Co Cod cr FLUIDJMEGHANICS TURBOMAGHINE GEE MADAN MOHAN DAS EyRs. 450.00 FLUID MECHANICS AND TURBOMACHINES Madan Mohan Das © 2008 by Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the publisher. ISBN-978-81-203-3523-3 ‘The oxport rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher. Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus, New Deihi-110001 and Printed by Rajkamal Electric Press, B-35/9, G.T. Kamal Road Industrial Area, Delhi-110033,Preface . 1, FLUID PROPERTIES 2 1d 12 13 14 Introduction 1 Fluid Mechanics and Its Historical Background 1 1.2.1 Historical Background 1 Fluid Properties 3 1.3.1 Density or Mass Density (p) 3 13.2 Specific Weight (w) 3 1.3.3 Specific Volume (v) 3 13.4 Specific Gravity (s)___3 135 Viscosity 4 1.3.6 Classification of Fluids 5 1.3.7 __ Surface Tension () and Capillarity 7 1.3.8 Vapour Pressure (p,) 8 1.3.9 Compressibility or Elasticity (K) 9 Conclusion 12 Problems 12 References 13 FLUID PRESSURE AND ITS MEASUREMENT ...s-ssssssssssssssssssssssesees 14-37 21 22 2.3 24 Introduction 14 Fluid Pressure at a Point 14 2.2.1 Pressure at a Point ina Liquid 14 2.2.2 Pascal's Law of Fluid Pressure ata Point 15 2.2.3 Pressure Head 16 2.2.4 Pressure at any Point ina Gas 16 Isothermal and Adiabatic Processes 17 Equation of State 18 24.1 Entropy 18 24.2 Enthalpy 18Vi_Contents 2.5 Atmospheric, Absolute, Gauge and Vacuum Pressure 19 2.6 Measurement of Pressure 19 2.6.1___Manometers _19 2.6.2 Mechanical Gauges 24 2.7. Pressure at a Point in a Compressible Fluid 28 2.8 Aerostatics 30 2.8.1 The Troposphere 30 2.8.2 The Stratosphere 32 2.9 Conclusion 36 Problems 36 References 37 3. HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SURFACES... 3.1 Introduction 38 3.2 Hydrostatic Force on Plane Vertical Surface 38 3.3. Force on Plane Horizontal Surface 40 3.4 Force on an Inclined Surface 40 3.5 Force on Curved Surface 44 3.6 Total Pressure on Lock Gates 46 3.7_Practical Applications of Total Pressure 47 3.8 Conclusion 58 Problems 58 References __ 59 4, BUOYANCY AND FLOATATION 4.1 Introduction 61 4.2 Buoyancy, Buoyant Force and Centre of Buoyancy 61 4.3 Metacentre and Metacentric Height 62 44 Determination of Metacentric Height 63, 4.4.1 Experimental Method 63 4.4.2 Analytical Method 64 4.5 Conditions of Equilibrium of Floating Body 66 45.1 Stable Equilibrium 66 4.5.2 Unstable Equilibrium 66 4.5.3. Neutral Equilibrium 67 4.6 Need for Equilibrium Study 68 47 Conclusion 76 Problems 16 References. 77 5. KINEMATICS OF FLUID FLOW.......... 5.1 Introduction 78 5.2 Types of Fluid Flow 78 5.2.1 Steady and Unsteady Flows 78 1-77Contents vii 5.2.2____Uniform and Non-uniform Flows __79 5.2.3___Laminar, Turbulent and Transitional Flows _79 5.2.4 Compressible and Incompressible Flows _79 5.2.5 Rotational and Irrotational Flows 80 5.2.6 One-, Two- and Three-dimensional Flows 80 5.2.7 Critical, Super-critical and Sub-critical Flows 81 5.3 Rate of Flow or Discharge (Q) 81 5.4 Continuity Equation in 1-D 81 5.5 Continuity Equation in3-D 82 5.6 Velocity and Acceleration in 3-D 84 5.7 Rotation and Vorticity 88 5.7.1 Rotation and Conditions for Irrotational Flow 88 5.8 Potential Flow: Velocity Potential and Stream Function 90 5.8.1 Velocity Potential Function (9) 91 5.8.2 Stream Function (y) 91 5.8.3 Equipotential Lines 92 5.84 Streamlines and Flow Net 93 5.8.5 Source, Sink, Circulation and Vortex __95 5.8.6 __ Pathline, Streakline, Streamline and Streamtube 99 5.9 Conclusion __99 Problems 100 References 101 6. DYNAMICS OF FLUID FLOW..... 6.1 Introduction 102 6.2 Equations of Motion 102 6.3 _ Derivation of Euler's Equation of Motion 103 6.4 Bernoulli's Equation 104 6.5 Practical Use of Bernoulli’s Equation 106 65.1 Venturimeter 106 6.5.2 Orifice Meter__111 6.5.3 Pitot Tube 111 654 Nozzle Meter 112 6.6 Conclusion 114 Problems 114 References 115 7. FLOW THROUGH PIPES... 7.1 Introduction 116 7.2 Reynolds Experiment: Laminar and Turbulent Flow Condition 116 7.3, Darcy-Weisbach Equation of Friction Loss 7 74 Other Energy Loss in Pipe Flow 119 7.5 Loss Due to Sudden Enlargement 120 7.6__Loss Due to Sudden Contraction _122 102-115 116-1647.13 Flow Through Siphon Pipe _1: _ 7.14 Power Transmission Through Pipes __137 7.15 Water Hammer in Pipes 139 - 7.15.1 Pressure Intensity Due to Gradual Closure of Valve 139 Pipe is Elastic and Water is Compressible 140 Insteady. Hammer __ 143 7.17 Unsteady Continuity Equation in Water Hammer 144 ; 7.17.1 _ Methods of Solution of Momentum and Continuity Equations 147 7.18 Unsteady Continuity Equation in Surge Tank 149 7.19 Unsteady Momentum n in Surge Tank 150 7.20 Numerical Solutions of the Momentum Equation 151 7.21 Classical Solution of Surge Tank Equations 152 7.22, Pipe Networks 157 8.3 Velocity of an Orifice Under a Head H 165 8.4 Coefficient of Velocity (C,), Contraction (C,) and Discharge (C,) 166 85 imental Determination of C, C, and C, 168 8.6 Discharge Through Large Orifice 171 1 r 8.12. Time of Flow From One Vessel to Another 182 8.13 Flow Through Internal or Borda’s Mouthpieces 183Contents ix 8.14 Conclusion _188 Problems 188 References 189 9. FLOW OVER NOTCHES AND WEIRS oovssssssosssssssssanssssnsnssssssnsee 190-204 9.3 Discharge Over Rectangular Notch or Weir 190 9.4 Discharge Over Triangular Notch or Weir 191 9.5 Discharge Over Trapezoidal Notch or Weir __192 9.6 Flow Over Broad-crested Weir 193 9.7 Flow Over Submerged Weir 195 9.8 Francis Formula: End Contractions __195 99 Ventilation of Wei 9 9.10 Sutro Weir or Proportional Weir 197 9.11 Bazin’s Formula and Rehbock’s Formula 198 9.12 Flow Over Stepped Notch 198 9.13 Effect of Computed Discharge Due to Measurement of Head 200 9.14 Conclusion __203 Problems __ 203 References 204 10. OPEN CHANNEL FLOW ovssecsssssnsesesssnesee 10.1. Introduction___205 10.2. Differences in Open Channel Flow and Pipe Flow 205 10.3 Types of Channels 206 10.4 Types of Open Channel Flow 207 10.5 Geometric and Flow Parameters in Open Channel 208 10.6 Uniform Flow 209 10.7 _Average Velocity Equations in Uniform Flow 210 10.8 Economic or Efficient Section in Open Channel 211 10.9 Computation of Uniform Flow Depth 222 10.10 Specific Energy, Specific Force and Critical Depth Computation 226 10.11 Hydraulic Jui 230 10.12 Steady Gradually Varied Flow 234 10.13 Continuity and Dynamic Equations of Unsteady Gradually Varied Flow 236 10.13 Conclusion 243 Problems 244 References 244 acces AS 11. LAMINAR FLOW ......... 11.1 Introduction 246 11.2. Relation between Shear Stress and Pressure Gradient 247 11.3. Hagen-Poiseville Equation: Steady Laminar Flow in Pipe 248 rosnesnereseesesesscesersees DAG—-273X Contents 12. 13. 14. 11.4 Laminar Flow between Two Parallel Plates at Rest 253 11.5 Couette Flow 257 11.6 _Darcy’s Law: Laminar Flow Through Porous Media 259 11.7 Stokes Law: Laminar Flow Around a Sphere 260 11.8 Application of Laminar Flow: Lubrication Mechanics 261 11.8.1 Slipper Bearing 261 11.8.2__Journal Bearing __263 11.10 Measurement of Viscosity 265 11.11 Conclusion 272 Problems 272 References 273 TURBULENT FLOW........ 12.1 Introduction 274 12.2. Reynolds Shear Stress in Turbulent Flow 274 12.3. Prandtl Mixing Length Hypothesis 276 12.4 Velocity Distribution in Turbulent Flow in Pipes 276 12.5. Resistance Laws in Smooth and Rough Pipes 278 12.6 Moody's or Stanton-Pannell Diagram to Evaluate f__280 12.7 Hydrodynamically Smooth and Rough Surfaces 280 12.8 Average or Mean Velocity in Pipe for Smooth and Rough Turbulent Flow 281 12.9 Conclusion 286 Problems 287 References 287 BOUNDARY LAYER IN INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW 13.1 Introduction 289 13.2 Description of the Boundary Layer 289 13.3 Thickness of the Boundary Layer 290 13.4 Drag Force Due to BL. 293 13.5 Laminar B.L. Analysis 293 13.6 Turbulent Boundary Layer Analysis 297 13.7 Laminar Sub-layer 299 13.8 Separation of Boundary Layer 300 13.9 Conclusion 302 svasnasensenseeereesecsecscereereersers 274-288 Problems 302 References 303 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND MODEL INVESTIGATION ... 304-328 14.1 Introduction. 304 14.2 Dimensions and Dim nogeneity _ 304 14.3 Methods of Dimensional Analysis 30715. 16. Contents xi 14.4 Model Investigation 315 14.5. Types of Similarity: Similitude 316 14.6 Non-dimensional Numbers: Force Ratio and Model Laws 317 14.7. Scale Effect in Model Study 322 14.8 Types of Models 324 14.9 Conclusion __327 Problems 327 References 328 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW onesesasssssosessoeen 15.1_Introduction _329 Continuity Equation 329 15.3 Bernoulli's Equation or Energy Equation 330 15.4 Velocity of Sound in Fluid Medium 332 15.4.1 Velocity of Sound for Isothermal and Adiabatic Processes 334 15.5 Mach Number 335 15.6 Pressure Wave Propagation in Compressible Flow 336 15.7. Stagnation Pressure 338 15.8 Stagnation Density 342 15.9 Stagnation Temperature 342 15.10 Relationship of Area and Velocity 343 15.11 Flow Through Orifices or Nozzle 345 15.11.1 Maximum Mass Flow Rate m for Values of (2) 347 A wssnsssssmnansnsmnensenssnnannsnnasinss SED=385 15.11.2 Value V2 in Nozzle for Maximum Flow Rate 348 15.11.3. Maximum Flow Rate Through Nozzle 349 15.11.4. Variation of Mass Flow Rate with (2) 349 15.11.5 Velocity V. of Nozzle for Maximum Flow Rate 349 15.12 Venturimeter to Measure Mass Rrate of Flow 351 15.13 Conclusion 354 Problems 354 References 354 FLOW OF FLUID AROUND SUBMERGED OBJECTS 16.1 Introduction 356 16.2. Forces on the Body: Drag and Lift Forces 356 16.3. Analytical Equations Fp and F, 360 16.4 Streamlined Body and Bluff Body 361 16.5 Drag ona Sphere 362 16.6 Lift and Circulation 365 16.6.1 Circulation 365xii Contents 17. 18. 16.7 Magnus Effect 368 16.8 Karman Vortex Street 369 16.9 Lift on an Airfoil with Circulation 369 16.10 Conclusion 373 Problems 373 References 374 IMPACT OF JETS 17.1 Introduction 375 17.2 Dynamic Forces of the Jet in Different Situations 375 17.3. Direct Impact of Jet on a Series of Flat Vanes Mounted on the Periphery of a Large Wheel 380 17.4 Jet Impacts on Unsymmetrical Moving Curved Vanes Tangentially 382 17.5 Force Exerted by a Jet on a Series of Radial Curved Vanes 384 17.6 Jet Propulsion: Action and Reaction of the Jet 389 17.6.1 Jet Propulsion of Tank 390 17.6.2 Jet Propulsion of Ships 391 17.7 Conclusion 393 Problems 393 References 394 TURBOMACHINES: HYDRAULIC TURBINES ... 18.1 Introduction 395 18.2 Hydraulic Turbines 395 18.3. Common Terms Associated with Hydropower Plants 396 18.3.1 Heads and Efficiencies of Turbines 397 18.4 Classification of Turbines 397 18.5 Pelton Wheel or Turbine 398. 18.5.1 Velocity Triangles or Inlet, Outlet Diagram 399 18.5.2 Design or Working Proportions of a Pelton Wheel 401 18.6 Reaction Turbines 407 18.6.1 Main Parts of Radial Flow Turbine 407 18.7 Inward Flow Reaction Turbine 408 18.7.1 Velocity Triangles and Work Done by the Runner 409 18.7.2 Some Terms and Conditions Used in Reaction Turbines 4il 18.8 Outward Flow Reaction Turbine 414 18.9 Francis Turbine 418 18.10 Kaplan Turbine 422 18.11 Theory of Draft Tube on Pressure and Efficiency 425 18.12 Performance of Turbines 427 18.13 Specific Speed (N,) 429 18.14 Governor to Turbine 431 18.14.1 Working Principle 431 375-394Contents xiii 19, 20. 18.15 Characteristic Curves of Turbines 432 18.16 Model Testing of Turbines 434 18.17 Cavitation in Turbines 436 18.18 Conclusion 437 Problems 437 References 438 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS... 19.1. Introduction 440 19.2 Components of a Centrifugal Pump 440 19.3 Working of Centrifugal Pump 442 19.4 Work Done by the Pump 442 19.5 Head and Efficiency 444 19.5.1 Heads 444 19.5.2 Efficiencies 445 19.6 Least Diameter Impeller 452 19.7 Minimum Starting Speed 453 19.8 Multi-stage Centrifugal Pumps 455 19.9 Specific Speed of Centrifugal Pump (N,) 458 19.10 Model Testing of Pumps 460 19.11 Performance of Pumps: Characteristic Curves 462 19.12 Cavitation in Centrifugal Pump: Limitation to Suction Plot 464 19.13 Conclusion 465 Problems 465 References 467 RECIPROCATING PUMPS 20.1 Introduction 468 20.2 Components of Reciprocating Pumps 468 20.3. Working Principles 468 20.4 Discharge, Work Done and Power Required 469 20.5 Slip in Reciprocating Pump 471 20.6 Classification of Reciprocating Pump 472 20.7 Variation of Velocity and Acceleration 474 20.8 Effects of Friction 476 20.9 Indicator Diagram 478 20.9.1. Ideal Indicator Diagram 478 20.9.2 Effect of Acceleration on Indicator Diagram 479 20.10 Air Vessels 482 20.10.1 Work Done with Air Vessels 483 20.10.2 Work Saved by Fitting Air Vessels 483 20.11 Conclusion 485 Problems 485 References 486xiv Contents 21. 22. MISCELLANEOUS FLUID MACHINES 21.1 Introduction 487 21.2 Different Miscellaneous Fluid Machines 487 21.3 Hydraulic Press 487 21.4 Hydraulic Ram 488 21.5 Hydraulic Lift 490 21.6 Hydraulic Crane 493 21.7 Hydraulic Intensifier 496 21.8 Hydraulic Accumulator 499 21.9 Fluid or Hydraulic Couplings SOL 21.10 Fluid or Hydraulic Torque Converter 503 21.11 Air Lift Pump 503 21.12 Gear Wheel Pump 504 21.13 Conclusion 504 Problems 505 References 506 DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS: PRINCIPLES, TECHNIQUES AND INSTRUMENTS ..... 22.1 Introduction 507 22.2 Historical Review of Hydrometry 507 22.3. Different Methods of Measurements 508 22.4 Current Meter Method 509 22.5 Slope Area Method 510 22.6 Area Velocity Method su 22.7 Pitot Tube Method su 22.8 Float Method 512 22.9 Variable Area Method: Rotameter 512 22.10 Rating Curve Method: Water Stage Recorder 513 22.11 Brink Depth or End Depth Method 514 22.12 Obstruction Meter Method: Venturimeter, Orifice Meter and Nozzle Meter SIS 22.13 Contraction Meter Method Based on Channel Control: Weirs, Notches, Spillway Dams, Culverts, Sluices 515 22.14 Critical Flow Flumes Based on Channel Transition 519 22.15 Salt Velocity Method: Based on Electrical Conductivity 520 22.16 Dilution Technique: Tracer Technique 521 22.17 Moving Boat Method 521 22.18 Echo Sounder Method: Electro Acoustic Instrument 522 22.19 Hydraulic Model Method 522 22.20 Inertia Pressure Method 523 22.21 Ultrasonic Flow Meter Method: Use of Transducers 523 22.22 Laser Doppler Anemometer (LDA) Method 524 487-506Contents XV 22.23 Hot Wire Anemometer Method 525 22.24 Thrupp’s Ripple Method 526 22.25 Bubble Gauge Meter 526 22.26 Electromagnetic Flow Meter: Electromagnetic Method 527 22.27 Dynamometer 528 22.28 Conclusion 531 Problems 531 References 533 Index...a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookFluid Properties 3 end of this century, not enough data was available for comparison in the two fields of hydrodynamics and hydraulics. In 1904, it was Prandtl (1875-1953) in Germany who induced the concept of a boundary layer, a thin layer very close to the boundary in which viscous effects are concentrated. This proved to be the concept which unified all aspects of modern fluid mechanics, aerodynamics, hydraulics, gas dynamics and convective heat transfer. Prandtl is rightly considered to be the father of modern fluid mechanics. Details of history of hydraulics, fluid mechanics have been given by Rouse and Simon!. 1.3 FLUID PROPERTIES 1.3.1 Density or Mass Density (p) It is a measure of concentration of mass, i.e. mass per unit volume is called density. _ f fluid ~ Volume of fluid” density = p The density of liquid may be considered constant as liquids are mostly incompressible while the density of gases changes with pressure and temperature. In SI units, mass density is expressed in kg/m’, For water, p is 1000 kg/m? 1.3.2 Specific Weight (w) It is a force of gravity on the mass contained in a unit volume, ie. specific weight w is the weight per unit volume Weight of fluid _ Mass% Acceleration _ Mass of uid Volume of fluid ~ Vv * Volume of fluid * * w= pg ay The specific weight of water is (9.81 x 1000) newton/m? in SI units. It is equal to 9810 N/m’, 1.3.3 Specific Volume (v) It is the volume per unit mass of fluid. 1 specific volume = + me p It is reciprocal to density and expressed in m/kg. It is most commonly used in gases. 1.3.4 Specific Gravity (s) It is a term used to compare the density of a substance with that of water and hence = Density of uid ~ Density of water density of fluid = specific gravity (s) x density of water (p,.)a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookFluid Properties 7 (ii) Time-dependent fluids: One of these is a thixotropic fluid whose viscosity decreases with time under constant shear rate, while the other is a rheopectic fluid in which viscosity increases with time, (iii) Visco-elastic fluids: Materials such as pitch, flour dough, molted polymers and a few solids exhibit the characterstics of both elastic solids and viscous fluids. (iv) Most complex rheological systems: Some fluids exhibit the characterstics of all the three categories mentioned above. Works on non-Newtonian fluids like thick gooey substances such as paste, printers, ink and slurries are investigated mostly by chemical engineers and by people other fields of science and engineering. Bugliarello, et al* have presented an informative discussion on civil engineering aspects of non-Newtonian fluids. Engineers in the field in many areas are increasingly being confronted with the flow of non-Newtonian fluids in both pipe as well as the design and selection of pumps for the fluids. Bugliarello®® concludes that experiments have shown that the frictional effects for some non-Newtonian fluids are less than those for a Newtonian fluid under equivalent turbulent conditions resulting in a lower pressure drop in pipes and reduced drag on bodies submerged in liquids. The later situations of interest in naval hydrodynamics. Fredrickson’ presented the principles and applications of rheology which is the study of non-Newtonian fluids. 1.3.7 Surface Tension (c) and Capillarity Liquids possess certain properties such as cohesion and adhesion due to molecular attraction. Cohesion refers to the intermolecular attraction between molecules of the same liquid, Adhesion implies the attraction between the molecules of a liquid and those of a solid boundary surface in contact with the liquid. Cohesion enables a liquid to resist tensile force whereas adhesion enables it to stick to another body. Surface tension is caused by cohesion between liquid particles at the surface and its effects occur at liquid-gas or liquid-liquid interfaces. On the other hand, capillarity, i. the rise or fall of a liquid surface in a small tube immersed in liquid is due to both cohesion and adhesion. Surface tension is usually denoted by o (sigma) and is measured in force/unit length, ie. N/m. The value of the surface tension for water at room temperature is 0.0725 N/m while for mercury it is equal to 0.051 N/m. Surface tension (a) in a liquid droplet: If the droplet is cut into two equal halves, the surface tension force acting on the circumforce = 0% length of circumforce = d-o where d is the diameter. If p is the intensity of pressure inside the droplet, the pressure force acting on the area (34) is equal to p- = @. For equilibrium condition, these two forces are equal, ie. o 2d = z pd? o= a. (1.12) If tubes of a small diameter open at both ends, are dipped in water and mercury, the level of liquid in the tube will rise in the case of water and fall in the case of mercury as shown ina You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookFluid Pressure and Its Measurement 19 2.5 ATMOSPHERIC, ABSOLUTE, GAUGE AND VACUUM PRESSURE The pressure exerted by atmosphere upon all surfaces with which it is in contact is called ‘atmospheric pressure’. It varies with altitude and can be measured by barometer. As such, it is also called parametric pressure. At sea level, this atmospheric pressure in SI unit at 15°C is 101.3 KN/m?. It is also expressed in head form which is 10.3 m of water or 760 mm of mercury. Fluid pressure is measured from two arbitrary datum levels ie. (1) from absolute zero pressure and (2) from local atmospheric pressure. (See Figure 2.4). If the pressure is measured from absolute zero (or from complete vacuum) datum, itis called absolute pressure. When measured with respect to atmospheric pressure as datum, it is called gauige pressure. Pressure Gauge pressure — Atmospheric pressure Absolute pressure Vacuum pressure b— Absolute zero Figure 2.4 Relationship of different pressures. 2.6 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE The pressure of fluid is measured by: (1) manometers, and (2) mechanical gauges. 2.6.1 Manometers Manometers are classified as: (a) Simple manometers (b) Differential manometers By using a simple manometer, the pressure at a point of the vessel or pipe can be measured, and differential manometer is used to measure the difference of pressure between two points of the pipe or vessel. Simple Manometer This is a glass tube having one end connected to the point where pressure has to be measured and the other open end is exposed to atmosphere. The common type of simple manometers are:a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookFluid Pressure and Its Measurement 23 Equating the two pressures, p2hg + P\gx + Pp = pig + Pixg + Pa Pa~ Pa = Prhg ~ pilh + x)g + prge Pa Pa = Prhg — prhg = gh(p2 - pi) Pa Ps Consider the differential manometer shown in Figure 2.7(b) whose measuring points A and B are at different levels. The pressure above xx on the left = ph +x) 8+ Ds Pressure in the right limb above xx = pihg + Piys + Pp Equating the pressure and simplifying, we get: Pa — Pa = Prhg + Pryg — pith + x) (2.16) zh ~ pales = F202 — pi) => EA — EB = his si) (2.15) Figure 2.7(b) Differential manometer measuring points at different levels. (i) Inverted U-type manometer Let A and B be at the same level but having different liquid of density p3 and p; xc is the datum as shown in Figure 2.8. Pressure in the left limb below xx Pa~ Prghy Pressure in the right limb below xx Pa ~ Ping — prhg Equating the two pressures and simplifying, we get: Pa Pa = Pilig — prog — prhg (2.17)a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookFluid Pressure and Its Measurement 27 Solution: Let the difference of the mercury level in the manometer be h(m). (Figure 2.10). ‘Taking xx as datum, pressure in the left limb above xx = 10.8 x 10° + (1.594 x 9.81 x 1000) x 4 + (13.6 x 9.81 x 1000)h Pressure in the right limb above xx = (0.8 x 9.81 x 1000) (h + 1.5) + 17.16 x 10* Equating the two forces: 10.3 x 108 + (1.594 x 9.81 x 1000) x 4 + (13.6 x 9.81 x 1000)h = (.8 x 9.81 x 1000)h + 0.8 x 9.81 x 1000 x 1.5 + 17.16 x 10" or (13.6 x 9.81 x 1000)h — (0.8 x 9.81 x 1000)h = 0.8 x 9.81 x 1000 x 1.5 + 17.16 x 10* = 10.3 x 104 - (1.594 x 9.81 x 1000 x 4) (12.5568 x 10')h = 1.1772 x 10* + 17.16 x 108 = 10.3 x 10* - 6.2548 x 10* or (12.5568 x 10*)h = 1.7424 x 10* _ 17424 x10" eS seee I" = 0.13876 m of mercury x = 13.876 cm of mercury Ans. EXAMPLE 2.7. The left limb of a U-tube mercury manometer shown in Figure 2.11 is connected to a pipeline conveying water, with the level of mercury in the left limb being 60 cm below the centre of the pipeline and right limb being open to atmosphere. The level of mercury in the right limb is 45 cm above that of the left limb containing a liquid of specific gravity 0.88 to a height of 30 cm. Find the pressure in the pipe. Figure 2.11 Visual of Example 2.7. Let XX be the datum. Writing the pressure equation for both the left and right limbs above XX in pressure head form, we get: (Figure 2.11) 7 + 60 = 0.45 x 13.6 + 0.30 x 0.88a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookFluid Pressure and Its Measurement 31 80 8 Attitude in km & 20 I 100 --80—C HC 0 20 Temperature C? Figure 2.12 Temperature variation with altitude in different layers of the atmosphere. Substituting the derivative of Equation (2.22) i.e. dT = —Ldz ie. dz = £ i dp _ sdT (2.18a), gives ORL (2.23) Integrating Equation (2.23) log, p = a log, T+ C (2.24a) ‘To obtain constant of integration, at sea level, T = Ty p= Po Equation (2.24a) becomes, log, py = £ log, Ty + C (2.24b) C = log, py - & log. To Putting C in Equation (2.24a) gives loge p = pr WB. T+ log. po- 77 loB. To P)\)_ 8 T or woe. (2) = we. (7) “a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookFluid Pressure and Its Measurement 35 altitude. The pressure and temperature at ground level are 10.143 Nicm* and 15°C, respectively. ‘The density of air is given as 1.285 kg/m’. Solution: Lapse rate a. = -0.0065°k/m, z = 4000 m po = 10.143 x 10*N/m?, ty = 15°C, To = 273 + 15 = 288°k Po = 1.285 kg/m? The temperature at 4000 m height = Ty + £ = 288 + (-0.0065) x 4000 = 288 - 26 = 262°k = 47 __8{k-l tee [Ee] According to Equation 2.21: k-1 0.0065 = -2m[et ] a) Po = PoR To Ra Bo. ~ 10143108 = Pig = Taase ane 7 274075 =-~281_(;_1 (A) becomes -0.0065 = ~ 375 7g (1 i) 1.781494 = 9.81 (1-7) 0.1816 aI- 1 k k= 1.2218 =1- 0.1816 Pressure is given by Equation (2.19) as follows: P k-1 zaps = poji-- Pp | =m torso) (4290 P = 60240.129 N/m? P = 6.024 Nicm? Ans.a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookHydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 43 Rl 5/8 als 0 re wt re baal r 2X @/uld JO JURIPEND ies 4 bP # ee ay1}o-1Wes, i Zz =x ea esdita 4 sik 0 ul ox als 0 xa You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookHydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 47 Resolving all the forces along the gate AB R cos 6= P cos 6 R=P Resolving forces normal to the gate Rsin 6+ P sin @= F or Resin 0+Psin@-F=0 = R=P,F=2Psin@ _ _F Po Fein Go If F and @ are known, P or R may be evaluated. @ is known from the angle made by the gates in closed position at B and the angle between the two gates is (180° - 26). Let H; and Hp be the depths upstream and downstream of the gates, respectively and P; and P, be the water pressure on the gate upstream and downstream, respectively. Let L be the width of the gate. = H, P= pedi hy = pa(Li) 5 = pg L Similarly, P, = pel 8K Resultant F=uP,-P,= oa (H? - H3) If we substitute the known @ and F in Equation (3.7), P is known. If R,, Ry are reactions at the top and bottom hinges, respectively, R = R, + Ry The resultant water pressure F acts normal to the gate. Half of F is resisted by the hinges of one lock gate and other half is resisted by the hinges of the other gate. Also P, acts at "4 and P, acts at “34 from the bottom. ‘Taking the moment about the lower hinge: . P, R, sin n= B x -Bx% (A) where H is the distance between the hinges, Also resolving force horizontally: Rysin 0+ Ry sin @= EB 8) From Equations (A) and (B), R, and Ry can be computed. 