili zati on of sweetpotato, cassava, and ya m in
Sub-Sa haran Afri ca (SSA) took pl ace in
Kenya. Th e system-wid e geneti c reso urces
program compri sing CIP, llTA, IPGRI , and
the N ati onal Network of PRA PACE and
SAR RN ET sponso red th is workshop. Fortyeight nati onal sc ienti sts particip ated. Two
courses on posth arvest and marketin g of
sweetpotato we re co ndu cted in Kenya and
Ugand a in co ll aborati o n w ith ICRAF, ILRI ,
ICRISAT, and IFP RI. Thi s was a short
trainin g co urse on meth ods for analyz in g
agri culture mark ets in SSA and was attend ed by 23 pa rti c ipants from thi s part of
Afri ca. Parti c ipants w ere fa mili ari zed with
stand ard mark etin g analys is procedures and
re ce ived hand s-o n in stru ction on mark et
ori ented resea rch. In 1997, CIP staff gave
lectures on the potato and sweetpotato
related issues at an I ITA-o rga ni zed reg io n a I
course on prod uct and market deve lopm ent
for roots and tu be r crops.
In co njun cti on with national co ll abo rators, a work shop on root process ing
techno logy took pl ace in Chengdu, in th e
Peop les Repu bli c of Chin a. Forty-seven
parti cipa nts rece ived a so lid found ati o n in
the kn ow ledge of starch stru cture, properti es, and appli ca ti o n. Th e program in clud ed v isits to starch and noodl e fac tori es
in Sich uan to assess ado pti on of Sichu an
Aca demy of Agri cultural Sc iences-CIP
project res ults and fo r pl anning future
resea rch needs.
Co ll aborati on w ith reg ional netwo rk s in
Sub-Sa haran Afri ca res ulted in a course o n
Course
Activities
Participants
Watershed management
Simulation modeling
14
109
Total
123
Countries represented
Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Peru
Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia,
Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico,
Nicaragua, Peru, Uganda
437
Participants
Countries represented
Venue
IPM
HQ(4), SSA(l)
Vi rology
HQ(2), SSA{l)
HQ(l 8)
18
Germplasm management
Peru, Zaire
13
Breeding
5
15
HQ(4), SSA(l)
HQ(4), SSA(l l)
Potato propagation
Syria, Vietnam
2
Natural resources
Communications
HQ(2)
HQ(2)
63
Total
HQ
Argentina, Peru
Argentina, Peru
438 Training
Selected Publications
from
1997-1998
Impact on a Changing World
p.
Antl e, J.M., S.M. Capalbo , and C.C.
Crissman. 1998. Econometric and
si mul atio n modeling of the Carchi potato
productio n syste m. In: Crissman, C.C.,
J.M. Ant le, and S.M. Cap albo (eds.).
H ea lth and sustainabl e agr icu lture:
Pes ticide use in th e And es. Kluwer
Academic Press, Boston , USA. p. 145180.
Ant le, J.M., S.M. Capalbo , and C.C.
Cr issman. 1998. Tradeoffs in policy
Ana lysis: Co ncep tu al foundations for
disciplinary integration. In : Crissman,
C.C., J.M. Antle, and S.M. Capa lbo (eds. ).
H ea lth and sustai nabl e ag ri culture:
Pesticid e use in the And es. Kluwer
Academic Press, Boston, USA. p. 21-4 0.
Antle, J.M., S.M. Capalbo, D.C. Co le, C.C.
Crissman, and R.J. Wa ge net. 1998.
Integ rated simul ation mod el and ana lys is
of economic, env ironm ental and hea lth
tradeoffs in the Carchi potato-pasture
production system. In : Crissman, C.C.,
J.M. Ant le, and S.M. Capalbo (eds .).
Health and sustainabl e agr icu lture:
Pesticide use in the Ande s. Kluwer
Academic Press, Boston, USA . p . 243268.
439
208.
Bowen , W.T. , P.K. Thornton, and G.
