UNIVERSITATEA DE TIINE AGRICOLE

I MEDICIN VETERINAR
ION IONESCU DE LA BRAD IAI

FACULTATEA DE AGRICULTUR
Specializarea Agricultur
NVMNT LA DISTAN

OLGA PNZARU

LIMBA ENGLEZ
Vol. II

Iai 2011

Cuvnt nainte
Cursul de fa este destinat studenilor din anul II, specializarea
Agricultur, I.D. Cursul poate fi utilizat de oricine aflat deja la un nivel mediu
sau avansat de cunoatere a limbii engleze i care dorete s-i mbunteasc
bagajul de cunotine de specialitate.
Obiective generale:
Formarea i dezvoltarea competenelor de comunicare oral i scris
ale studenilor (limbaj general i de specialitate)
Formarea i dezvoltarea deprinderilor de studiu academic, informare i
comunicare de profil
Competene:
1. cognitive:
Consolidarea elementelor de construcie a comunicrii n limba
englez nsuite n ciclurile de colaritate anterioare (elemente de fonetic,
lexic, morfosintax, semantic, organizarea discursului);
mbogirea cunotinelor de limba englez cu elemente de construcie
a comunicrii noi, cu accent pe: lexic de specialitate, organizarea
discursului profesional, texte din domeniul agronomic;
Identificarea, n mesaje orale i texte scrise de profil, a ideilor
principale i a informaiilor/detaliilor specifice, i corelarea lor, n mod
coerent, pentru a rezolva o sarcin de lucru;
Oferirea i solicitarea, oral / n scris, de informaii i instruciuni clare i
precise pentru ndeplinirea unei sarcini de lucru
Prezentarea, oral / n scris, de descrieri clare i detaliate, pe subiecte
legate de domeniul de specializare
Susinerea, cu argumente relevante, a unui punct de vedere n cadrul
unei discuii/dezbateri/ al unui schimb de mesaje scrise, pe teme de
specialitate
Avansarea, oral sau n scris, a unor ipoteze i formularea de rspunsuri
adecvate la ipotezele emise de ceilali
Traducerea, oral i / sau n scris, din limba englez n limba matern/
din limba matern n limba englez a unor texte/ mesaje de dificultate
medie i ridicat, din domeniile de interes.
2. profesionale:
Completarea de formulare i redactarea de texte funcionale, cu respectarea
conveniilor specifice
Documentarea n literatura de specialitate
Dobndirea unor cunotine profesionale necesare desfurrii unei
activiti n limba englez n ntreprinderi sau n alte organizaii din
domeniul specializrii

3. afectiv-valorice:
Pe parcursul studierii limbii engleze n ciclul universitar se va avea n
vedere cultivarea i dezvoltarea la studeni a urmtoarelor valori i
atitudini:
Manifestarea flexibilitii n cadrul schimbului de idei i n
cadrul lucrului n echip n diferite situaii de comunicare
Contientizarea rolului limbii engleze ca mijloc de acces la
piaa muncii i la patrimoniul culturii universale
Disponibilitatea pentru acceptarea diferenelor i pentru
manifestarea toleranei prin abordarea critic a diferenelor i a
stereotipurilor culturale
Dezvoltarea interesului pentru descoperirea unor aspecte
socio-culturale i profesionale specifice, prin receptarea unei
varieti de texte n limba englez
Derularea activitilor
Lucrarea este mprit n uniti. Fiecare unitate este structurat
dup o schem comun i conine:

un text suport

explicarea termenilor de specialitate (EXPLANATORY NOTES;

Words and Phrases)

activiti de nvare/aprofundare (COMPREHENSION)

un test de autoevaluare (SELF-EVALUATION)

o lucrare de verificare/control din care o parte din exerciii vor
constitui materia pentru evaluare (PROGRESS TEST; TEST
PAPER)
bibliografie

Cursul este structurat tematic. Activitile vor fi parcurse n ordinea

prezentrii.Textele selecionate din diverse tratate, manuale, cursuri i lucrri din
literatura de specialitate englez i romn, au fost organizate dup criterii ale
disciplinelor de predare cu profil agricol pentru a facilita asimilarea fireasc a
unor expresii i cuvinte de uz curent. Fiecare text de specialitate, pe lng
cuvintele i expresiile englezeti cu echivalentele lor din limba romn este nsoit
de un numr de exerciii lexico gramaticale care au drept scop fixarea
elementelor de vocabular i a noiunilor de gramatic.O atenie deosebit se
acord activitilor de traducere i retroversiune, considerndu se c acestea
ilustraz cel mai bine competena lingvistic a cursanilor, iar exerciiile creative
solicit opinii personale din partea cursanilor privind problema abordat.
Evaluarea
Tematica evalurii semestriale va constitui o opiune indicat de ctre
profesor a unor subiecte i exerciii prezentate la finalul fiecrei uniti sub titlul
Test paper.
Media semestrial va fi constituit din:

60% rspunsuri la colocviu

15% activiti aplicative asistate

25% lucrare de control

Autoarea
3

CONTENTS
CUPRINS
MODULE III .... 6
UNIT 1
MANURES AND FERTILIZERS.................. 6
Exercises 10
UNIT 2
THE CONTROL OF WEEDS AND PLANT DISEASES .13
Exercises .. 16
UNIT 3
THE ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF SOIL . 19
Exercises .. 26
UNIT 4
SOIL EROSION AND ITS CONTROL .. 28
TYPES OF WATER EROSION ...29
WIND EROSION . 32
Exercises .. 35
UNIT 5
SOIL DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION . 36
Exercises .. 42
UNIT 6
TILLAGE . 45
Exercises .. 48
BIBLIOGRAPHY MODULE III....................................................................... 50
MODULE IV . 52
UNIT 7
FARM MACHINERY . 52
Exercises .. 57
UNIT 8
ECOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 60
Exercises .. 61

UNIT 9
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS AND POLICIES . 65
Exercises ...... 67

UNIT10
BIODIVERSITY... 71
Exercises............................................................................................................... 73
UNIT 11
EMPLOYMENT CORRESPONDENCE .... 78
Exercises............................................................................................................... 89
BIBLIOGRAPHY MODULE IV ........................................................................ 91
BIBLIOGRAPHY (MODULE I-VIII).............................................................. 93

MODULE III
UNIT 1
MANURES AND FERTILIZERS
Plant growth cannot continue if there is not a supply of minerals in a soil.
The materials which are available for this purpose can be divided into two groups:
organic materials which are called manure, and the more concentrated, inorganic
chemical substances which are called fertilizers.

Farm manure
Among sources of organic matter and plant nutrients, farm manure has
been of major importance in past years. It contains three most important
substances for plant materials nitrogen, phosphate and potash. Manure is
understood to mean the refuse from stables and barnyards, including both excreta
and straw or other bedding material, while the term fertilizer refers to chemicals.
Large amounts of manure are produced by livestock; such manure has value in
maintaining and improving soil because of the plant nutrients, humus, and organic
substances contained in it. Manure must be carefully stored to minimize loss of
nutrients, particularly nitrogen. It must be applied to the right kind of crop at the
proper time. Also, additional fertilizer may be needed, such as phosphoric oxide,
in order to gain full value of the nitrogen and potash that are contained in manure.
The application of manure to a crop cannot be controlled as readily as can
granulated fertilizer. In general, manure does not provide all the plant nutrients
needed and fails to provide any that cannot be supplied by artificial fertilizers.
Thus, there is a tendency to discount the value of manure as fertilizer. In
underdeveloped countries, however, where artificial fertilizer may be costly or
unavailable and where labour is relatively cheap, manure is attractive as a
fertilizer.
The main benefits of manure are indirect. It supplies humus, which
improves the soils physical character by increasing its capacity to absorb and
store water, by enhancement of aeration, and by favouring the activities of lower
6

organisms. Manure incorporated into the topsoil will help prevent erosion from
heavy rain and slow down evaporation of water from the surface. In effect, the
value of manure as a mulching material may be greater than is its value as a
source of essential plant nutrients.

Green manuring
In reasonably humid areas, the practice of green manuring can improve
yield and soil qualities. A green-manure crop is grown and plowed under for its
beneficial effects, although during its growth it may be grazed. These green crops
are usually annuals, either grasses or legumes, whose roots bear nodule bacteria
capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen. Among the advantages of green-manure
crops are the addition of nitrogen to the soil, increase in general fertility level,
reduction of erosion, improvement of physical condition, and reduction of nutrient
loss from leaching. Disadvantages include the chance of not obtaining a
satisfactory growth; the possibility that the cost of growing the manure crop may
exceed the cost of applying commercial nitrogen; possible increases in disease,
insects, and nematodes (parasitic worms); and possible exhaustion of soil moisture
by the crop.
Green-manure crops are usually planted in the fall and turned under in the
spring before the summer crop is sown. Their value as a source of nitrogen,
particularly that of the legumes, is unquestioned for certain crops such as potatoes,
cotton, and corn (maize); for other crops, such as peanuts (groundnuts; themselves
legumes), the practice is questionable. Farmers are gradually turning away from
growing green-manure crops except where the crop may also serve as winter
cover for the land.

Fertilizers
Fertilizers are usually classified according to the particular food element
which forms their main constituent. So, they may be grouped as nitrogenous
fertilizers, phosphatic fertilizers, potassic fertilizers and so on.
The most commonly used fertilizer which contains nitrogen is ammonium
sulphate, which is made from ammonia and sulphuric acid, and which contains 21
% nitrogen. This element encourages rapid vegetative growth and gives plants a

healthy green colour. Another valuable nitrogenous fertilizer is urea, which is

made from ammonia and carbon dioxide, and contains 46 % nitrogen.
The most widely used phosphatic fertilizer, superphosphate, is made by
treating mineral phosphate with sulphuric acid. Phosphorous stimulates the
formation of a plants roots, and promotes fruit and seed production.
Finally, wherever high crop yields are expected, potash is used together
with nitrogen and phosphorous. Potassium makes the plant tissues stronger. This
helps the plant to withstand mechanical damage such as broken branches, and torn
leaves. In this way the entry of disease bearing agents, or pathogens, such as
bacteria and fungi, is prevented. Potassium is important for all plants but
particularly so for those that produce oil and starch or sugars.
All plants are affected by the degree of acidity or alkalinity of the soil. The
less the nutrient supply, the more acid the soil becomes. Because mineral salts are
basic, an acid soil has a low base content.

Acidity makes some elements

unavailable to plants. If a soil is very acid, with a pH value of less than 5-0, lime
can be added to correct this acidity. The main constituent of lime is calcium, an
important plant food. The presence of lime helps to make essential elements of
plant food more easily available to plants. Nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium
are more easily available in a well-limed soil than in an acid soil.

Plant hormones and growth regulators

Plant hormones and growth regulators are chemicals that affect flowering;
aging; root growth; distortion and killing of leaves, stems, and other parts;
prevention or promotion of stem elongation; color enhancement of fruit;
prevention of leafing and/or leaf fall; and many other conditions. Very small
concentrations of these substances produce major growth changes. Hormones are
produced naturally by plants, while plant growth regulators are applied to plants
by humans. Plant growth regulators may be synthetic compounds (e.g., IBA and
Cycocel) that mimic naturally occurring plant hormones, or they may be natural
hormones that were extracted from plant tissue (e.g., IAA). Applied
concentrations of these substances usually are measured in parts per million (ppm)
and in some cases parts per billion (ppb). These growth-regulating substances
most often are applied as a spray to foliage or as a liquid drench to soil around a
plant's base. Generally, their effects are short lived, and they may need to be
reapplied in order to achieve the desired effect. There are five groups of plant8

growth-regulating compounds: auxin, gibberellin (GA), cytokinin, ethylene, and

abscisic acid (ABA). For the most part, each group contains both naturally
occurring hormones and synthetic substances.
Auxin causes several responses in plants:

Bending toward a light source (phototropism)

Downward root growth in response to gravity (geotropism)

Promotion of apical dominance

Flower formation

Fruit set and growth

Formation of adventitious roots

Auxin is the active ingredient in most rooting compounds in which

cuttings are dipped during vegetative propagation.

Gibberellins stimulate cell division and elongation, break seed dormancy,
and speed germination. The seeds of some species are difficult to germinate; you
can soak them in a GA solution to get them started.
Unlike other hormones, cytokinins are found in both plants and animals.
They stimulate cell division and often are included in the sterile media used for
growing plants from tissue culture. If a medium's mix of growth-regulating
compounds is high in cytokinins and low in auxin, the tissue culture explant
(small plant part) will produce numerous shoots. On the other hand, if the mix has
a high ratio of auxin to cytokinin, the explant will produce more roots. Cytokinins
also are used to delay aging and death (senescence).
Ethylene is unique in that it is found only in the gaseous form. It induces
ripening, causes leaves to droop (epinasty) and drop (abscission), and promotes
senescence. Plants often increase ethylene production in response to stress, and
ethylene often is found in high concentrations within cells at the end of a plant's
life. The increased ethylene in leaf tissue in the fall is part of the reason leaves fall
off trees. Ethylene also is used to ripen fruit (e.g., green bananas).
Abscisic acid (ABA) is a general plant-growth inhibitor. It induces
dormancy and prevents seeds from germinating; causes abscission of leaves,
9

fruits, and flowers; and causes stomata to close. High concentrations of ABA in
guard cells during periods of drought stress probably play a role in stomatal
closure.