3.7 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF TOTAL PRESSURE While designing dams, gates, tanks, etc. in practical field application, it is essential to assess the total pressure and centre of pressure. For example, in the design of a very high dam, the water force upstream is one of the most important forces to be considered in the design.a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookHydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 51 Solution: P= pg A¥ = (1000 x 9.81 x m/4(1.5)? x 2]N P=346714.N Ans. nxist 5 64 Yep = 2% + 5 = |——84 4.2m pe Ay n/4(15)?x 2 Yep = 2.0703 m Ans. EXAMPLE 3.3 A circular plate 2.5 m in diameter shown in Figure 3.10 is immersed in water. Its greatest and least depth below the free surface are 3 m and 1 m, respectively. Find: (a) Total pressure on the face of the plate, (b) Depth of centre or pressure. ‘View normal to circular plate Figure 3.10 Visual of Example 3.3. Solution: The visual of Example 3.3 is drawn in Figure 3.10. P= pg Ay = [rooox9a1 asy(25!)]N P = 96309.45 N Ans. Igsin® "p aye noe 2 sin O= 35 4 inte = 4 sin’ = 695 (25) x 4 Yop = | 625) .2=2125m Fes) x2 Yop = 2.125 m Ans,a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookHydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 55 Centre of pressure of P, is yep xix? (2x) x25 weight of water above DB + 25 = 2.6333 m = [axisxy+ta2*x1] x 1000 x 9.81 N = 60249.024 N Ans. EXAMPLE 3.8 A gate having a shape of a quadrant of circle of 2 m radius has to resist water force as shown. Find the resultant water pressure and angle with horizontal the result acts. Take the unit width of gates. (See Figure 3.15) Figure 3.15 Visual of Example 3.8. Solution: = pata) = [000x981 xaxnx3]N P, = 19620N P, = weight of water (imagined) supported AB g (volume in ABO/unit width) x ¥ 1000 x 9.81 x ( pt) x Lyx W nie [sei0x x41] = 30819024 N. R= \ P2+ Py? = 19620? + 30819.024? = 36534.321 N. Ans. The angle made by R, — Py _ 30819024 _ tan = = ED = 1.57079 6 = 57.51° Ans.a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookHydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 59 34 as 3.6 3.7 3.8 A traitor gate shown in Figure 3.18 is retaining water. Calculate the horizontal water pressure and vertical water pressure assuming the unit metre width of the gate and the resultant of its line of action. (Ans, Py = 19620 N., Py = 7109.3 N R = 20868.31 N @ = tan“ (19.91°) Ohinge Taitor gate Figure 3.18 Visual of Problem 3.4. A trapezoidal plate having its parallel sides 2a and a at a distance A apart is immersed in water with its 2a side towards the water surface vertically and at a distance h from the water surface. Find the water force and depth of centre of pressure in terms a and h. 13lg ah? 3h Ans. — Nap > A triangular gate, which has a base 1.5 m and an altitude of 2 m, lies in a vertical plane. ‘The vertex of the gate is 1 m below the water surface in a tank of oit having specific gravity of 0.8. Find the pressure exerted by the oil of the gate and its depth or centre of pressure. (Ans, P = 27468 N, yep = 2.43 m) A rectangular sluice gate is situated on the vertical wall of a lock. The vertical side of the sluice is 6 m in length and the depth of centroid of area is 8 m below the water surface. Prove that the depth of the centre of pressure is given by 8.475 m. A tank contains water upto a height of 1 m above the base. An immiscible liquid of specific gravity 0.8 is filled on the top of the water upto a height of 1.5 m. Calculate the total pressure on one side of the tank and the position of centre of pressure for one side of the tank which is 3 m wide. (Ans. 76518 N, ycp = 1.686 m) REFERENCES Rouse, H., Elementary Mechanics of Fluid, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., N.Y., 1946. |. Streeter, V.L. and E.B. Waylie, Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1983. Bansal, R.K., Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines, Laxmi Publications, New Delhi, 1983.a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookBuoyancy and Floatation 63 oscillating about this point M, as the force of buoyancy Fe tries to restore the body to its original position with the weight of the body W acting downwards. The distance MG is called metacentric height. Depending upon the position of M (if quite above G) after oscillating under the acting Fy? and WJ, the body will come to its original position. Metacentre or metacentric height is very important in the case of floating bodies like ships, boats, etc. 4.4 DETERMINATION OF METACENTRIC HEIGHT Metacentric height may be determined by two different methods. These are: (i) Experimental Method (i) Analytical Method 4.4.1 Experimental Method The metacentric height of a floating vessel can be determined experimentally, provided that the centre of gravity G of the floating body is known. Consider Figures 4.3(a) and 4.3(b). Let m be a small known weight placed in the centre of the floating body. [Figure 4.3(a)]. (a) Floating vessel is in equilibrium _(b) Floating vessel is tilted by an angle @ by movement of weight m Figure 4.3 Experimental determination of metacentric height. Let W be the weight of the floating body (say a small ship), G be the centre of the gravity of the vessel, and B be the centre of buoyancy. Let the small weight in Figure 4.3(a) move a distance x towards the right. The vessels will be tilted through an angle 8. This @ is measured by a plumbline and protector attached in the vessel. Due to the movement of the small weight m through distance x, the position of G and centre of buoyancy B are shifted to G, and B,, respectively. The moment of the weight W of the vessel due to change G to G, = W. MG tan @. The moment due to movement of weight m through a distance x is mx For equilibrium in Figure 4.4(b), W-MG tan @ = mx. Metacentric height MG = 4.1) mx Wtan@a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookBuoyancy and Floatation 67 force Fp and weight W form a couple in the same clockwise direction, thus tending to increase the angular displacement of the body. Then the floating is considered to be in unstable equilibrium, ive. when M lies below G or BM < BG. °) Y Overtuming couple th il Fa ~Z Right couple (a) Floating body before tilting (b) Floating body after clockwise displacement Figure 4.6 Floating body in unstable equilibrium. 4.5.3 Neutral Equilibrium If the floating body in Figure 4.7(a) is tilted clockwise by a smaller displacement and it may so happen that after displacement, the vertical line passes through a new centre of buoyancy By, passes through the centre of gravity G of the body and then equal forces W and Fg act on the same line from the opposite direction and the floating body neither comes back to its original position nor heels further but remains in equilibrium in position shown in Figure 4.7(b). This condition is stated to be neutral equilibrium i.e. BM = BG. Ce (a) Floating body at rest (b) Floating body after displacement with By and G in same vertical line Figure 4.7 Floating body in neutral equilibrium.a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookBuoyancy and Floatation 71 To find metacentric height, use Equation (4.3), i.e. metacentric height Mg = 3 - BG Tis the moment of inertia about the axis yy in the plan of the body el 3 = Ts jy x4x2 V is the volume water displaced = 4 x 2 x .6 = 4.8 m? B is the centre of buoyancy, G is the CG of the body If A is the bottom of the centre line in xx, i.e. vertical direction AG = 4 205m AB= 2 BG = AG - AB = 05-033 =0.2 m =03m a es MG = 54g ~0? Metacentric height MG is MG = 0.3555 m Ans. EXAMPLE 4.7 A solid cylinder of diameter 3 m has a height 2 m. Find the metacentric height of the cylinder when it is floating with its axis vertical. The specific gravity of the cylinder is 07. Solution: Depth of immersion of the cylinder = (2 x .7)m = 1.4 m If A is at the base of vertical axis, G is the CG of the cylinder, B is the centre of buoyancy, AG = 5 = 1m, AB = bm = 07m. BG = AG - AB BG =1-07=03 m. If MG is the metric height, = 4 pG,12 2 pte BX. ‘ MG=% BG, I= (D'= 64 = 3.976 m where / is the moment inertia of the cylindrical body (circular section in yy direction) V = volume of water displaced = (% Dx 14) m 2 = (22 x] ci - 3 uo = (3976 _ = 9,896 m', ma = (3578 03)m MG = 0.1017778 m Ans.a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookBuoyancy and Floatation 75 If r is the radius of the cone at the water section, r=h tan 6 where @ is the half the angle of cone of vertex Volume of water displaced = fark 4 Moment of inertia I at the water section = Gent = = I art 3 or 3 2 BM=! = weet = 3 hwte Vv axl ah 4 4 4 If M is the metacentre, then = = 3n4 3h tanta = 3, 29) = 3h sect OM = OB + BM = oe git tan = gral + tan?9) = Th sec@ For stable equilibrium OM > OG, metacentre should be above G. 3 2o> 3 ph sect > 3H sec?@ > 4 shown. EXAMPLE 4.11 Show that a cylindrical buoy of 1 m diameter, 2 m high, weighing 7.848 KN will not float vertically in sea water of density 1030 kg/m’. Solution: If metacentre M lies below G, it cannot float vertically or it is unstable. W = 7.848 KN = 7848 N Weight of cylinder = Weight of water displaced 7848 = 1030 x 9.81 x 4D? x h_ where his the depth of immersion or 784 = 1030 x 9.81 x TAP xh h = 0.989 m If A is the point at bottom of cylinder in the vertical axis AB = 9989. - 0.4945 m AG = 2 sim BG = AG — AB = (1.0 — 0.4945)m = 0.5055 m If M is the metacentre, wt Lt -_ 4 _ 0063 m ¥ Fx? x 0.989 BG ~ BM = (0.5055 — 0.063)m = 0.4425 m i.e. G is above metacentre M at a distance 0.4425 m The cylinder is unstable, i.e. it cannot float vertically. BM=a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookKinematics of Fluid Flow 79 5.2.2 Uniform and Non-uniform Flows ‘When certain fluid characteristics, like velocity, density and pressure do not change with respect to space at a given time, the flow is uniform. Mathematically, (%) = 0etc. 9S Hraconsan, sis the space in flow direction. If the above flow characteristics or parameters change with space at a given time, the flow is non-uniform flow. Mathematically, x) a #0 (Fn 5.2.3 Laminar, Turbulent and Transitional Flows ‘When fluid particles move along well-defined paths or streamlines and the paths are parallel and straight, the flow is laminar. Thus the particles move in laminars or layers gliding smoothly over the adjacent layer. Laminar flow is also called viscous flow. The velocity of fluid particles is usually small in laminar flow. If the particles with higher velocity move in a zig-zag manner and eddies are formed, the flow is called turbulent. These flows are normally determined by the Reynolds number which is the ratio of inertia force to viscous force. Reynolds number (R,) is written as R. = 2 , where D is diameter of pipe, v is the kinematic viscosity. In case of open channel flow, the diameter of pipe D may be replaced by four times the hydraulic radius R(R = 4), where A is the area of flow P is the wetted perimeter and thus R, in the open channel VAR a remains to be laminar, and if R, > 4000, flow is turbulent and 2000 < R, < 4000, state of flow remains in a transition from laminar to turbulent. Therefore, investigators in hydraulics claim that the flow between this range of R, (i.e. 2000-4000) is the transitional flow. may be written as Ry = Experimental works in pipe shows that if R, < 2000, the flow 5.2.4 Compressible and Incompressible Flows When the density (p) of the fluid flow changes from point to point, the flow is compressible. Mathematically, p # constant. Normally fluid-like gases are compressible. Although most of the liquids have a constant p, they may also behave as compressible under pressure and temperature. Incompressible flow is that type of flow in which the density remains constant in the flow field. Mathematically, p = constant.a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookKinematics of Fluid Flow 83 a and =- (pwdrdy)dz oy (pwdxdy). The total mass that has remained in the parallelopiped per unit time =| 2H , How , How) ‘ = -[(e ize) ph _ ap 20 aaa “ Since mass of water within parallelopiped is neither created nor destroyed any increase of in the mass of water in this space per unit time is equal to the net total water mass is retained in the parallelopiped. Mass of water in the parallelopiped is (pu -dx-dy-dz) and rate of increase with time 2 (pdedyae) = 2P (andy ry (pdxdydz) = or (dxdydz) (B) By definition of conservation of energy (B) = (A) op Apu) , Apr) , Apw) 2 dy de | + dy tar dx, dy, de Dividing by (dx, dy, dz) and taking the limit that the parallelopiped shrinks to a point (x, y, 2), we have: ap , Apu) , a(pr) , Apw) _ a * ar * ay * oF G4) which is the unsteady continuity equation in compressible flow in three-dimension. If the flow is steady a =0 Now Equation (5.4) becomes Apu), A(pv) , pw) (63) “ox * ay * which is the steady continuity in 3-D for compressible flow. If the fluid is incompressible (ie. say water), p = constant Equation (5.5) becomes du , a ae (5.6) which is the continuity equation of steady flow in three-dimension. In vector notation If V = iu + jv + kw v= dts djs de then Equation (5.6) may-be written as: me ey oe 0 (5.6a) div V=V-V aza You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookKinematics of Fluid Flow 87 22 -y¥ au , av ox * ay? «. The above equation satisfies the 3-D continuity equation in steady flow. y?-227422-y =0 EXAMPLE 5.5 The following case represents the two velocity components, determine the third component of velocity such that it satisfies the continuity equation. u=42 and v= 4xyz. ion: 9 2 gx, % 2 xe Solution: x” 8x, > = 4xz Substituting 2 and 22 in the continuity equation, ax oy areas @ 40 az Ow sex axe or Ow = (8x ~ 4xz)dz Jaw = f C8x- axeyde 2 w = 8x7 — any + Constant of integration Constant of integration cannot be function of z, it is a f(x, y) w = ~Bxz — 2x2? + flx, y) Ans, EXAMPLE 5.6 Calculate the unknown velocity component so that it satisfies the continuity equation. u = 2x7, v = 2xyz ion: 2 ty, % 22g Solution: 3H = 4x, SP = Dee ‘The continuity equation gives: 4x + 2xz + ee =0 Be a de - 2x2 dw = (-4x — 2xz)dz 2 Integrating w= 4x2 — Be = —4xz x27 Ans.a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookKinematics of Fluid Flow 91 5.8.1 Velocity Potential Function (¢) This is defined as a scaler function of space and time such that its negative derivative with respect to any direction gives the fluid velocity in that direction. It is defined mathematically as @ = fix, y, 2) for steady such that at u v=-— (5.16) ‘The continuity equation for an incompressible steady flow is: Substituting u, v, w from Equation (5.16), we get: “&(#) - 33) aC) -° ty ate at a9, 29, FH Lg (5.17) a * ay? * a which is called the Laplace equation in ¢. For two-dimensional flow, Equation (5.17) becomes: ae. ae oe, 6 9 5.18 ant * ay? os) ‘The essential properties of potential function are: (i) Flow should be irrotational. (ii) It represents the possible steady incompressible irrotational flow. =0 5.8.2 Stream Function (y) ‘This is defined as the scaler function of space and time such that its partial derivative with respect to any direction gives the velocity component at right angles to that direction. It is written or denoted by y and defined as only a two-dimensional flow. Mathematically, for steady flow it is defined as y= f(x, y) such that ay. ox LL ay The existence of y means a possible case of fluid flow. The flow may be rotational and irrotational. v (5.19) ua You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookKinematics of Fluid Flow 95 ‘The flow net in the saturated zone of the dam is drawn by the graphical method. Two sets of lines, i.e. equipotential lines and streamlines, are drawn as curvilinear squares. Let the soil be isotropic. Assume the dam section of the unit width. Let f be the flow/unit width of the dam. The flow through the square ABCD (called flow held) by Darcy’s law & is the hydraulic conductivity, AH is the energy or head drop between two equipotential lines, Ax and Ay are defined in Figure 5.7. = Aq=K:iA=k(44) (ay =Aqg=KiA a( ) ayxp = K( AH aq = #( ay Total drop, total head causing the flow B = — Total drop, i. total head causing the flow _ ut No. of investments into which total drop is equally divided AH = ££ , Nq is the number drops in the complete net. a wel H Aq = K—— 4 aH x kay = Ax taken while drawing the flow net) a @ is the total flow through all the channels per unit width of the dam. q=DAq H q= k= x no. of flow channels Na H An, 5.24 wa (5.24) @ is the discharge passing through a flow net and is applicable to isotropic soil (i.e. soil of kH = kv). qek 5.8.5 Source, Sink, Circulation and Vortex A line source is a line of unit length between two parallel planes, a unit distance apart from which fluid flows radially in all directions parallel to the planes [Figure. 5.8(a)]. In Figure 5.8(b), the radial velocity V, is at a radial distance r from the origin in the x-y plane. The volumetric flow rate from this line source of unit length is q = (2ar-V,) wf 2ar From the definition of velocity potential and stream function: owa You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookKinematics of Fluid Flow 99 ion: ini ion is 24 4 2. Solution: The continuity equation is $Y + 5” = 0 (A) u=arv=by ug, w ax ay a+b=0 a = —b shown. 5.8.6 Pathline, Streakline, Streamline and Streamtube A pathline [shown in Figure 5.10(a)] means a path or line described by a single fluid particle as it moves during a period of time. The pathline indicates the direction of velocity of the same fluid particle at a consecutive instant of time. P ial ie — =O a Stagnation point A (@) Pathline (b) Streaklines (c) Streamlines (d) Streamtube Streamlines Figure 5.10 Description of flow pattems by fluid flow lines. A streakline is the locus of the position fluid particles which have passed through a given point (say A) in space in succession. Consider a point A(x}, y1. 21) in space [Figure 5.10(b)]. The various fluid particles which have passed through A in succession lie in some position at a certain instant. The locus of these points constitutes a streakline. Streamlines are lines which show the direction of velocity of the fluid at each point along the line. The tangent at any point is the direction of the velocity of the fluid particle at that point. Streamlines are drawn in Figure 5.10(c) around a submerged object. A streamtube [Figure 5.10(a)] is an imaginary tubular space formed by a number of streamlines. It is the collection of streamlines which would form a small closed passage. There is no flow across the wall of a streamtube. This means that within the streamtube, a small but definite quantity of fluid will flow, ie. the quantity of fluid entering at one end of a streamtube should be equal to the quantity leaving at the other end. 5.9 CONCLUSION The concept of different types of fluid flow like steady, unsteady, compressible, incompressible, uniform, non-uniform, laminar, turbulent, transitional, critical, super-critical, rotational, irrota- tional, one-dimensional, two-dimensional, three-dimensional etc. are presented. Differentiala You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookDynamics of Fluid Flow 103 Again if viscous force is predominant, F,, is negligible. Hence Equation (6.3) becomes: Fag = Fey + Fog + Fry (6.4) Equation (6.4) is called the Navier-stokes equation. If the viscous force is not significant or fluid is ideal, F,, is negligible, Equation (6.4) becomes, Ma, = Fa, + Fg (6.5) Equation (6.5) is called Euler’s equation of motion. 