Hoo ge nboom. 1998. The simulation of
croppin g sequenc es using DSSAT. In:
Tsuj i, G.Y. , G. Hoogenboom , and
P.K.Thornton (eds.). Understanding
options for agricultural production.
Kluw er Academic Pub li shers, Dordrecht,
The N etherlands.
Campi Ian, D. and G. Pra in. 19 97. Integrated pest management, the v iew from
below: The role of users' perspectives
and participation in agricu ltur al R&D. In:
Pradhanang, P.M. and J.C. Elphingston
(eds. ). Integrated management of bacteri al w ilt of potato: Lessons and experiences for the hills of Nepal. LARC,
Lum le, Nepal. p . 87-100.
Castillo , A. , H. Quisp e, D. Mora les, and R.
Quiroz. 1997 . Los sistemas de
producci6n Agricol a en lo s Andes de
Bolivia. In : Mujica E. and J.L. Ru eda
(eds.) . La sostenibil idad de los sistemas
de producci6n campesina en los andes.
CONDESAN, Lim a, Peru. p. 163-214.
Cipriani, G., A . Golmirzaie, and D.P.
Z hang. 1998. The readers talk: Developing weev il resistance in sweetpotato w ith
genetic transformation. Sweetpotato
Research Front (SPOR F) Magaz in e
7(0ct.):6.
Collins, W.W., E.E . Carey, l.G. Mok, P.
Thompson , and D .P. Zhang. 1998.
Uti li zation of sweetpota to genet ic
resources to develop insect resistance .
In : Clement, S.L. and S.S. Quisenb erry
(eds.). Global pl ant ge net ic resources for
in sect-resistant crops. CRC Press, Boca
Raton, Florida, USA. p. 193-205.
Condori, B., A. Devaux, P. Mamani, J.
Va l lejos, and J. Blajos. 1997. Efecto
residual de la fertilizaci6n del cu lti vo de
papa sob re el cultivo de haba (Vicia faba
L.) en el sistema de rotaci6n. Revista
Latinoamericana de la Papa 9/ 10(1 ):171 -
187.
95:191 -198 .
de l Rfo, A. , J. Bamberg, Z. H uaman , R.
Hoekstra, A. Salas, and S. Veg a. 1997.
Assess in g changes in the genetic diversity of potato gene banks. 2. In sit u vs. ex
situ. Th eor. App l. Genet. 95:199-20 4.
Devau x, A. , J. Val lejos, R. Hijmans, and J.
Ramos. 1997 . Resp ue sta agron6mica de
dos variedade s de papa (ssp . tuberosum
y andigena) a d iferentes niveles de
fert ili zac i6n mineral. Rev.
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139.
25(3):591 -609 .
Esca lada, M ., D. Campilan, and E. Cagasan.
1998. Diffusion mechanisms for improved sweetpotato var ieties in upland
commun iti es. In : Palomar, M. and E.
Gundaya (eds.). In tegrated rootcrops
research and development in the Philippines, IDR C-IRCP/ViSCA, Leyte, Philippines. p. 34-54.
Ewell, P.T. 1997. Internationa l cooperation
for the improvement of potato and
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Proceedings, 4'" Triennial Congress of
the African Potato Association. Pretoria,
South Africa. p. 157-1 64.
Forbes, G.A., X.C. Escobar, C.C. Aya la, J.
Revelo, M .E. Ordonez, B.A. Fry, K.
Doucett, and W.E. Fry. 1997. Popu lati on
genetic structure of Phytophthora
infestans in Ecuador. Phytopathol.
87:375-380.
Forbes, G.A. , S.B. Goodwin, A. Drenth, P.
Oyarzun, M.E. Ordon ez, and W.E. Fry,
1998 . A global marker database fo r
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82:811-818.
George, M.L.C., R.J. Nel so n, R.S . Zeigle r,
and H . Leung. 19 98. Rapid population
ana lysis of Magnaporthe grisea by using
rep-PCR and endogenous repetitive DNA
sequences. Phytopathology 88(3):223-
229.