EXPLANATORY NOTES

Words and Phrases

manure = ngrmnt natural, gunoi, blegar

to manure = a ngra pmntul
green manure = ngrmnt verde, ngrmnt sideral
farmyard manure = gunoi de grajd, blegar
dung = baleg, blegar
litter = aternut de paie folosit n grajduri
excreta pl. (fiziol.) = excreii
leguminous crop = leguminoase
to plough = a ara, a spa (brazd)

# EXERCISES
COMPREHENSION

Rewrite the following using other words and construction from the

text where possible.

a) A mixture of litter, solid excreta and urine improves the physical conditions of
the soil and makes up for lost plant nutrients.
b) The most commonly used fertilizer which contains nitrogen is made by
combining ammonia with sulphuric acid.
c) When applied to the soil, the product which results from treating mineral
phosphate with sulphuric acid promotes the production of fruit and seeds.
d) Broken branches and torn leaves allow pathogens such as bacteria and fungi to
enter the plant and destroy it.
e) Essential elements of plant food are not readily available in a soil with a pH
value of less than 5-0.
10

SELF - EVALUATION

Combine each pair of sentences into a single sentence. Change the

second sentence into a relative clause and insert it into the first sentence at
the point indicated by the dots.
a) A leguminous crop will add as much nitrogen to the soil per
acre as 3 to 10 tons of farmyard manure. A leguminous crop is ploughed
under
b) Solid excreta, or faeces, is the material .. The material has
passed through the animal without being digested.
c) Ammonium sulphate is the most commonly used nitrogenous
fertilizer. Ammonium sulphate supplies the soil with nitrogen and sulphur.
d) When crude salt is purified it is called muriate of potash
Muriate of potash contains 50-60 % K2O
e) Another fertilizer is urea. This fertilizer contains nitrogen.
f) A soil .. will contain quite a high proportion of calcium. Such a
soil has a pH value of 6-5 or more.
g) The roots of leguminous crops such as clover bear nodules
The nodules contain bacteria ..... These bacteria accumulate
nitrogen from the air.
h) A compost is a mixture of partly broken down material .. This
material is usually made up of leaves or grass cuttings.
i) Fungi . can be controlled by means of chemical substances

Fungi attack the aerial parts of the crop, the leaves, stems etc. These chemical
substances are known as fungicides.
j) In addition to the method of disease control .. there are other
methods of control

Disease control attacks the disease

organism. These other methods are particularly important in crop production.

11

PROGRESS TEST

Translate into Romanian:

Manure is added to the soil for several reasons. It improves the physical
condition of the soil. It also keeps up the level of humus in the soil, and maintains
the best conditions for the activities of soil organisms. Finally, it makes up for the
plant nutrients which have been removed by crops or lost by leaching and soil
erosion. Green manure includes leguminous crops which grow quickly such as
clover and lucerne. Such crops supply additional nitrogen as well as organic
matter. A leguminous crop which is ploughed under will add as much nitrogen to
the soil per acre as 3 to 10 tons of farmyard manure.
Compound fertilizers are multiple nutrient materials supplying two or
three plant nutrients simultaneously. Mixed fertilizers containing all the three
principal nutrients (N, P and K) usually meet nutrient deficiencies in a more
balanced manner and require less labour to apply them than straight fertilizers
used separately.
Plant hormones, known as phytohormones, are chemicals that regulate a
plant's growth. According to a standard animal definition, hormones are signal
molecules produced at specific locations, that occur in very low concentrations,
and cause altered processes in target cells at other locations. Unlike animals,
plants lack specific hormone-producing tissues or organs. Plant hormones are
often not transported to other parts of the plant and production is not limited to
specific locations. Plant hormones are chemicals that in small amounts promote
and influence the growth, development and differentiation of cells and tissues.
Hormones are vital to plant growth; affecting processes in plants from flowering
to seed development, dormancy and germination. They regulate which tissues
grow upwards and which grow downwards, leaf formation and stem growth, fruit
development and ripening, as well as leaf abscission and even plant death.
TEST PAPER
Translate into English:
TERRAFERTIL este un ngrmnt 100% natural, mineral-organic,
neavnd n compoziia sa nici un fel de conservant. Este un produs obinut n urma
prelucrrii la temperaturi nalte a composturilor animaliere. Materiile prime
folosite sunt 100% de origine animal neavnd n compoziie nici un ingredient
12

vegetal evitnd astfel apariia seminelor de buruieni. Produsul obinut este de o

mare valoare proteic, acionnd n mod direct la formarea humusului.
TERRAFERTIL este un ngrmnt complex avnd n compoziia sa toat gama
de substane nutritive necesare dezvoltrii plantelor.
http://www tettafertil.ro
.

UNIT 2
THE CONTROL OF WEEDS AND PLANT
DISEASES
In crop production the control of weeds, diseases and pests is essential to
obtain high yields. All three may be controlled by sound farm practices. These
include the choice of clean seed and the growing of varieties of crop which can
resist disease. They also include careful cultivation, both pre-sowing and postsowing, and the use of chemicals.

Weed control
Weed control is vital to agriculture, because weeds decrease yields,
increase production costs, interfere with harvest, and lower product quality.Weeds
reduce crop yields on account of the fact that they compete with crops for water,
soil nutrients and light. They also make harvesting difficult. Most weeds are
aggressive and invasive, they grow quickly and spread far, and so are difficult to
get rid of. One recommended way of eradicating many persistent weeds is first to
plough up the roots and underground parts of the plant. Then the soil may be
cultivated lightly, on one or more occasions after the first ploughing.Weeds also
impede irrigation, water-flow, interfere with pesticide application, and harbour
disease organisms.
Early methods of weed control included mowing, flooding, cultivating,
smothering, burning, and crop rotation. Though these methods are still important,
other means are perhaps more typical today, particularly the use of herbicide

13

(plant-killing) chemicals. Another technique is to introduce insects that attack

only the unwanted plant and destroy it while leaving the crop plants unharmed.
The inadequacy of the cultural, mechanical, and biological control
systems, however, stimulated the rapid development of chemical usage and since
World War II have had an impact on crop production,changing many cultural and
mechanical agricultural operations.
Herbicides are formulated as wettable powders, granular materials,
emulsions, and solutions. Any of them may be applied as a spot treatment,
broadcast, placed in bands, or put directly on a specific plant part. When
formulated as solutions or emulsions, the chemical is mixed with water or oil.
Spraying is the most common method, permitting extremely small
amounts to be applied uniformly because of dilution. Sprays can be accurately
directed underneath growing plants, and calibration and rate control are easier
with spray machines than with granular applicators. Granular formulations have
advantages under some conditions, however. The use of herbicides must be
integrated into the overall farm program because the optimum date and
application rate depend on the crop stage, the weed stage, weather conditions, and
other factors.
Careful use of herbicides in farm production lowers cost, resulting in a
more economical product for the consumer. Herbicides cut the costs of raising
cotton, for example, by reducing labour requirements for weed control up to 60
percent. Herbicides replace hand labour in growing crops, labour that is no longer
available in developed nations at costs the farmers can afford. Machines for
chemical application are widely available.
Plant diseases control
Plant diseases are caused by organisms which use the crop plant as a
host. These are mainly micro-organisms e.g. fungi, bacteria and viruses. These
parasitic micro-organisms live off the food nutrients in the tissue cells of the
plants. They frequently kill the host tissues, and either the whole plant or a part of
it is damaged and killed. Micro-organisms are reproduced and spread by minute
bodies such as spores, fungi and bacteria. Wind, water, diseased plants, cuttings
and tubers, animals, men and insects are some of the means whereby disease is
disseminated.

14

It is very difficult to kill the fungi and bacteria, or to make the virus which
is inside the host plant inactive. But the evolution of plant varieties which can
resist disease has completely changed methods of disease control. A number of
varieties have been evolved and are now available to farmers. So the control of
plant diseases has increasingly become a matter of prevention.
Fungi, which attack the aerial parts of the crop, can be controlled by means
of fungicides. There are sprayed or dusted on to the plant surfaces. They should be
applied before the plant is seriously damaged. Sometimes spray and dust is
applied whether disease is present or not. In any case, it is necessary to examine
crops frequently for signs of disease.
Soil-borne diseases are much more difficult to control. There are various
ways of treating the soil. One way is to use chemicals that easily change into a gas
or vapour, which enter the soil and kill the harmful organisms. The soil is covered
with a polythene sheet and the volatile chemical is injected into the soil. After
about 24 hours the sheet is removed and the soil is allowed to air for a few days
before use.

EXPLANATORY NOTES

Words and Phrases

sowing = semnat, nsmnare

pre-sowing = premergtor semnatului, nainte de semnat
post-sowing = dup semnat
emergence = rsrire, nmugurire
bacterium, pl. bacteria = bacterie
cutting = 1. buta; 2. rmie, deeuri, surcele; 3. uscturi, vreascuri
fungus, pl. fungi = ciuperc, burete, mucegai
to evolve = a (se) dezvolta
to spray = a pulveriza, a dispersa, a mprtia, a stropi fin
to dust = 1. a pulveriza;

2. a acoperi cu praf

15

# EXERCISES
COMPREHENSION
Rewrite th following using other words and constructions from the text
where possible.
a) Weeds which grow quickly and spread far are difficult to get rid of.
b) A way which is frequently advised to eradicate weeds which last a long time is
to plough first and then cultivate lightly.
c) Plant diseases are spread in a variety of ways by wind, water, animals, men
and insects, for instance.
d) In order to control soil-borne diseases a chemical that easily change into a gas
or vapour can be injected into the soil under a polythene sheet.

SELF - EVALUATION

Write down and complete the sentences by filling in the blanks with a

past participle modifier or a present participle modifier. Form each modifier

from one of the verbs in the list.
fix

spray

lime

operate

cultivate

dust

bear

recommend
drive
draw

compose

Example: Leguminous plants have nitrogen fixing bacteria growing on their

roots, which extract nitrogen from the soil air, use what they need themselves, and
pass on the rest to the host plant.
a) For carrying out heavy jobs which need a lot of power, such as ploughing
or land reclamation, tractor .. implements are superior in
every way to manually . or bullock ..
implements.
16

b) Nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium are more easily available to plants in

a well- soil than in a soil which has a low pH value and is therefore
acid.
c) Due to the fact that grasslands have diminished in many countries in recent
years fodder crops have become increasingly important,
particularly for dairy cattle.
d) In the case of soil-. diseases where the fungus living in the soil
attacks the seeds or seedlings, soil disinfectants or sterilizers such as
formaldehyde or formasan are helpful in destroying the fungus.
e) One of the . methods of eradicating the paddy stem borer is
dipping the seedlings in 0-1 % DDT suspension before transplanting.
f) As most vegetable crops are usually affected by a variety of fungus and
virus diseases and a number of insect pests, it is better for the farmer to
equip himself with the necessary and ..
machines.
g) .. manure, or compost, can be made from different sorts of
waste material including padi-straw, grass clippings, sugar-cane refuse,
etc.

PROGRESS TEST

Translate into Romanian:

Weed-killers are of two basic types: selective and non-selective. The
former remove certain weeds from certain crops. Non-selective weed killers may
be used for removing all vegetation e.g. as brush killers. They must be used
extremely carefully for the simple reason that they will eradicate all plants on
contact which includes the crop itself. They are usually used before sowing or
before the emergence of the crop itself.
The future of chemical pesticides and herbicides is under debate by those
who manufacture, sell, and use them and by those who are concerned about
environmental quality. The value of an assured food and fibre supply at
reasonable cost is undeniable, and chemicals contribute much toward this. These
17

substances also cause undesirable effects upon the environment, however, and
indeed can be toxic to a wide range of organisms. This fact will demand an
increasing amount of care in using chemicals, perhaps enforced by law, along
with increasing use of nonchemical control techniques.
Plant disease may be defined as a condition in which the plant as a whole,
or many part of it, does not perform its normal function. It may be brought about
by a number of organisms which are all microscopic in size such as fungi,
bacteria, viruses etc., or by physiological causes. These micro-organisms obtain
their food in two ways: by breaking down dead plants or animal remains
(saprophytes) or by attacking living plants and animals (parasites).
Fungi are micro-organisms that can be controlled by means of chemical
substances known as fungicides. There are many kinds of fungicide but they are
all used by spraying or dusting them on to the plant surfaces. Bacteria are
microscopic cellular organisms. They occur, like fungi, both in the air and in the
soil.Virus diseases are usually spread by direct contact, through diseased cuttings
and grafts and by insects. Virus diseases cannot be prevented or cured by
chemicals. Thus, the use of disease-free seed is essential to reduce infection. To
prevent the disease seeds should be planted early and close. Clean seed should be
used and infected plants uprooted and burnt.
It is very difficult to kill fungi and bacteria and to inactivate virus once it is
inside the host plant. Hence, the control of plant disease increasingly lies in
preventing infection. The development of disease resistant varieties has, however,
revolutionized methods of disease control. Nowadays, varieties of most of the
economic crops which are resistant to certain important diseases are available to
farmers.
TEST PAPER
Translate into English :
La fel ca oamenii i animalele i plantele sufer de diverse boli. Apariia
lor este adesea o consecin a condiiilor nefavorabile n care sunt crescute. n
cazul unei plante, boala este determinat de efectele adverse ale agenilor patogeni
infecioi care se multiplic pe suprafaa sau n interiorul unei plante, avnd
potenialul de a se extinde i la alte plante. Agenii patogeni i diveri duntori ai
plantelor (nematozii) pot deteriora orice parte a acestora determinnd: defolierea,
cloroza, oprirea creterii, ncetarea fotosintezei, leziuni, necroze i n final
18

moartea plantei. Mult mai de temut dect atacul diverilor duntori, sunt
diuversele boli

transmise prin intermediul ciupercilor microscopice (bolile

criptogamice), bacteriilor (bacteriozele) sau virusurilor (virozele). Ele se

manifest prin diverse pete, decolorri sau deformri care se extind rapid la
nivelul ntregii plante.

UNIT 3
THE ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF SOIL
To properly grow into profit making crops, plants require a certain
environment. This environment can be divided into two parts: the underground
environment in which thr roots live and grow, and the above ground environment
in which the visible part of the plant exists.

THE UNDERGROUND ENVIRONMENT

Although some plants require a more specialized underground
environment, there are certain factors that affect the growth and development of
all plants. The medium ( soil or soil substitute ) in which plants are grown is a
very important factor. Through their roots which anchor them in the soil, plants
take in air moisture, and minerals all vital to plant life. Many times, plant food is
added to the soil to encourage better growth.
Soil is a residue composed of two main ingredients: mineral material and
organic material. Organic material originates from dead plants and animals and
materials other than this are derived from rocks of various kinds. These rocks are
broken down into small particles by mechanical disintegration and chemical
decomposition. This breaking down process, known as weathering, may thus be
both physical and chemical.
When weathering processes are largely physical by heat or wind, for
instance - the composition of the soil is very similar to that of the parent rock. In
arid regions weathering is mostly by physical means. But in humid regions
chemical processes of weathering are equally important. In such regions rock
particles are affected by water which may contain carbonic or other weak acids.
19

These acids dissolve some of the particles in the rocks. The mineral material that
is left behind is insoluble. Consequently, the insoluble mineral residues in the
soils have less resemblance to the original rocks. There are larger amounts of
organic matter in the soil, too.
The process of soil formation results in the development of the soil profile.
This is made up of a succession of horizontal layers, or horizons, of varying
thickness, from the surface to the parent rock. Generally speaking, there are three
distinct horizons, known as A, B and C.