6.3 DERIVATION OF EULER’S EQUATION OF MOTION As seen from Equation (6.5), only force of gravity and pressure are considered in Euler's equation. To derive this Euler’s equation, a streamline in direction of $ is considered as shown in Figure 6.1. A cylindrical element of cross-section dA and length dS is considered. The pressure force in the direction of flow and the gravity force actions vertically downwards on this cylindrical element W = pe(dAds) Figure 6.1 Pressure and gravity forces on fluid element. (Pressure force pdA in the direction of 5. (i) Pressure force (° +2) A opposite to the direction of flow. (iii) Gravity force or weight of the cylindrical element acting vertically downwards equal to pg(dAds). Let @ be the angle between the direction of flow and line of action of gravity forces. The resultant pressure on the elemental cylindrical fluid is equal to the mass of the fluid multiplied by the acceleration a, in the S-direction. pas ~ (p+ 22d) da - pedAds cos 0= planes) a )a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookDynamics of Fluid Flow 107 Pipe . Pipe Converging Converging Throat : oped Piezometer wd. —/ with heavy liquid h (a) Venturimeter with manometer (b) Venturimeter with piezometer Figure 6.3 Venturimeter. Let Q be the discharge flowing through a pipe where the venturimeter is fitted. Let d, = diameter of pipe at inlet. Pi = pressure intensity at inlet ie. in the pipe. V, = is the average velocity of pipe at inlet, A, = area of the pipe at inlet = (4a?) Similarly d, p2, V2 and Az are diameter, pressure, velocity, and area at the throat. Applying Bernoulli's equation at inlet and at the throat, we get: poy ve mr, VE Qe Be hay Bee 1 pe” 2g a ps og If the pipe is horizontal, Z, = Zp a wlan Me +p eB e pg 2g pg og pm) Vi, ve or BPs 2, A) i ») 2g 2g ” the difference of the pressure heads between the inlet and the throat and is equal to h metre measured by a manometer [Figure 6.3(a)] or by two piezometers [Figure 6.3(b)]. If measured by two piezometers, h is equal to the head of liquid flowing. If differential manometer is used, and if S,, is the specific gravity in the liquid in the manometer,a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookDynamics of Fluid Flow TI Pi ~ P2 = 352.777 + 30)pg_ But pg for oil specific gravity 0.9 Pi ~ pa = (3.82777 x 8829) Nim? = (9 x 1000 x 9.81) = 8829 = 33795.38 Nim? Pi-p2= BRN Nicm? = 3.379538 N/cm? ‘Ans. 6.5.2 Orifice Meter ‘This is also a device for measuring the discharge flowing through a pipe. It works in the same principle as that of the venturimeter with the application Bernoulli's and continuity equations. It is a flat circular plate which has a circular sharp-edged hole called ‘orifice’ which is concentric with the pipe. The diameter of the orifice varies from 0.4 to 0.8 times of the pipe diameter. A differential manometer or two piezometers are inserted at inlet which is about 1.5 to 2.0 times the distance upstream of the orifice and other one at about half the diameter of the orifice. Figure 6.5. Orifice meter. Applying Bernoulli's and continuity equation, the same equation of discharge like venturimeter is obtained, ie. Here C, is much smaller than the venturimeter as some loss occurs due to contraction and expansion of flow. Here C, varies from 0.60 to 0.65. 6.5.3 Pitot Tube The pitot tube is another flow measuring device where Bernoulli's and continuity equations are used. Henri de Pitot, a French Engineer in 1732, adopted this tube for measuring velocity in the river Seine. The basic principle used in this device is that if the velocity of flow at a particular point is reduced to zero, which is called the stagnation point, the pressure there increases due toa You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookDynamics of Fluid Flow 115. 6.2 63 64 65 6.6 6.7 68 A pipe through which water is flowing, has diameters 0.2 m and 0.1 m at cross-sections 1 and 2, respectively. The velocity of flow at | is 4 nvsec. Find the velocity head at sections 1 and 2 and the discharge. (Ams. 0.815 m, 83.047 m, Q = 0.1256 m/sec) A pipe of diameter 0.4 m carries water at velocity of 25 m/sec pressure at section 1 and 2 are given 29.43 N/em? and 22.563 Nicm?, respectively while the datum at | and 2 are 28 m and 30 m. Find the loss of head between I and 2. {wins Z,+ 2+ Maz 4B Eres) (Am. Loss = 56 m of water) ps 28 ps 28 An oil of specific gravity 0.8 is flowing through a horizontal venturimeter having an inlet diameter of 20 cm and throat diameter 10 cm, The differential manometer with mercury shows a reading of 25 cm. Calculate the-discharge if C, of the venturimeter is 0.98. (Ans. 70.465 litres/sec) A horizontal venturimeter with an inlet diameter of 20 cm and throat dia 10 cm is used to measure the flow of oil of specific gravity 0.8. The discharge of the oil is 60 litres/ sec. Find the reading in the mercury manometer if C, of the venturimeter is 0.98. (Ans. 18.12 cm) A. 20cm x 10 om venturimeter is inserted in a vertical pipe carrying oil of specific gravity 0.8, the flow of oil in upward direction. The difference of level between the throat and inlet section is 50 cm. The mercury differential manometer gives a reading of 30 cm of mercury, Find the discharge of the oil. Neglect losses. (Hints: Neglect loss means Cy = 1) (Ans. 78.725 litres/sec) An orifice meter with orifice diameter 10 cm is inserted in a pipe of 20 cm diameter. The pressure gauges fitted upstream and downstream of the orifice give readings of 19.62 N/cm? and 9.81 N/cm? respectively. If the coefficient of discharge is 0.6, find the discharge. (Ans, 68.21 litres/sec) A Pitot tube is used to measure the velocity of water in pipe. The stagnation pressure head is 6 m and the static pressure head is $m. Calculate the velocity of flow taking the coefficient of Pitot tube to be 0.98. (Ans. 5.49 m/sec) REFERENCES Prandtl, Essential of Fluid Dynamics, Hafner Publishing Company, New York, 1952. Robertson, J.M., Hydrodynamics in Theory and Application, Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, 1965. Lamp, H., Hydrodynamics, Cambridge University Press, London, 1932 Liemann, H.W. and A. Roshko, Elements of Gas Dynamics, John Wiley & Sons. Inc., New York, 1956. Miline-Thomson, L.M., Theoretical Hydrodynamics, Macmillan, New York, 1960. Streeter, V., Fluid Dynamics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1948. Yuan, $.W., Foundations of Fluid Mechanics, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi, 1976. Rouse, H., Advanced Mechanics of Fluid, John Wiley & Sons., Inc., London, 1965. Munson, B.R., DF. Young and Okiishi, Fundamental of Fluid Mechanics, Wiley Text Books, 2001a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookFlow Through Pipes 119 This friction factor fis not constant, as it varies with the roughness of the pipe surface and the Reynolds number of flow. In order to determine the loss of head due to friction correctly, it is important to assess the f correctly for the pipe surface and flow conditions. When the flow is laminar, ie. R, < 2000 64 =a 7.4) R ¢ Blasius gave (7.5) when (7.6) and the following for rough turbulent flow: 1 ie aioe an VF from the experimental data of Nikuradse (1932). Colebrook and White (1938) combined Equations (7.6) and (7.7) to present the following equation, known as the Colebrook-White equation, which is valid for any type of roughness (smooth to rough) in turbulent flow. += zen (sri0* 251 ) (7.8) ard 371D RIF In Equations (7.7) and (7.8) ks is the equivalent sand roughness size of Nikuradse. In Equations (7.6) and (7.8), the solution for fis implicit. Therefore, the method of trial and error needs to be used for its evaluation. Direct approximate solutions for both equations are given by Barr (1973), which are expressed as: Sf = 1.785 logig Re — 1.424)?" (7.6a) 5.1286 )-( ral (78a) 7.4 OTHER ENERGY LOSS IN PIPE FLOW The various losses of energy in pipe flow are classified as: and (i) Major losses (i) Minor losses Major loss occurs mainly due to friction which is already discussed in Section 7.3. It is very important for a long pipeline with higher velocity as hyis directly proportional to length L and V? as seen from the Darcy-Weisbach equation.120 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines The minor losses occur due to a change in the magnitude of velocity. For a long pipeline, minor losses are small as compared to loss due to friction, which may be neglected without serious error. In short pipelines, these minor losses are important. The following are the minor losses: M-¥s)* (Loss of energy due to sudden expansion of pipe, hy, = “15 & 2 (11) Loss of energy due to sudden contraction, hy, = 0. se & (II) Loss of energy at entrance, hy, = 0.5 Y ‘8 (IV) Loss of energy at exit, hy = y 8 eae) (V) Loss of energy due to gradual enlargement and contraction, hy : 8 2 (VI) Loss of energy at bends, fy, = ior (VID) Loss of energy in various pipe fittings, h, = xy & It can be seen that the minor losses are dependent on the velocity head. The above sions of minor losses clearly show that they are quite small compared to head lost due to 7.5 LOSS DUE TO SUDDEN ENLARGEMENT In Figure 7.1, it can be seen that the pipe suddenly expanded from area Ay to Az. Eddies are formed at the two corners and these give a pressure opposing the flow direction equal to p'(Ay — Ay). If h, is the loss of head due to sudden enlargement, we may write the Bernoulli’s ‘equation as follows: i.e. Bernoulli's equation at 1-1 and at 2-2, we get: nw am, Ww age tee eth Z, = Zy taking the pipe to be horizontal ) + agi vb (a) Change of momentum of control volume of liquid between 1-1 and 2-2 E forces acting on this in the flow direction [(p AzV2)V2 — Cp AiVi)Vil = prAy + P12 — Ai) — P2Ao = PrA2 ~ P2Aa = Aa(P1 ~ Pr) or PAWS — pA\Vi = Ar(p1 - Pr) @®)Flow Through Pipes 121 Eddi 2 Figure 7.1. Sudden enlargement. Continuity equation gives: V, A, = ye 2 V2 2 (B) becomes: pA2V2 — py-A2Vi = Ax(P1 — Pa) A pA2(V3 — ViV2) = Aa(p1 - pa) V3 -V,V, = PL — Pe PVN Dividing by g, we get: V2 _ A Ba) g wow (2-4) = © wow Substituting the value of (2 - 2) from (C) in (A), we get: h Ve =ViV> + ve ve _ We = Vp +V2-Ve ° 2g 2g 2g VitVe -2MVe b= | tree 2g (V, - V2)? 4, = ah 05) 28 which gives the loss of energy f, due to sudden expansion. This loss of head equation was first obtained by J.C. Borda and L. Carnot and is therefore known as the Borda~Carnot equation of head loss.122. Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines 7.6 LOSS DUE TO SUDDEN CONTRACTION In the contraction zone, CC is called vena contracta, i.e. the smallest cross-section of flow. Let A, be the loss due to sudden contraction as shown in Figure 7.2. Figure 7.2 Sudden contraction. Applying Equation (7.9) for sudden enlargement from CC to 22, we get: 2 = WemMyY VE (Ve ham 2g 2g V2 i “ From continuity (applying in CC and 22), AV. = AV» Veo Aa ot La Vy, A (A) CG ® Ay where C, is the coefficient of contraction usually less than unity and is assumed to be 0.62. vifa_y 2g LC vi 2g Substituting He in (A), _ K vine = ( 2 h. = 0375 ¥2 2g If C, is not given, head loss due to contraction is taken as: he = 05 ME (7.10) 2g EXAMPLE 7.1 The discharge through a pipe is 200 litres/sec. Find the loss of head when the pipe is suddenly enlarged from 150 mm to 300 mm diameter.Flow Through Pipes 123 Solution: Continuity gives AyV, = A,V> = 200 litres/sec (150)? = = (3m - +(3) MiG (ipo) Ver where V; and V2 are in decimeter/sec +: 1 dm? = 1 litre Vi = 113.1768 dm/sec, V2 = 28.294 dmv/sec. 2. Loss of head due to sudden enlargement is (V-V2)? _ (113.1768 - 28.294)? he 2g 2x981x10 fh, = 36.723 dm h = 3.6723 m of water Ans, EXAMPLE 7.2 A horizontal pipe of diameter 400 mm is suddenly contracted to 200 mm. The pressure intensities in the large and smaller ends of the pipe are given as 14.715 N/cm? and 12.753 Nicm®, respectively. If Ce = 0.62, find the loss of head due to sudden contraction. Also determine the discharge. Solution: D, = 400 mm = 0.4 m A, = m/4(.4) = 0.12566 m? D3 = 200 mm = 0.2 m Ay = m/4(.2? = 0.03141 m? py = 14.715 Néem? = 14.715 x 10" N/m? Pz = 12.753 Nim? = 12.753 x 10* N/m? Applying Bernoulli's equation at 1-1 and 2-2, we get: 2 A, Wi Ze ey i+ y * og fa 14.715x10* — 12.753x10* 1000 x 981 1000 x 981 ate Phy VE fh wt 2g 0 horizontal, Z; = Zp Seg, 0 1 2 ago Vi) + he 1 y3- yy = V3 = V3 2g 2 D + he (14.175 = 12.753) x 104 = oy (V3 = VB) + he 7) Continuity gives A,V; = A2V2 Aly, _ 012566 Ga = == = é = 0.25V Vas Sov = Garg Ma ava Vi = 02502 oVi(i. vi he = vd ‘) 0.375 5124 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines Equation (A) now becomes: 2g(15 — 13) = [VF - (0.25 V3)"] + 0.375 VB 2x 9.81 x 2 = (1 — 0.0625 + 0.375) B 39.24 = 1.3125 V3 2. Vp = 5.4678 misec Q = AV) = (.03141 x 5.4678) m*/sec Q = 0.17174 m/sec Ans. _ 546787 hee (osrs4s28") m of water he = 0.5714 m of water Ans. EXAMPLE 7.3 Calculate the discharge of water flowing through a pipe of diameter 300 mm when difference of pressure head between two ends of a pipe 400 m long is 5 m of water. The value of friction factor of the pipe is 0.00225. Solution: D = 300 mm = 0.3 m A = m/4(.3)? = 0.07068 m? 400 m, f = 0.00225 We know difference pressure head is equal to hy _ flv? and y= Sep ie. 5 = 200225 x 400 xv? ~ ~~ 2x 981x03 V = 5.7184 m/sec Q = A-V = (0.07068 x 5.7184) m*/sec Q = 0.0404176 m/sec Ans. EXAMPLE 7.4 An oil of specific gravity 0.8 is flowing through a pipe of diameter 300 mm at the rate of 500 lits/sec. Find the head lost due to friction and power required to maintain the flow for a length 1000 m. Take v = 0.29 stoke. Solution: D = 300 mm = 0.3 m, ». A = 7 (0.3)? = 0.07068 m* Q = 500 lits/sec = 0.5 m*/sec L= 1000 m, v= 2 5 a = 0.07068 = 7.07413 m/sec Reynolds number R, = Y%P = 707413x03 _ 7 348 x 108 < 108 v ~ 029x 10 So we may use the Blasius equation to find the friction factor. ie. f= B16 ~ o01921Flow Through Pipes 125 2 2 Head lost due to friction hy = LEY = 001921 10002<7.07415" 2D 2x981x03 hy = 163.325 m Ans. 4 Phy | 981X08x1000x 5x 163325 Power required = “Tah kw = ROR kw = 640.318 kw. Ans. EXAMPLE 7.5 Determine the discharge of water through a pipe of diameter 0.1 m and length of 60 m when one end of the pipe is connected to a tank and the other end of the pipe is open to atmosphere. The height of the water in the tank from the centre of the pipe is 4 m. The pipe is horizontal and the friction factor is 0.04. Consider minor losses. (See Figure 7.3). L=50m,D=0.1 m, f= 0.04 Figure 7.3. Visual of Example 7.5. Solution: If Vis the velocity through the pipe, applying Bemoulli’s equation at tank water surface and pipe outlet, we get 2 2 BM 4 z= 4M 42,4 all losses pg 2g pg 2g Considering datum line through the centre line of the pipe, 2 0+044=0+ e +0 + Waccouance +h) 8 P, and p2 exposed to atmosphere, p; = p2 = 0 _ FLV? _ 004 x50xVF and al: = so 2eD ~ 2x981x01 42% 11405 +20) 2g 4x2™ 981 us 7" V2 = 1.910558 m/sec126 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines Q = A-V2 = (/4(0.1 x 1.910558) m/sec Q = 0.015005 m/sec = 15.005 litres/sec Ans, 7.7 HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE AND TOTAL ENERGY LINE In the study of the flow of fluid in pipes (or water in open channel), the concepts of the Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) and Total Energy Line (TEL) are very important. These two lines may be understood clearly from the following discussion Consider a long pipe carrying liquid from a reservoir A to reservoir B (Figure 7.4). Level if there is no flow Reservoir 4 Figure 7.4 Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) and Total Energy Line (TEL). At some points, piezometers are installed. While the liquid flows under pressure, the liquid level in the piezometer will rise to a certain height, depending on the pressure at that point. If the levels of the piezometer are joined, the line obtained is known Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL). The height of the piezometer above the centre line of the pipe represents the pressure (p/w) head at that section. Loss of energy due to friction takes place along the length of the pipe and hence that HGL is gradually falling. Thus at any section, the vertical distance between the HGL and the centre line of the pipe is equal to the pressure head. If an arbitrary datum is considered, then (-+2) represents the piezometric head. The Total Energy Line (TEL) as shown in the Ww. Figure 7.4 is at vertical distance of V/2g above HGL. Entry loss, exit loss and friction loss, all are shown in the Figure. Figures 7.5(a) and 7.5(b) show the HGL and TEL in two different situations.Flow Through Pipes 127 te Entry loss (0.5 7/28) DATUM (a) HGL and TEL of pipe discharging to atmosphere Loss at entrance 0.5 ¥7/2, Loss at exit Reservoir B (b) Pipe in series showing HGL and TEL Figure 7.5 HGL and TEL of different pipes in different situations. 7.8 FLOW THROUGH LONG PIPES UNDER CONSTANT HEAD H Figure 7.6 shows a long pipeline of length L, and diameter D connecting two reservoirs A and B. Water flows through this long pipe from A to B under constant head H = (H, ~ Hs) with a velocity V. Applying Bernoulli's equation at the water level in A and at the end section of the pipe at B, Za + Hy = Z_ + Hy + Losses v2 v2 Zq+ Hy = Zp + Hy [O55 thy +5128 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines fL\ v2 [iss e\e AL Z Pipe of length £ ~ diameter D Datum: Figure 7.6 Flow through long pipe under constant head difference of H. Equation (7.11) shows that the difference in water levels between the two reservoirs is equal to the sum of various energy or head losses. From this equation, unknown velocity V through the pipe can be computed when the difference of water level H between the two reservoirs, length L, diameter D and friction factor f of the pipe, are known. If the pipe is long, the loss of head due to friction is very large as compared to other minor losses like losses at entrance and exit. If these losses are neglected for a long pipe, Equation (7.11) becomes: fLV? 2gD 2gDH H (7.12) fi 7.9 PIPE IN SERIES OR COMPOUND PIPE Figure 7.5(b) in Section 7.7 is an example of a pipe in series or compound pipe. When a pipe connecting two reservoirs is made up of different diameters D,, D>, D3, etc. and lengths L,, L2, Ls, etc. all are connected end to end (i.e. in series), it is called a compound pipe. In such cases, the discharge through each pipe is the same, i.e. Q= gpm = 1 DW = 4 Divs and the difference of water level between the two reservoirs is equal to all head losses.Flow Through Pipes 129 je Ve. Al¥e . O5V2 | folV2 . (V2-Vs)? | falaV? ie A, zoste g Ab , O82, Abvz , WarV , fabs ee 2g © 2gd * 2g” 2gdy 28 2gDs If the minor losses are neglected, ve + 3p 7.13) 4 fli, falvd (7.14) 2D; * 2g; 7.10 EQUIVALENT PIPE A compound pipe of several diameters and lengths [Figure 7.5(b)] may be replaced by a single pipe of uniform diameter. This new pipe of uniform diameter is called ‘equivalent pipe’. The uniform diameter of the pipe is also known as the equivalent diameter of the compound pipe. The size of equivalent pipe may be computed as follows. Neglecting minor losses, head lost (/) in the compound, the pipe of Figure 7.5(b) is: ~ flv, flVE , fibve f= “7eD, * “2D, * 24D, Assuming f, = fp = fi, ~ f[ LY, bv? , Lyi Ay fee a ae (A) Continuity gives, @ = BoM = IMs = IVs 40% apt woah n(n Substituting V}?, V3 and V} in (A) and simplifying, f @lh bib Aya 14243 B = 3e (7) DF DS DS ®) 4 If V, D and L are the velocity, diameter and length of the equivalent pipe, respectively, and this pipe carries the same discharge and assuming the head lost in the equivalent pipe is the same as that of the compound pipe, the loss of the head in the equivalent pipe is: (©) (7.15) Equation (7.15) is known as the Dupuits equation. If L = L; + Ly + Ls, D can be computed. Thus this diameter D of the equivalent pipe may be used in the equivalent pipe.130 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines 7.11 PIPES IN PARALLEL Figure 7.7 is an example of pipe in parallel connection. When the main pipe is divided into two ‘or more pipes join again to continue as the main pipe, pipes are said to be parallel. As shown in Figure 7.7 head lost due to friction in both the pipes from A to B are the same. Figure 7.7 Pipes in parallel. 2 > Here Q = Qi + Qy and hy= LAM = SLY it the values of f for both the pipes are the 2gD, ~ 2gD, same. _ flv _ lve t= Bo = aap (7.15a) 7.12 FLOW THROUGH A BYE-PASS PIPE Sometimes in a city water supply mains, bye-pass pipes are necessary as shown in Figure 7.8. It is a diversion of main flow in a small pipe which later joins the main pipe at some downstream point. If point (1) is the inlet of the pass and (2) is the outlet, Difference of head between (1) and (2) is: = LE fl ot 2gD ~ 2¢d 28 Hy - Hy Ly? be 2 kK WW" 2 Lg here k = & at 7Flow Through Pipes 131 Figure 7.8 Flow through a bye-pass pipe. or Q= fy 2% 2 (EC) a. SEB or ee q . 2 ( “ 2-H 4 Q qe Q (7.16) which is the relation between Q and q. 7.13 FLOW THROUGH SIPHON PIPE A siphon is a long bent pipe used to carry water from a higher reservoir A to a lower reservoir B when the two reservoirs are separated by hill or higher level ground, as shown in Figure 7.9. Hydraulic grade line cuts the siphon at C and i.e. pressure at C and D is atmospheric.132 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines S (Summit) Figure 7.9 Siphon pipe carrying water from reservoir A to B. The pressure in the siphon above C and D is below atmospheric or negative. At the highest point S ie. in summit is the least. Theoretically, the pressure at S may be reduced to 10 m of water (atmospheric pressure is 10 m of water). This limit tends to a perfect vacuum and hence no flow will take place. In practice if the pressure is reduced to 2.4 m of water absolute or 7.6 m of water vacuum, dissolved gases come out of the water and collect at the summit S forming an air lock which may stop the flow. Therefore, the siphon should be laid in such a way that no portion of the pipe should be more than 7.6 m about the hydraulic gradient. Preferably, the summit $ should always be below 7.6 m to ensure smooth flow in the siphon. In order to allow the siphon to run the following conditions need to be satisfied. Applying Bernoulli’s equation at points A and B, eos, H= 0550 + 29 + 29D = Mis. H= v(is+ £) (7.17) If h is the vertical distance between the upper reservoir level at A and submit S, apply Bemoulli’s equation at points A and $ to get Pa _ Ps , VW? v2. flv? wom wt 2g 79595 + agp th Po Pe. isthe atmospheric pressure, Ps where P+ is the absolute pressure at summit, lis the inlet leg (C5) of the siphon 2 or hee Pe Be se(15+ 4) (7.18)Flow Through Pipes 133 For the siphon to carry the water safely, h should be lower than that given in Equation (7.18) or the inlet leg / may be adjusted so that the pressure at the submit is not reduced below the permissible limit. EXAMPLE 7.6 Determine the difference of the water level between two reservoirs which are connected by a horizontal pipe of 30 cm, and length 400 m. The discharge through the pipe is 0.3 m/sec. Consider all losses and take f to be 0.032. Solution: Considering all losses, if H is the difference of the water level fl). ‘ Then H= Cised (ie. Equation 7.11) Now = f = 0.032, L = 400 m, D= 0.3 m, Q=0.3 m/sec AV=0 nAO.3Y x V= 0.3 V = 4.2441 misec fl = 42440 s+ wee D 2x981 03 H = 40.547 m Ans. + EXAMPLE 7.7 A siphon of diameter 0.2 m connects two reservoirs A and B with a difference of elevation as 20 m. The length of the siphon is 500 m and the summit is 3 m above the water level of the upper reservoir. The length of the siphon from upper reservoirs to the summit is 100 m. Determine the discharge through the siphon and the pressure at the summit. Neglect minor losses. The friction factor of the pipe is 0.02. Solution: Applying Bernoulli's theorem at the water surface at A and at B: PA ve flv? ps ag + 28+ 5ep i = i = atmospheric pressure, Vy = Vp = 0 _ flv? 2p ~2n= 2gD Let Z-Za=H=20m 0.02 x 500 x V? 205 B= “5598102 V = 2.8012 m/sec Q=Ax V= m/4(.2)? x 2.8012 = 0.088 m*/sec. Ans. Ps To find pressure at submit, ie. 75, w134 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines Apply Bernoulli's equation at A and submit S, taking the upper reservoirs level as datum Sve 28 2 2 Pa VA ze BAW 7 w * 2g w 2x981 2x981x2 Ps, 28012? | 0.02 x 100 x 28012? = = -7.39928 m Ans. EXAMPLE 7.8 Two reservoirs are connected by three pipes in series. The lengths of the pipes are 300 m, 170 m and 210 m, respectively and the corresponding diameters are 0.3 m, 0.2 m and 0.4 m. Determine the rate of flow if friction factors of the three pipes are 0.02, 0.0208, 0.0192, respectively. Consider only loss due to friction if the difference of water level is 12 m. ALY , fbve , fala¥e Heft, Bee a3 (A) 2d, * 2D, * 2gDs “ where f, = 0.02, fr = 0.0208, f, = 0.0192, L, = 300 m, Ly = 170 m, Ls = 210 m, D, = 03 m, D = 0.2 m, Dy = 0.4 m, H = 12 m. Continuity gives AjV, = A2V2 = A3V3 Solution: Rgyi 4 (03) Vp = Ay, = 4 _y,=225y, 2 2 (2) 4 503? Vy= V, = 0.5625, = ay * 0. 2 2y2 (A) becomes: 12 = 092%300VF , 00208170225)? 2x981x03 2x 981x02 0.0192 x 210 x (5625)? x V;? 2x981x04- 12 = -¥?