Ghislain, M. , R. Nelson , and T. Walker.
1997 . Resistance to potato late blight: A
globa l research priority. Biotechnol. and
Dev. Monitor 31 :14-1 6.
Ghislain, M. , M . Querci, M. Bonierbale, A.
Golm iarziae, and R. Nelson. 1997.
Biotechno logy and the potato: Appl ication for the developing wo rld . CIP, Lim a,
Peru. 18 p.
Ghislain, M ., M. Querci, M. Bonierbale, A.
Golmirzaie, and P. Gregory. 1998. The
app li cation of biotechnology to potato.
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Gibson , R.W. , R.O.M. Mwa nga, S. Kasul e,
I. Mpembe, and E.E . Carey. 1997.
Apparent abse nce of vi ruses in most
symptom less field-grown sweetpotato in
Uganda. Ann. Appl. Bio l. 130:481-490.
Gibson, R.W., I. Mpembe, T. Alicai, E.E.
Carey, R.0 .M. Mwanga, S.K. Seal, and
H .F. Vetten, 1998. Symptoms, aetio logy
and se rol ogica l analysis of sweetpotato
virus disease in Uganda. Plant Path.
47:95-102.
Golmirzaie, A.M., K. Bretsc hneider, and R.
Ort iz. 1998. Inbreed in g and tru e seed in
tetrasomic potato. II. Se lfin g and sibmat ing in heterogen eous hybrid populations of Solanum tuberosum. Theor.
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Golmirzaie, A.M. and A. Panta. 1997.
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Sci ence Publishers, In c. USA. p. 123-
152.
Golmirzaie, A., A. Panta, and J. Toledo.
1998. Biotec hnological advances in the
conservation of root and tuber crops. In :
Benson, E.E. (ed.). Plant conservation
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Golmirzaie, A.M., and J. Toledo. 1998.
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culture protocols. Humana Press,
Netherlands. p. 95-101.
Golmirzaie, A.M., R. Ortiz, G.N. Atlin, and
M. lwanaga. 1998. Inbreeding and true
seed in tetrasomic potato . I. Selfing and
open pollination in Andea n landraces
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Th eo r. Appl. Genet. 97:1125-1128.
Griffon, D. and G. Scott. 1998. Avantpropos. In Scott, G. and D. Griffon (eds.).
Prix, Produits, et Acteurs. Methodes pour
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p. 7- 10.
Ha genimana, VE ., E.E. Carey, S.T. Gi chuki,
M.A . Oyunga, and J.K. lmun gi. 1998.
Carotenoid contents in fresh , dri ed, an d
pro cessed sweetpotato produ cts. Ecol.
Food N utr. 37(5):455-474.
Ha genimana, V., E.E. Carey, S.T. Gi chuki ,
M.A. Oyunga, and J.K. lmun gi. 1998.
Rep lac in g pills w ith sweet potatoes to
combat Vitamin A deficiency. Improvi ng
po stharvest systems. 1ITA/ GTZ i nternati onal newsletter (October).
Ha gen im ana, V., E.G . Karuri , and M.A.
Oy un ga. 1998. Oil co ntent in fri ed
sweetpotato processed produ cts. J. Food
Proces. Preserv. 22:123-137.
Hagenimana, V. and C. Owori. 19 97.
Sweetpotato in ch apati processin g:
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Hermann, M. and J. H ell er (e ds.). 1997.
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lragavarap u, T.K. , J.L. Pos ner, and G.D.
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Thi ele, G. , G. Gardner, R. Torrez, and J.
Gabri el . 1997. Farm er in vo lve ment in
se lectin g new va ri eties: Potatoes in
Bo liva. Exp. Ag. :275-290 .
Thi ele, G., 0. Na v ia, and E.N. Fern and ez North co te. 1998. Anali sis eco n6mico de
la estrateg ia d e control quimi co del tiz6 n
tardio (Phytop hth ora infes tans) para
culti va res de papa susceptibl es en
Coc habamba, Bol iv ia. Fitopato log ia
33(3): 176-181 .