A is the top soil, which is coarse-

grained, and dark in colour because of the presence of humus. B is known as the
sub-soil which contains some of the products leached, or washed, out of the
horizon. The C horizon consists of parent material which has been weathered in
the upper part, and unweathered rock below.
Any sample of soil contains particles of different sizes. These have been
divided into the following size groups:

TABLE 1

Material

Diameter (mm)

gravel

more than 2.0

coarse sand

2.0 0.2

fine sand

0.2 0.02

silt

0.02 0.002

clay

less than 0.002

Soils range from pure clays to pure sands. Most of them contain various
proportions of sand, silt and clay and these varying proportions make up a soils
textural class. The principle classes in order of increasing fineness of material are
sand, loamy sand, loam, silt loam, silty clay loam, clay loam, silt and clay.

20

Any soil contains both mineral and organic matter. Clay particles are the
most important of the mineral particles because they are the smallest. Smaller
sized particles have a greater exposed surface area than larger sized particles. The
smaller the size of a particle, the greater is its reactivity. That is to say, smaller
sized particles can react or combine with water, nutrients and humus more easily
than larger sized particles. Thus, a clay soil is more reactive than any other type of
soil.
Humus from decomposed organic matter is vital to a soil as it makes a
heavy soil lighter. In addition, it helps to bind the mineral particles together in
crumbs.

Types of Soils

Types of Soil: Clay

Clay soils contain very fine, flat particles which tend to stick together.
They feel heavy and sticky and form a little ball when you rub a small amount
between finger and thumb. A handful of damp clay will retain the impression of
your fingers and may appear shiny on the surface.
Disadvantages: When wet they are sticky and hard to work, and when dry
they set hard and crack. They are prone to waterlogging and tend to warm up later
in the spring than more open sandy soils.
Advantages: They are usually very rich in nutrients and their texture and
workability can be improved by adding grit and bulky, very well rotted, organic
matter. Improved clay soils will support quite a wide variety of plants.

21

Types of Soil: Silt

Silty soils fall between clay and sand in terms of particle size, and feel
smooth, silky or soapy when rubbed between your fingers. They may form a fairly
cohesive ball in the palm of your hand although they cannot be moulded in the
same way as clay.
Disadvantages: When wet they tend to pack down and become heavy,
cold and poorly drained rather like clay, although not to the same extent. They
warm up quicker than clays but more slowly than sandy soils.
Advantages: They are generally quite fertile and will support a wide range
of plants.

Types of Soil: Sand

Sandy soils have a much larger particle size than clays and silts and feel
quite gritty between your fingers. If you squeeze them when wet they don't
usually hold their shape.
Disadvantages: The larger particle size means they are very free draining
and tend to lose nutrients easily.
22

Advantages: They are easy to work and warm up quickly in spring so you
can get your season off to a flying start. The texture and fertility can be improved
by adding rich organic matter.

Types of Soil: Chalk

Chalk soils were described by Geoff Hamilton as 'pale and hungry looking'
which sums them up really well! They feel dry and crumbly in your hand, are
usually greyish white in colour, and contain fragments of white chalk.
A ball of chalky soil will collapse into fairly large particles.
Disadvantages: They tend to be very stony and shallow and will not
support deep rooted plants. They are very free draining and lose nutrients easily.
Importantly, these types of soil are also very alkaline and will not support acid
loving plants.
Advantages: They can be improved with the addition of organic matter
and are reasonably fertile. There is also a good range of lime tolerant plants.

Types of Soil: Peat

23

Peat soils have a very high organic content so are very dark, almost black,
in colour. In your hand they feel moist and spongy and are hard to roll into a ball.
If you look closely you will see that they contain many fibrous plant remains.
Disadvantages: In general they easily become waterlogged and are
usually acidic so you will not be able to grow lime loving plants. The acidity also
means that they support only a limited range of beneficial soil organisms.
Advantages: They are potentially very fertile and can be cultivated quite
intensively. The addition of lime to selected areas will enable you to grow fruit
and vegetables. You can make the most of your ornamental garden by growing the
many beautiful acid loving plants.

Types of Soil: Loam

In practice, most cultivated soils fall somewhere in between these broad

categories and are a blend of different particle sizes. These types of soil are known
as 'loams'. The main characteristics of these loams are those of the predominant
mineral.
Disadvantages: Clay loams tend to be heavy and slow draining and are
difficult to work when wet. In very dry conditions they harden and form surface
cracks. Sandy loams, on the other hand, are free draining. They are quite easy to
work but dry out easily and nutrients are quickly lost. Silty loams are prone to
compaction and tend to settle into a dense airless mass.
Advantages: The fact that loams contain a broader range of particle sizes
means that they do not display the extreme characteristics and behaviour of, say, a
pure clay or sandy soil, and are easier to work with.
http://www.enjoy-your-garden.con
24

EXPLANATORY NOTES
Words and Phrases
weathering = alterare, ansamblu al schimrilor fizice, chimice i biologice,
produse n roci sub influena agenilor atmosferici, plantelor i microorganismelor.
parent rock = roc mam
soil profile = profil de sol
layer = strat, stratificaie
coarse-grained
coarse = aspru, gros, de calitate inferioar, prost
grained = granulat, grunos, zgrunuros
coarseness = asprime, microgranulaie
leach = 1. a filtra, 2. a trata cu leie
leaching = levigare, splare
sand = nisip
silt = nmol, ml, aluviune
clay = argil, lut, hum
texture = textur
loam = lut, pmnt argilos, pmnt rodnic, fertil
crumb = frmituri, frme, fragmente
humus = humus, pmnt vegetal
sandy clay = argil slab, nisipoas
clay ground = sol argilos, pmnt gleic
gravel = pietri prundi
silty clay = argil prfoas
clay loam = lut argilos
silt loam = lut prfos

25

# EXERCISES
COMPREHENSION

Rewrite the following sentences replacing the words printed in italics

with expressions from the text which have the same meaning.
a) Material other than mineral material is derived from dead plants and
animals.
b) Breaking down rocks into small particles is performed mostly by heat or
wind in arid and semi-arid regions.
c) The remains of mineral materials that cannot be dissolved in water have
little similarity to the parent rocks in humid regions.
d) The succession of horizontal layers in a soil are called the top soil, the
subsoil and the parent material.
SELF EVALUATION
Match the terms on the left with their definitions on the right:
1.parent material

a) a soil with well developed soil horizon

produced by the natural processes of soil
formation and essentially in equilibrium with its
present environment

2.horizon

b) the unconsolidated mineral material on the

immediate surface of the earth that serves as natural
medium for the growth of land plants

3.soil

c) a layer of soil or soil material approximately paralled

to the land surface and differing from adjacent
genetically related layers in physical, chemical and
biological properties or characteristics such as colour,
structure, texture, consistency

4.top soil

d) the science dealing with soils as natural resources on

the surface of the earth, including soil formation,
classification, and mapping, and the physical, chemical,
biological, and fertility properties of soils
26

5.weathering

e) the upper and most weathered part of the soil

profile; the A and B horizons

6.mature soil

f) the unconsolidated and more or less chemically

weathered mineral or organic matter from which the
solum of soils is developed by pedogenic processes

7.solum

g) all physical and chemical changes produced in rocks, at

or near the earths surface, by atmospheric agents

8.soil science

h) the layer of soil removed in cultivation

PROGRESS TEST
Translate into Romanian:
The soil system is made up of mineral particles which are mixed with
decomposed organic matter. The top soil consists of this mixture, which is so vital
for plant growth. Below the top soil is the sub-soil which is largely composed of
mineral matter. In addition to the mineral and organic matter, called the soil
solids, there are spaces between the soil particles which are taken up by water and
air to make up the non-solid part of the soil.
Soil solids consist mainly of particles of various sizes. All particles
between 0.002 mm and 0.02 mm are silt. Particles larger than 0.02 mm are sand
particles, coarse sand and fine sand. Particles smaller than silt are clay particles.
Clay is able to absorb a great deal of water owing to the amount of pore space
between the particles. Sand does not have this property. Therefore, a soil which
contains more clay is able to hold more water than a soil with less clay.
The mineral material in all soil is derived from parent material by the
process of weathering which breaks down rocks into smaller particles by
mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition.
TEST PAPER
Translate into English:
Pentru definirea texturii solului, particulele elementare de sol sunt grupate,
n funcie de mrimea lor, n mai multe categorii, denumite fraciuni
granulometrice. Principalele fraciuni granulometrice sunt cele de nisip, praf i
argil. n funcie de textur, solurile se mpart n clase sau specii texturale, care
sunt determinate de proporiile dintre fraciunile granulometrice din sol, mai exact
27

de suprafaa specific a solului. Clasele texturale sunt denumite dup fraciunea

granulometric determinant i pot fi determinate, pe baza rezultatelor analizei
granulometrice, n funcie de coninutul n argil i praf al solului.

UNIT 4
SOIL EROSION AND ITS CONTROL

Soil is naturally removed by the action of water or wind: such 'background'

(or 'geological') soil erosion has been occurring for some 450 million years, since
the first land plants formed the first soil. Even before this, natural processes
moved loose rock, or regolith, off the Earth's surface, just as has happened on the
planet Mars. In general, background erosion removes soil at roughly the same rate
as soil is formed. But 'accelerated' soil erosion loss of soil at a much faster rate
than it is formed is a far more recent problem. It is always a result of mankind's
unwise actions, such as overgrazing or unsuitable cultivation practices. These
leave the land unprotected and vulnerable. Then, during times of erosive rainfall
or windstorms, soil may be detached, transported, and (possibly travelling a long
distance) deposited.
Accelerated soil erosion by water or wind may affect both agricultural
areas and the natural environment, and is one of the most widespread of today's
environmental problems. It has impacts which are both on-site (at the place where
the soil is detached) and off-site (wherever the eroded soil ends up). More recently
still, the use of powerful agricultural implements has, in some parts of the world,
led to damaging amounts of soil moving downslope merely under the action of
gravity: this is so-called tillage erosion.Soil erosion is just one form of soil
degradation. Other kinds of soil degradation include salinisation, nutrient loss, and
compaction.
The basic definition of the word erosion is to wear away. Since the earth
was first formed, there has been a continual wearing away of the surface. Many
agents are responsible, but the discussion here will be limited to cultivated fields.
28

Erosion processes
Soil may be detached and moved by water, wind, or tillage. These three
however differ greatly in terms of:

where and when they occur

what happens to the area that is being eroded (on-site impacts)

how far the eroded soil is moved, and

if the soil is moved away from the place where it was eroded, what
happens as a result (off-site impacts)
Erosion that takes place under natural conditions (i.e. when the land

surface and native vegetative cover have not been disturbed by human activities)
is called natural or geological erosion. On the other hand, when timberland is
cleared or grassland is broken up, processes of erosion are accelerated, and we
have unnatural or soil erosion. Whenever erosion is speeded up as a result of
human activities so that it removes all or part of the topsoil, we call the process
soil erosion. Geological erosion is a relatively slow process under many
conditions and soil formation may keep pace with the removal of the surface soil.
Soil erosion, on the contrary, is very rapid when environmental factors favor
erosion.

TYPES OF WATER EROSION

Soil erosion by water is the result of rain detaching and transporting
vulnerable soil, either directly by means of rainsplash or indirectly by rill and
gylly erosion. Erosion by water may be divided into four categories: 1) splash, 2)
sheet, 3) rill, and 4) gully.

Splash erosion
Rain may move soil directly: this is known as 'rainsplash erosion' (or just
'splash erosion'). Spash is only effective if the rain falls with sufficient intensity. If
it does, then as the raindrops hit bare soil, their kinetic energy is able to detach
29

and move soil particles a short distance. Because soil particles can only be moved
a few centimetres at most by this process, its effects are solely on-site. Although
considerable quantities of soil may be moved by rainsplash, it is all merely
redistributed back over the surface of the soil (on steep slopes, however, there will
be a modest net downslope movement of splashed soil). Thus a more descriptive
term might be 'rainsplash redistribution'. Because rainsplash requires high rainfall
intensities, it is most effective under convective rainstorms in the worlds
equatorial regions. Rainsplash is relatively ineffective where rain falls with a low
intensity (e.g. because the rainfall is of frontal origin), such as in the north-west of
the USA or in northern Europe.

Sheet erosion
Strictly speaking, sheet erosion refers to the quite uniform removal of soil
from the surface of an area in thin layers. For sheet erosion alone to occur it is
necessary that there be a smooth soil surface, which is seldom the case. Usually a
soil surface that is designated smooth contains small depressions in which water
will accumulate. Overflowing from these at the lowest point, the water cuts a tiny
channel as it moves down the slope. Duplicated at innumerable points, this
process presently creates a surface cut a multitude of very shallow trenches that
are called rills. None of these may grow to appreciable size of depth, so the
surface soil is rather uniformly removed from the field. Accordingly, sheet erosion
and rill erosion work hand in hand; the combined process is usually called sheet
erosion, as distinguished from gully formation.