_[:002 x 300 , 0.0208 % 170 x 225)" , 00192210 (05625)? ~ 2x 981 03 02 04 = we 12 = (112.694376) YE V, = 1.4454 misecFlow Through Pipes 135 Q = A\V, = [2/403 x 1.4454] m/sec Q = 0.102193 m/sec Q = 102.193 litre/sec Ans. EXAMPLE 7.9 Three pipes of lengths 800 m, 400 m and 200 m and diameters of 0.6 m, 0.4 m and 0.2 m, respectively, are connected in series. These pipes are to be replaced by an equivalent pipe of length 1400 m. Assuming the friction factor of the compound pipe to be the same, determine the equivalent diameter of the equivalent pipe. Solution: If D,, D2, and D3 are the diameters of the compound pipes, and D is the diameter of the equivalent pipe, then applying the formula in Equation (7.15) of the equivalent pipe. Liat, kh, A D> Dt oD (A) where L = 1400 m, Ly = 800 m, Lz = 400 m, Ly = 200 m, D, = 0.6 m, D; = 0.4 m, Dy = 0.2 m. Substituting the above values in (A): 1400 800 * * D> (06) (04)° (0.2)° ma = 10288.06584 + 39062.5 + 625000 = 974350.5658 D=027m Ans. EXAMPLE 7.10 A main pipe is divided into two parallel pipes in series, which again forms one pipe. The length and diameter of the first parallel pipe is 1000 m and 0.5 m, while the length and diameter of the second pipe in series are 1000 m and 0.4 m, respectively. Find the discharges in each parallel pipe if the rate of flow in the main pipe is 1.5 m*/sec. Assume the friction factors of both the parallel pipes to be equal. Solution: If L, and Dy are the length and diameter of the first pipe Lz and D; are the length and diameter of the second parallel pipe, and f is the friction factor of the both the pipes. Then the friction loss in both pipes is the same. n= LAME _ flav? We 28D, 28D, 2 2 or LY _ LV} 2gD, 2D, Here L, = L, = 1000 m, D, = 0.5 m, D, = 0.4 m 1000xv?_ _ _1000xv7 2x981x05 ~ 2x981x04 V2 v= is136 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines Q= 75) x “YA 2 0.17562 Vy [125 Q = 7 (0.4)? x Vp = 0.12566 V2 But O, +O) =15 0.17562V, + 0.12566 V; 1s V2 = 4.9787 misec 4.453 m/sec Q) = [7/4(.5)? x 4.453] m/sec = 0.8743 m*/sec Ans. Q> = O - Q, = (1.5 - 0.8743) = 0.6257 m/sec Ans. EXAMPLE 7.11 Three pipes of the same length L, same diameter D and the same friction factor f, are connected in series. Determine the diameter D of the pipe of the same length L and same friction factor f, which will carry the same discharge for the same head loss. i LV Solution: hy = hy, shy = oe Again QO = =O; Total discharge to be carried by the new pipe = Q = Q; + Q2 + Qs or Q=30) = (A) If D, is the new diameter of the single pipe of same length L which will carry the total discharge Q, i.e. 3Q, with a new velocity V,: Then Tne x V, = 3(@/4)D?-V 3x g -% ®) Head loss in the single pipe is the same as the loss of three pipes. FLV? _ fla 2gD, Vn ‘Substituting Vv in (B): 2 v2 3{ 2.) . Br pi) > peFlow Through Pipes 137 ps? 8 » DS? = 3p” B= Si Di? = 3D D, = GD*?)% = 1.55184 D Ans. 7.14 POWER TRANSMISSION THROUGH PIPES Power may be transmitted by a flowing liquid through a pipe. It depends on the weight of the liquid that flows through the pipe, length of the pipeline, total head available at the end of the pipe (which is also dependent on the friction factor of the pipe), etc. Consider a AB of length L connected to a tank with a head of water H (See Figure 7.10). If d is the diameter of the pipe, fis the friction factor and V is the velocity of liquid in the pipe, then considering loss of energy due to friction only (assuming the pipe to be long) Now head available at the end point B is = H ~ hy Weight W of water flowing through the pipe per sec, W = (pg) (volume of water/sec) W = (pg) [(n/Ad*) x V] = Fest The power P transmitted at the outlet B of the pipe: P = (Weight of liquid/sec) x head available at B or P= Gpedv x (H — hy) watts P= [eed'v ai) |n1000 kw (7.19) Efficiency (7) of power transmission: _ Power available at outlet of the pipe * Power supply at the inlet of the pipe W(H-hy) “ WxH H In order to obtain the condition for maximum efficiency, differentiate the power P (ie. expression given by Equation 7.19) with respect to V and equate it to zero for maximum P. dP) oe PB ap df yy fl? = d@ (wv 2—D | 7 H-h n= ( £ x100) (7.20) dv 4 10005 dV138 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines i aE (7.21) which is the condition for maximum efficiency. IK Figure 7.10 Power transmission through pipe. EXAMPLE 7.12 A pipe of diameter 0.4 m, and length 400 m is used for the transmission of power under a head of 400 m at the inlet of the pipe. Find the maximum power available at the outlet of the pipe. Assume friction factor f of the pipe to be 0.025. Solution: For power to be maximum, H = 3hy H_ 420, hye HO 40m 2 2 Again hy= i 7 ee mw = 127.421 V'm Equating the two hy 140 = 127.421 V = 1.0482 m/sec O=UVi= [zee x 10482] rw/eec Q = 0.13172 m/sec Head available at outlet of the pipe is: H ~ hy ie. = 420 - 140 = 280 m paQx280 _ 1000x981 x 013172 x 280 1000 - 1000 361.8085 kw Ans. Maximum power available 4Flow Through Pipes 139 7.15 WATER HAMMER IN PIPES When water with high velocity flows in a long pipe or tunnel and when the valve at the end of the pipe is closed suddenly, the flow of water is stopped and momentum of the flowing water is destroyed which leads to a sudden high rise of pressure very close to the valve. The high rise of the pressure moves upstream with a speed equal to the velocity of the sound wave and downstream to the valve. This movement of pressure up and down continues until it is damped down by friction. The movement of high rise of pressure has a hammering action on the walls of the pipe and hence this is called water hammer. This water hammer situation occurs most commonly in hydroelectric projects, wherein a long pipeline is required to convey water from the reservoir to the powerhouse and commonly valves are required to close for no-load conditions, Since the pressure rise becomes too high, sometimes the pipe may burst. To ease out the high pressure, a high head hydropower plant is provided with a surge tank close to the valve to absorb a reasonable part of the pressure. Pressure rise due to the water hammer depends on the velocity of the flow, the time of the valve closure, and elastic properties of the fluid and pipe material. 7.15.1 Pressure Intensity Due to Gradual Closure of Valve Let L be the length, A be the area of the pipe. V is the velocity before closing. p; is the intensity of the pressure wave produced Mass of water in the pipe = pAL The valve is closed gradually in a time of T secs and water is brought to rest in 1 sections iy. | Fe Retardation = Change of velocity _V-O _v time T "T Retarding force = mass x retardation piA= pac. = ae Pi eve (7.22) * i Pst H= oe (7.23) If closure of T > 2b . it is said to be gradual, and if T< 2p . it is said to be sudden, where C is the velocity of the pressure wave in the fluid media.140 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines 7.15.2 Sudden Closure: Pipe is Elastic and Water is Compressible In sudden closure, the pressure rise is very high. Due to this very high rise of pressure, the pipe is assumed to be elastic and water is compressible. Let K is be the bulk modulus of compression of water and E is the modulus of elasticity of pipe material, + is the Poisson ratio for pipe material. m D is the diameter of the pipe. tis the thickness of the pipe. fy and f, are longitudinal and circumferential stress in pipe, pD = PP fia ige and fem ay where p; is the inertia or increase of pressure. According to the rule of strength of materials, both f, and fj are the circumferential and longitudinal stress, and strain energy stored in pipe material per unit volume, (22y-(a2y- (87)(5") 2£|( 4 2 = | aid? , pip? pip? © 2E| 16? ~ 4r? dnt ime Ll Taking 7 = 4+ The strain energy stored in pipe material per unit volume ae) 162? mp Total strain energy stored in the pipe material sa? x total volume of pipe material t 2p? = PP px nx 8EP mprDL 8EtFlow Through Pipes 141 nD*\ pi DL Zp = (222). Zp ( 4 } 2Et 4 2 pr ADL 2Et “ Loss of kinetic energy due to closure of valve = saw= 1 2 = ym? = 5 (PAL (B) Gain of strain energy in water due to compression 2 -1 #) =3 ( K x volume of water - (2) = 1, peAL =o2lk xAL= 2 K (C) Now loss of kinetic energy = strain energy stored + Gain in strain energy stored ie. (B) = (A) + (C) ; 1 2-1 pADL J 1 ph ie. QPALV = 5 + 5 AL id 1 2 (2 Dividing by = AL, pV? = p}{ ividing by 5 AL, pV’ = Pil = Pes pee (7.24) 1 ( 1, BD) P\K which gives the rise of pressure of sudden closure considering both the elasticity of pipe material and compressibility of water. If the elasticity of pipe material is neglected, i.e. the pipe is rigid, the term 2 is zero as E > & for rigidity of the pipe material. Equation (7.24) becomes: n= PST pK x ot =VJ/pK =V/— p Vp But {f = C velocity of pressure wave, which will be shown later in Chapter 15, ie. (Compressible Flow) be i= pvc (7.25) which is the equation of pressure considering only water to be compressible.142. Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines If Tis the time taken by the pressure wave to travel from the valve to the tank or reservoir and back to the valve again, and if L is the length of the pipe, the total distance moved in time T with velocity of pressure wave C, then 2L 2b 7.26 C (7.26) As already stated if T< 24 a . it is sudden closure and if T > x, it is gradual closure. EXAMPLE 7.13 Water flows in a pipeline of length 2000 m, diameter 0.6 m with a velocity of 2 m/sec. The valve at the end is closed in 20 seconds. Find the rise of pressure if the velocity of pressure wave is 1420 m/sec. Solution: L = 2000 m, d = 0.6 m, V = 2 misec, C = 1420 m/sec, T = 20 seconds 2b _ 22000 . , ct 7 10 7 2.816 sec «. T > 2.816 secs, closure is gradual. = PLY _ 1000x2000x2 _ ei pis Ee = 39 = 200000 Nim p; = 200000 - 29 Niem? 10" p; = 20 Niem? Ans. EXAMPLE 7.14 _ In Example 7.13, water is compressible with bulk modular of compression of 19,62 x 10* N/em?, The pipe is rigid and the valve is closed in 1.5 seconds. Find the rise of pressure. Solution: Here K = 19.62 x 10* N/cm? = (19.62 x 10* x 10*)N/m? 2L _ 22000 Cc” 1420 and = 2.816 sec T=15secs -T< 2b, it is sudden closure 7 Here cz [E = i 10" = 1400.714 misee = pVC = (1000 x 2 x 1400714) N/m? = 280.1428 x 10¢ N/m? r, = 280.1428 N/cem? Ans, EXAMPLE 7.15 In Example 7.13, the thickness of the pipe is 1 cm and the valve is closed suddenly. Considering the pipe to be elastic and water to be compressible, find the rise of pressure if K = 19.62 x 104 N/cm? and E (of pipe) = 19.62 x 10° N/cm?. Calculate also circumferential and longitudinal stress developed in the pipe.Flow Through Pipes 143 Solution: E = 19.62 x 10° Nim, K = 19.62 x 10* Nicm? = 19.62 x 10!° N/m? = 19.62 x 108 N/m? V=2 msec,t=1cm=0.0l m, D=06m _ v _ 2 = = = 12 + D) 1 06 p\K* iz) — ¥ 1000 nDae * 01x 19.62 x10 pi = 221.47 x 10¢ Nim? = 221.47 Néem? pD _ 2147x 6 fon BD 2 MMATXS g6a4.1 Nim? _ PD _ 21706 _ 4,, > Sie ge = “4x 001 22.05 Nim 7.16 UNSTEADY MOMENTUM EQUATION OF WATER HAMMER Consider a small length dx of the pipe just after the valve closure in Figure 7.11. The pressure wave moves upstream, and the flow will be retarded. If a is the angle made by the centre line of the pipe with horizontal component of gravity force on dx is W sin ain the direction force of resistance Fy. Reservoir Figure 7.11 Water hammer situation after valve closure. Writing Newton’s equation: op. ae a av p+ Bas|a — pa + Fy Wsin a= plads) (# we) Negative sign of total acceleration is retardation: or (e+ ax) D?-p- fp + f(area on which friction acts) x V? + e(% Ie = Goals) Deas) sin @144 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines or (Bar) to + Pemba? + pe(nl)D? dx sin a+ p= D ax + pt dxv WY =0 Dividing by (5 2) dx: 2 + APs pg sin as p © +P Again dividing by p: 1 " (& ‘5 + “ ¥ ve +gsina=0 or Lap, fV" av , yav +gsina=0 (7.27) pax* 2p * a * ax Write the momentum equation in general form. Further writing: p = wH = pgH, fv? av av Sh neues oh MM VM 4 g sina =0 Assuming a= 0, ie, the pipe to be horizontal, sin o-= 0 again connective acceleration V OV is much smaller than local acceleration wv in this situation, hence V v is neglected. The equation becomes: fv? av 8 ax * 2p * a 7° now V= 2 and dividing by g O| aH , fll , 1 a _, G28 ax * aepa? * gd oe which is the simplified form of the momentum equation. is written as QIQI as the discharge becomes positive and negative due to a change of velocity towards the reservoir and back to the valve. 7.17 UNSTEADY CONTINUITY EQUATION IN WATER HAMMER ‘A small length dx of the pipe as shown in Figure 7.12 is considered. Volume of water entering dx in time dt: = (difference of velocity) x area x dtFlow Through Pipes 145 - _owv Em or dV= lv (v or «)| qa = (Ya) Zp, or d¥= (Sax) * pear (A) a Re ( Pipe A Figure 7.12 A small length dx of the pipe under water hammer pressure. This dV can enter only if the water is compressed and the pipe is expanded due to high water hammer pressure If AV, is obtained due to compressibility of water and AV, is obtained due to elasticity of pipe material, Then OY = Vy + OV. (B) Now K = Bulk modulus of compression of water Rise of pressure in time ar se in volume due to compressibility of water Original volume in dx op DP ce et GD Vy ie d¥y (W/4D*)dx (2/4 )dx (Fagor) = c a K © Due to this increase of pressure in time dt, the pipe diameter expands from D to (D + dD) i (® ar) xD - sticity = HOOP E = Modulus of Elasticity = op (2 Ja xD dD = QE146 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines Corresponding change in volume = dV, = m/4(D + dD dx ~ n/4D7dx dV, = miA(2D dD)dx + (m/4)dDPdx ‘The term (1/4)dD?-dx is very small, hence neglected dV, = (n/4)(2D dD)dx Op/at-dt D? dV, = a4 (» ei Oa op.) nD* dy, (ar) ae dx ©) Substituting in Equation (B), the value of dV from Equation (A) and dV,, and 2, from (C) and (D) respectively, OP ,)\% p2 P ay \* pax av. \a 2 _ \j (Mav % pdr = SA AA Dividing by (dx-dt-7/4D"), gives: ap _,)aD'dx t (# a) HE av ar * © K. But velocity of the wave, i.e. Celerity = a = where from (e) putting (F) ButFlow Through Pipes 147 2. f becomes: oH _ a’? AQ eri (7.28) which is the continuity equation of unsteady flow in water hammer. 7.7.1. Methods of Solution of Momentum and Continuity Equations ‘These two Equations (7.27a) and (7.28) are non-linear partial differential equations for which an analytical solution is not possible. Therefore, they are usually solved by different numerical solutions like the method of characteristics, Lax method, predictor-corrector method, etc. with proper initial and boundary conditions. Asan example, the finite difference explicit Lax diffusive method has been discussed to solve the above equation. In the x-1 plane, along x the length L of the pipe is divided into number Ax and along # directions, it is divided into number Ar. (See Figure 7.13) Pipe a — Sa ' j+3 y+ yi + 46 rot 41 _4 : woo Kol KOK bagel Figure 7.13 _x-t plane for finite difference scheme Finite difference equations in this x-t plane may be written as follows: OH _ Hin ~ Aka ox 2Ax 729 29) ag _ ok'-40h1+ ken or a Substituting these finite difference equations in Equation (7.274)148 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines itt Leos i Hba- Hibs, 1 OF ~7@mit Pr Foy gs Lg 2Ax gA At 2gp a2 | Zs ZA Ar fAt of" = Lels-ota ~ AM calm - (#0) xb |OLs# Qa 5 (QL +k (7.30) In Equation (7.30), the values of Q and H at time j and grid position K ~ 1, K, K + 1 are known as initial conditions, so the values of Q in the next time step at j + 1, ive. fy = fy + At can be calculated. 1 - Of Substituting: ee = Bi Oks an _ He S(Hha+ kw) and x ar Ar in Equation (7.28), we similarly get: 1 a Ar (Qk. ~ Ok) Hp" = 9 (Hist Hin) ~ 2 AAe Dae The friction factor f in Equation (7.29) is computed by using any one of the equations described earlier, from Equations (7.4) to (7.8a), depending on the roughness, Reynolds number and flow conditions. Now from Equations (7.29) and (7.30), both Q and H are calculated at j + 1 time, ie, (to + At) time step. Boundary conditions are (at x = L, Q = 0) and H upstream, if infinite reservoir (say) remains constant. Substituting the boundary conditions and obtaining Q and Hat all grid points after first time step at j + 1, these values will again be initial values of Q and H to start calculation at j +2 time, Le. =; + At. These processes of calculating Q and H and imposing boundary conditions are repeated until the calculations of Q and H are done upto time = t final. The above two equations of continuity and momentum are solved numerically and a water hammer pressure fluctuations due to valve closure is shown in Figure 7.15. (7.31) Reservoir Penstock “a Power house Figure 7.14 Surge tank in high head hydro project with a long pipe.Flow Through Pipes 149 7.18 UNSTEADY CONTINUITY EQUATION IN SURGE TANK In order to relieve the high rise pressure in the long pipe of a hydroelectric project with a high head, a surge tank as shown in Figure 7.14 is provided. Thus, the surge tank provides the function of the initial flow to the turbine when the reservoir is at a long distance with long pipe as it takes some time to cause the flow to the turbine from the reservoir as soon as the turbine or penstock valve is obtained. Also, it relieves the long pipe- line from extra high pressure rise when the valve is to be closed due to no-load condition. Thus, the rise of pressure due to the closing of the turbine valve created an unsteady flow in the surge — Time in seconds 80 70 60 30 40 30 10 4 22228 8 ° ca ut (su) pray aunssoug <— Figure 7.15 Solution of Equations (7.27a) and (7.28) for water hammer pressure head (H) fluctuations in four cross-sections of a pipe by numerical method. (Steady state pressure head at upstream end is 180 m.)150 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines tank. The water level in the surge tank rises and falls again. Thus the rise and fall of the water level with time continues for some time until it damps down to the reservoir level When the turbines receive a constant discharge Q through the penstock of the surge tank, a steady state is maintained with a loss of head hy as shown in Figure 7.14. As soon as the valve is closed, an unsteady situation is created and water in the surge first with unsteady velocity V, rises up toa height y and falls with unsteady velocity, it again rises and thus the water level goes on fluctuating with unsteadiness until with time it is damped down. For partial closure, continuity gives: AV = AsV + Q, (7.32) where A, is the area of the pipe upstream of the surge tank, Vis the unsteady velocity in the pipe, Ay is the area of the surge tank, V, is the unsteady velocity in the surge tank, and Q, is the partial water going to the turbine. Thus v= e dy and AW =A, +O, (7.32a) When the valve is closed completely, Q, = 0, Equation (7.32a) becomes: dy dt which is the continuity equation of surge tank for complete closure. AV = Ay (7.32) 7.19 UNSTEADY MOMENTUM EQUATION IN SURGE TANK Just after the valve closure water level starts rising in the surge tank even more than the level of the reservoir, a retarding head for the mass of the liquid in the length L is created. Let at any instant, the level in the surge tank be at y above the reservoir level (shown in Figure 7.14). Total retarding head at that instant after valve closure is (y + hy). (A) Force to cause this retardation = mass X retardation - 00 (4) Intensity of this force p = Force . —W(At-L)dVidr _ —wh av area eA, g dt on ad= P awh dv _ ~Ldv Pressure head = 7 = — MEG = ®) Lav Now Equation (A) = Equation (B), i.e. y + hy = zeFlow Through Pipes 151 Lav Sate hy=0 (7.33) which is the momentum equation in the surge tank. . _ Ardy _ fly? From Equation (7.32b),V= 4°47 and y= Substituting the value of V in Equation (7.33): AE (ty |. 2 (ad Ag \dt? 2gD\A, di or dy , AbAL fl (ayy, Ag), d? ” ARAL 2eD\dt AL) = or dy, (Ausf \(@) , (Aw), (734) de At-2gD }\ dt AL)” . dy shen or oF al? (7.342) where fas = (Abs (4). Be (4 £) 7.20 NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS OF THE MOMENTUM EQUATION Equation (7.34) is non-linear, and cannot be solved analytically. Therefore, numerical solutions are necessary. The different numerical solutions used to solve the above equations are: (i) Conventional explicit finite difference method (ii) Pressel’s method of successive trials Gii) Simple arithmetic mean method (iv) Escande’s method (v) Jakobsen’s method (vi) Modified Jakobsen’s method A lot of work has been undertaken on the solution of the unsteady surge tank equations of continuity and momentum by various investigators. Laboratory works have also been undertaken to generate data of rise and fall of surge heights in the surge tanks. Such data and solutions are available with the author of this book. Figure 7.16 shows the plot of solution by Modified Jakobsen’s method and the experimental results obtained by the author on this problem. Numerical solutions by finite difference, arithmetic mean and Pressel methods are also computed. Solutions have agreed quite well with the author's experimental data generated in the laboratory of Hydraulics, Assam Engineering College, Guwahati, Assam.152 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines 20 1111 Experimental —e—e—e—o— Numerical solution ————— —_| by Jakobsen method S e ‘Surge height in em ——> 90 180 270 ‘Time in sees ——> Figure 7.16 Theoretical and experimental plots of surge tank height fluctuation. Similarly Equations (7.27a) and (7.28) are solved by the Lax diffusive explicit method already described as finite difference forms in Equation (7.30) for discharge and Equation (7.31) for pressure head are used. Plots of the solutions are given in Figures (7.15) and (7.16), respectively. The friction factor equation used in this solution was Barr's explicit solution of Equation (7.8a). 7.21 CLASSICAL SOLUTION OF SURGE TANK EQUATIONS However, analytical solution of continuity and momentum equations of surge tank (neglecting friction) i.e. classical solution is possible. Although these classical solutions are not in use in the practical field, they give an idea of the type and trend of solution that may be available in the real field with the consideration of friction. When friction is neglected, hy = 0 Then momentum in Equation (7.32) becomes: Ldv EW yys0 a at a) from continuity, (ie. Equation (7.32b)), v= 4s. 4 A, dt (A) becomes AT Y 4 yao (7.35) 8 Ar dt? which is a simple ordinary differential equation that can be solved analytically.Flow Through Pipes 153 2y Equation (7.35) may be written as a + (#)y =0 (7.35a) a4 Let ar or and Solution of y can be written as: ify Cel 40,14 Eg 8A, vA... [ea [EE] «ofan ron] EE] aff, y y= 6 [om Sh rei sin To evaluate the constants C, and C; put Boundary conditions, at ¢ = 0, y = 0 O=C [1 +0} + Qf -0) Putting C2 =-C, Q=-c bal, 2A, ; : 8A, Cy cos He isin ee 1 C, cos Er iC, sin Jt y= ci sin | 2 y= ¢ sin we ' (Ay which shows that y is a sine function in t.154 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines To evaluate C: ye BA, BAL a C cos LA, x 1A, ay BAL gA, ie Ta Via ®) From continuity Equation (7.32 dy _ At Vv © dt AS Equating (B) and (C): vec & cos ey Substituting C in Equation (A): lA y= Volar (7.36) which is the solution of surge height y. For maximum, sin = 1 = sin (x/2) (ar) = | 84, (7.37) LA, and dine = Yor oat (7.38) Classical solution of surge height i.e. equation (7.36) is plotted in Figure 7.17.Flow Through Pipes 155 Reservoir level Sine curve Figure 7.17 Classical solution of surge height showing maximum surge height and time of occurrence. To find expressions for V and Vs, start with Equation (7.36) i y= IA, Ar ie. y= Volar sin t Differentiating with respect to 1: dy LA, | 8A, 8A, z Vo a : cos : t dy A; BA, =Vq de "OA, SS ‘ dy A ue ax 7 A, Aryoy A BA ; V= Vo 4 cos 7 (7.39) (7.40) (7.41)a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookFlow Through Pipes 157 7.22 PIPE NETWORKS In city’s municipal water supply, a group of interconnected pipes forming several loops or circuit as shown in Figure 7.19 is called pipe networks. B ‘A D Figure 7.19 Pipe networks. The main problem of pipe networks is in the determination of correct distribution of discharges through the various pipes with different diameters and different loops in a network. In the determination of discharges, flow conditions like continuity, friction losses, etc. are to be satisfied. Thus different conditions that need to be satisfied are: () According to continuity, the flow coming to each junction must be equal to the flow going out of the junction. (1) _In each loop, the loss of head due to the flow in the clockwise direction must be equal to the loss of head due to the flow in the anti-clockwise direction. For example, for loop ABD, the sum of head loss in AB and BD must be equal to head loss in AD. (111) The Darcy-Weisback equation must be satisfied for the flow in each pipe. i = ~- ie __ $e Head lost due to friction, fiy= = fp fL_ 2 _i@ hy= —HL_2 org (7.43) 1” Qe (a/4y DP where r= fl = JL (7.44) ~ 29 (n/4y D> 12.1026 D® The Hardy Cross Method of Soiution The pipe network problem is complicated and cannot be solved analytically. Thus the method of successive approximation is used. The commonly used method of solution is the ‘Hard Cross Method” named after original investigator. The method requires the following steps: (1) Assume a suitable distribution of flow that satisfies the continuity in each junction (2) With the assumed Q values, compute the head lost for each pipe using Equation (7.43). Friction factor f, length L and diameter must be known, i.e. r must be known.a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookFlow Through Pipes 159 Solution: r= =. and r values for all the pipes are given. 