Thi ele, G. and F. Terrazas. 1998. Las
carcavas. ProCampo 8 1 :18-20.
Thi ele, G. and F. Terraz as. 1998. Th e
wayq'os (g ulli es) are eat in g eve rythin g!
Indi ge nou s knowledge, PRA and so il
co nse rv ation . PLA Notes 32: 19-23.
Thi ele, G., J. W adsworth , and R. Velez .
1998. M akin g the link: Lesso ns fro m
agri cultural res ea rch and exte nsion in
low land Bo li v ia . Europea n J. Ag. Ed uc.
Exte n. 4(4):213 -223
Thi ele, G. 1998. In forma l potato seed
system s in th e Andes: Why are th ey
imp ortant an d what to do about them?
Wor ld D ev. 27( 1 ):83-99 .
Thi ele, G., J. Bustamante, J. Man si Il a, an d
G. Scott. 1 998 . lQue pasa co n el prec io
de la papa? Un ana li sis del periodo
1980-95. Proca mpo (Bo li via) . 1 3 p.
Triki , M.A. and S. Priou . 1997. Usi ng
chemi ca l and b io logical treatments to
redu ce th e potenti al of potato lea k
ca used by Pythium aphan idermalwn in
Tuni sia. Potato Res. 40: 39 1-398.
To ledo, J. , P. Dehal, F. Jarrin , J. Hu , M.
Herma nn , I.A. A l-Sh ehbaz , and C.F.
Qu iros. 1998. Genetic variab ility of
Lepidium meyenii in refe rence to other
And ea n Lep idium speci es (Brass icaceae)
101:13 3-141.
Turya mu reeba, G., R.O.M . Mwanga, and E.
Carey. 1997. Sweetpotato clo nal
evaluat ion for res istance to sweet potato
di seases (S PD) and hi gh y ield . In :
Proceed in gs of th e 4'h Tri enni al Co ngress
of th e Afri ca n Potato Assoc. , Pretoria,
South Afri ca. ARC, Roodepl att, So uth
Afri ca . p. 108 -11 2.
Va n de Fl ierl, E. 1997. Integ rated pest
manage ment: Sp rin gboa rd to sustain ab le
agr icul ture. In : Dhali wa l, G.S. , and E.A.
Heinri chs (ed s.). Crit ical issu es in ins ec t
pest manage ment. Natio nal Ag ri c ultu ra l
Technology In fo rm at ion Centre,
Ludhi ana, Indi a.
Van de Fli ert, E. 1998 . Integ rated pest
management: Sprin gboard to sustain abl e
agri culture. In : Dhaliwal , G.S. and E.A.
H ei nri chs, (eds .). Critica l iss ues in insect
pes t management. Com monwea lth
Publ ishers, New Delhi , Ind ia. p. 250 -
266.
Va n de Fli ert, E. and A.R. Braun . 199 8.
From probl em to impact: A mod el for
in tegrati ve, partic ip atory resea rch and
deve lopment for sustain abl e ag ri culture.
In : Su stain ab le li ve lih ood for rural
house ho ld s: Co ntribution from rootcrop
agric ulture. UPWARD, Los Banos,
Lagun a, Philippines. P. 81-98.
Va n de Fl ierl, E. A.R . Braun, R. As mun ati ,
Wiyanto, and Y. W id odo. 1997. On e step
bac k, two steps forward: Sweetpota to
integ rated crop manageme nt deve lopment in In do nes ia. In: UPWARD.
In st itu tionali zin g innovat ion s in root crop
resea rch and deve lopment. UPWARD,
Los Banos, Phi lippines. P. 127-140.