Rill and gully erosion

Although sheet erosion may pass unnoticed by the average observer,
gullies attract immediate attention. Rainfall may move soil indirectly, by means of
runoff in rills (small channels) or gullies (larger channels, too big to be removed
by tillage). In many parts of the world, rill and gully erosion is the dominant form
of water erosion. They disfigure the landscape and give the impression of land
neglect and soil destruction. Not only do gullies result in soil loss but also, the
eroded material is usually deposited over more fertile soil at the foot of the slope.
Also, fields dissected by gullies offer many problems in farming operation.
Gullying proceeds by three processes: (1) waterfall erosion, (2) channel erosion,
30

and (3) erosion caused by alternate freezing and thawing. Usually more than
one process is active in a gully In many cases, individual microrills become
ineffective over time due to sedimentation. A subset, however, grow further to
become rills; and a smaller subset may go on to develop into gullies. This process
of competition between microrills and rills leads to the self-organized formation
of networks of erosional channels which form efficient pathways for the removal
of water from hillslopes. It is in such erosional channels that water erosion also
operates most effectively to detach and remove soil by its kinetic energy. In most
situations erosion by concentrated flow is the main agent of erosion by water.
The flow-dominated erosional channels are separated by interrill areas
where the dominant processes are rainsplash and diffuse overland flow; however,
boundaries between rill and interrill areas are both ill-defined and constantly
shifting.
In some circumstances
subsurface flow may be
important in determining
where

channel

erosion

will begin and develop

(e.g. at the base of slopes,
and in areas of very deep
soils

such

saprolites).
from

as

tropical

Meltwater

thawing

snow

operates in a broadly
similar

way

to

rain-

derived

overland

flow,

detaching

and

Large rills (possibly big enough to be called

gullies) on an eroding hillslope.
http:// home. staffworks.com

transporting unfrozen soil

in areas of concentrated flow. Snowmelt erosion is, though, less well studied and
less well understood.
As erosional channels increase in size (i.e.grow to become large rills and
gullies), processes such as gravitational collapse of channel walls and heads
increase in importance. Runoff and sediment from rills and gullies may be moved
31

into ditches, stream and rivers, and so transported well away from the point of
origin. However, sediment may also be deposited within the rill or gully, or
beyond the rill or gullys confines in a depositional fan, at locations where the
gradient slackens. Here it may be stored for a variable period of time, possibly
being reworked by tillage activity, until a subsequent erosion event is of sufficient
size to re-erode the stored sediment. It may then be redeposited further
downstream, or make its way into a permanent watercourse and thence to lake or
ocean.

WIND EROSION
Is indirectly related to water conservation in that a lack of water leaves
land barren and exposed to the wind. Wind erosion reaches its greatest extent in
semiarid and arid regions. Nevertheless, much damage is caused to both crops and
soils in humid areas by soil blowing, although the phenomenon is less spectacular
and attracts comparatively little attention in these regions.
Wind erosion involves the detachment, transportation and re-deposition of
soil particles by wind. Wind erosion is common on flat, bare areas with dry, sandy
soils, or anywhere the soil is loose, dry, and finely granulated. Sandy soils are
very susceptible to erosion, however clay soils which have been pulverised by
powered tillage implements or worked when they are too dry are also susceptible
to wind erosion.

Most common on flat, bare areas with dry, sandy soils or soils with little
cohesion.

Removes the nutrient rich clay particles and organic matter, leaving larger
inert material behind.

Wind detaches and transports soil particles according to size:

o

> 1 mm move by rolling (soil creep)

0.1 1 mm move by saltation, caused by the collision by entrained

particles

< 0.1 mm detach into suspension.

32

Prevention and Control

Most soils require at least 30 per cent ground cover to prevent wind
erosion. Vegetation and crop residues prevent wind erosion by reducing soil
drying by evaporation, reducing wind speed at ground level and anchoring soil
particles. In crop areas methods such as stubble retention, direct drilling, herbicide
weed control and chemical fallows reduce the risk and extent of wind erosion by
maintaining residue cover. In addition, crops with little ground cover can employ
cover crops of oats or lucerne may be grown through fallow periods to provide
short term protection.
Field shelterbelts can provide extra protection against wind erosion, they
tend to reduce the wind velocity for distances up to 30 times the height of the
trees. Field shelter belts usually have yield or quality benefits which help to offset
yield

losses

associated

with

taking

land

out

of

crop

production.

Soils with a rougher surface are less prone to wind erosion due to the lowered
wind speed at ground level. Surface roughness may be increased by either
incorporating clays, maintaining residues or mulching.
In crop areas:

Direct drill crops

Use herbicides as chemical fallows

Maintain crop residue cover

Grow cover crops during fallow

Maintain of soil organic matter

Cultivate at correct soil moisture

Grow field shelterbelts

Increase surface roughness through clay incorporation.

Cost of Wind Erosion
The cost of wind erosion to the economy and to the environment is large:

it impacts on the site from which soil is removed, the air in which it is transported
and the sites at which it is deposited.

Plant nutrients and organic matter are usually concentrated near the soil
surface, making it more fertile than the soil beneath. Wind erosion acts on
33

the soil surface, so the more fertile soil layers are removed. Consequently,
wind erosion is damaging to the soil itself, to the general environment and
to agricultural productivity.

Dust is the most visual aspect of wind erosion and dust also causes serious
health issues.

Deposited wind eroded material can bury pasture and crops, choke creeks,
overtop fences and deposit salt.
The cost of wind erosion includes:

environmental degradation

threat to rare and endangered plants and animals

loss of production

loss of property value

loss of soil nutrients

loss of grazing and cropping area

sandblasting of crops

contamination of wool with sand

loss of aesthetic value

reduction in air quality

human health issues

EXPLANATORY NOTES
Words and Phrases
erosion = eroziune, distrugere; roadere
timberland = pmnt mpdurit, pdure
environmental factor = factor de mediu
sheet erosion = eroziune de suprafa
rill = rigol, rule
splash erosion = eroziune prin mprocare
trench = an, canal
rill erosion = eroziune prin iroire
34

dredge = a draga
gully erosion = eroziune n adncime
strip = fie
smooth soil surface = suprafa neted de sol
wind erosion = eroziune eolian
saltation = saltaie
vegetable cover = covor vegetal
soil erodibility = erodabilitatea solului

# EXERCISES
COMPREHENSION
Answer the following questions:
1.What is natural or geological erosion?
2.What is unnatural or soil erosion?
3.Which types of water erosion do you know?
4.What does sheet erosion mean?
5.Which are the three processes by which gullying proceeds?
6.What does wind erosion involve?
7.What does the cost of wind erosion include?
SELF - EVALUATION

Match the terms on the left with their definitions on the right:

1. rill erosion

a the removal of a fairly uniform layer of soil from

the land surface by runoff water.

2. sheet erosion

b an erosion process in which numerous small

channels of only several inches in depth are formed;
occurs mainly on recently cultivated soils.

3. creep erosion

c the spattering of small soil particles caused by

35

the impact of raindrop on very wet soils.

4. splash erosion

d slow mass movement of soil and soil material

down relatively steep slopes primarily under the
influence of gravity, but facilitated by saturation
with water and by alternate freezing and thawing.

PROGRESS TEST

Translate into Romanian:

Wind erosion can be controlled (1) if the soil particles can be built up into
clusters or granules of too large a size to move in saltation; (2) if the wind velocity
near the soil surface can be reduced by ridging the land, by vegetable cover, or
even by developing a cloddy surface; and (3) by providing strips of stubble or
other vegetative cover sufficient to catch and hold the particles moving in
saltation.
TEST PAPER
Translate into English:
Combaterea eroziunii solului i chimizarea agriculturii reclam, de
asemenea, cunoaterea amnunit a proprietilor solurilor i a rspndirii lor.
Cercetrile de sol ofer datele necesare stabilirii msurilor celor mai potrivite
pentru combaterea i prevenirea eroziunii, nevoii de ngrminte, n funcie de
condiiile naturale i de sol, msurilor privind prevenirea i combaterea polurii
solului.

UNIT 5
SOIL DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION
DRAINAGE
Drainage in agriculture was first practiced in Egypt in 3000 B.C. (the
Fayyum Oasis). In 2000 B.C., clay drainage systems were used to drain arable
36

lands in Mesopotamia, and stone drainage systems were used in the vineyards of
ancient Rome. The coastal lowlands of the Netherlands have been drained since
the ninth and tenth centuries. The first drainage systems using handmade ceramic
pipes were built near Bosworth, England, in the 16th century. Open canals were
first used for drainage in Europe in the late 18th century. In the early 19th century
drain tiles were used in Europe, and by the end of the century, in the United
States.
One meaning of drainage is the natural ability of the soil to allow a
downward movement of water. The ease with which water can pass through a soil
depends on the proportions in it of coarse and fine particles such as sand and clay.
The finer the particles become, the more slowly the water percolates, or passes,
through the soil. So heavy soils such as clay are more impermeable than light
soils.
When there is too much water in the soil, some of it must be drained off.
This is the other meaning of drainage : the removal of excess water from the soil
by ditching or tiling, (subsurface drainage). This is done in order to maintain a
correct balance of air and water in the soil. Good drainage makes a soil easier to
work. It also helps to increase the feeding area of the soil for the roots of plants.
Another advantage is that a well-drained soil will have enough air for aerobic
bacteria to break down humus and so provide food for the plant.
Ditching is one of the most important techniques for draining land. Ditches
can be cut at certain intervals between the crops. These will remove surface water.
They should be wide and straight, with sloping sides, and they should be regularly
cleaned. Another important technique is tile drainage. Porous drainage tiles may
be laid in or on the land and these will help to draw off the surplus water. The
distance between the drains will depend on the level of the land, the permeability
of the soil, and the amount of rainfall. For very heavy soils mole drainage can be
used. This technique is used where water accumulates underground. A tunnel is
bored about 3 inches in diameter through the earth at a depth of about 2 feet.
Signs Indicating the Necessity for Drainage :

Soils have a wet and spongy surface.

Plants have a withered and sickly appearance and are bleached a

yellowish colour.
37

Land dries out in patches in summer.

Snow lies long on wet soils.

Crops are stunted and blighted.

Freshly turned furrow slices show a glazed appearance.

Rushes, sedges and other water-loving plants are signes of the need
for drainage.

Advantages of Drainage

The temperature of the soil is improved.

The temperature of the plant rises :

when there is much water

present in the soil plant food is diluted and therefore the plant
requires to take in much water to get the necessary food. This keeps
down the natural heat of the plant and heat will be lost in the process
of transpiration, so retarding growth.

The mechanical and physical condition of the soil is improved.

Air is admitted and sucked into the soil.

Drainage allows air to decompose organic matter.

Drainage provides suitable conditions for useful bacteria.

It gives larger crops as roots penetrate deeper and are able to obtain a
greater supply of plant food.

There is less disease and the quality of the crop improves.

A greater number of seeds germinate because of better air and
temperature conditions.

A greater variety of crops can be grown.

Tillage is easier since cultivations can be undertaken earlier and as

result the growing season is lengthened.

Manures are more effective.

Good grasses appear in pasture and harmful grasses disappear.

There are fewer insect pests.

The health of livestock is improved

38

IRRIGATION
Effective agronomic practices are essential components of irrigated
systems. Management of the soil fertility, cropping selection and rotation, and
pest control may make as much incremental difference in yield as the irrigation
water itself. Irrigation implies drainage, soil reclamation, and erosion control.
When any of these factors are ignored through either a lack of understanding or
planning, agricultural productivity will decline. History is absolutely certain on
this point.
Where and when water is in short supply, irrigation is needed to make up
the deficit. We should distinguish between the collection of water and its
application. There are two main sources of irrigation water : surface water and
ground water. The former may be obtained from rivers, lakes or reservoirs, and
the latter is provided by underground water deposits. Irrigation from rivers is
mainly along canals from dams which have been built across the rivers. The water
collects behind the dam during the wet season. And it is applied in the fields later
during the dry season. Subterranean water is obtained by digging or drilling a
well. In either case it is necessary to lift the water before it can be used for
irrigation.
The amount of water which is required for irrigation depends on a number
of factors. It depends, firstly, on the type of soil, and the deficit in the soil. By this
we mean the amount of water which is needed to bring the soil to full capacity. It
also depends on the type of crop, the stage of growth of the crop and the amount
which it will use at the particular time. The irrigation requirement of a crop is not
the same throughout its growing period. Most plants require larger quantities of
water during the later stages than in the earlier stages. Choice of the various
methods of applying irrigation water is influenced by: seasonal rainfall, slope and
general nature of the soil surface, supply of water and how it is delivered, crop
rotation, and permeability to water of the soil and subsoil. The methods of
distributing water can be classified as surface, subsurface, sprinkler, and drip or
trickle.
Surface irrigation distributes water down rows or into basins and similar
areas that are surrounded by ridges or dikes. Flooding of basins and similar areas
is used for pastures, orchards, and the like. Crops commonly irrigated by furrow
39

irrigation include row crops such as potatoes, sugar beets, corn grain sorghum,
cotton, vegetables, and fruit trees. Furrows are made across the field, leading
down the slope.
Furrow irrigation. Special furrow systems enhance water management.
Wide-spaced furrows work like alternative-row irrigation, except that every row is
irrigated and the rows are further apart.
Subirrigation is irrigation by water movement upward from a free water
surface some distance below the soil surface. In arid regions where almost all of
the water used to grow crops is from irrigation, subirrigation would cause serious
salt accumulation problems in the upper part of the soil. Subirrigation works best
where natural rainfall removes any salts may that accumulate.
Sprinkler irrigation. Everyone is familiar with the sprinklers used to
water or irrigate lawns. Sprinkler systems are versatile and have special
advantages where high infiltration rates or topography prevents proper leveling of
the land for surface distribution of water. The rate of application can also be
carefully controlled. Sprinkler irrigation modifies the plant environment by
completely wetting the soil and leaves. Reductions in relative humidity and
temperature reduce water stress in plants. The high specific heat of water makes
sprinkling an effective means to reduce frost hazard.
Hand Move portable sprinkler system

http:// home. staffworks.com

40

Drip irrigation is the frequent or daily application of water drops to

localized areas of the soil. Only a small amount of the root zone is wetted, but
roots in the localized moistened areas absorb water rapidly. A major advantage of
drip irrigation is the large reduction in water used.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
Words and Phrases
soil drainage = drenaj global
water-logged soil = sol saturat de ap
impervious layer = strat impermeabil
water table = nivelul stratului acvifer freatic
humus = humus, pmnt vegetal
denitrification = denitrificare
tillage = lucrarea solului
manure = gunoi de grajd; ngrmnt natural
undrained land = pmnt nedrenat
tile drainage = drenaj prin drenuri ngropate n sol
mole drain = dren crti
open drain = dren deschis
surface drainage = desecare (ndeprtarea prin canale deschise a excesului de ap
de la suprafaa solului)
subsurface drainage = drenaj de subsuprafa
irrigation = irigaie, irigare, udare
furrow irrigation = irigare prin brazde
surface irrigation = irigaie prin scurgere la suprafa
sprinkler irrigation = irigaie prin aspersiune
subirrigation = irigaie subteran
basin/ check irrigation = irigaie prin submersiune
drip irrigation = irigaie prin picurare
border-strip irrigation = irigaie prin fii
waterlogging = exces de umiditate.
41

# EXERCISES
COMPREHENSION

Rewrite the following sentences replacing the words printed in italics

with expressions from the text which have the same meaning.

a)

Water passes through the soil quickly when the ease with which water
can pass through the soil is high.

b)

Removing excess water from the soil helps to increase the feeding area of
the soil for the plant roots.

c)

Laying porous drainage tiles on the land helps to remove surplus surface
water.

d)

Water from rivers, lakes or reservoirs may have to be transported along

canals a long distance to the fields, whereas water from underground
deposits lifted from a well may be close to the crops.

e)

How much water a crop requires from irrigation depends partly on the
shortage of water in the soil.