12.0126 We have the formula hy = 70 Consider the first loop ABC. Assume the discharges as shown in Figure 7.21. Take rQ? + Ve in the clockwise and anti-clockwise direction as negative. (a) Loop ABC Pipe ro 2rQ AB 9800 280 BC 1225 70 AC —3600 240 ¥ 10*=7425 DY 2r9=590 Erg? _ (+7425) AQ = Troy = 599 = 12.584 = -13 (b) Loop BDC BC -1225 70 cD ~1225 70 BD 1125 150 =-1325 Y) 27Q=290 AQ = = +4569 ~ 5 30 r=4 Cc 30 100 Figure 7.21 Visual for Example 7.17 after distribution discharges in pipes of the two loops.a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookFlow Through Pipes 161 Loop ABC (For another trial) AB 2x 2x 58 = 232 AC 2K 4x 4 cB 2x1x2 L272 113 mur AQ =~ 7 = 0.1832 = 0 (almost negligible) Loop BDC BD Sx IT = 1445 2x*5x17=170 BC -1x2) 441 0 (almost negligible) Since the discharges in Figure 7.23 equation produce negligible AQ so the discharges in Figure 7.23 are the corrected discharges or Answer of the example. Thus AB =58 m/sec AC =42 m/sec BC =21 m/sec Ans. BD=17 m'/sec CD =33 m/sec 7.23 CONCLUSION Flow of fluid through pipe is very important in different practical fields like water supply, irrigation, water power development, oil and natural gas etc. and therefore, knowledge of flow of fluid through pipe is essential. The presentations in this chapter from Section 7.2 to Section 7.14 are although quite common almost in all the text books of fluid mechanics, attempts have been made in this chapter to present these contents in a systematic and easy-to-follow method for students with numerically solved examples. Analysis of unsteady flow in pipe in water hammer situations with equations of continuity and momentum in pipe and surge tank are usually not available in many of the books on this subject. Finite difference solutions of these equations, verification of solutions with experimental data of the author, classical solutions of the nonlinear equations etc. are some extra important presentations of this chapter. Investigators have been made to present different different methods of solution of this unsteady pipe flow problems. The list of references includes research paper till to the present time. This may help the ambitious students to pursue further works in this field of pipe flow.162 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines In early days, extensive leading works were presented by Blasius', Von Karman’, Prandtl? and Nikurdse* and in water hammer situation by Alleevi', Angus". In the subsequent works on pipe resistance in laminar to turbulent and transitional state Colebrook and White’, Barr!’ and others. Barr’s'® transition control function is extensively used by Das'® to study the resistance effect of different roughness pattern from laminar to turbulent in free surface profiles. It was shown by Borthakur”, Choudhury!, Das”!, Das and Sarma”??, Das—Saikia et at” that friction factor changes with state of flow condition which was originally proposed by Barr®. PROBLEMS 7.1 Find the head lost due to friction in a pipe 0.3 m diameter and length 100 m. The discharge flowing through the pipe is 0.28475 m’/sec. Assume Darcy’s friction factor to be 0.02. (Ans. 5.437m) 7.2. The rate of flow of water through a horizontal pipe is 0.3 m/sec. The diameter of the pipe is suddenly enlarged from 0.25 m to 0.5 m. The pressure intensity in the smaller pipe is 13.734 N/cm?. Determine: (i) Loss of head due to sudden expression, (ii) Pressure intensity in the layer pipe, and (iii) Power lost due to enlargement. (Ans. (i) 1.07 m (ii) 14.43 N/m? (ii) 3.15 kw) 7.3. Find the difference of elevations between the water surface of two reservoirs which are connected by a horizontal pipe of diameter 0.4 m and length 500 m. The rate of flow through the pipe is 200 litres/sec. Consider all losses and f = 0.036 (Ans. 11.79 m) 7.4 A siphon of diameter 0.15 m connects two reservoirs having a difference of level of 15 m. The length of the siphon is 400 m and the summit is 4 m above the water level of the upper reservoir. The length of the pipe from the upper reservoir to the summit is 80 m. Determine the discharge through the siphon and also the pressure at the summit. Neglect minor losses. Darcy's friction factor is 0.02. (Ans. 41.52 litres, -7.281 m of water). 7.5. Three pipes of lengths 800 m, 600 m, and 300 m, and of diameters 0.4 m, 0.3 m and 0.2 m, respectively are connected in series. The ends of the compound pipe are connected to two reservoirs whose water surface levels are maintained at a difference of 15 m. Determine the discharge through the pipes if f= 0.02. What will be the diameter of the equivalent pipe of 1700 m if f remains to the same as that of the compound pipe. (Ans. 0.0848 m/sec 0.2665 m) 7.6 Two pipes of length 2500 m each and diameter 0.8 m and 0.6 m, respectively are connected in parallel. If f = 0.024 for each pipe, and the total flow is equal to 250 litres/ sec, find the discharges in each pipe. (Ans. 0.1683 m*/sec, 0.0817 m/sec) 7.7 A pipe of diameter 0.3 m and length 3000 m is used to transmit power by water. The total head at the inlet is 400 m. Find the maximum power available at the outlet of the pipe. Take f = 0. (Ans. 667.07 kw) 7.8 A pipeline of length 2100 m is used for transmitting power up to 103 kw. The pressure at the inlet of the pipe is 392.4 N/em?. If the efficiency of transmission is 80%, find the diameter of the pipe. Take f = 0.02. (Ans. 4.15 cm)Flow Through Pipes 163 19 7.10 TAL 712 713 A pipeline 2500 m long carries water with a velocity 1.5 m/sec. The diameter of the pipe is 0.5 m. A valve at the end of the pipe is closed in 25 seconds. Taking velocity of pressure to be 1460 nv/sec, find the rise of pressure. (Ans. 15 N/cm?) If in Problem 7.9, the valve is closed in 2 secs, find the rise of pressure close to the valve. Assume pipe to be rigid, and water to be compressible with the bulk modulus of compression of water to be 19.62 x 10* N/cm?, (Ans, 210.1 N/cm?) If in Problem 7.9, the thickness of the pipe is 0.01 m and the valve is closed suddenly, find the rise of pressure, considering the pipe to be elastic and the water to be compressible. Also find the circumferential and longitudinal stress if the bulk modulus of compression of water K and modulus of elasticity E of the pipe are 19.62 x 10* N/ cm? and 19.62 x 10° N/cm’, respectively. (Ans, 17155.1 N/m?, 4286.9 N/m?, 2243.45 N/m?) A cylindrical surge tank of 5 m diameter is connected to a 1 m diameter conduit 200 m long. The initial steady state flow is 3 m°/sec. The penstock valve is abruptly closed. Neglecting friction, find the maximum rise of water level in the surge tank and its time of occurrence. (Ans, 3.45 m, 35.46 secs) For the pipe network given in Figure 7.24, determine the discharges in each pipe given that at 12.0126 D>” (Ans. Students are advised to follow Example 7.17 to find the discharges in different pipes.) Hint: Discharge coming to a joint must be equal to discharge going out of it. B 450 cu mecs 70 cu mecs Figure 7.24 Visual of Problem 7.13. REFERENCES Blasius, H., The Law of Similitude for Friction in Fluids, For schungsheft des Vereins deutscher Ingenieure, No. 131, Berlin, 1913.164 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines 2. 3. r 17, 18. 19. 20. 21. 24. Von Karman, T. “Mechanical similitude and turbulence” Proc. 3rd. International Conference for Applied Mechanics, Stockholm, Vol. 1, pp. 85-93, 1930. Prandtl, L. lechanics of viscous fluid”, in W.F. Durand Editor in Chief, Aerodynamic theory, Springer-Verlag, Vol. III, div. G., Berlin, 1935. Nikuradse, J. “Laws of turbulent flow in smooth pipe” For schungsheft des Vereins deutscher Ingeniewu, No. 354, Berun, 1932. » Colebrook, C.F. and C.M. White, “Experiments with fluid friction in roughened pipes”, Proc. Royal Society of London, source A, Vol. 161, pp. 367-381, 1938. . Barr, D.I.H., Two additional methods of direct solution of Colebrook-White function”, Proc. ICE, Partz, 1976. . Dryden, H.L., Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow, Princeton University Press, Section A of Turbulent Flows and Heat Transfer, edited by C.C. Lew, 1959. . Streeter, V.L., Water Hammer Analysis, ASCE, Vol. 95, Hydro. 6, Nov., 1969. M.M., “Computer Aided Solution of Surge Height and Comparison with Laboratory . National Conference of Hydro-Power Development, CBIP, April, New Delhi, 1997. Chatterjee, PN., Fluid Mechanics for Engineers: Digital Computer Application, Macmillan (India), 1995. Pick Ford, J., Analysis of Surges, Macmillan, 1969. Bergeron, L., Water Hammer in Hydraulics and Wave Surges in Electricity, ASME, Trans, 1961. L., The Theory of Water Hammer, Translated by ASME, 1929. Angus, R.W., “Water Hammer in Pipes including those supplied by Centrifugal Pumps: Graphical Treatment” Proc. Mech. Engrs., Vol. 136, 1937. Barr, D.LH. “New forms of equations for co-relation of pipe resistance data”, Proc. ICE, London, No. 53, pp. 383-390, September, 1973. Das, M.M., “The effect of resistance in steady and unsteady gradually varied free surface profiles”, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Stathclyde, Glasgow, 1978. Johnson, R.D., Differential Surge Tank, Trans., ASCE, 78, 1915. Jakobsen, BE, Surge Tanks, Trans., ASCE, 85, 1922. Choudhury, H. “Simulation of theoretical solution and experimental data on the theory of unsteady flow in surge tank”, M.E. Thesis, Gauhati University, 1996. Borthakur, K.C. “Experimental and Theoritical Studies of Water Hammer Pressure in surge Tank and Pressure Conduit”, Ph.D. Thesis, Gauhati University, 1997. Das, Mimi “Different computer aided solutions of unsteady equation of surge tank and their verfication against laboratory data.”, M.E. Thesis, Gauhati University, 1999. . Das, Mimi, Sarma, A.K. and M.M. Das, “Effect of resistance parameter in the numerical solution of nonlinear unsteady equations of surge tank”, IHS Jour. of Hy. Engg., Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 101-110, 2005. }.. Das-Saikia, Mimi and Sarma, A.K. “Numerical modelling of water hammer with variable friction factor”, Proc. 2nd. International Conf. of Computational Mechanics and Simulations, IT Guwahati, 8-10 Dec., 2006. Das-Saikia, Mimi and Sarma, A.K., “Simulation of water hammer flows with unsteady friction factor”, ARPN, Jour. of Engg., ISSN, 1819-6608, Dec. 2006.Chapter 8 Flow Through Orifices and Mouthpieces 8.1 INTRODUCTION An orifice is a small opening of any shape such as circular, rectangular or triangular, provided on the side or bottom of a tank for the purpose of discharging liquid from the tank or the vessel ‘on which it is provided. This orifice may discharge the liquids into the atmosphere or from one tank to another. ‘A mouthpiece is a short tube of length equal to two or three times the diameter of the tube, fitted to an orifice of the same diameter, provided in the tank or vessel containing the liquid. It is essentially an extension of the orifice through which also the fluid may be discharged. 8.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ORIFICES (i) The orifices are classified as circular, rectangular, square or triangular on the basis of the shape of the cross-sectional area. (ii) The orifices are classified as small or large orifices on the basis of the size of orifice and the head of water above the orifices. When the head of the fluid from the centre line of the orifice is more than five times its depth, it is called a small orifice and if the head is less than five times the depth, it is called a large orifice. Orifices are also classified as sharp-edged or bell-mouthed depending upon the shape of the upstream edge of the orifices. (iv) Further, they are classified as submerged or drowned, free discharging orifices. Submerged orifices may be fully submerged or partially submerged. 8.3 VELOCITY OF AN ORIFICE UNDER A HEAD H A circular orifice is provided on the side of a tank. The flow takes place through this orifice under a head H as shown in Figure 8.1. The liquid flowing out of the orifice forms a jet of liquid whose 165166 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines area of flow is less than the area of the orifice. At section CC, the area is the minimum. At CC, the streamlines are straight and parallel to each other and perpendicular to the plane of the orifice. The section CC is at a distance of approximately half the diameter of the orifice. This section CC is called ‘Vena Contracta’. Beyond the section CC, the jet diverges and is inclined downwards due to gravity. uf Figure 8.1 Flow through an orifice under a head H. Considering two points | and 2, and applying Bernoulli's equation at | and 2 considering the centre line of the orifice as the datum i.e. | and 2 are on same datum: 2 2 BW yzeBehaz, w * 2g w * 2g 2 Z,=Z,_ Vy is very small as compared to V>, hence we is neglected, p2 is atmospheric, as CC 8 or 2 exposed to the atmosphere. 2 2.02044 w 2¢ pi = WH PoH w 2 nae 1 Va= 2g (8.1) Equation (8.1) gives the theoretical velocity of the jet. The actual velocity will be less than that given by Equation (8.1). This equation is known Torricelli’s formula in honour of Evangelisa Torricelli who deduced this equation in 1643. 8.4 COEFFICIENT OF VELOCITY (C,), CONTRACTION (C,) AND DISCHARGE (C,) Coefficient of velocity (C,) is the ratio of the jet, a Vena Contracta to the theoretical velocity. If V is the velocity of the jet (i.e. at vena contracta),a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this book168 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines Solution: a= F003" = 0.000706858 m? Q = 2.35 lits/sec = 0.00235 m/sec C= —setualdischarge 0.00235 “~ theoretical discharge ~ [2x 981 x 15 x 0000706858 Cy = 0.61283 = 0.613 Ans. 8.5 EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF C,, Cy AND Cc Figure 8.2 shows the experimental set-up for the determination of coefficients. Water is allowed to flow through an orifice under a constant head H. Constant head H is maintained by an inflow supplied by a pipe, i.e. the water entering through a supply inflow pipe is equal to the outflow through the orifice. After attaining the steady head H in the tank, water is collected in a measuring tank for a known time of f secs Measuring tank — Figure 8.2 Experimental set-up to determine the coefficient. Then aceial o- Area of menurine ‘anh x height of water If a is area of the orifice: Qrreoreticat = Ay 28H Acwal@ __@ ~ Otheoretical ~ 4 /2eH Let C, be the Vena Contracta of the jet of water that comes out from the tank under this constant head H. Ca (8.5)Flow Through Orifices and Mouthpieces 169 Select point P in the jet. A scale to measure the distance x from the Vena Contracta and vertical distance of P, i.e. y below the Vena Contracta is normally fitted in the experimental set- up. Let x be the horizontal distance of P measured by the scale and y be the vertical distance of P from the centre of the Vena Contracta. V is the actual velocity at the Vena Contracta. Then the horizontal distance x in time ¢ with velocity V, x=Vt (A) and ®) x from (A) 1= Substituting this 1 in (B): But Vincoretical = of 284 Coefficient of velocity = C, = —Y Vincorecal gx 2y /2gH x (8.6) [aylt Simply measuring x, y and H, coefficient of velocity Cy is obtained. Equation (8.4) gives, Cy = C,C, From known C, and C,, C, could be obtained as: -& Ga=é (8.7) EXAMPLE 8.3 A jet of water issuing from a sharp-crested vertical orifice under a constant head of 0.6 m has the horizontal (x) coordinate and vertical coordinate (y) measured from the Vena Contracta at a certain point as 0.1 m and 0.0045 m respectively. Find C, and C, if Cy = 0.6 Solution: H = 0.6 m, x = 0.1 m, y = 0.0045 m, C, = 0.6.170 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines Cy is given by Equation (8.6), ie. C= Se = — 1 __ °" Yarn [4x 00004506 Cy = 0.96225 ‘Ans. i ; _ fe _ 06 ‘Again Equation (8.7) gives Ce= C2 = Qo6993 C. = 0.6235 Ans. EXAMPLE 8.4 The head of water over an orifice of diameter 10 cm is 500 cm. Water coming out of the orifice is collected in a circular tank of diameter 2 m. The rise of water in the circular tank is 0.45 cm in 30 seconds. Also the coordinates of a certain point on the jet measured from the Vena Contracta are 100 cm and 5.2 cm vertical, Find Cy, Cy, C.. Solution: H = 500 cm = 5 m, d = 0.1 m, area of collecting A, = 7/4(2* 10 secs. Rise in collecting tank = 0.45 in 30 secs. A, = 3.14159 m? m, y = 0.052 m Area of collecting tank x rise _ (3.14159 x 0.45 time ~ 30 Quer = 0.047124 m*/sec. Om = area of orifice x /2gH = (Zcan?x 3x9RI x3) m/sec Qn, = 0.7779 m/sec. x Actual Q = ) m’/sec Ge Ques. 0.047124 4= "On — 0.07779 Cy = 0.60578 Ans. Again Cys Xe —preeanence [ay ~~ [4x 00525 Cy = 0.9805 Co C= @ = 06177 Ans. EXAMPLE 8.5 A tank has two identical orifices in one of its sides. The upper orifices is 4 m below the water surface and the lower one is 6 m below the water surface. If the C, for both the orifices are same at 0.98, find the point of intersection of the jets. Solution: C, (for both) = 0.98 Hi, (head of first orifice) = 4 m H, (head of second orifice) = 6 mFlow Through Orifices and Mouthpieces 171 If P be the point of intersection of both the jets, horizontal distance for both orifice 1 = for first orifice for second orifice Yn + (6-4) = (y) + 2)m (A) Cay = & According to the problem, C,, + Cz, x. x 4yx4 fay x6 or 4y, = 6y2 Substituting y, from (A): or The point of intersection of the two jets at distance is 9.602 m from the orifices and 4 m below the second orifice. Ans. 8.6 DISCHARGE THROUGH LARGE ORIFICE When an orifice is large (i.c. its head is less than five times depth, of orifice), the discharge equation Q = C, a./2gH is not applicable as the top and bottom of the orifice are under two different heads H, and Hp, and hence velocity of the jet in the entire cross-s Therefore, a different discharge equation is to be used. ction is not constant. 8.6.1 When Orifice is Large Rectangular In Figure 8.3, a large rectangular orifice of breadth b, and depth d = (H; — H,) is considered, discharging under a constant head H. Consider an elementary strip of thickness dh at a depth h from the reservoir or the tank water level.172 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines z+ { ke oe |+~— = —+) Figure 8.3 Determination discharge in large rectangular orifice. Discharge through the strip = dQ = Cd x (bdh) 2H dQ = Cdf2gH bh'ah Integrating dQ between limit h from H, to Hs, the discharge through the whole orifice is obtained: Jao= je Cag bhPah Q = Ca 2g d(H}? - HF") (8.8) which is the discharge equation neglecting the velocity of approach. If Vj is the velocity of approach, (which is usually small): Equation (8.8) becomes vey" yay? O=C,\2¢ 6! +36 - Mt ae (8.8a) 8.6.2 When Orifice is Large Circular Figure 8.4 shows a large circular orifice of diameter d discharging under a constant head H. Consider a small strip dr at a distance x from the centre of the orifice. x202/()-2 Flow through the strip = dQ = C, /2g (H - "2 (4) - e Area of the strip = (4) - 2 and velocity through the strip = C,,/2g(H - x) For integration, it is necessary to expand (H — x)! by using the binomial theorem i pte yin_ Hx Hee Wee ie. (H- x)? =H 5 z iza You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this book174 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines Figure 8.5 Discharge through fully submerged orifice. Applying Bernoulli’s equation at 1 and 2, i.e. at centre of the Vena Contracta, and neglecting losses: 2 A YM LP Vi Byte Fpl Se Pak oe 2 Here Z; = Zp, V; is small, 7 is neglected. v2 Be Bam -ty gow Ww V.= (2eG\-Hy = Jie The above expression shows that Torricelli’s formula is still applicable. Que = Ca af2g(h—H) = Cy a2 (8.10) 8.8 DISCHARGE THROUGH A PARTIALLY SUBMERGED ORIFICE Figure 8.6 shows the flow situation under a partially submerged orifice. This can happen if the size of the orifice is large. Here the upper part of the orifice discharges to the atmosphere, i.e. as a free orifice, and the lower part behaves as a submerged orifice. Let Q; and Qz be the discharges in the free and submerged portions, respectively. Total discharge: Q=0+Q 01 = % Cy bY2g UF? — HI) and Qs = Cay (Hy - Ha) J2gH where b is the breadth of the orifice. Q= : Cay bY 2g (HH? — HY) + Cay BUH, - Ht) 28H (8.11)a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this book178 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines Also the volume of water drained out by the orifice in time dr when the level is at # = CyaJ2ghdt B) Now (A) = (B) gives: Cy ayf2g hl? dt = Lf 2Rh— WP dh 2b fornon) i dt = = (y2Rh-h?) ah Cra2g wv ) : Integrating between the limit of h from Hy to H2 and simplifying: T AL (2R - H,)*? - QR - H,)*"| (8.17) 3Cqay2g If emptied completely Hy = 0 4L 3/2, 3/24 os [2R) - OR - Hy)") (8.18) 3Cy ay 28 : If initially the vessel was full and has been emptied, Hy = 2R _ 41a R* 3C, af 2g v2 LRY? 3Czay2g (8.19) 8.10 CLASSIFICATION OF MOUTHPIECES (i) Mouthpieces may be external or internal depending upon their position with respect to the vessel in which they are fitted. (i) They may be cylindrical, convergent, or convergent-divergent depending upon the shapes. (ii) They may also be running full or free depending upon the value of discharge at the outlet of the mouthpiece. 8.11. FLOW THROUGH MOUTHPIECES 8.11.1 When Mouthpiece is External and Cylindrical An external cylindrical mouthpiece of length approximately 2 to 3 times of its diameter is fitted externally as shown in Figure 8.10. Its area is a and it is discharging under a constant head H. Water entering the mouthpiece forms a Vena Contracta at CC. After CC, the jet slowly fill the mouthpiece and the jet of water runs full equal to the diameter of the mouthpiece.a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookFlow Through Orifices and Mouthpieces 181 Applying Bernoulli's equation to the free surface of the tank and at section CC, taking datum through the centre line of the mouthpiece: - Hy+0+H= H+ 3 +0 or += (1+ A) Ve 2 ag = lat HHO V.