445
Staff in 1997-1998
Impact on a C ha ng ing World
* Project leader
1 Jo ined du rin g 1998
2 Left during 19 98
3 Funded by special project
4 Joint Appointment
5 Joined duri ng 1997
6 Left during 1997
CIPProgcamReporl 1997-98
447
448 Stott
Rosari o Fa l co n , BS , Biologist,
Research Ass i stant
Carl a Fe rr adas , Bilingu a l Sec r etary 2
Enriqu e Grande , Tec hnici a n
Aldo Gutarra, BS, Resea rch Assistant '
Lui sa Hu acc ho, MS, Reseat"ch
Assistant 1
Ana Marfa Ponce, Eng., ln foA ndin a,
CONDESAN 3
Jorge Reinoso , MS, Agric. Ecnomist ,
Puno , Per u 3
Jorge Roca, Bi o l ogist, Research
Assistant 2
Ivonn e Va ldi zan, Bilingual Secretary
Percy Zorogastua, MS, Research
A ssista nt '
4 49
Cochabamba, Bolivia
Quito, Ecuador
Charles Crissman, PhD, Econom i st,
Li a i so n Scientist
Gregory A. Forbes, PhD , Pl ant
Patho lo g i st
Pedro Oyarzun, PhD , M yco l og i st,
Reg i ona l An dean Program / SOC
(forme rl y FORTIPA PA )3
Steve She r w ood , MS , Tr a in ing
Specia li st
Magaly Asp i az u , Admini str at iv e
A ss istant
Susana Ba rri g a, Account a nt
Lili an Basantes, Trainin g, Researc h
Assista nt
Mari a Gab r ie l a Chac o n, MS,
Patholo gy, Research Ass i sta nt
Ly nn Er e l y us , PhD , Path o l ogy,
Resea rch Ass i stant
Lui s Esc ud ero, Agron o mi st, Research
As sistant
Patricio Espinoza, MS, Ec o n o mist ,
Resea rch Ass istan t
Corrin e Fankhauser, MS, Assoc i at e
Ex pert "
Fran c isco Ja rrin , Patho l ogy, Resea rch
A ssis t a nt
Jul io Mol in ero, Pathology, Research
Assista nt
Fab i a n Mu n oz, Statisti cs, Resea rc h
Ass i stan t
Mari a na Perez, Nurs e, Re sea rch
Assista nt
Ri ca rdo Rodriguez, Eng. Agr.,
Exp e riment Station Superint e nd e nt
450 Stoff
Bamenda, Cameroon
Josep h Koi , MS, Ag ronomist , Liaison
Sci e n tist
Kampala, Uganda
Nicole Smit, PhD , Regional
Entomolo g ist, Li a ison Scienti st
Be rga Le maga, PhD, Pathologi st,
Reg i onal Resea rch Fellow, Af ri ca n
Hi gh l an ds lniti ative / CIP
N.B. Lu ta l adio , PhD , ASAR EC A / C IP,
Coord ina t or, PR A PA CE
Joseph Ot i eno , PhD , Geograph er,
Rock efe ll er Fo undation Fe ll ow 1
Vi nc ent Og ir o, BS, Research Ass i st ant
(Soroti) 1
Islamabad, Pakistan 3
Oscar A. Hidalgo , PhD , Patholo g i st,
Pr oject Lea der, Proj ec t CIP / SDC
Atif Man zoo r, BS, Ac co untant
Zareen Siddiqi , BA, Sec retary 1
Lembang, Indonesia
Enriqu e Chu joy, PhD, Potato
Specia li st*
lnn e H erni ya ti , Offi ce Man age r/
Accounta nt
lstanti Surv iani, BS, Agric ultur al
En g in ee r, Resear c h Assistant
Bogor, Indonesia
Gordon Pr a in , PhD , So c ial
Anthropologist , Reg ional
Repr ese nt ative
Ann Braun, PhD, Ecolo gist 6
Keith Fu g li e, PhD, Agri c ultural
Econ o mi st 1
II-Gin Mok , PhD , Plant Breed e r
Christopher Oates , PhD , V isitin g
Scienti st, Food Te c hnology