SELF EVALUATION

Complete and then translate into Romanian the following text by

filling in the blank spaces. Some of the expressions you will require
are given below. A dotted line requires a phrase to be
added, and a straight line ____________ requires a word.

digging or drilling

provided

lenght

get rid of

obtained

drained

tube-bored

function

type of crop

must be
Where and when water is in short supply ___________ is needed in order
to make up for natural rainfall. There are two main sources of ___________
42

water: surface water and .

Surface water is

____________ by the flowing waters of rivers or is ___________ from the still

water of tanks, ponds or artificial ___________. Subterranean water is tapped by
wells. Wells may be shallow wells which have been dug by
hand or ____________ wells which have been __________. In either case water
lifted before it can be used for ____________.
For a given type of soil the amount of water which is required varies with
the . the plant, its physiological make-up and the
____________ of the growing season.
Where and when there is too much water in the soil some of it must be
_________off. Thus, __________ and __________ are alike two faces of a coin.
While the purpose of irrigation is to arrange for sufficient____________in the soil
for satisfactory .., the ____________ of drainage is to
remove ____________ moisture
from the root-zone. To avoid an excess of moisture, care must be taken to
..
any collection of water either above or below ground surface. There are three
methods

of

doing

_____________:

by

ditching,

by

laying

.....and by using .

PROGRESS TEST
Translate into Romanian :
Drainage is the prevention or elimination of the unfavorable effects of
water in human economic activity. Drainage is most important for agriculture,
where the removal of excess water from the soil root zone is a type of land
reclamation that makes it possible to till new lands and increase productivity.
Drainage involves hydraulic engineering methods, agricultural techniques, and
management measures based on hydraulic engineering methods of controlled
removal of water from the soil root zone. Drainage improves soil moisture and
ventilation, accelerates the thawing and drying of the soil in the spring, and
promotes the development of beneficial microflora and the growth of crops.

43

Translate into Romanian:

Irrigated agriculture faces a number of difficult problems in the future.
One of the major concerns is the generally poor efficiency with which water
resources have been used for irrigation. A relatively safe estimate is that 40
percent or more of the water diverted for irrigation is wasted at the farm level
through either deep percolation or surface runoff. These losses may not be lost
when one views water use in the regional context, since return flows become part
of the usable resource elsewhere. However, these losses often represent foregone
opportunities for water because they delay the arrival of water at downstream
diversions and because they almost universally produce poorer quality water. One
of the more evident problems in the future is the growth of alternative demands
for water such as urban and industrial needs. These uses place a higher value on
water resources and therefore tend to focus attention on wasteful practices.
Irrigation science in the future will undoubtedly face the problem of maximizing
efficiency.

TEST PAPER
Translate into English :
Drenajul, ca proprietate a solului, poate fi considerat, ntr-o anumit
msur, ca o rezultant a proprietilor hidrofizice ale solului. Prin drenaj se
nelege posibilitatea ndeprtrii excesului de ap din sol. Se deosebete drenajul
extern, drenajul intern i drenajul natural sau global.

Translate into English:

IRIGAII PRIN PICURARE : AVANTAJE
Printre avantajele irigaiilor prin picurare enumerm:

pre extrem de sczut pe metru liniar;

ridicarea randamentului culturilor;

producie de mai bun calitate;

economie de ap i energie;

economie de ngrminte i tratamente chimice;

44

mai puine buruieni n zona de cultur i evitarea apariiei de soluri

compacte;

zona de pmnt uscat ntre rndurile de plante ce permite un acces

permanent n zona cultivat
http: //www.listpicurare.ro

UNIT 6
TILLAGE
Tillage is the practice of working the soil with implements in order to get
conditions favourable to the growth of crops. It is the least lasting of soil
improvements but is very important and depends on skill which comes by practice
and experience. The main consideration in cultivation is the nature of the soil, its
texture or structure, and whether it requires opening or consolidation.
Tillage is the manipulation of the soil into a desired condition by
mechanical means; tools are employed to achieve some desired effect (such as
pulverization, cutting, or movement). Soil is tilled to change its structure, to kill
weeds, and to manage crop residues. Soil-structure modification is often necessary
to facilitate the intake, storage, and transmission of water and to provide a good
environment for seeds and roots. Elimination of weeds is important, because they
compete for water, nutrients, and light. Crop residues on the surface must be
managed in order to provide conditions suitable for seeding and cultivating a crop.
Generally speaking, if the size of the soil aggregates or particles is
satisfactory, preparation of the seedbed will consist only of removing weeds and
the management of residues. Unfortunately, the practices associated with planting,
cultivating, and harvesting usually cause destruction of soil structure. This leaves
preparation of the seedbed as the best opportunity to create desirable structure, in
which large and stable pores extend from the soil surface to the water table or
drains, ensuring rapid infiltration and drainage of excess or free water and
promoting aeration of the subsoil. When these large pores are interspersed with
small ones, the soil will retain and store moisture also.
45

Seedbed-preparation procedures depend on soil texture and the desired

change in size of aggregates. In soils of coarse texture, tillage will increase
aggregate size, provided it is done when only the small pores are just filled with
water; tillage at other than this ideal moisture will make for smaller aggregates.
By contrast, fine-textured soils form clods; these require breakage into smaller
units by weathering or by machines. If too wet or too dry, the power requirements
for shattering dry clods or cutting wet ones are prohibitive when using tillage
alone. Thus, the farmer usually attempts tillage of such soils only after a slow rain
has moistened the clods and made them friable.
Some soils require deepening of the root zone to permit increased rate of
water intake and improved storage. Unfavourable aeration in zones of poor
drainage also limits root development and inhibits use of water in the subsoil.
Tillage, particularly conventional plowing, may create a hardpan, or plow sole;
that is, a compacted layer just below the zone disturbed by tillage. Such layers are
more prevalent with increasing levels of mechanization; they reduce crop yields
and must be shattered, allowing water to be stored in and below the shattered zone
for later crops.
Tillages are of two classes: (1) preparing the soil for crops; (2) keeping the
soil in condition after the crop has been put in. The object of the first operation is
to refine and deepen the soil for root development; to cause the soil to dry out on
the surface and warm it for the germination of the seed, and to increase the waterholding power of the soil. In the second case, the object of tillage is to control soil
moisture, keep down the weeds and consolidate the soil.
Tillages are all operations of a mechanical nature. The complete objects of
tillage are: (a) the production of a suitable tilth or soil structure; (b) the control of
soil moisture, aeration and temperature; (c) the destruction of weeds; (d) the
destruction or control of soil pests; (e) burying or clearing rubbish and the mixing
of manures in the soil.
THE PRODUCTION OF TILTH. Some crops require a very fine seed
bed, while others do best where there are clods. In preparing seedbeds, ploughing
is usual, but not always the first operation. The plough cuts the soil into
rectangular slices or furrows so that the rubbish is buried and the soil surface is
exposed in a rough condition to the weather.There may be a long interval before
the next operation, but later on the land is cultivated by grubber, cultivator,

46

harrow,discs, or rollers to give the desired tilth. Very often many implements have
to be used before the desired result is obtained.
CONTROL OF MOISTURE, AERATION AND TEMPERATURE. Soil
temperature and aeration are closely associated with soil moisture and the
conditions of cultivation most suitable for supply of soil moisture are the
cultivations which give most suitable conditions of air and temperature.
DESTRUCTION OF WEEDS. Annual weeds can be killed by completely
burying or by dragging them out and leaving the roots exposed to dry weather.
Most weeds are easily destroyed in the seedling stage and one object of tillage is
to create soil condition which will make weed seeds germinate so that the
seedlings may be destroyed by further cultivation.
THE CONTROL OF SOIL PESTS. Various soil tillages may bring pests
to the surface and expose them to the attack of the birds, and some tillages (e.g.
rolling) may crush pests, but generally speaking, conditions of cultivation which
favour the growth of healthy crops are against conditions which favour insect
pests.
BURYING RUBBISH AND MIXING MANURE IN THE SOIL. The
plough is normally used for burying the remains of plants, rubbish and dung, and
one of the chief requirements of good ploughing is that all vegetation should be
covered by soil.Cultivators and harrows are often used for mixing fertilizer with
the soil before the crop is sown.Sometimes drills and planting machines place the
fertilizers in bands close to the crop.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
Words and Phrases
implement = s. (agr.) unealt, obiect, articol; mijloc, instrument
tillage = s. (agr.) lucrarea solului
tilth = s. (agr.) condiie fizic caracteristica solului bine lucrat
to puddle = vt. a bttori (solul n stare umed )
seedbed = s. pat germinativ
seedling stage = n stadiu de rsad
clod = s. bulgre, bucat (de pamnt sau lut)
plough = s. plug
47

ploughing = s. artur
furrow = s. (agr.) brazd; cut; fga; urm de roat
grubber = s. (agr.) plug de deselenit; splig pentru scosul rdcinilor
cultivator = s. cultivator
harrow = s. grap
disc plough = plug cu discuri
chisel plough = cultivator pentru pregtirea solului
seeding plough = plug semntoare
seeding machine = semntoare
to drag = v. a trage cu putere; a scoate trgnd

# EXERCISES
COMPREHENSION

Choose the proper term

1. A roller is used to break up the (clods, ridges) and compact the
seedbed.
2. A (seedling, legume) is a crop sometimes used as green manure.
3. A ( roller, harrow) is an implement used to compact soil.
4. A (ridge, furrow) is a small ditch brtween two (furrows,ridges)
SELF EVALUATION

Match the terms on the left with their definitions on the right:

a. saltatation

1. breaking into tiny particles

b.fallowing

2. making small hollows to catch water

c. strip farming

3.the blowing of soil particles

d. pulverizing

4. a pile of material made by the wind

e. erode

5. leaving unplanted,but cultivated

f. precipitation

6. saving or protecting something

g. drought

7. rain or snow

h. basin listing

8. wear away
48

i. conservation

9. lack of moisture

j. drift

10. planting different crops in strips side

by side

PROGRESS TEST

Translate into Romanian:

Tilling is used to remove weeds, shape the soil into rows for crop plants and
furrows for irrigation. This leads to unfavorable effects, like soil compaction; loss
of organic matter; degradation of soil aggregates; death or disruption of soil
microbes and other organisms including mycorrhiza, arthropods, and earthworms;
and soil erosion where topsoil is blown or washed away. No-till farming avoids
these effects by excluding the use of tillage. With this way of farming, crop
residues or other organic amenities are retained on the soil surface and
sowing/fertilizing is done with minimal soil disturbance. Continuous no-till needs
to be managed very differently in order to keep or increase yield on the field.
Residue, weeds, equipment, crop rotations, water, disease, pests, and fertilizer
management are just some of the many details of farming that change when
switching to no-till.
TEST PAPER
Translate into English:
Lucrrile care se aplic solului pot fi clasificate dup mai multe criterii: a)
uneltele cu care se execut; b) dup adncimea de executare a lucrrii; c) dup
epoca de executare.Aratul este lucrarea principal de pregtire a solului care se
aplic nainte de semnatul oricarei plante i care se execut cu plugul. Prin
artur, volumul solului se mrete cu 20-30%.

49

BIBLIOGRAPHY
MODULE III (UNIT 1-UNIT 6)
ALEXANDRESCU C., ndreptar de limb englez pentru agronomi, Ed.
Ceres, Bucureti, 1984.
ALTIERI

MIGUEL,

Agroecology:

the

Science

of

Sustainable

Agriculture, Westview Press, Boulder, Co, 1995

BLAKE FRANCIS, Organic Farming and Growing, WBC

Book

Mnufactures Ltd., Bridgend, Mid Glamorgan, 1990

CHILRESCU M., PAIDOS C., Practical Course of English, Ed.
Polirom, Iai, 2006
CHIROBOCEA

OTILIA,

English

for

natural

sciences,

upper,

intermediate, advanced, Ed. Ovidius University Press, Constana, 2005

LEVICHI LEON, Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed. Stiinific, Bucureti,
1967
LUNGU SMARANDA ANDA, Agricultural English extension course, Ed.
Salgo, Sibiu, 2008
MISZTAL M., Test your vocabulary, Ed. Teora, Bucureti, 1994
MISZTAL M., Test your English Grammar, Ed. Teora, Bucureti, 1996
MUNTEAN LEON C., BORCEAN I., AXINTE M., Fitotehnie, Ed.
Didactic i pedagogic, R.A. Bucureti, l995
MURPHY RAYMOND, English Grammar in Use, Cambridge University
Press, 2003
PUNESCU ANCA, Course for Agriculture English, Ed. Arves, Craiova,
2008
RAVEN PETER H. , Biology of plants, Worth Publishers, New York,
1986
SIDE R., GUY W., Grammar and Vocabulary for Cambridge Advanced
and Proficiency, Longman, Edinburgh, 2004

50

SWAN MICHAEL, Practical English Usage, Oxford University Press,

1992
YATES, C. ST., Agriculture (English for Academic Purposes Series),
Cassel Publishers Limited, l989
ZAHARIE OANA, Dicionar Romn-Englez specialitate agronomic, Ed.
Sitech, Craiova, 2008

DICIONARE

Dicionar englez romn, Ed. Acad. Romn, 1974

Dicionar romn englez, Ed. tiinific, Bucureti, 1973
Dicionar agricol n opt limbi, Praga, 1970
Dicionar de tiina solului, Ed. tiinific i enciclopedic,
Bucureti,1977
The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English, Oxford, 1964
Collins Business English Dictionary, London 1989

http://www. tettafertil.ro
http://www.enjoy-your-garden.con
http: //www.listpicurare.ro
http:// www.home. staffworks.com
http://www.dpiw.tas.gov.au
http://www.soilerosion.net
http://www.environment.nsw
http://www.answers.com
Britanica Concise Encyclopedia on line
Food and Culture Encyclopedia on line

51

MODULE IV
UNIT 7
FARM MACHINERY
Tillage equipment can be divided into two general classes, namely: (1)
primary tillage equipment and (2) secondary tillage equipment.