= (2et,+H- HO) Again applying Bernoulli's equation at CC and bb, taking the same datum line: Pe w + From (A), Substitute { #,+ % Hy + H= Hat Vi = 2gH V, = 28H Applying continuity a.V, = apVs a _ Ve or a ave, 28H FH-H) _ [A He a Wy /2gH H H 14 He He ~ H (8.21)182 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines Discharge @ is given by: 2H (8.22) Equation (8.21) is = -' dy = a(area of mouthpiece) If the liquid is water, the limiting value of suction pressure at Vena Contracta (H, — H,) = 7.8, hence the maximum value of the ratio is: (8.23) 8.12 TIME OF FLOW FROM ONE VESSEL TO ANOTHER In Figure 8.12, liquid from vessel A, flows to vessel A through an orifice of area a. The initial head difference between A, and A, is Hy. The orifice is drowned. It is required to find time t taken to reduce the difference of the water level from H, to Hy. dH Jo-m Orifice Area A, Area Ay Figure 8.12 Flow of liquid from one vessel to another. As shown in Figure 8.12, liquid from A, flow to A. At any instant, let the difference in the liquid level be 4 and let a small quantity Q flow through the orifice in time dt. This will cause the liquid surface to fall in A;, by df which, in tum will cause the liquid level in Aa to rise by A (se) Difference of liquid level after time dt = h - (aw + Avan) 2 =h- A =h au(1+41)Flow Through Orifices and Mouthpieces 183 Hence change in liquid level in time dr is = a(t Ss 4) 2 It is the change of liquid levels in time di that equals the head that causes the flow. Let this head be dit dh =ai(1+ 4.) or dH = —th_ 2 1A A Again if Q is the discharge through the orifice at this instant, then the total volume of liquid passing through the orifice in time dt is Q-dt But Q=CaJ2gh Q-dt = Cya J2gh dt. This Qdt or C.af2gh dt will be equal to the volume emptied from Ay, equal to Ay dH. Equating these two values, we get: ~AdH = C,af2gh dt (~v, indicates that dH decreases when dr increases) d= -—AH_ A Cual2eh yal t+ 4) gh Integrating: fia=-fe Aidh a Coal 1+ AY) eh 2A, CH}? - Hy?) t= 7 (8.24) Cea t+ |e A, If A, = Ay = A: 12 _ yin v2 p= 2ACHIP~ HIP) _ ACH? ~ (825) Ca2-2e Cray2g 8.13 FLOW THROUGH INTERNAL OR BORDA’S MOUTHPIECES In Figure 8.13, Borda’s mouthpieces fitted internally are shown. In Figure 8.13(a), the length of the mouthpieces is about the size of the diameter of the pipe, hence the jet, after contraction, does not touch the sides and is running free. In Figure 8.13(b), the length of mouthpieces is about 2 to 3 times its diameter, so the jet, after contraction, expands and the jet flows out by touching the side of the mouthpiece and it is called running full.a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this book186 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines This may be due to the fact that the loss of energy is slightly less than sudden expansion. In order to obtain pressure at the Vena Contracta, apply Bernoulli’s equation at free surface and at Vena Contracta: 2 Hyt Ha Het 2g 2 or H.=H,+H- 2g But V, = 2V and V? = gH by (i) and (ii): 2 2 2 2 Heat OY yy LW g 2a gs 28 H,=H,-H which shows that at Vena Contracta, pressure is less than atmosphere. If the absolute pressure at Vena Contracta is 2.5 m of water, maximum value of H upto which the flow through this mouthpiece has to take place: 2.5 = 10.3 -H H=78m EXAMPLE 86 Find the discharge through a rectangular orifice 3 m wide and 2 m deep fitted to a water tank. The water Ievel in the tank is 4 m above the top level of the orifice. Take Cy = 0.62. Solution: Here H, = 4 m Hy = (iH +2)m=(442)m=6m Cy = 0.62 This is the case of a large orifice. Discharge Q = Cy b/2g (H3? - Hi) (without considering velocity of approach) Q = {0.62 x 2 {2981 (6? — 432)]mi/sec Q = 36.783 m/sec Ans. EXAMPLE 8.7 Find the discharge through a fully submerged orifice of width 2 m if the difference of water on both sides of the orifice is 0.8 m. The heights from the top and bottom of the orifice are 2.5 m and 3 m, respectively. Take C, = 0.6. Solution: b = 2m, H = 0.8 m, Hy = 2.5 m, Hy = 3m, Cy = 06 Q (through a fully submerged orifice) = Cy x b x (Hz - Hh) (2H Q = (0.62 x 2x 5x J2x981x08 ) m/sec = 2.4563 m°/sec Ans.Flow Through Orifices and Mouthpieces 187 EXAMPLE 8.8 A rectangular orifice 1.5 m wide and 1.2 m deep is fitted in one side of a large tank. The water level on one side of the orifice is 2 m above the top edge of the orifice, while on the other side of the orifice, the water level is 0.4 m below the top edge. Calculate the discharge through the orifice if C, = 0.62. Solution: This is a partially submerged orifice. Width of orifice b = 1.5 m, H, = height of water level from bottom of the orifice H=24+12=32m Height of water level above the top edge = 2m H = Difference of water level on both sides. =(2+.4)=24m Cay = Cay = Cu = 0.62 = 01+ O,= 20, b/g H? ~ HHI) + Cy by — HY [Te : x 0.62 x 1.5 [2x 981 (2.4% — 257) + 0.62 x 15 3.2- 2.4) (2x9B1x24 (2.44317 + 5.10537) m/sec = 7.5485 m/sec Ans, EXAMPLE 8.9 A circular tank of diameter 3 m contains water upto a height of 4 m. An orifice of 0.4 m diameter is provided at the bottom to empty the tank. Find the time: (i) to empty the tank from 4m to 2 m. (ii) for completely emptying the tank. Take Cy = 0.6. Solution: A = 7 (3)? = 7.06856 m? a= £0.47 = 0.125663 m? Time to empty the tank from 4 m to 2 m —2A_ (lif, — fig) = ——2%706858_(gin _ 2) Caay2g 06 x 0.125663 x (2x 981 T = 24.7966 secs. ‘Time for emptying the tank completely, Hz = 0 e _ 2AVH, _ 2x 7.068584"? Cral2g 062 x 0.125663 x 2x 981 T = 81.93 sec Ans. EXAMPLE 8.10 A hemispherical tank of diameter 4 m contains water upto a height of 1.5 m. An orifice of diameter 0.05 m is provided at the bottom. Find the time required by the water: i) to fall from 1.5 m to 1 m, (ii) for completely emptying the tank.188 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines Solution: D=4m, + R=2m,d=005 m a= £(0,05)* = 0.001963 m* H, = 1.5 m, Hy = 1.0, C= 06 a ; = 28 _f2 pa? ny 1 ys ys? (i). From Equation (8.14), T= aale ake 27) — SHR? — HY | 2x 2 wa _ yam) _ Ly gsr oo] 52 05" - P) - 2 - 06 x 0.001963 x /2 x 981 L3 ‘ dng T = 921.4 sec = 15 minutes 21.4 sec Ans, Gi) When fully emptied H, = 0 Qn 3 wet | | ER He? - 2H; Cuajag (3 54 Qn (3 a2 _ 1 2) —— 8 ______ [2x 2x 157-2 x15 06 x 0.001963 x 2x 981 \3 5 T = 2286.33 sec = 38 minute 6.33 secs Ans. 8.14 CONCLUSION Orifices and mouthpieces have lot of applications like flow of oil from oil tankers, flow of water from big tanks used for drip and sprinkler irrigation, flow from water supply tank etc. Therefore, velocities, discharges through orifices under different conditions, coefficient of contraction, velocity and discharge, time of emptying vessel through an orifice etc. have been presented in details. Numerical examples are solved to show the applications of theoretical equations. Few problems are given to students to solve themselves and a list of reference is included. PROBLEMS 8.1 Find the discharge through an orifice of 2 cm diameter under a head of 1.5 m. Take Cy = 06. (Ans. 1.024 litre/sec) 8.2. An external mouthpiece is fitted to the side of a large vessel. The head over the mouthpiece is 4 m. Find the discharge of the mouthpiece if its diameter is 10 cm. Assume Cy ~ 0.855 (Ans. 0.0595 m/sec) 8.3 The co-ordinate of a point of a jet issuing through an orifice is (48.5 cm, 4.9 cm) measured horizontally and vertically from centre of the Vena Contracta, i.e. the horizontal and vertical distance of the point in the jet. The head of water in the tank is 1.5 m. Find the coefficient of velocity. (Ans. 0.982).Flow Through Orifices and Mouthpieces 189 84 8.5 8.6 8.7 A rectangular orifice 1 m wide and 1.5 m deep is discharging water from a vessel. The top edge of the orifice is 0.8 m below the water surface in the vessel. Calculate the discharge through the orifice if Cy = 0.6. Also calculate the p.e. error if the orifice is treated as a small orifice. (Ans. 1.058%) A circular tank of diameter 1.5 m contains water upto a height of 4 m. An orifice of 40 mm diameter is provided at its bottom. If Cy = 0.62, find the height of water above the orifice after 10 seconds (cm). A hemispherical tank of diameter 4 m contains water upto a height of 2 m. An orifice of diameter 50 mm is provided at the bottom. Find the time required by the water; Gi) to fall from 2 m to I m, (ii) for completely emptying (Ans, (i) 30 min 14.34 secs (ii) 53 minutes). A convergent-divergent mouthpiece having, throat diameter 60 mm is discharging water under constant head of 3 m, Determine the maximum outlet diameter for maximum discharge. Find maximum discharging also. Take atmospheric pressure head = 10.3 m ‘of water and separation pressure 2.5 m of water absolute. Qmax = 0.02169 m/sec d = 8.2647 cm. An internal mouthpiece of 100 mm diameter is discharging water under a constant head of 5 m. Find the discharge through the mouthpiece, when: (i) the mouthpiece is running free, (ii) the mouthpiece is running full. (Ans. (i) 38.8 lits/sec (ii) 54.86 lits/sec) REFERENCES Bansal, R.K., Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines, Laxmi Publications, New Delhi, 1983. Modi, P.N. and S.M. Seth, Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics including Hydraulic Machines, Standard Book House, New Delhi, 1977. Rouse, H., Fluid Mechanics for Hydraulic Engineers, McGraw-Hill Inc., 1938. }. Rouse, H., Elementary Mechanics of Fluid, John Wiley & Sons. Inc., New York, 1946. Streeter, V.L. and E.B. Waylie, Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1983. » Munson, B.R., D.F. Young, and TH. Okiishi, Fundamental of Fluid Mechanics, Wiley Text Books, 2001.Chapter 9 Flow Over Notches and Weirs 9.1 INTRODUCTION A notch is an opening provided in the side of a tank or a vessel such that the liquid surface in the tank is below the top edge of the opening. It is made of a metallic plate and is usually provided in a narrow channel, i.e. a laboratory flume in order to measure the discharge. Thus a notch is used for measuring discharges. A weir is a concrete or masonry structure built across a river, stream or canal. A weir is used to: (i) raise the water level upstream, (ii) release excess water to the flow over the structure, measure the discharge of the stream. The sheet of water flowing through a notch or over the weir is called ‘nape’ or ‘vein’. The bottom edge of a notch or weir is called ‘crest’ or ‘sill’ and its height above this crest is called ‘crest height’. 9.2 CLASSIFICATION OF NOTCHES AND WEIRS: Notches are classified according to their shape as rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal and stepped notches, and according to the effect of the sides on the nappe as notches with end contractions and notches without end contractions. Weirs are also classified on the basis of the shape of opening, the crest, the effect of the sides ‘on the nappe and the nature of discharge, as rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal, sharp-crested, broad-crested, narrow-crested, ogee-shaped weirs, weirs with end contractions, weir without end contractions, submerged and free weirs. Thus the discharge equation over the notch or weir of same type is the same. 9.3 DISCHARGE OVER RECTANGULAR NOTCH OR WEIR Let L be the length of crest of weir or notch His the height water upstream causing the flow To compute discharge Q over the weir or notch, consider a small strip dh at a depth h from top of the water level as shown in Figure 9.1(a). If dQ is the discharge through this elemental strip, dQ = CiLdh) J2gh “2 dA = Ldh, V = J2gh and C, = coefficient of discharge. 190Flow Over Notches and Weirs 191 (a) Front elevation (b) Section on XX Figure 9.1 Flow over rectangular sharp-crested weir or notch The total discharge is Jao = cat. f2g [eee Q= 3e [2g LH? 1) If the velocity of the approach is V, (the small velocity upstream as shown in Figure 9.1(b) 2 approaching the weir or notch, then the integration limit of the head will be from & to 8 “a («+8) pay then Q seore|(w-¥) -() | (9.2) usually V, is small and S is much smaller and hence normally, the approach velocity head v2). (4) is neglected. 9.4 DISCHARGE OVER TRIANGULAR NOTCH OR WEIR Let the weir or notch make an angle @ at the vertex as shown in Figure 9.2. Consider a small strip dh at a depth h from the top of the water level. If x is the width of the water at depth h, then z . 1-1) = tan 02 H-m) = tan 6/2 or x = 2(H — jh) tan 6/2192. Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines Figure 9.2 Flow over triangular notch or weir. Area of the strip = xdh = 2(H — h) tan 6/2 dh Velocity in the strip = /2gh dQ = Cy 2(H — h) tan (6/2) f2eh Integrating Q = 2C, tan (0/2) /2g {" (#t — hyh!? dh lo Simplifying: Q é Cay 2g tan (612) HS? (9.3) If the vertex angle is 90°, 6/2 = 45° ». tan 45° = 1. Q= & Caf2e H? (9.4) If the velocity of approach V, is considered: é vy? (y2y2 Q= 15 Cov 28 tan (0/2) [(w) -(¥) | (9.5) 9.5 DISCHARGE OVER TRAPEZOIDAL NOTCH OR WEIR Figure 9.3 shows the trapezoidal notch or weir which is a combination of a rectangular weir or notch with width L and a triangular notch or weir with vertex angle 8, Hence, the discharge over such a notch or weir may be obtained by adding discharges of two different types. @ = Flow of rectangular part + Flow of triangular part Q= 2 cat Jie H+ Aca J2e tan (6/2) HS? (9.6) If Cd, = Cady (assumed) Q=C,/2¢ HY [jee é tan (072) H] (7)Flow Over Notches and Weirs 193 Figure 9.3 Flow over trapezoidal notch or weir. In 1887, an Italian engineer, Cipolletti adopted the value of 6/2 = 14°2’ which gives tan( 3) = tan 14°2' = t. Thus, if a trapezoidal weir or notch g = 14°2’, it is called a Cipolletti weir. If g = 14°, the increase in the flow in the triangular portion is equal to the decrease in the rectangular equation due to two end contractions. Thus, Q = Ox + Or = 2c /2g (L - 0.2) Hey da 2g H? tan 14° where (L - 0.2H) is the effective length due to two end contractions Q- 2 cyl2e Le - 0.28) H+ Bee H®? x } ] Q-= 2c, [2g LH? (9.8) which is equivalent the Equation (9.1) for discharges in rectangular weir or notch. On the basis 2 a [ H = 2g H -# = 3 Cu28 L-3 of his own experiments, he proposed that the term 3 Caf? ) is equal to 1.866 when C, = 0.682. . Hence he proposed that Q = 1.866 LH? (9.9) and his C, = 0.632. 9.6 FLOW OVER BROAD-CRESTED WEIR Most commonly, when the crest is broad, it is called a broad-crested weir. But according to recent mathematical definition if 0.1 < = S 0.35, it is called broad-crested.194 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines Applying Bernoulli’s equation at 1.1 and at 2.2 in Figure 9.4 (neglecting velocity of approach) and taking crest as the datum, we get: Figure 9.4 Flow over broad-crested weir. If L is the length of the crest, Qy, = (Lt) (2g(H A) where h is the depth of water over the crest. Q = C, Lh 2¢(H—h) (9.10) In order to determine the discharge, only two heads H and / are to be measured. For @ to be maximum, a definite relationship between H and h may be obtained. Differentiating Q with respect to h and equating to zero, we get: dQ _ pl ‘< = = ca faa JOH wital-° Hoh h 2yH-h 2(H-h)-h or ae 2fH-h 2H~-2h-h=0 2H = 3h 2 A ga (9.11) which is the condition for maximum Q over the weir. Later it will be shown that h is the critical depth of the flow (For reference to critical depth, see Chapter 10).Flow Over Notches and Weirs 195 9.7 FLOW OVER SUBMERGED WEIR Figure 9.5 shows the submerged weir in which the crest of the weir is submerged by a depth Hj and the level of the water upstream above the weir is H). This submerged weir may be divided into two parts. The portion between the head difference (H; — H;) is treated as a free weir while the portion with head Hy may be taken as being submerged. If Q, and Q> are the discharges for these two parts, = 0,+ Or = 2CaLJ2e (th - Hy"? + Ch (Lx H) f2e=HD) 9.12) Figure 8.5 Flow over submerged weir. 9.8 FRANCIS FORMULA: END CONTRACTIONS J.B. Francis, from his experiments, proposed that the end walls of the weir shown in Figure 9.6 influence the nappe to contract which is called ‘effect on length’ by end contractions. He found from his experiment that this contraction in each end wall is equal to 4 times of H or equal 0.1 H, If there are two walls, effective Leg, = (L - 0.2 H) and ifn ends, Ley = (L- 0.1 nH) ty t = 01H | | O1H [roy | Figure 9.6 End contraction. Thus the discharge equation becomes: Q= CuJ2g (L - 0.1 nH)H*? (9.13) 3 If Cy = 0.623, Q = 1.84 (L - 0.1 nH) H*? (9.13a)196 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines If the velocity of approach is taken into account: a yy = 5G [2g (L-0.1 nH) a -() v2 where A= ( + %) (9.14) 9.9 VENTILATION OF WEIRS The suppressed weir and its nappe in states with ventilation have been shown in Figure 9.7. The crest length of the weir is normally equal to the width of the canal or channel and the nappe emerging out from this suppressed weir touches the side walls of the channel. The air below the nappe and the walls are trapped. This air gradually carried away with flowing water and pressure in this shape (i.e. between nappe and walls) is reduced. Eventually negative pressure (i.e. below the atmosphere) is developed and as a result nappe starts depressing i.e. coming near the outside wall of the weir and such nappe is called depressed nappe (shown in Figure 9.7(b)) Initial nappe Clinging or adhering (b) Depressed nappe (a) Initial neppe (c) Clinging nappe Ventilated holes on the wall (A) Ventilated weir and nape Figure 9.7 Suppressed weir and nappe in different states and with ventilation. The initial nappe (Figure 9.7a) Gust after emerging out) becomes a depressed nappe where pressure falls in the area below the nappe and the walls. Discharge increases due to low pressure in the downstream side. With further withdrawal of air from this space, i.e. when no air is left in this space, nape addresses the downstream surface of the wall as shown in Figure 9.7(c). ‘This nappe is called clinging or adhering nappe which further increases the discharge more than the actual discharge. The analytical equations derived for suppressed weir are based on the assumption that pressure below the nappe and the wall always remains atmospheric. Maintain the state of atmospheric pressure, ventilation holes are made on the wall as shown ina You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this book198 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines 9.11 BAZIN’S FORMULA AND REHBOCK’S FORMULA In 1886, H.E. Bazin in France gave the following formula of discharge based on his experiment: Q=- (os0s- 03) 2g LH}? (9.17) c is a constant, and the mean value given by him is 1.6. where H, = G +r) 28 Similarly T. Rehbocks (1929) on the basis of the suppressed rectangular weir, proposed the following empirical formula: = 2 (asi1+.0084) V2 LH? (9.18) where C= (061 1 +0084) (9.19) Hunter Rouse indicated that Rehbock’s formula for the weir may be used with reasonable accuracy upto = 5 and could be extended upto 4 = 10. ‘When is greater than 15, the weir becomes a sill critical depth of flow approximately Ca28 equal to (z + H) by the critical depth relationship. The value C, in Equation Q LH*™*, can be shown to be: 1s Cy = (1.06) (1 + z) (9.20) 9.12 FLOW OVER STEPPED NOTCH A stepped notch is a combination of rectangular notches as shown in Figure 9.9. Figure 9.9 Flow over stepped notch.Flow Over Notches and Weirs 199 Let L; be the crest length or notch 1. Similarly Lp and L; are the crest lengths of notches 2 and 3. Hj, Hz, Hy are heads of the water in notch (1), (2) and (3). If Q), Q>, Qs are the discharges of the three notches and C, is the same coefficient of discharge for these notches: Q= 01+ O24 Oy = F Cy bi J2e (HR? — HE + 5 Cy La V2e (827 - HI 2 + 5 Cae (97) (9.21) EXAMPLE 9.1 Find the discharge of water flowing over a rectangular notch of 3 m length when the constant head over the notch is 40 cm. Take Cy = 0.6. Solution: If Q is the discharge, = Z2dt 2g H. here Cy = 06, L = 3m, H= 04 m Q= [3xo6x: (2981 | msec Q = 1.34468 m/sec Ans. EXAMPLE 9.2 Determine the height of rectangular weir of length 5 m to be built across a rectangular channel. The maximum depth of water upstream is 1.5 m and the discharge is 1.5 m/sec. Take Cj = 0.6 m, neglect end contractions. Solution: 2 2 = = 5 Ca LH” (2g = ls 5 x 0.6% 5 HY x [2x98 H = 0.30606 m. Z=15-H = 15 ~ 0.30606 m. Z = 1.19394 m Ans. EXAMPLE 9.3 A rectangular channel 1.5 m wide has a discharge of 200 lits/sec which is measured by a right-angled V-notch, Find the position of apex of the notch from the bed of the channel if maximum depth of water is not to exceed 1 m. Take C, = 0.62. Solution: Q = 200 lits/sec = 0.20 m/sec Depth of water in the channel = 1 m, @ = 90° Let H be the head on the triangular notch, Q- x Cuf2g tan (0/2) HS? 0.20 = t x 0.62 x J2x981 tan 45° x HS? H = 0.450937 m.200 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines Position of apex from the bed = Depth of water in channel — 1 - 0.450937 = 0.549043 m Ans. EXAMPLE 9.4 Find the discharge through a trapezoidal notch which is 1.2 m wide at the top and 0.5 m at the bottom and is 40 cm in height. The head of water on the notch is 30 cm. Assume C4 for the rectangular notch to be 0.62 and for the triangular notch to be 0.6. Solution: H = 0.3 m, Cd, = 0.62, Cd, = 0.6 Q = Q, (rectangular) + Q, (triangular), Depth of triangular notch = 0.4 m = 2 cay L 2g He + hie tan 6/2 HS? To find 6/2, tan 0/2 = = 0.875 Q= (3x a6ex {2x98 x3" + x06x 2x98] x0875%03* ) m/sec Q = 0.22 msec Ans. (12-05)/2 _ 04 * 04 9.13 EFFECT OF COMPUTED DISCHARGE DUE TO MEASUREMENT OF HEAD The equation of discharge in rectangular notch is: Q- 2a Joe LH dO _ 12 dH Ge a 28 13 Qh 2 3 pn 10 = (3c. fieu)-3u ‘dH Let dQ and dH be the error measurement of the discharge and the head. 2 2. dQ _ (Fenlet)3aan 2 Ga 2g aja (2)- 9) ie. 7 x 100 = 1.5 x 1004 ie, an error of 1% in the discharge is equal to 1.5 error in the head of a rectangular channel.a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookFlow Over Notches and Weirs 203 Q= [$xasxssx [2x 981 (03 -015)*? +08 x 35x 15x (2x 981(3— 15) | msec Q = 1.0807 m/sec Ans. EXAMPLE 9.10 A rectangular weir 6 m long is divided into three boys by two vertical points each 3 cm wide. Find the discharge when the head in 45 cm. Solution: Using the Francis formula with end contractions: Q = 1.84 (L - 0.1 nH) H’? 5.4 m, since two vertical parts, end contractions n = 6 nos. = 0.1 x 6 x 0.45] x (0.45)*7] m¥/sec Ans. 9.14 CONCLUSION The use of weir and notch has already mentioned in the section 9.1 (i.e. INTRODUCTION) of this chapter. Different equations of measuring the discharges of the different types of weirs and notches have been derived in the different sections of the chapter. Such equations are quite frequently required by the field engineers to find the design discharge, height and width of the weirs (or notches). Alll the existing types of weir, their contraction effects, ventilation ete. have been presented. Numerical examples on each and every types of weir are solved and few other problems are listed for the students to solve. A list of references of some other existing textbooks on the subject is also attached at the end for further comparison of the author's presentation. PROBLEMS 9.1 Find the discharge over a triangular notch of angle 60° when the head over the notch is 0.2 m. Take Cy = 0.6. (Ans. 0.0164 m/sec) 9.2 Find the discharge over a rectangular weir of length 80 m. The head over the weir is 1.2 m. The velocity of approach is given as 1.5 m/sec. Take C, = 0.6. (Ans, 208.11 m*/sec) 9.3. A broad crested weir of length 40 m has a 40 cm height of water above the crest. Find the maximum discharge. Take C, = 0.6, and neglect velocity of approach. (Ans. 10.352 m/sec) 9.4 Determine the height of a rectangular weir of length 6 m, constructed across a rectangular channel. The depth of water upstream of the weir is 1.328 m and the discharge is 2 m/sec. Take Cy = 0.6, neglect end contractions. (Ans. 1 m) 9.5 Water flows over a rectangular weir 2 m wide at a height of 0.15 m, which passes through a right-angled triangular notch. Taking C, for the rectangular and triangular weirs to be 0.62 and 0.59, respectively, find the depth over the triangular notch. (Ans. 0.47146 m)204 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines 9.6 Find the rate of flow over a triangular notch of 45° for a head of 0.4 m taking C, = 0.6. If this flow is to be maintained within + 0.2%, what are the limiting values of the head? (Ans, 0.8911 msec, H + dH = 0.4 + .0032 = 0.4032 m and 0.3968 m) 9.7. The maximum flood discharge of a stream is 1600 m*/sec, which has to pass over a weir. A road bridge is provided over the weir which divides it into a number of openings, each with a span of 6 m. Find the number of openings needed in order to ensure that the head of water over the crest of weir does not exceed 1.75 metres. The velocity of approach is 3 m/sec. (Hints: Find Q of one opening considering V, and end contractions, then the number of openings = Total discharge/discharge of one opening. Ans. 27 Nos.) REFERENCES 1, Jaeger, C., Engineering Fluid Mechanics, Blackie, Glasgow, 1956. 