Dai Pet ers, PhD, Rural D evelopm ent
Sp ecia li st 3
Elske va n de Flierl, PhD , IPM
Spe c iali st 1
Christoph e r Wheatl ey, PhD,
Posth arvest Specialist 6
lrfan sya h, BS, Food Tec hnology,
Researc h Assistant 2
Dessy Ku sba ndi , Ex ec utiv e Secret ar y
Sukendr a Mahalaya, BS , Agronomy,
Inform atio n Manag e m ent
Coordinator
Kusye Naw aw i , Ac co unt ant
Baguio, Philippines
Up al i Ja yas in ghe, PhD, V irol ogis t ,
Li ai so n Scienti st *
Beijing, China
Yi W an g, PhD , Pl ant Physiologi st,
Li ai so n Sci e ntist 5
Son g Bofu, PhD, Li aiso n Sci e nti str'
Yupin g Bi, PhD, Mol ec ular Biolo g i st,
Resea rch Assist ant
Ka i yu n Xi e, PhD , Potato Sp ec i ali st ,
Resea rc h Ass i stant
Ji e Ji ang, BS, Secr etary
Lin Yu an, BS, Admini strative Assistant
Berlin, Germany
Pet er Schmied ich e, PhD, Pl ant
Br ee der, Coordin ator
CIPProgrornReportl99798
451
Egypt
Training Unit
Patricio Malagamba, PhD, Head
Nelson Espinoza, Biologist, Training
Spec i alist
Martha Hu a nes , Training Coordinator
Mercedes Suito , Bilingual Secretary
America Va lde z, MS , Training Material
Specialist
Office of the Executive Officer
Jose Luis Rueda, PhD, Executive
Officer 6
Cesar Vittorelli, Eng.A g r. , Act in g
Exec utiv e Officers
Gloria Solis , A dmini strative Assistant
Veron i ca de Armero , Guest House
Supervisor
Human Resources
Lu cas Reano , CPC, Human Resources
Manager
Janneth Carbal I ido, Compensation &
Benefits Assistant
Monica Ferreyros, Auxiliary Services
Supervisor
David Halfin, MD
Sor Lapouble, Auxiliary Ser v ices
Ass i sta nt
Estan i slao Perez, Compensation &
Benefits Assistant
Martha Pierola, Social Worker,
Supervisor
Lu cero Schmidt, Nurse
Marfa Amelia Tavar a, Bilingual
Secretary
Yoner Varas, Comp ensation & Benefits
Assistant
Logistics & General Services
A ldo Ta n g, Comdr.(r. ), Logistic &
Genera l Services Manage r
Arturo A l varez, Purchasin g Supervisor 2
Pilar Bernui , Bilingual Secretary
Silvia Cordova, Bilingual Secretary
Hugo Davis, Ve hicl e Mainten a nc e
Off i ce r
452 Stoff
Communications Unit
Steven Kea rl , MS, Senior Writer/Editor,
H ead 5
Candelaria Atala ya, Photogr a ph e r 1
Mariella Corvetto, Communi cat ion
Servi ces Coordinator
Ruth D e lgado, Exhibits/Displ ay,
Assistant
Nini Fernandez-Concha, Graphic
D es i g ner, Assistant
Amparo Galindo, Bilingual Secretary
Milton Hidalgo , Graphic Designer,
Assistant
Ceci I i a La fosse, Chief Desi g n e r
Godofr edo Lagos, Print Chief
Victor Madrid, Graphic Desi g n e r,
Assistant
Susana Menacho, Bilingual Secretary 2
Ans e lmo Morales, Graphic Designer,
Assistant
Ana Luisa Munoz, Photogr a ph y
.A ssistant
Felix Munoz, Publications , Assistant
Zoraida Portillo, Writer/Spanish Editor
Alfr edo Puccini, Graphic D es ig ne r,
Assistant
Cesar Rossenouff, Photograph e r 2
Information Technology Unit