Primary tillage equipment

Equipment used to break and loosen soil for a depth of six to 36 inches (15
to 90 centimetres) may be called primary tillage equipment. It includes
moldboard, disk, rotary, chisel, and subsoil plows
The moldboard plow is adapted to the breaking of many soil types. It is
well suited for turning under and covering crop residues. There are hundreds of
different designs, each intended to function best in performing certain tasks in
specified soils. The part that breaks the soil is called the bottom or base; it is
composed of the share, the landside, and the moldboard.
When a bottom turns the soil, it cuts a trench, or furrow, throwing to one
side a ribbon of soil that is called the furrow slice. When plowing is started in the
middle of a strip of land, a furrow is plowed across the field; on the return trip, a
furrow slice is lapped over the first slice. This leaves a slightly higher ridge than
the second, third, and other slices. The ridge is called a back furrow. When two
strips of land are finished, the last furrows cut leave a trench about twice the width
of one bottom, called a dead furrow. When land is broken by continuous lapping
of furrows, it is called flat broken. If land is broken in alternate back furrows and
52

dead furrows, it is said to be bedded or listed. Different soils require differentshaped moldboards in order to give the same degree of pulverization of the soil.
Thus, moldboards are divided into several different classes, including stubble,
general-purpose, general-purpose for clay and stiff-sod soil, slat, blackland, and
chilled general-purpose The share is the cutting edge of the moldboard plow. Its
configuration is related to soil type, particularly in the down suction, or concavity,
of its lower surface. Generally, three degrees of down suction are recognized:
regular for light soil, deep for ordinary dry soil, and double-deep for clay and
gravelly soils. In addition, the share has horizontal suction, which is the amount
its point is bent out of line with the landside. Down suction causes the plow to
penetrate to proper depth when pulled forward, while horizontal suction causes
the plow to create the desired width of furrow.
The disk plow employs round, concave disks of hardened steel, sharpened
and sometimes serrated on the edge, with diameters ranging from 20 to 38 inches
(50 to 95 centimetres). It reduces friction by making a rolling bottom in place of a
sliding one. Its draft is about the same as that of the moldboard plow. The disk
plow works to advantage in situations where the moldboard will not, as in sticky
non-scouring soils; in fields with a plow sole; in dry, hard ground; in peat soils;
and for deep plowing. The disk-plow bottom is usually equipped with a scraper
that aids in pulverizing the furrow slice. Disk plows are either trailed or mounted
integrally on a tractor.
The rotary plows essential feature is a set of knives or tines rotated on a
shaft by a power source. The knives chop the soil up and throw it against a hood
that covers the knife set. These machines can create good seedbeds, but their high
cost and extra power requirement have limited general adoption, except for the
small garden tractor.
The chisel plow is equipped with narrow, double-ended shovels, or chisel
points, mounted on long shanks. These points rip through the soil and stir it but do
not invert and pulverize as well as the moldboard and disk plows. The chisel plow
is often used to loosen hard, dry soils prior to using regular plows; it is also useful
for shattering plow sole.

53

Subsoil plows are similar in principle but are much larger, since they are
used to penetrate soil to depths of 20 to 36 inches (50 to 90 centimetres). Tractors
of 60 to 85 horsepower are required to pull a single subsoil point through a hard
soil at a depth of 36 inches. These plows are sometimes equipped with a torpedoshaped attachment for making subsurface drainage channels.

Secondary tillage equipment

Secondary tillage, to improve the seedbed by increased soil pulverization,
to conserve moisture through destruction of weeds, and to cut up crop residues, is
accomplished by use of various types of harrows, rollers, or pulverizers, and tools
for mulching and fallowing. Used for stirring the soil at comparatively shallow
depths, secondary-tillage equipment is generally employed after the deeper
primary-tillage operations; some primary tillage tools, however, are usable for
secondary tillage. There are five principal types of harrows: the disk, the spiketooth, the spring-tooth, the rotary cross-harrow, and the soil surgeon. Rollers, or
pulverizers, with V-shaped wheels make a firm and continuous seedbed while
crushing clods. These tools often are combined with each other.
When moisture is scarce and control of wind and water erosion necessary,
tillage is sometimes carried out in such a way that crop residues are left on the
surface. This system is called trash farming, stubble mulch, or subsurface tillage.
Principal equipment for subsurface tillage consists of sweeps and rod weeders.
Sweeps are V-shaped knives drawn below the surface with cutting planes
horizontal. A mounted set of sweeps provided with power lift and depth regulation
is often called a field cultivator.
The typical rod weeder consists of a frame with several plowlike beams,
each having a bearing at its point. Rods are extended through the bearings, which
revolve slowly under power from a drive wheel. The revolving rod runs a few
inches below the surface and pulls up vegetative growth; clearance of the growth
from the rod is assisted by its rotation. Rod weeders are sometimes attached to
chisel plows.
Some control of weeds is obtained by tillage that leaves the middles
between crop rows loose and cloddy. When a good seedbed is prepared only in the
54

row, the seeded crop can become established ahead of the weeds. Plowing with
the moldboard plow buries the weed seeds, retards their sprouting, and tends to
reduce the operations needed to control them. If weed infestations become bad,
they can be reduced somewhat by undercutting.
Since rainfall amount and distribution seldom match crop needs, farmers
usually prefer tillage methods that encourage soil-moisture storage at times when
crops are not growing. From the soil-moisture standpoint, any tillage practice that
does not control weeds and result in greater moisture intake and retention during
the storage period is probably unnecessary or undesirable.

Minimum tillage
The use of cropping system with minimal tillage is usually desirable,
because intensive tillage tends to break down soil structure. Techniques such as
mulching also help prevent raindrops from injuring the surface structure.
Excessive tillage leaves the soil susceptible to crusting, impedes water intake,
increases runoff, and thus reduces water storage for crop use. Intensive vegetable
production in warm climates where three crops per year may be grown on the
same land may reduce the soil to a single-grain structure that facilitates surface
cementation and poor aeration.
The loosening and granulating actions of plowing may improve soil
structure if the plowing is done when the moisture content is optimum; if not so
timed, however, plowing can create unfavourable structure. The lifting and
inversion of the furrow slice likewise may not always be desirable, because in
many cases it is better to leave a trashy surface.
The concept of minimum tillage has received much attention. One type of
minimum tillage consists in seeding small grain in sod that has been relatively
undisturbed. Narrow slits are cut in the sod and seed and fertilizer placed in the
breaks thus formed. Soil normally subject to erosion can be planted to grain this
way while still retaining the erosion resistance of the sod. In another type of
minimum tillage, the land is broken and planted without further tillage in seedbed
preparation. One approach involves breaking the land and planting seeds in the
tractor tracks (wheel-track planting); the tractor weight crushes clods and leaves
55

the seed surrounded by firm soil. Another method consists of mounting a planter
behind the plow, thus planting without further traffic and leaving a loose seedbed
that is satisfactory in areas where postplanting rains may be heavy. In some areas,
where winter rain often comes after wheat is drilled, a rotation of wheat following
peas has been successful. After the peas have been harvested, the field is rough
plowed, and fall wheat is then drilled in directly. All these methods minimize
expense and land preparation, tending to leave the soil rough, which reduces
erosion and increases water intake. Somewhat similar systems are employed with
row crops, where chemical weed control assists in reducing need for cultivation.
Sprayers and dusters are used in controlling insect pest and plant
diseases.There are hydraulic, hydro-pneumatic and air-plane sprayers. Fertilizing
equipment includes manure spreaders, granular fertilizer distributors and
equipment for applying liquid fertilizers. Harvesting equipment includes
grain,corn, cotton, root, hay and forage machines.Grain harvesting is usually
performed by the combined harvester-thresher or combine. There are two types of
combines, the pull or tractor-drown combine and self-propelled combine.
Finally, crop-processing equipment used to process harvested crops
includes stalk-cutter-shredders, shellers, feed grinders, crop dryers and feed
mixers.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
Words and Phrases
primary tillage equipment

= maini pentru prelucrarea solului la adncime

secondary tillage equipment = maini pentru prelucrarea solului la suprafa

planting equipment = maini de semnat
transplanter = main de plantat
sprayer = main de stropit
duster = main de prfuit
fertilizing equipment = main pentru aplicarea ngrmintelor
manure spreader = main de mprtiat ngrminte naturale.
granular-fertilizer distributor = main pentru aplicarea ngrmintelor lichide
harvester = seceratoare
56

harvesting equipment = main de recoltat

trailed plough = plug tractat
broadcast planter = semntoare de semnat prin mprtiere
hay harvesting equipment = main de recoltat fn
root harvesting equipment = main pentru recoltat rdcinoase
mower = cositoare
rake = grebl
crusher = main de strivit
field forage harvester = combin pentru recoltat furaje
windrower = brzdar
drill planter = semntoare pentru cereale pioase
drier = uscator
drill = semntoare n rnduri
tractor-drawn combine = combin tractat
feed grinder = main pentru mcinat furaje
feed mixer = amestector de furaje
field-flail forage harvester = combin pentru recoltat furaje cu rotor
field chopper harvester = main pentru recoltat i tocat furaje

# EXERCISES
COMPREHENSION
A tutor is giving some students instructions about safety. Read carefully what
he says and write down the main ideas of his advice.
I want to say one or two things before we go out to the farm next week. As
you know, we are spending a week there so that you can get to know how to drive
and use equipment such as tractors, combine harvesters, and so on. Some of what
I want to say may sound obvious, but we have had some quite bad accidents in the
past, and I dont want any more. Accidents on the farm are usually caused by
carelessness and stupidity, and thats quite unnecessary. So first, do exactly what
the demonstrator says.If he says stand back, stand back.And stand exactly
where he tells you. Dont go round to a side of the machine where he cant see
57

you.And dont touch any part of the machine untill he tells you to.That will be
when the machine is off. One student lost his hand five years ago, just because he
was on the wrong side of a combine and put his hand in.
Next, do wear proper clothing. When you come to use the combine, youll
find glasses of some kind useful to keep the dust out. Although its not absolutely
necessary, you may also find gloves useful.When you first use some of these
machines, youll find theyre hard on the hands. And dont bring only a smart
suit.Youll be asked to clean parts of the machines, and carry out other kinds of
maintenance work. You cant do that in a suit. So bring suitable clothes. Dont
wear clothes that blow around in the wind, though: they can get caught in the
machinery and pull you into it.
Now, one last thing. When youre actually driving things like tractors,
dont get too excited. Drive slowly to start with. A tractor is not a racing car.
Remember, it is easy to turn a tractor over, especially on a hill. And if your
tractor does not have a safety cab, you can get trapped underneath it as it falls. So,
drive slowly and safely.
SELF EVALUATION

Fill in the blanks with the proper terms from the list
clover

seed bed

cover crops

stubble

disk

tractor

fitting

weeds

mat
1) On a modern farm, implements are drawn by a
2) An implement used to break up sod is a
3) The process of breaking up sod is called

the soil.

4) Sod may be produced by a growth of grass or

5) The roots and the soil that clings to them are called the
6) The soil which is prepared for planting is called the
7) In addition to preparing the soil for planting,tillage turns under the
which was left standing when an earlier crop was cut.
8) It also turns under

which have been planted to reduce erosion and

58

leaching.
9) And it slows up the growth of undesired plants, or

PROGRESS TEST

Translate into Romanian:

Farmers perform tillage when they prepare soil for the raising of crops.
Soil tillage has three primary purposes. Prior to planting, farmers use tillage to
mix compost, manure, and other fertilizers into the root zone where growing plant
roots may reach it. Tillage also aids seed germination by creating a smooth,
uniform soil surface for planting. After planting, farmers use tillage to control
weeds between crop plantsincluding vegetable, fruit, forest, medicinal, and
farm crops. Since early agriculture, tillage has been the first step in the process
that makes it possible to harvest food from plants. However, soil tillage has come
under close scrutiny since soil is recognized as a natural resource that deserves
protection. Agronomists (scientists who study crop production and soil
management) are concerned because erosion (soil loss) from tillage is one of the
most significant problems in agriculture. If left unchecked, soil erosion leads to
loss of soil productivity, as well as off-site deposition of sediments and farm
chemicals that pollute surface and groundwater.

TEST PAPER
Translate into English:
Prin punerea la dispoziie de ctre mecanizare a soluiilor tehnice adecvate
devin posibile practicarea agriculturii durabile, menajarea solului i a apei din sol,
menajarea atmosferei globale i a mediului apropiat. Mecanizarea agriculturii
joac n acest sens un rol pozitiv, deosebit de important din punct de vedere
ecologic. Executarea mecanizat a lucrrilor din agricultur este nsoit, n
acelai timp, de unele efecte negative, de amploare diferit. Aceste efecte sunt n
principiu inevitabile, dar prin exploatarea raional a utilajelor i alegerea
judicioas a tehnologiilor, ele pot fi meninute la un nivel mai sczut. Mecanizarea
agriculturii are partea sa de vin, n ceea ce privete poluarea mediului, prin
59

specificul activitii propriu-zise, dar i n combinaie cu ali factori ai produciei

agricole.