2. Ramamruthum, S., Hydraulics, Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines, Dhanpat Rai and Sons, Delhi, 1980. 3. Olson, R.M., Engineering Fluid Mechanics, International Text Book Company, Seranton, Pennsylvania, 1967. 4. Modi, PN. and S.M. Seth, Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics including Hydraulic Machines, Standard Book House, New Delhi, 1977. 5. Streeter, V.L. and E.B. Waylie, Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1983. 6. Mott, R.L., Applied Fluid Mechanics, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New York, 1999.Chapter 10 Open Channel Flow 10.1 INTRODUCTION ‘The passage in which the liquid is not completely enclosed by a solid boundary but has a free surface exposed to the atmosphere is called ‘open channel’. The flow of liquid in this open channel is called ‘open channel flow’. It flows under atmospheric pressure due to the component of gravity with a free surface. Since this flow is always associated with a free surface, it is also called free surface flow. Figure 10.1 is an example of an open channel flow. Free surface Free surface —r oO —Wsine Pye Liquid Channel with flow area 4 UM Channel bed Figure 10.1 Open channel flow. The examples of open channel are flows in natural rivers, streams, rivulets, drains, irrigation canals, sewers, culverts with a free surface, pipes not running full, and streets after heavy rainfall. The different forces that govern the open channel flow are component of gravity (W sin @) due to bed slope (8), inertia force, surface tension (almost negligible), viscous (small for water when the flow is turbulent), resistance due to friction on the bed (Fp), ete. 10.2. DIFFERENCES IN OPEN CHANNEL FLOW AND PIPE FLOW Figure 10.2 represents the flow in pipe and open channel to show the basic differences in both the flows. These differences are given below in tabular form. 205206 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines (a) Pipe flow (b) Open channel flow Figure 10.2 Basic differences between pipe flow and open channel flow. Pipe Flow Open Channel Flow (The height of Total Energy Line (i) The height of TEL flow from the datum is 2 2 (TEL) is {2 +24 ztye wi * 2g 2g ii) Liquid runs full, there is no free Gi) Open channel flow has a free surface. surface. (ii) Flow takes place under pressure. (ii) Flow takes place due to component of gravity force in flow direction. (iv) Analysis of flow is simpler due to (iv). Analysis is complicated due to non-uniform uniform cross-section. cross-section, bed slope and roughness. (v) Hydraulic grade line (HGL) is ata (v)-HGL coincides with free surface and is at a height of (z + :) from the datum. height of (z + y) from the datum. (iv) Surface tension force is dominant if (iv) Surface tension force is negligible. the diameter is small. 10.3 TYPES OF CHANNELS ‘Channels are classified on the following bases: (a) On the basis of whether channel is man made or not as natural or artificial. (b) On the basis of shape as rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal, parabolic, exponential, circular, wide rectangular, compound and natural (irregular). (c) On boundary characteristics as rigid or mobile boundary channel. (4) On cross-section as prismatic (cross-section and slope remain constant) and non- prismatic.a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookOpen Channel Flow 209 Section factor Z, for critical depth computation is: A Zea 10.5 T (10.5) Q = AV (length*time). (10.6) Discharge or flow rate is: Conveyance K = 2, where K = AC /R with Chezy’s equation and K = (AR**)/n with Manning’s equation. 10.6 UNIFORM FLOW A flow in open channel is said to be uniform if the depth of the flow is the same in every section of the channel, (Figure 10.4), i.e. y; =y2 = y, and this constant depth y, is called the normal depth. Besides the constant depth, uniform flow has a few more characteristics. Here V, = V> = V. applying Bernoulli's equation, Z, + y; + we 2+ + v2 + Losses & 8 Yi = Ya Vi = Vay Zi — Zp = losses (hy) Datum de Figure 10.4 Channel reach ox to define uniform flow. Dividing by dx: Z-Z _ hy210 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines dehy dx Sb 5, 10.7) Writing the momentum equation: P, - P) + W sin 0- Fy (V2 - Vi) (10.8) where w A,X, (hydrostatic force at 1-1) w A,X, (hydrostatic force at 2-2) ~_-¥ o_y and Py = Pysince Ay = Ay, = 5. = 5 V2 = Vy Equation (10.8) becomes W sin @ = F; (10.9) Equation (10.9) shows that in uniform flow component of gravity W sin @is exactly balanced by force of friction F; and this is the real condition of establishment of uniform flow in open channel. 10.7 AVERAGE VELOCITY EQUATIONS IN UNIFORM FLOW In uniform flow, the average velocity of flow V is expressed approximately by the so-called uniform flow formula for hydraulic computation as: V=C\R 5} (10.10) where C; is some coefficient dependent of the channel bed and side roughness, magnitude of velocity, surface tension and some other factors, R is the hydraulic radius (A/P), Sis the energy slope and in uniform flow sy = sp = sy = s and x and y are some components. The most practical formulae for uniform flow in open channel, devised by French engineer Antonie Chezy (1969), and Irish Engineer Roberts Manning? (1891), are: Chezy’s Formula: V = CRs (10.11) Manning’s Formula: V = 1 R23 5! (10.12) n Wherein C and n are called Chezy’s C and Manning's n, respectively and their values for different surfaces are determined experimentally. Both the equations are empirical as the two coefficients C and n are not dimensionless. Equations (10.11) and (10.12) give the dimensions of Cand nas L'?7-! and 1-"7, respectively. The relationship between C and n is: € RV (10.13) ‘Swiss engineers Ganguillet and Kutter in 1969, and French hydraulic engineer Bazin in 1897 also developed such empirical formulae which are not in use now, The most popular and widely na You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookOpen Channel Flow 229 The critical depth y, which occurs at minimum E or F may be computed. Direct computation is possible for the channel of rectangular, triangular and parabolic channels. But for the channel of trapezoidal channel, computation is implicit. Trial and error method of solution is required. When the channel is rectangular, QT Critical flow condition is AP =l (10.33) AS for rectangular channel T = B. or or (10.36) Thus critical depth y, in a rectangular channel is obtained for a given discharge by Equation (10.33) as follows: 2. 2 Eo = Yo —@, =y.+ ©, 2g (Bye 2(8)ye (ey 3 E,= e+ =Y, = 3y, ex 2 E, (10.37) When the channel is triangular: Substituting value of T and A of triangular channel in Equation (10.31): Q 2zy. gtx)? Simplifying: (10.38)230 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines Similarly, E.=3y, (10.39) When the channel is parabolic: T=Kyl?,A ne . OT fe Substituting T and 4 in “= 1 and simplifying: & ang?" 10.40) (24) (1040) - 4 Similarly, aN (10.41) ‘When the channel is trapezoidal: T = B + 2zy,, A =(B + 2) Ve (10.42) For known Q, B, g and z, values of solution y, is implicit, Solution of y, can be obtained by trial and error or by method of iteration by a small computer programme. 10.11 HYDRAULIC JUMP In the field of open channel flow, hydraulic jump is one of the most important topics that has been extensively investigated and studied. The first description of hydraulic jump was given by Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519). After a gap of three hundred years, it was Bidone, an Italian engineer who first investigated it experimentally in 1818. This had led Belanger (1828) to distinguish between sub-critical to super-critical slopes as he observed that in a steep slope channel, the jump is produced by a barrier in uniform flow. Thereafter, comprehensive studies were undertaken by many investigators. Outstanding works about hydraulic jump can be credited to Bresse (1860), Darcy and Bazin (1863), Matzke (1936), Escande (1938), Rouse! (1958), and many others. In honour of Bidone*, hydraulic jump in Italy is named “il salto di Bidone” Gump of Bidone). ‘The theory of jump developed in early days was confirmed only for horizontal frictionless channel where the weight of water upon the behaviour of a jump was ignored in the analysis. Hydraulic jump is defined as a local phenomenon of sudden or abrupt rise of water when the flow condition changes from sub-critical to super-critical. This sudden rise of water is accompanied by turbulent rollers. Since the depth of the water changes rapidly, in a relatively short length of reach of the channel, it is classified as Rapidly Varied Flow (RVF).Open Channel Flow 231 It occurs frequently below a regulating sluice gate, at the point of over fall spillway section of dam, when steep channel slopes suddenly turns flat, when there is an under water obstruction, downstream of narrow section, in irrigation canal fall etc. Figure 10.10 shows the occurrence of a hydraulic jump in practical field. (2) Below sluice gate (b) Underwater obstruction \ Narrow section t at (©) Change of bed slope—steep to mild (8) In irrigation canal fall Figure 10.10 Occurrences of hydraulic jump in different field situations. This hydraulic jump is used for dissipating energy below over fall spillway, in a canal fall as an energy dissipator to protect the bed against erosion, for increasing the weight of an apron to reduce uplift force under masonry structure, to mix chemicals for water purification in a water plant, to raise the water level in an irrigation canal, to indicate the presence of super-critical flow; to remove air pockets in a water supply line, to aerate water for city water supply, to transfer gases in chemical processes, and as flow measuring devices, among other applications. Out of all the above uses, the use of energy dissipator below hydraulic structures like dams etc. is of the most important. Analytical analysis of hydraulic jump is presented here only for rectangular channel. We start with specific force [Equation (10.34)] ice. (10.43)232 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines For a rectangular channel with bottom width B, Equation (10.34) may be written as: Q° nu. @ Ye go * BIE = Sp + Be (where yy and y2 ae the depths before and afier the jump, respectively) 2 2 Dividing by 2, y2+ 22 -y? 22 8 8 8° y, (They are called sequent depths.) or 24 O2 + y) O2- y= 2 yiy2Q2 + 9) = 2 ¢ yodt yt AE (10.44) Equation (10.44) is a quadratic equation in y.,. Solving for y2. ee + ptt 8q?y/ ye a (neglecting —ve sign) 1 Simplifying: or (10.45) waa) ( vi } = Froude’s number of flow at depth y, of the rectangular channel. Vay Similarly solving quadratic equation y, Equation (10.44): d+ lier] (10.46)a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookOpen Channel Flow 237 Since water is incompressible, the net change in discharge plus the change in storage should be equal to zero, i.e. ag oA - (22) ax dts (24) a dr =0 Dividing by dx-dr, aQ , aA “Oo which is the equation of continuity in unsteady open channel flow. The dynamic equation of unsteady open channel flow was deduced by A.J.C. Barre de Saint- Venant (1873) in Italy (Paris) and this equation is known as the Saint-Venant equation. It is used popularly till today to solve the unsteady flow in different situations. The derivation of this equation is presented here by energy approach. Writing energy equation in two sections of the reach of length dx: 0 (10,53) ve vi . tM + Be Ratt OE + Loses Cy) Losses in unsteady flow are due to friction plus loss of energy head for acceleration produced. Thus Losses = hy + Ag hy But = zy bys sy ax To find the loss of energy head ha, In unsteady flow ue exists, ice. acceleration is produced by causing a force to be produced. Production of force will cause loss of energy and this loss, in head form per unit weight, is hy. mass unit time -()) Force produced due to this acceleration/unit time = ( } x acceleration Work done by this force = force x distance — 7 wv dx and this work done is loss of energy head due to acceleration = lav h, = 1ov he 3 Ot Substituting these two losses in (A): 2 nine x2 VE lav HAM pe att ge Hyder FO ny : Vi We 1av5 or or-w +294 (¥E dg) t yar 2 Sr ar=0238 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines or (10.54) which is the dynamic equation of unsteady open channel flow. If the flow is steady, * = av ar varied flow, ie. Equation (10.49) may be obtained, i.e. Substituting 2% = 0 in Equation (10.54) and simplifying the dynamic equation steady gradually 57 OT eA? The solutions of these two unsteady flows [Equations (10.53) and (10.54)] is analytically impossible as they constitute a set of hyperbolic partial differential equations. Therefore, these equations are solved by different numerical solutions. Continued research on these two equations in different situations by different numerical solutions has been investigated till the twenty-first century. The different numerical methods that have been used are method of characteristics, finite difference, both explicit and implicit, and finite element methods. Some of the numerical schemes like Lax diffusive, Lamda, Gabeetti, Maecormack, and Preissimann are popular both in conservative and non-conservative forms, but the discussions of these are beyond the scope of this chapter. (10.49) EXAMPLE 10.16 Find the specific energy of water flowing through a rectangular channel of width 4 m with discharge 8 m/sec. The depth of flow of the channel is 2.5 m. Solution: B = 4m, y = 2.5 m, Q = 8 m’/sec 8 4x25 Velocity V = 2 - ( } misec = 0.8 misec. Specific energy = ce 08" _ E = 2.53262 m of water Ans.Open Channel Flow 239 EXAMPLE 10.17 A rectangular channel carries 18 m’/sec. The width of the channel is 6 m. Find the critical depth, critical velocity and value of minimum specific energy. Solution: Q = 18 m’/sec, B = 6 m, 2 = q unit discharge (m*/sec/m). q= ra = 3 m/sec/m. For rectangular channel, the equation of critical depth i Ye = 0.97168 m Ans. Now q = y, V, where V, is the critical velocity. 3 Ve= ggpjgg Musee = 3.0874 mise Ans. Minimum specific energy occurs when the depth is critical and we have the following equation for rectangular channel: Eqin = 3 Ye x 0.97168) m of water Enin = 1.4575 m of water. Ans. EXAMPLE 10.18 Show that the relation between alternate depth y, and y; channel can be expressed by a rectangular 2yi Ont y2) Solution: If y, and y, are alternate depths, the specific energy values in these two depths are the same. or Qi -¥) = 3> or Qi - ¥2) = i (2) ze la?) iea You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this book258 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines a) we _ Bye ar) 2 * B ~ 2ulax y- (2%) ayy? 3 £(2) (By - y°) (131) If V = 0, the upper plate is fixed and Equation (11.31) reduces to Equation (11.24), ie. a -2) _ v 4 ox (By - y*) (11.24) If there is no pressure gradient, Equation (11.31) reduces to (11,32) which shows that the velocity distribution is linear. This is a case of plain Couette flow or simple shear flow. When y = B, Equation (11.31) becomes: veV (11.33), Equation (11.31) may be made non-dimensional by dividing both sides by V as follows: D_y__1 (9%) pfy_y VB 2p \ ox BR 2 F7(2)|(-3)5 or v2 [2% 1 B)B (11.34) ‘The term within the big bracket of Equation (11.34) is constant and may be called the non- dimensionless pressure gradient P,. Then Equation (11.34) is written as: OP aes Be apa gader ic x)z (11.34a) 2 where P, = 7 7 (- %), For different values of P,, non-dimensional Equation (11.34a) is Mx plotted 3 against iv to obtain a family of velocity distribution curves as shown in Figure 11.7. ‘The Couette flow with a pressure gradient has its application in the hydrodynamic theory of lubrication which will be discussed later. To find the distribution of shear stress at any section, Equation (11.31) for velocity v is substituted in Newton's equation of viscosity, ie. ae [hy t(2)a-s y axLaminar Flow 259 v or or (11.35) where shear stress A varies linearly with the distance from the boundary of the fixed plate. 11.6 DARCY’S LAW: LAMINAR FLOW THROUGH POROUS MEDIA In 1856, Henri Darcy, a French engineer, derived the equation relating average velocity V, coefficient of permeability and hydraulic gradient for laminar flow through porous media. This equation is called Darcy’s law. The flow of water or any liquid through soil or any media takes place at low velocity. This media is called porous media. As the water flows or seeps with a low velocity, the flow is laminar and the Reynolds number is very small. On the basis of his experimental evidence, Darcy stated that the discharge through this porous media (i.e., soil) was. directly proportional to the head loss hy and the area of flow section, and inversely proportional to the length L of the soil sample. In other words, Q~ “La “ g-% h or vet Ve x(4) (11.36) h which is Darcy’s equation, where ( ") is the hydraulic gradient and constant K is the coefficient of permeability (i.e., the ability of the porous media to pass through it), having the dimension of velocity. Darcy's law or equation given in Equation (11.36) through porous media260 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines is quite useful in the analysis of various problems which involve the flow of liquid at low velocity through porous media or ground water hydraulics. In natural soil, the Reynolds number of flow is less than unity. However, the upper limit of Reynolds number applicable to Darcy's law ranges from 1 to 10, as given by D.K. Todd. 11.7 STOKES LAW: LAMINAR FLOW AROUND A SPHERE Laminar flow also exists around a solid body which moves through a fluid of infinite extent in which viscosity is the only fluid property affecting the motion of the particle. The accelerating effect is very small and is therefore, neglected. Practical examples of such a falling body through a fluid with some velocity are sand grains falling towards the bottom in water at rest, dust particles falling on the ground surface through air, etc. When the body or the particle moves through the fluid medium, it experiences a resistance which acts in the opposite direction to the flow direction of the body. This resistance is called Drag Force (Fp). G.G. Stokes analytically developed an expression of the Fp experienced by a sphere of diameter D, moving with velocity V in a fluid medium with dynamic viscosity ju. His analytical equation is: Fy =3 mu VD (11.37) This is called Stokes law and it is experimentally verified to be valid for Reynolds number less than 0.2. When the sphere falls through the fluid under its own weight at a constant velocity V, then the buoyant force plus the resistance (Fp) to its motion must be equal to its weight. Thus it may be written (E0"), + 3m VD = ( D)w, where wy and w, are the specific weights of the fluid and of the sphere, respectively. or 3muVD = zp Gv, — wp) D Vx gg Ow) (11.38) The velocity given by Equation (11.38) is called ‘terminal fall velocity of the sphere’. If Vis the velocity of the body in the fluid medium of density p, A is the projected area of the body perpendicular to flow direction, then Fp is expressed as: 2 Rise c,a(%) (11.39) where Cy is called the coefficient of drag. For the sphere, Fy = 34uVD, projected area A =Laminar Flow 263 11.8.2 Journal Bearing It consists of a sleeve which is partially or completely wrapped around a rotating journal, Journal bearing is designed to support the radial load. Its rubbing surfaces are separated by a lubricant film. Figure 11.9(a) shows the journal at rest and in that position, there is a metal-to-metal contact at the lowest point. When the journal begins to rotate in the clockwise direction, it moves up the bearing in an anti-clockwise direction as shown in Figure 11.9(b). The lubricant then adheres to the surface of the journal which now rolls on a lubricated surface. At the time of sufficient speed of journal, the lubricant will automatically be drawn between the surfaces, thus floating the journal in the bearing and the centre of the bearing moves to the left of the centre of the bearing as shown in Figure 11.9(c). The convergent film of the lubricant is established and positive pressure is thus developed, which can support the load. Lubricant Lubricant Lubricant (a) Journal at rest (b) Journal is rotated clockwise (¢) Joumal in rotating and floating position Figure 11.9 Joumal bearing: Mechanisms of load bearing. 11.9 DASH-POT MECHANISMS It is mechanism used to dampen the vibrations of machines. This is achieved by using fluid (Le. oil) of high viscosity. A simple dash-pot mechanism shown in Figure 11.10, consists of a piston that moves in a concentric cylinder containing viscous oil. The diameter of the cylinder is slightly greater than that of the piston. The piston whose movement is to be restrained is connected to the machine. When the piston moves downwards, the viscous oil moves upward through the annular space between the piston and the cylinder with a laminar flow. This flow occurs due to an increase in the pressure of oil below the piston. Similarly, the upward movement of the piston decreases the pressure of oil below the piston and the oil moves downwards with a laminar flow. If force F is applied downward, the oil flows upwards. If the clearance space between the piston and cylinder is small and equal to C, the piston and cylinder are considered to be two flat plates of breadth equal to the circumferential length of the pisiton 7D, length L and distance apart264 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines [-— Cylinder +— Fluid (oil) Figure 11.10 Dash-pot mechanisms. equal to C through which the oil flows. Hence, the equation of velocity of Couette flow Equation (11.3a)) may be applied here, i. =1(2)Y .ey ve 1 5 + Cy + (11.24b) The boundary conditions here are as follows: When y=0,v=0-.0=0 C.0 =~V,, where V, is the uniform downward vy a velocity of the piston. 