Anthony Collins, MS, Head
Monica Arias, BE, User Support
Lili a n a Bravo, BE, User Support
Andrea Caceres, User Support
Rob e rto Castro, Eng., System s
Dev e lopment2
Library
Ceci I ia Fe rr ey ra, H ea d
Carm e n Arnillas, Bilingual Secr eta ry
Griseld a Lay, Librarian, Assistant
Glenda N eg rete, Librarian, Assi st ant
Field Research Support
Victor Otazu, PhD, Head
Lombardo Cetraro, Field / G ree nhou se
Sup e r v i so r (Sa n Rarn6n ) 2
Roberto Duarte, Eng. Agr., Fi e ld /
Gre e nhou se Supervisor (La Molina)
Hugo Goyas, Eng. Agr., Field/
Greenhou se Supervisor (Huancayo)
Carmen La ra, Secretary
Statistics
Alfredo Garcia , MS, Experiment a l
Stati stics 2
Felip e d e Mendiburu, Statisti cs
Engin ee r, Assistant
453
Acronyms and
Abbreviations
lmpacl on o Changin g World
ADFA
AFLP
ARTC
ASAR
AUD PC
BU
CAPS
CEC
CIAT
C l MM YT
CON DE SAN
CPR I
CPRO
CpT I
CMD
DEM
DNA
ELISA
ESARC
FA O
FFS
FMV
FORTI PA PA
FU
GXE
GIS
GUS
Gp i
h.a. i.
HDP
HH
HV
IARC
ICAR
ICRAF
ICRISAT
IFAS
IFAD
455
IFPRI
llTA
IMPACT
INERA
INFOANDINA
INIAP
INIA
INRA
INTA
IPGRI
IPM
IRRI
ISO
KARI
LB
LMF
MENA
MERCOSUR
NAFTA
NARO
NARS
NASH
NCM
NGO
N/m 2
OFE
OM
pep
PAGE
PARC
PCR
Pl
Pl CTI PAPA
PPO
PRAPACE
PR ECO DEPA
PROINPA
PSTVd
PVY
QTL
RAPD
rDNA
RFLP
RKN
RRA
SAAS
SAPPRAD
SARR NET
SBTI
SCRI
SDS
SEIN PA
SKTI
SLW
SPCFV
SPCSV
SPFMV
SPMSV
SPLV
SPMMV
SPSVV
SPVD
SWP
SSR
t
TAC
TPS
UNICEF
UPGMA
UPWARD
WEPP
Southeast Asian Program for Potato Resea rch and D eve lopment
Southern Africa Root Crop Research Network
soybean trypsin inhibitor
Scottish Crop Research Institute
sodium dodecyl sulfate
Semilla e lnvestigacion en Papa (Peru)
soybean kunitz trypsin inhibitor
silverleaf whitefly
sweetpotato chlorotic fleck virus
sweetpotato chlorotic stunt virus (see SPSVV)
sweetpotato feathery mottle virus
sweetpotato mild speckling virus
sweetpotato latent virus
sweetpotato mild mottle virus
sweetpotato sunken vein virus
sweetpotato virus dis ease
sweetpotato whitefly
simple sequence repeats
metric ton (1000 kg/2,200 lbs.)
Technical Advisory Committee of the CGIAR
tru e potato seed
United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund
unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean algorithm
Users' Perspective with Agricultural Res ea rch and Development
(CIP network)
Water Erosion Pred iction Project
457
Scientific Direction
W and a Colli ns
Managing Editor
Princess Ferguson
Editors
Caroline Arthur
Princess Ferguson
Bil l Sm ith
Production Coordinator
Cec i lia Lafosse
Alfredo Puccini, Layout design
Victor M adrid, Graphics
M ilton H idalgo, Text
Nini Fernandez-Concha, Cover design
Printing Coordinator
Godofredo Lagos
Photos in th is report were taken by
G. Aguirre, V. Canedo, G. Cipr ian i,
N. Esp inola, R. Haddad, M. Hermann,
R. O rtega, C. Rossenouff, and from
the CIP collection.
CGIAR
F UTURE
HAR'rfEST