UNIT 8
ECOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE

People farm Earth's biosphere to produce food for the sustenance of the
human species. Thus, human food systems are part of Earth's complex ecological
systems. All of these systems begin with interactions with the sun, which is the
ultimate energy source. Sunlight enables plants to manufacture carbohydrates
through the process of photosynthesis, in which chlorophyll converts sunlight into
chemical energy, synthesizing organic compounds from inorganic compounds.
Plants take carbon dioxide, water, and inorganic elements for this conversion
process from the air and soil. Humans obtain their nourishment directly from
plants, or from animals nourished directly or indirectly by plants. Thus humans
ultimately rely on air, soil, water, and sunlight for sustenance. Humankind has a
strong interest in not fouling the environment, as contaminants in the air, water, or
soil can end up in the plants that people or their food animals eat. The terms used
in a discussion of agriculture become more complex as we begin to realize the
many relations that are involved in a field of production that is absolutely
necessary to everyone.
Sound environmental management is essential for sustained agricultural
development.Yet environmental degradation is evident throughout the developing
world. Soil erosion, siltatation of rivers and reservoirs, flooding, overgrazing,
poor cropping practices, desertification, salinity and waterlogging, deforestation,
energy depletion, loss of biodiversity, and chemical pollution have become major
problems.
Soil erosion is slowly undermining agricultural productivity in many parts
of the world. The extent of the world erosion problem is very difficult to assess
because few nations have systematically surveyed the condition of their soil
resources.Nevertheless, the amount of agricultural land now being retired due to
soil erosion is estimated to be at least 20 million hectares per year.The effects on
60

productivity are potentially serious.Eroded soils typically are at least twice as rich
in nutrients and organic matter as the soil left behind.Soil nutrient losses can be
partially replaced by increased use of chemical fertilizers, but only up to a point,
and fertilizer can be expensive. At any rate, the yields with fertilizers are lower
than they would be in the absence of erosion, so that erosion reduces productivity
below its potential.
Desertification involves the depletion of vegetative cover, exposure of the
soil surface to wind and water erosion, and reduction of the soil organic matter, soil
structure, and water-holding capacity.Intensive grazing, particularly during drought
years, reduces vegetative cover; the loss of vegetation reduces organic matter in the
soil and thus changes soil structure.Moderate desertification may cause a 25
percent loss of productivity while severe desertification can reduce productivity by
5o percent or more.
Deforestation creates environmental problems on land and in the
air.Forest play a vital role providing food, fuel, medicine, fodder for livestock, and
building material.They provide a home for innumerable and diverse plant and
animal species.They protect the soil, recycle moisture, and reduce carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere.But forests are being cleared at an alarming rate throughout the
world.Every year more than 11 million hectares are cleared, and the rate of cutting
is increasing.
Chemical pollution.The use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers has
contaminated the land and water in many countries, damaging the health of
producers and consumers, stimulating the emergence of pests resistant to
pesticides, destroying the natural enemies of pests,and reducing fish populations or
rendering them unsafe for human consumption.Acute pesticide poisonings are
common, and little is known about potential long-term health effects.

# EXERCISES
COMPREHENSION
Answer the following questions:
1.Why are people so interested in environmental protection?
2.How does peoples health and life depend on the environment?
61

3.Who needs protection nowadays?

Another way in which environment can be protected is to recycle waste
materials.
Put each of the following words or phrases into its correct place in the
following text about Recycling:
saves; metals; making; pulp; ways; energy; raw; ore; heated; high; provide; melt;
mixture; amounts; jars;
When you recycle materials, you are helping conservation in three . You are
helping to reduce damage caused by cutting down trees or by mining ..
materials. You are helping to save energy. You are also helping to cut down the
problems of waste disposal.
Most paper is made from wood . which comes from trees. Whole forests have
to be cut down to . us with newspapers. That is bad enough, but large . of
energy are used to turn the wood pulp into paper. Recycled paper is as good as
new paper, although it is a little rougher and not so white.
Huge amounts of energy are used in . glass, because very . temperatures are
needed to . down all the ingredients. If bottles and . are thrown away when
they are empty, all the energy is lost. But new bottles and jars can be made out of
a . of new and old broken glass. This saves up to one-quarter of the . needed
to make new glass.
Metal cans are made of aluminum, or steel coated with tin, or a mixture of these
. Aluminum cans are the most valuable to recycle. Aluminum is made from an
. called bauxite, which has to be electrically . to a high temperature.
Recycling . ninety-five percent of the energy needed to make new aluminum
cans.
SELF EVALUATION

Match the following phrases and terms with the definitions on the
right:
1.) ecology

a.) protecting, maintaining or improving natural

resources to keep them safe from destruction or
degradation and conserve them for future
62

generations
2.) drought

b.) the surroundings and external condition that

affect the growth and development of living things

3.) conservation

c.) the change from one fertile land into desert as

result of factors including climatic variations and
human activities

4.) environment

d) a prolonged period of abnormal dryness, with

little or no rainfall

5.) desalinization

e.) the study of the relationship of living things

(plants, animals and humans) with each other and
with their environment

6.) desertification

f.) removal of salts from saline water to obtain

fresh water suitable for animal and human
consumption

7.) deforestation

g.) cutting down trees, which provide oxygen and

absorb carbon dioxide

PROGRESS TEST

Translate into Romanian:

Conservation ecology is the branch of ecology and evolutionary biology
that deals with the preservation and management of biodiversity, where
biodiversity is defined as all species on this planet (including humans) and their
interactions with one another. It is a discipline that is emerging rapidly as a result
of the accelerating deterioration of natural systems and the worldwide epidemic of
63

species extinctions. Its goal is to find ways to conserve species, habitats,

landscapes and ecosystems as quickly, as efficiently, and as economically as
possible. The theoretical base of conservation ecology is synthetic, based not only
on principles of ecology but on those of genetics, systematics, population biology,
and other disciplines.
http://ecology. uedavis.edu

TEST PAPER
Translate into English:
Unul dintre principalele scopuri ale agriculturii ecologice este producerea
de produse agricole i alimentare proaspete i autentice, prin procese create s
respecte natura i sistemele acesteia. Agricultura ecologic are o contribuie
major la dezvoltarea durabil, la creterea activitilor economice cu o
important valoare adugat i la sporirea interesului pentru spaiul rural.
Agricultura ecologic se bazeaz pe un numr de obiective i principii, la fel ca i
pe unele practici create s minimizeze impactul omului asupra mediului
nconjurtor. Practicile specifice agriculturii ecologice cuprind:
1) rotaia culturilor ca premis a folosirii eficiente a resurselor ferme
2) limite foarte stricte privind folosirea pesticidelor sintetice chimice i a
ngrmintelor chimice, a antibioticelor pentru animale, a aditivilor
alimentari i a altor substane complementare folosite pentru prelucrarea
produselor agricole
3) interzicerea folosirii organismelor modificate genetic
4) valorificarea resurselor existente la faa locului, ca de pild folosirea ca
fertilizator a gunoiului provenit de la animale i a furajelor produse la
ferm
5) alegerea unor specii de plante i animale rezistente la boli i duntori,
adaptate condiiilor locale
6) creterea animalelor n libertate i adposturi deschise i hrnirea acestora
cu furaje ecologice
7) folosirea unor practici de cretere a animalelor adaptate fiecrei rase n
parte
64

UNIT 9

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS AND POLICIES

Environmental degradation can result from physical, economic, and
institutional factors. Many environmental problems are interrelated; for example,
deforestation, erosion and siltation of rivers and reservoirs are all linked. Natural
resource degradation usually has both direct and indirect causes. For example,
desertification can directly result from overgrazing and poor cropping practices,
but indirectly result from poverty and population growth.Understanding the true
causes of environmental degradation requires a searching for and analysis of
complex direct and indirect physical, economic,and institutional linkages.
Physical causes of natural resource degradation. Physical or technical
causes of natural resource degradation are often the most visible and direct, even
though a series of complex linkages may be involved.Land clearing for timber,
fuelwood, cattle ranching, or farming causes deforestation.Deforestation results in
loss of biodiversity and soil erosion.If the area is semi-arid, loss of forests can
contribute to desertification. Desertification can also result from overgrazing,
which itself is caused by too many cattle eating grass in an area subjected to dry
spells or droughts.Many other examples of physical causes of natural resource
degradation can be cited.
It is important to identify physical causes of environmental problems, but
it is even more important to identify the underlying economic and institutional
causes including social, cultural, and policy-related causes.
Economic causes of natural resource degradation. Poverty and
environmental degradation go hand in hand.Poverty drives people to farm
marginal lands intensively, to seek fuelwood relentlessly, and to follow other
agricultural practices that produce food at the potential sacrifice of future
production. Poverty reinforces population growth, which is a major cause of
deforestation, overgrazing, and farming on steep slopes,drylands,and flood plains.

65

Institutional causes of natural resource degradation. A major cause of

environmental

degradation

is

institutional

failure,

both

private

and

public.Institutions are rules of behavior that affect private incentives. Existing

social structures and local customs may not be adequate to preserve the
environment as population growth and economic development proceed.
Poverty, high rates of return to capital, debt problems, rapid population
growth, and misguided public policies conspire against solutions. Environmental
problems are interrelated,and understanding their causes requires sorting out
complex physical,economic,and institutional linkages. Technical solutions are
needed for each of these problems, but economic and institutional changrs must
provide the incentives for behavioral change. As incomes grow, populatio
pressures are reduced, and the demand for environmental protection increases.
Economic development means more resources in the long run for addressing
environmental problems.Changes in taxes,subsidies,

regulations, and other

policies can influence local incentives for conservation. Balancing benefits with
costs, obtaining local input in the decision making process, and compensating
losers are needed for effective solutions to local and global environmental
problems. Because transactions costs must be reduced for natural resource
conservation to occur, information flows must be improved and human capital
must be developed. Education also becomes vitally important. Thus , focusing on
communications infrastructure and human-capital development are two of the
keys to environmental improvement.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
policy

= (1) a plan of action; (2) a statement of aims;(3) a document which

contains a contract of insurance

to evolve
incentive

= to develop gradually and naturally

= incitement (to action, to do ) provocation, motive, payment or
concession to stimulate greater output by workers

output
infrastructure

= (1) what is made, production; (2) information from a computer

= all the systems which support a countrys industry and
economy, e.g. road, rail, post and airway systems, factory,

66

hospital, housing and education systems; radio, television and

telephone systems; water, gas and electric systems
sustainable development = development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of the future
generations to meet their own needs.

# EXERCISES
COMPREHENSION
These are some of the most severe problems the earth is facing. Match
the problems with their effects as well as with the solution to them.
You can use the same words more than once.
Problems:
air pollution; water pollution; animals and plants in danger; global
warming; energy shortage, destruction of ozone layer; human and
industrial waste; changes in the local climate; acid rain; spreading deserts;
nuclear accidents; deforestation.
Causes:
over-use of natural resources; uncontrolled fishing and hunting; poisonous
chemicals released into air by cars and factories; chemicals from aerosol
sprays and fridges; pesticides as well as dangerous chemicals from
factories that are poured into the rivers, seas, oceans.
Solutions:
nuclear plants should be supplied with high technology equipment and
more strictly controlled; we should use bicycles instead of cars; we should
not leave TV or electric lights on when we do not use them; people should
use litterbins; we should plant more trees; governments should encourage
those industries that use cleaner methods of production; we should save as
much paper as possible; factories that pollute the soil or water should be
severely fined; harsher punishments for illegal fishing or hunting; factories
should be equipped with filters for their funnels; cars should use unleaded
petrol; people should be educated about the importance of recycling;
ecology should be a compulsory subject at schools; governments should
67

sponsor research into pollution prevention; public awareness about the

protection of the environment should be raised.
SELF EVALUATION
What are the consequences of:
1.) air pollution?
2.) water pollution?
3.) soil polution?
4.) acid rain?
5.) radioactive pollution?
6.) nuclear waste dumping

Choose the most suitable heading from the list (a-h) for each part (07).
a. Looking after the land
b. Global warming
c. Breaking the food chain
d. The environment and the teaching of English
e. The rain that kills
f. Natural habitat
g. The waste makers
h. Nuclear dump

O. Over the past few years, the recognition of the urgency of environmental
problems has caused quantum leap in the attention paid to green issues. With
increasing frequency, the environment is turning up as the subject of newspaper
and magazine articles, radio and television news, reports, documentaries and
feature films. This concern is reflected in schools around the world, where
teachers of all subjects and at all grade levels are using environmental themes as a
means of linking the classroom to the world.
68

1. Poisonous gases and other chemicals pour into the atmosphere every day. These
are waste products from our power stations, factories, and cars. Two of these
gases, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, collect in the atmosphere. They then mix
with the moisture in the air to become sulfuric acid and nitric acid. These acids are
absorbed by rain clouds and fall to the ground again as acid rain. Acid rain
clouds can drift hundreds of miles before falling as rain. This rain can cause
serious damage. It kills trees and destroys many wildlife habitats.
2. Can you imagine how much garbage we create all over the world each day? In
factories, offices, hotels, and restaurants, as well as in our homes, we produce tons
of garbage. The poorer countries of the world produce the smallest amounts of
garbage. In countries where there are many industries, more land is needed for
garbage sites. Some of our garbage can be used again. But where can we put the
rest? No one wants a garbage dump next door.
3. Any farmers field is a habitat, the natural home for plants and animals which
depend on each other in many ways. It is the place where mice, for example, find
food for shelter. When the farmer plows the land, he destroys the wild plants that
grow in the field. Animals such as mice, that feed on these plants have to go
elsewhere to find food. Other animals, like owls, that feed on the mice, also have
to move away. So, what the farmer does affects not just one kind of plant or
animal, but all the organisms living in the area.
4. The plants and animals that provide food for each other are members of a food
chain. If this chain is broken, every animal in it will suffer. What do you think
happens when the farmer poisons the mice? A mouse that is weakened by the
poison is easy prey for an owl. The owl that eats a poisoned mouse eventually dies
from the poison. The farmers cat eats another poisoned mouse and dies. The
farmer is pleased to be rid of the mice. But he has killed two animals which would
have helped him. Owls and cats would have helped the farmer to keep down farm
pests.
5. The world is getting warmer. If you enjoy warm weather you may think that
this is good news but its not. Experts say that the earths atmosphere is warming
69

up just as if it were trapped inside a greenhouse. This warming process is often

called the green house effect. On the one hand, the ozone layer is becoming
thinner and thinner, allowing harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun to pass through
the atmosphere. On the other hand, as we all know, most of the heat received from
the sun is sent back. But, if there is too much carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, it
will trap too much heat, and the earths atmosphere will become too hot.
6. The land that we need for growing food is very important. We cant afford to
spoil it. There are many ways in which farmers could make better use of the land
and grow good crops without the help of factory-made chemicals. If it is farmed
with care, the land will go on giving us enough food to eat for thousands of years
to come. When land is over-farmed or over-grazed, the topsoil turns to dust,
which blows away in the wind. The layer of soil left behind is baked hard by the
sun. In time, it cracks. Any rain that falls cannot soak in and flows away. Thus,
the dry land turns to desert.
7. Nuclear energy is useful. We can make electricity from radioactive material in
nuclear power stations. In hospitals, radioactivity can help to cure some diseases.
In some industries, people use radioactive processes to measure and test materials.
Radioactive material produces waste, which may be in the form of gases, liquids
or solids. This waste cant simply be thrown away like any other waste. It is
dangerous because it continues to emit radiation. Some of it, called high-level
waste, will be radioactive for thousands of years. Low-level waste is less
radioactive, but scientists do not agree on how dangerous it is.