2. Cy = ="& = +(2)¢ = £(2) y-oy- v= L(% o-o)- 147) If the velocity of piston V, is much smaller than the average velocity of oil through the clearance space, Equation (11.47) becomes (neglecting V,), = 2) P = t(Z (-oy Considering the flow dQ through an elemental strip of breath mD and thickness dy, dQ = v (AD) dy = | (2)\G2-c dQ = nD [3 (2) ener = D(a) (2 ; or Q= 2(z) I (2 - Cy)dyLaminar Flow 267 Failing Sphere Viscometer Figure 11.12 shows the falling sphere viscometer with a constant temperature bath, a cylindrical vertical container with the fluid whose viscosity is to be measured, a sphere of steel and a sphere releasing mechanism. It is based on Stokes’ Law. The ball is released as shown. It is allowed to fall freely. The terminal velocity V of the fall is obtained by measuring time ¢ in length of L L byv= 4. y t p isvew,— Wp (11.38) where D is the diameter of the sphere, and w, and w; are the specific weights of the steel ball and the liquid in the cylindrical container, respectively. Then Stokes’ equation is 4t = il Constant J-— temperature bath Liquid whose viscosity is tobe measured Figure 11.12 Falling sphere viscometer. EXAMPLE 11.1 A crude oil of viscosity 0.9 Poise and specific gravity 0.8 is flowing through a horizontal pipe of length 15 m, and diameter 80 mm. Calculate the difference of pressure at the two ends of the pipe if 50 kg of oil is collected in a tank in 10 seconds. Solution: [1 = 0.9 Poise = 9 = 0.09 Ns/m? Specific gravity = 0.8 Density of liquid = 800 kg/m* Diameter of pipe D = 80 mm = 0.08 m Length of the pipe Z= 15 m If Q is the discharge in m/sec, then: = 0 pQ= 15 = 0 or 800 x Q = 7268 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines 50 _ 9.00625 mivsec. o= T0x800 v= 2 = 200625 - 1.2434 misec AE cog? 4 Reynolds number R, = PY2 _ B00x12434x008 _ p24 195 zu 0.09 R, < 2000, hence the flow is laminar. Using the Hagen-Poiseville Equation [Equation (11.18)], we get: _ 128uQL _ 128.09 x 0,00625 x 15 PL Pes (.08)" Pi ~ P2 = 0.8393 Niem? Ans. = 8392.996 Nim™ EXAMPLE 11.2 An oil of viscosity 0.15 Ns/m? and specific gravity 0.9 is flowing through a circular pipe of diameter 55 mm and length 325 m. The rate of flow through the pipe is 3.7 litres/ sec. Find the pressure drop in a length 310 m and also the shear stress at the wall. Solution: 1 = 0.15 Ns/m?, specific gravity = 0.9, density of flow = 900 kg/m?, | D = 55 mm = 0.055 m, L = 325 m, Q = 3.7 litre/sec = 0.0037 m*/sec 128 wOL — (11.18) xp* Py — py = 128% 045% 0.0037 325 893190.69 Nim? Pressure drop = p, — pr = mx (0055)* pi — p, = 803122. _ g0313 Nim? Ans. 10° = BED, 0x OST) 0055 _ 198.48 < 2000 Ho” (Rx So the flow is laminar, hence the Hagen—Poiseville Equation (11.18) is applicable here. The shear stress at the wall is: os (-22) 4.40 Equation (11.5) = {PitP2)R al L 3 w= (sexi)Laminar Flow 269 Ag = 0.006795715 N/em? Ag = 67.957 Nim? Ans. EXAMPLE 11.3 A fluid of viscosity 5 Poise and specific gravity 1.2 is flowing through a pipe of diameter 10 cm. The maximum shear stress at the pipe wall is given to be 147.15 N/m?. Find the pressure gradient, average velocity and Reynolds number of flow. Solution: = 0.5 Poise = 3 Nem? 1 Poise = 3h. Nem? y= 0.5 Nim? Specific gravity = 1.2 +. Density = (1.2 x 1000) kg/m* D=10cm=01.m Ao = 147.15 Nim? ‘ = {-9)R _(_%)\D We know that age ( | 8 =( 2 = (-9P) 01 or 147.15 = { 2) a ap __(1a7asx4y™ : $ --|“a~ = ~5886.0 N/m Ans. ‘Average velocity V = aal-2) [Equation (11.15)] Ve [: sg 886 60? | mc V = 3.6787 m/sec Ans. eynilte mumier = BYP. _ 12100036787 x0 # 05 R, = 882.88 Ans. EXAMPLE 11.4 The flow of glycerine through a horizontal pipe of diameter 0.1 m is 0.01 m°/ sec. If 1 of glycerine is 8 Poise, what power is required per kilometre of line to overcome the viscous resistance to the flow of glycerine? Solution: L = 1 km = 1000 m, D = 0.1 m, Q = 0.01 msec = 8 Poise = a No/n? = 0.8 Ns/m?a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookTurbulent Flow 277 Thus, the value x (Kappa), ie. the Karman universal constant is 0.4, Substituting Equation (12.10) in Equation (12.8), (12.13) For convenience, bars denoting time average are omitted in Equation (12.13). Now shear stress close to the boundary is Ay and « = 0.4, 2 _ 2 (dv Ao = p(0.16) y (2) or 40 ¥» a2 22 2 22f2)_(2 225 22 ¥, (3) (3) (ans. 315" i?) For the following velocity profiles, determine whether the flow has separated or is on the verge of separation or will attach with the surface. @ 2 = 3/2 -1(2Y @ 2 222) -(2) ww 2 -of¥) « (2) v, ~ 2\a)~ 2a v, “la a v, ="la) 7a [Ans, (i) will attach, (ii) is on the verge of separation, and (iii) has separated] For the velocity profile in a laminar B.L. given as = thickness of B.L. and the shear stress at a distance of 1.8 m from the leading edge of the plate. The plate is 2.5 m long and 1.5 m wide, and is placed in water moving with a velocity of 0.15 m/sec. Find the drag on one side of the plate if the viscosity is 0.01 poise. » find the (Ans. 1.6 cm, 0.0014 N/m?, 0.0889 N) Oil with free stream velocity of 2 m/sec flows over a thin plate 2 m wide and 2 m long. Calculate the boundary layer thickness and shearing stress at the trailing edge and determine the total surface resistance of the plate. Take specific gravity of oil to be 0.86 and kinematic viscosity as 10° m/sec. (Hints: Velocity profile not given, then always use Blasicus solution. 491x 1326 pvs? Cg= =A, 1.332 Re VRe VRe = 1.80: (Ans. 2 = 15.5 mm Ay Nim? Fp = 28.88 N) aBoundary Layer in Incompressible Flow 303, 13.5 Determine the thickness of B.L. at the trailing edge of a smooth plate of length 4 m, and width 1.5 m, when the plate is moving with a velocity of 4 m/sec in stationary air. Take V of air = 1.5 x 10° m/sec (Hints: Here R,, > 5 x 10°, so the flow is turbulent. Use the turbulent B.L. equation). Ans. 9.156 cm REFERENCES Prandtl, L., “Uber Fliissigkeitsbewegung bei sehr kleiner Reibung”, Proceedings, 3rd. International Math. Congress, Heidelberg, 1904. Schlichting, H., Boundary Layer Theory, Translated by J. Kestin, McGraw-Hill Inc., New York, 1960. Prandtl, L.,“On Fully Developed Turbulence”, Proc. of the 2nd. International Congress of Applied Mechanics, Zurich, pp. 64-72, 1926. Prandtl, L., Outline of Theory of Flow, Vieweg-Verlag, Brunswick, Germany, 1931. Prandtl, L. and ©.G. Tietjens, Fundamentals of Hydro and Aerodynamics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1934. Falkner, V.M. and S.W. Skan, “Some Approximate Solutions of the Boundary Layer Equations”, ARC Reports and Memoranda, No. 1314, 1930. Wieghardt, K.E.G. “On a Simple Method of Calculating Laminar Boundary Layer”, The Aeronautical Quarterly, Vol. 5, 1954. Hama, F., “Boundary Layer Characteristics for smooth and Rough surfaces”, Trans., S.N.A.M.E., Vol. 62, 1954. Landweber, L., “Generalisation of the Logarithmic Law of Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate”, Schiffstechnik, Vol. 4, No. 21, 1957. Landweber, L., “Frictional Resistance of Flat Plates in Zero Pressure Gradient”, Trans. S.N.A.M.E., Vol. 61, 1953. Prandtl, L., “Mechanics of viscuous fluids” in W.F. Durand (Ed.). Aerodynamic Theory, Springer-Verlag, Berlins, 1935. Prandtl, L., Essential of Fluid Mechanics, Hafner Publishing Company, New York, 1952. Prandtl, L., “Mechanics of Viscous Fluids” in W.F. Durand (Ed.) Aerodynamic Theory, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1935.Chapter 14 Dimensional Analysis and Model Investigation 14.1. INTRODUCTION Dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique in which the use of dimensions of different parameters of a physical problem is used as an aid to solve many engineering problems. Model investigation is also a technique used to predict the behaviour or performance of the actual structure or prototype in advance. This investigation is also based on dimensional analysis. Thus, for model investigation, knowledge of dimensional analysis is a pre-requisite. The uses of dimensional analysis are essential for testing the dimensional homogeneity of any equation of fluid motion, deriving equations expressed in terms of non-dimensional parameters to study the relative significance of each parameter, planning model tests and presenting experimental data to study the actual behaviour of the prototype. For studying the application of dimensional analysis, a preliminary knowledge of dimensions is essential. 14.2 DIMENSIONS AND DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY The various physical quantities required to describe a phenomenon can be described by a set of quantities which are called fundamental or primary quantities. These primary quantities are mass, length, time and temperature which are designated as M, L, Tand 9 respectively. Other quantities like area, volume, discharge, velocity, acceleration, energy, force power, frequency, viscosity, density, specific weight, surface tension, etc. are called derived quantities or secondary quantities. Dimension is the expression of derived quantities in terms of primary quantity. As an example, force = mass x acceleration, ie. Force = M- sy = MLT-?. Thus, the derived quantity force is expressed in the primary quantities M, L and T. If force is expressed as F instead of M, it is an the F-L-T system, Usually, however, derived quantities are expressed in the H-L-T system. ‘An equation is said to maintain a dimensional homogeneity if the dimensions of terms on the left hand side are the same as the dimensions of the right hand side. For example, head loss in 304a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookDimensional Analysis and Model Investigation 311 or = Cyal2eH “Al aoe} C4 and both the terms within bracket are nondimensional. Q=CyaJ2gH shown. where G Buckingham x-theorem ‘The Buckingham z-theorem was first stated by Vaschy and proved in increasing generality by Buckingham, and therefore it is known as Buckingham z-theorem. The theorem states that if there are n dimensional variables involved in a phenomenon, which can be completely described by m fundamental quantities or dimensions (such as mass, length and time), then the relationship among the n quantities can always be expressed in terms of exactly (n — m) dimensionless and independent z terms. For example, discharge Q through the orifice depends on H, diameter d, P, Hand g. Thus, there are six variables Q, H, d, p, and g that are required to describe the flow phenomenon through orifice and these six variables can be described by three fundamental quantities (ie. M, L and T). Hence number -terms (n — m), ie. (6 — 3) = 3 numbers. To understand the theorem, we may take Example 14.3, solved by the Rayleigh method. Q=flu. pd. H, g) (A) Here n = 6, m= 3 (M, L, T) No. of m terms 3. (A) may also be written as f,(O, 4, p, d, H, g) = C, where C is a non-dimensional constant, Let the three 7 terms be 7, and 7. fr(My My M) = Cy where C, is a non-dimensional constant. ‘The x terms are selected in such way that each 7 term has to choose three repeating variables out of the six and these three repeating variables are such that they, among themselves, contain all three fundamental dimensions (M.L.7.). Let us choose p(MIL*), d(L), g(L/T*) as repeating variables. Thus the three x terms will be: map" d” 9 m= pt d™ gp my=p'd® gH Express 2 terms dimensionally in terms of the M-L-T system m= FPL°T? = (ML)" (Ly)! (LT?) (UT) Equating exponents of M, 0 = a;: L,0=-3a, +b, +0, +3 T, 0 ==2c,-1312 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines From these three equations, a, = 0, c) = ~1/2 o=-3x046,+( by = -52 nara git Q Q me (wen a) Similarly m2 = M°L°T® = (ML) (L)'? (LT)? (ML"T") Equating exponents of M,0=a,+1 a L, 0 = -3a; + by + 2-1 T,0=-2c,-1 3; 3 (1) + by + (-1/2)-1 -w2 : m= |—aa (B) = Again m3 = M°L°T® = (ML) (L)"3 (LT) (L) Equating exponents M: 0=a3 L, 0 =-3a3+ by +0341 7,0 =-2) + )=0 0=-3x0+b +041 by=-1 m= pd! OH 2 by= ty = (Hid) © We may now write 2, = $(%, 1%) (D) or 6,(%. %, %3) = K where K is a non-dimensional constant. Writing in (D): eae If we would have chosen the second repeating variables H instead of d, (E) would have finally been: 2 elf 4 (4 oe -6.0(( sata} (4)314 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines Equating power of M, 0 = ay: 3a; + bp +c) + 1 2b +. by =0 3x0404c41 EXAMPLE 14.5 The resistance R to the motion of a supersonic aircraft of length L moving with velocity V in the air of density p, depends on the viscosity j1 and the bulk modulus of elasticity K of air. Using Buckingham’s 7-theorem, obtain the following expression of R. = (02 V3 H K Ra (ph wall te)(45]] Solution: R= f(p, L, V, u, K) Here n = 6, m = 3, Hence x term: Choose repeating variables p, L, V. m= pt LivierR My =p? L2 V2 pw Ay = p® LB V3 K MeL? = m = onE>y wm (EY nr) Equating the power: M,0=a)+1 2a)=-1 L, 0 =-3a, + by +e, +1 T,0=-c-2 «c=-2 -3x-145)-241 -2 pil? v?R aR. piv? Ry = M°LT® = (ML)® (Ly? (LT)? (MET!) ™a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookDimensional Analysis and Model Investigation 327 14.9 CONCLUSION The contents presented in this chapter gives the students a basic idea on dimensional analysis, similitude and analysis of model. Dimensions of different parameters used frequently in hydraulics and fluid mechanics are presented in Table 14.1. Dimensional homogeneity, two important methods of dimensional analysis, model laws, types of model, scale effect in model study have been discussed systematically with solved examples. Few problems as chapter-end exercises and a list of references like Langhaar', Duncan”, Holt’, Bridgeman‘, Sadov’, National Bureau of Standard®, Birkholf’, Huntley* who did further works on dimensional analysis in the last century have included. PROBLEMS 14.1 The torque 7 on a shaft of diameter revolves with a speed of Nin a fluid of viscosity M and mass density p. Show by dimensional analysis, 7 = (pd°N2) (a) 14.2 shallow river is 1500 m wide and maximum of depth of water is 5 m. The discharge is 3000 m/sec and the velocity of flow 51.5 m/sec. The horizontal and vertical scales of model are 1; 800 and 1/40 respectively. If Manning's n of the river is 0.025, find the n for the model. The hydraulic radius may be assumed to be the depth as the river is wide. (Ans. 1p, = 0.0605) 14.3 Fora laminar flow in a pipe, the pressure Ap is a function of the pipe length f, its diameter d, mean velocity V, and viscosity 41, using any method of dimensional analysis, obtain an expression Ap. [a so-(4)o(4)] 14.4 A spillway model is to be made to a scale % across a flume of 0.5 m wide. The prototype is 15 m high and the maximum head expected 2 m. Find the (a) height and head of the model. (b) If the flow over the model at 6 cm head is 0.02 m/sec, what flow per m length of the prototype is expected? (c) If the model shows a measured hydraulic jump of 3 cm, how high is the jump in the prototype? [Ans. (a) 60 cm, 8 cm (b) 5 msec/m (c) 75 cm] 14.5 The critical depth y. in a rectangular channel is a function of the discharge per unit width of and acceleration g due to gravity. Show by the Rayleigh method, re »-(£ “Veacnaoter 15 Compressible Flow 15.1 INTRODUCTION In all the earlier chapters, analysis of flow has been made by assuming the fluid to be incompressible. In case of flow of gases, the density of fluid changes with pressure and temperature. Compressible flow is defined as that flow in which the density of fluid does not remain constant. Physical situations of compressible flow are flow of gases in the orifices and nozzles, flight of aircraft and projectiles at high altitude, water hammer problems, gas flow in turbines, gas flow in rockets, etc. Compressibility becomes predominant when velocity becomes equal to or more than the velocity of sound in the fluid medium. In compressible flow, thermodynamic behaviour of fluid is to be considered as the change of density of fluid is always accompanied by changes of pressure and temperature. Thermodynamic relations such as PL equation of state (p = pRT), isothermal process (2 = constant, adiabatic process PA k (pot constant), entropy, enthalpy all are discussed in Chapter 2. 15.2. CONTINUITY EQUATION Based on conservation of mass, the same continuity equation of incompressible flow in one dimension is applicable here also, i.e. pAV = Constant (15.1) But here p is not constant. Hence Equation (15.1) may be written as: PiALV, = p2A2V> = pAV = Constant (15.2) Differentiating Equation (15.1): pda(AV) + AV dp =0 or pVdA + pAdV + AVdp =0 Dividing by pay, a + wy + 2 =0 (15.3) which is the differential form of the continuity equation in compressible flow. 329a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this book332 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines = Pe, 35x10" 3 Similarly Pa = RA > aay aog = 4162. kal = = 24.027 m/sec Ans. (15x 10) x 4.162 15.4 VELOCITY OF SOUND IN FLUID MEDIUM If a pressure at the point of fluid is changed, the new pressure of the fluid transmitted to the rest of the fluid with velocity, which is called velocity of pressure wave, and it moves with a velocity of sound in the fluid medium. In order to find an expression of the pressure C or velocity of in the fluid medium, consider a long rigid tube of cross-section area A fitted with a piston at one end as shown in Figure 15.1. Piston Long tube dk Tin, Figure 15.1 Pressure wave propagation. If V, is the velocity of the piston and C is the pressure wave velocity or velocity of sound is the fluid medium, in time dt, the piston moves a distance dx = Vpdt and pressure wave moves in the same time dt a distance dL = Cdt. The pressure within the tube after compression (p + dp) and density (p + dp) continuity gives, mass of fluid in the tube before compression, and equal mass of fluid after compression, i.e. plAdL) = (p + dp) A(dL — dx) pal. = (p + dp) (dL - dx) or pCdt = (p + dp) (Ct — Vpdt) = (p + dp) (C - V,)dt or pCdt = pCdt - pV,dt + Cdpdt - V,dpat or pC = pC - pV, + Cap ~ Vpdp ‘ Cap - pV» - dpV, = 0 Since C is much greater than V,, (V,dp) term is neglected Cap = pv, c= bve (15.7) dpa You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this book340 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines eS Pil, Ps pet] | we ET) a pp | 72 or uk 2 k ve or t (# Jaf ie a |- t or fe i or (2) = © 1 For the adiabatic process: C= ERT = For point 1: C= Jet Rak pL pr Substituting a in (C): Pr 1 ; i 2 (2) erste koa 1 cc ket Bw) ly way * ( ') * 2G , ka iz or (2) = 1+ Sb =), My = Mach number at 1. 1 = (7) ) (15.18)a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this book344 Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachines Dividing by pAV: Wi aA, aL viatg (A) Euler the equation in compressible flow as # + VdV + gdz = 0. Assuming the horizontal flow Z term to be zero: ap, + VdV=0 Pp or ® . yay a0 dp p . . dp But Equation (159) gives 7° ce . vave0 ep or of __vav=0 Pp ot dp. viv 8) p amtine 2 . Substituting ee from (B) in (A): dv v dA _VdV _ dV _ dV vey A Cc VO Ve dA _ Vig ot eb (15.24) which gives the relationship between area A and velocity in terms of the Mach number. If M, < I, the flow is sub-sonic, R.H.S. of Equation (15.24) is negative, i.e. with increase in area, the velocity decreases. If M, = |, the flow is sonic, R.H.S. of Equation (15.24) is zero dA ie. A= O means that the area is constant. If M, > 1, R.H.S. is positive in supersonic flow. It means that with an increase in the area, the velocity also increases.a You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or 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booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this booka You have elther reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing lil far this bookAbsolute pressure, 19 Acceleration in 3-D, 84 Adiabatic process, 17 Aerostatics, 30 Air vessels in reciprocating pump, 482 Analytical equation of drag, 360 Fp and F,, 360 Area velocity method, S11 Atmospheric pressure, 19 Average velocity equation, 210 Bazin’s formula, 198 Bernoulli's equation, 104, 330 Bingham fluid, 5 Borda’s mouthpieces, 183 Boundary layer, 289 Brink depth method, 514 Broad crested weir, 193 Bubble gangh method, 526 Buckingham ztheorem, 307, Bulk modulus of compressi Buoyancy, 61 Buoyant force, 61 By-pass pipe, 130 Capillarity, 7 Cavitation of centrifugal pump, 464 turbines, 436 Centre of buoyancy, 61 pressure, 38 Centrifugal pump, 440 Index 535 Characteristics curves of pump, 462 turbine, 432 Circulation, 95 Classical solution of surge tank equation, 152 Classification of fluid, 5 mouthpiece, 165 notches and weir, 190 orifice, 165 reciprocating pump, 472 turbines, 392 Coefficient of contraction, 166 discharge, 166 velocity, 166 Components of centrifugal pump, 440 reciprocating pump, 468 ‘Compound pipe, 129 Compressibility, 9 Compressible flow, 79, 329 Computation of uniform flow, 222 Continuity equation in 1-D, 81 3-D, 82 compressible flow, 329 Couette flow, 257 Critical depth, 206 Critical flow flumes, 519 Current meter, 509 Darcy's law, 259 Darcy-Weisback equation, 117 Dash-pot mechanism, 263536 index Density, 3 Difference in pipe and open channel flow, 205 Differential manometers, 22 Dilution technique, 521 Dimensional analysis, 304 Dimensional homogeneity, 304 Discharge over rectangular weir, 190 trapezoidal weir, 192 triangular weir, 191 Displacement thickness of B.L., 291 Drag force in B.L., 293 Drag on sphere, 362 submerged body, 356 Dynamic equation of unsteady open channel flow, 236 Dynamic forces of jet, 375 Dynomets, 528 Echo sounder method, 522 Economic section of channel, 211 Effect of friction in reciprocating pump, 476 Electromagnetic methods, 527 End contractions, 195 Energy thickness, 292 Enter number, 319 Enthalpy, 18 Entropy, 18 Equation of motion, 102 state, 18 Equilibrium of floating body, 66 Equipotential lines, 92 Equivalent pipe, 129 Euler’s equation, 103 Float method, 512 Floatation, 61 Flow net, 93 Flow over broad-crested weir, 193 stepped notch, 198 submerged weir, 195 Flow through long pipe, 127 Fluid pressure at a point, 15 Fluid properties, 3 Force on curved surface, 44 inclined surface, 40 plane horizontal surface, 40 plane vertical surface, 38 Francis formula, 195 Francis turbine, 397, 418 Gauge pressure, 19 Governor of turbine, 431 Gradually varied flow steady, 234 unsteady, 236 Hagen-Poiseville equation, 248 Hardy-Cross method, 157 Head and efficiency of centrifugal pump, 444 Hotwire anemometer, 525 Hydraulic accumulator, 499 coupling, 501 crane, 493 grade line, 126 intensifier, 496 jump, 230 lift, 490 ram, 488 torque convertor, 503 turbines, 395 Ideal fluid, 5 Impact of jets, 375 Impulse turbine, 397 Incompressible flow, 79 Indicator diagram, 478 Inertia pressure method, 523 Inward flow turbine, 408 Tonosphere, 31 Irrotational flow, 8 Isothermal process, 17 Jet propulsion, 389 Journal bearing, 263 Kaplan turbines, 422 Karman vortex street, 369 Kinematic viscosity, 117FLUID MECHANICS anp EUS ete E Ne slip oe MADAN MOHAN DAS Primarily designed as a text for the undergraduate students of aeronautical engineering, mechanical engineering, civil engineering, chemical engineering and other branches of applied science, this book provides a basic platform in fluid mechanics and turbomachines The book begins with a description of the fundamental concepts of fluid mechanics such as fluid Properties, its static and dynamic pressures, buoyancy and floatation, and flow through pipes, orifices, mouthpieces, notches and weirs. Then, it introduces more complex topics like laminar flow and its application, turbulent flow, compressible flow, dimensional analysis and model investigations. Finally, the text elaborates on impact of jets and turbomachines like turbines, pumps and miscellaneous fluid machines. KEY FEATURES Comprises twenty four methods of flow measurements. Presents derivations of equations in an easy-to-understand manner. Contains numerous solved numerical problems in S.I. units. Includes unsteady equations of continuity and dynamic equation of gradually varied flow in open channel FEF THE AUTHOR MADAN MOHAN DAS, M.S. (Comell University, USA), Ph.D. (University of Strathclyde, UK), has been Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Assam Engineering College, Guwahati and Director of Technical Education, Government of Assam. Dr. Das has more than four decades of teaching experience and three decades of research experience. An Emeritus Fellow of AICTE, he has published/presented more than half a century numbers of research papers in national and international journals and conferences. His areas of research include fluid mechanics, hydraulics and hydrodynamics. ~ Hin www.phindia.com aivear200335233