PROGRESS TEST

Translate into Romanian:

The only way to understand our new role as a co-arhitect of nature is to see
ourselves as part of a complex system that does not operate according to the same
simple rules of cause and effect we are used to. The problem is not our effect on
the environment so much as our relationship with the environment. As a result,
any solution to the problem will require a careful assessment of that relationship
as well as the complex interrelationship among factors within civilization and
between them and the major natural components of the earths ecological system.
70

(Adapted fromEarth in the Balance: Ecology and the Human Spirit by

Al Gore 1993)

TEST PAPER

Are the poorest countries the most vulnerable to environmental

degradation? Why, or why not?

UNIT 10
BIODIVERSITY
Plants in communities
All living things are groups of simple and complex chemicals functioning
together in specific and unimaginably complex ways. Since all living things are
interrelated through evolution, they are very similar at the molecular level. This
means that many require roughly the same resources (thus, all plants need
sunlight, carbon dioxide, water, and a few common minerals), and can be food for
one another (thus, the starch stored by a potato can be used for its future growth or
consumed by humans). Many organisms therefore compete for the same scarce
resources and develop elaborate strategies to avoid being eaten. Weeds are simply
plants that out-compete crops for the resources that limit plant growth and that we
apply in profusion to cultivated crops.
During domestication, the elimination of many natural defense
mechanisms to produce a more easily grown, harvested, or palatable crop also
produces a crop more vulnerable to pests. Reintroduction of specific natural
defense mechanisms through selective genetic engineering could drastically
reduce the dependence of agriculture on synthetic pesticides.
Interactions between plants are important for gardeners. The study of these
interactions is called plant or landscape ecology. In ornamental gardens, we
generally aim to develop a stable community of plants that complement each other
in form, color, leaf characteristics, and bloom. We must pay attention to the
71

differing requirements of plants within this community. A garden's framework

often is defined by large shrubs or trees, which cast differing amounts of shade
over the course of the year. When choosing plants to grow under or near large
framework specimens, be sure their needs match the available light and moisture.
As trees and shrubs grow and mature, you may need to manipulate them, either by
removing those that have outgrown their space or by selective pruning and
thinning. Often, understory plants that did well when the landscape was young
must be replaced with plants that are more shade-tolerant. This process is a kind
of plant succession, dictated by the changing light and moisture environment and
carried out by the owner. A lawn also is a changing landscape. It starts out as a
mix of several adapted grass species on bare ground. Other plants (which we often
call weeds) sprout from seed reserves in the soil. Additional seeds and plants
move in and grow if conditions are right. Our most competitive lawn weed is a
grass called annual bluegrass. It prospers in the winter when desired grasses are
less vigorous. Broadleaf weeds also may find niches. Moss begins to take over
where the lawn is thin, a common problem in semi-shaded areas. These changes
are another example of plant succession. Gardeners who plant wildflower
mixtures often discover that there is much more variety in flowers the first year
than in succeeding years. Some species do very well, and others simply cannot
compete. Again, plant succession occurs. The most short-term assemblage of
plants in a garden occurs in annual vegetable and flower beds. Here there is no
attempt to create a community that will last more than one season. Since many of
the most competitive weeds thrive in recently disturbed soil, it is a challenge to
give desired annual crop plants an advantage. The plant that captures light first
will grow and suppress plants beneath it. Early weed competition can have a
devastating impact on crop growth. Consistent weeding, mulching, and the use of
transplants improve the odds for annual vegetable and flower crops.
Another type of relationship between plants is called allelopathy. In this
phenomenon, some plants produce compounds in their leaves, roots, or both that
inhibit the growth of other plants. Black walnut is the most notorious example. Its
roots can suppress many common vegetable plants, and its leaves, if mulched on a
vegetable garden over the winter, can affect many annual crops like an herbicide
the following spring. Some of the worst weeds show allelopathic traits and
prevent desired ornamental or vegetable species from growing. Finally, there are
72

relationships between plants that involve pollinators, animals, birds, pests,

predators, and even nutrient transport between species through symbiotic fungi
called mycorrhizae. These relationships are quite complex. They are the subject of
active research and offer much to think about for thoughtful gardeners.

Organic farming and biodiversity

A wide range of organisms benefit from organic farming, but it is unclear
whether organic methods confer greater benefits than conventional integrated
agri-environmental programs. Nearly all non-crop, naturally occurring species
observed in comparative farm land practice studies show a preference for organic
farming both by abundance and diversity. An average of 30% more species
inhabit organic farms. Birds, butterflies, soil microbes, beetles, earthworms,
spiders, vegetation, and mammals are particularly affected. Lack of herbicides and
pesticides improve biodiversity fitness and population density. Many weed
species attract beneficial insects that improve soil qualities and forage on weed
pests. Soil-bound organisms often benefit because of increased bacteria
populations due to natural fertilizer such as manure, while experiencing reduced
intake of herbicides and pesticides. Increased biodiversity, especially from
beneficial soil microbes and mycorrhizae have been proposed as an explanation
for the high yields experienced by some organic plots, especially in light of the
differences seen in a 21-year comparison of organic and control fields.
Biodiversity from organic farming provides capital to humans. Species found in
organic farms enhance sustainability by reducing human input (e.g., fertilizers,
pesticides). Farmers that produce with organic methods reduce risk of poor yields
by promoting biodiversity.

# EXERCISES
COMPREHENSION
Ask at least 20 questions related to the text below:
The biodiversity found on Earth today is the result of approximately 3.5 billion
years of evolution. Until the emergence of humans, the earth supported more
73

biodiversity than any other period in geological history. However, since the
dominance of humans, biodiversity has begun a rapid decline, with one species
after another suffering extinction.
The maintenance of biodiversity is important for the following reasons:
1.

Ecological stability
Each species performs a particular function within an ecosystem. They
can capture and store energy, produce organic material, decompose
organic material, help to cycle water and nutrients throughout the
ecosystem, control erosion or pests, fix atmospheric gases, or help regulate
climate.
Ecosystems provide support of production and services without which
humans could not survive. These include soil fertility, pollinators of plants,
predators, decomposition of wastes, purification of the air and water,
stabilisation and moderation of the climate, decrease of flooding, drought
and other environmental disasters.
Research show that the more diverse an ecosystem the better it can
withstand environmental stress and the more productive it is. The loss of a
species thus decreases the ability of the system to maintain itself or to
recover in case of damage. There are very complex mechanisms
underlying these ecological effects.

2.

Economic benefits to humans

For all humans, biodiversity is first a resource for daily life. Such 'crop
diversity' is also called agrobiodiversity.
Most people see biodiversity as a reservoir of resources to be drawn upon
for the manufacture of food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic products. Thus
resource shortages may be related to the erosion of the biodiversity.
Some of the important economic commodities that biodiversity supplies to
humankind are:

74

FOOD : crops, livestock, forestry, and fish

MEDICATION: Wild plant species have been used for medicinal

purposes since before the beginning of recorded history. For
example, quinine (Used to treat malaria) comes from the bark of
the Amazonian tree Cinchona tree; digitalis from the Foxglove
plant (chronic heart trouble), and morphine from the Poppy plant
(pain relief).
According the National Cancer Institute of the USA, over 70 % of
the promising anti-cancer drugs come from plants in the tropical
rainforests. Animal may also play a role, in particular in research.
It is estimated that of the 250,000 known plant species, only 5,000
have been researched for possible medical applications.

INDUSTRY: fibres for clothing, wood for shelter and warmth.

Biodiversity may be a source of energy (such as biomass). Other
industrial products are oils, lubricants, perfumes, fragrances, dyes,
paper, waxes, rubber, latexes, resins, poisons and cork can all be
derived from various plant species. Supplies from animal origin are
wool, silk, fur, leather, lubricants, waxes. Animals may also be
used as a mode of transportation.

TOURISM and RECREATION: biodiversity is a source of

economical wealth for many areas, such as many parks and forests,
where wild nature and animals are a source of beauty and joy for
many people. Ecotourism in particular, is a growing outdoor
recreational activity.

3.

Ethical reasons
The role of biodiversity is to be a mirror of our relationships with the other
living species, an ethical view with rights, duties, and education. If humans
consider species have a right to exist, they cannot cause voluntarily their

75

extinction. Besides, biodiversity is also part of many cultures spiritual

heritage.

http// en.wikipedia.org./wiki/Biodiversity

SELF EVALUATION
We should conserve biodiversity for several reasons: aesthetic, ethical,
economic and ecological. Match each of the paragraphs below to one such
reason:
1.) Each species is of potential value to humans as are healthy ecosystems.
The global collection of genes, species, habitats and ecosystems is a
treasure trove that provides for human needs now and is essential for
human survival in the future. Humans depend on other species for all of
their food and many medicines and industrial products. Humans also
depend on the intricate functioning of other species to provide ecological
services such as purifying water, cycling nutrients, and breaking down
pollutants.
2.) Each species and ecosystem adds to the richness and beauty of life on
Earth. When an ecosystem is destroyed, it is either impossible or
extremely difficult to recreate it.
3.) Many species depend on each other in their intricate ways of survival.
Destroying one species can lead to further extinction. No one can be sure
where we begin the road to no return.
4.) Each species is unique and has the right to exist. Each species is worthy of
respect regardless of its value to the human beings.

Are the following statements true or false?

a) The total number of species is not known.
b) More than half of the worlds species live in tropical forests.
c) About 10 million species have been identified by scientists.
d) The Earth has many more species than it needs.
e) Most species are of no direct benefit to humans.

76

f) Some habitats have more species than others.

g) Biodiversity includes genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem
diversity.
h) Biological diversity is more threatened now than at any time in the past 65
million years.
i) The loss of forests, wetlands, grasslands, and other habitats contributes to
the loss of biodiversity.
j) Many species become extinct without ever being identified.
k) Large plants, birds and mammals make up about half of the worlds
species.
l) Coral reefs are as rich in biodiversity as tropical forests.
m) Many islands are home to species found nowhere else.
n) Fewer than 100 species currently provide most of the worlds food supply.
o) Farmers need a diversity of crop varieties in order to breed new plants that
resist insect pests and diseases.
p) Creating parks and zoos is the best way to preserve biodiversity.
q) The biological resources of developing countries are a potential source of
income.
r) Two major causes of biodiversity loss are population growth and the
increasing consumption of natural resources.
s) Once a species becomes endangered, it is doomed to extinction.

PROGRESS TEST

Discuss the importance of the maintenance of biodiversity

77

TEST PAPER
Translate into English:
Cnd termenul biodiversitate este folosit n agricultura ecologic, acesta
nu nseamn numai creterea mai multor animale i plante, dar i faptul c mai
multe din plantele i animalele dintr-o anumit zon cresc n mod natural. O
importan deosebit este acordat conservrii speciilor de animale i soiurilor de
plante protejate. n agricultura ecologic, multe practici de cretere a
productivitii au i un efect natural secundar de mbuntire a vieii plantelor i
animalelor, sau de meninere a biodiversitii naturale. De exemplu:

folosirea gunoiului de grajd crete concentraia de microorganisme, rme,

pianjeni i gndaci din pmnt

folosirea rotaiei multi-anuale a culturilor i a soiurilor corespunztoare de

plante care pot concura cu buruienile i sunt rezistente la duntori i boli,
ntrirea rezistenei plantelor dorite i defavorizarea celor nedorite.

prin rotaiile multi-anuale se cultiv varieti mai mari de culturi primare,

leguminoase i plante furajere.

cultivarea, cu prioritate, a varietilor de soiuri indigene de plante i specii

de animale menine diversitatea natural a zonelor de cultur

introducerea dumanilor naturali ai buruienilor i duntorilor, n locul

folosirii pesticidelor, ajut la creterea duratei de via a animalelor.

UNIT 11
EMPLOYMENT CORRESPONDENCE
Types of Business Correspondence
We live in the computer era, and modern businesses have access to many
more different means of communication than businesses used to have say 30 years
ago. In the beginning people thought that computers will eliminate (or at least
almost eliminate) paper but, nowadays, we use much more paper than before the
computers. The types of business correspondence we use are:
78

 business letters
faxes
e-mail
When someone mentions "business correspondence" around you what is the first
thing that comes to your mind?

You would probably immediately picture

business letters. In spite of the fact that business e-mail nowadays is used much
more than letters. But business letters have been the only type of business
correspondence for much longer than any of us can remember, so "business
correspondence" is still associated with them more than with its any other type.
And as anything that "has been there" for a long time, business letters just have to
have very well established rules and regulations. The ability to compose business
correspondence, although a rare marketable skill, is not an unattainable one. It is
not a skill one is born with. People learn how to write, just as they learn how to
read, to type or to operate computers. But, just like learning to type, learning to
write takes work and practice. One gets better at it the more one writes.
Of all the different kinds of letters, perhaps none are more important for
your personal career than those letters you write to apply for a job. Your
curriculum vitae (or rsum in American English), and accompaning letter of
application, if well planned and written, can do much to help you secure the job of
your choice.
A curriculum vitae (CV) provides an overview of a person's experience
and other qualifications. In some countries, a CV is typically the first item that a
potential employer encounters regarding the job seeker and is typically used to
screen applicants, often followed by an interview, when seeking employment. The
curriculum vitae is comparable to a rsum in many countries, although in
English Canada and the United States it is substantially different.
A rsum is a document used by individuals to present their background
and skillsets. Rsums can be used for a variety of reasons but most often to
secure new employment. A typical rsum contains a summary of relevant job
experience and education. The rsum is usually one of the first items, along with
a cover letter and sometimes job application packet, that a potential employer
encounters regarding the job seeker and is typically used to screen applicants,
often followed by an interview, when seeking employement. .
In the European Union, there has been an attempt to develop a
standardized CV format known as Europass (in 2004 by the European Parliament
79

and European Commision) and promoted by the EU to ease skilled migration

between member countries, although this is not widely used in most contexts. The
Europass CV system is meant to be just as helpful to employers and education
providers as it is to students and job seekers. It was designed to help them
understand what people changing between the countries have to offer, whilst
overcoming linguistic barriers. The Europass documents also provide recognition
for non-accredited learning and work experience.
There are a few companies that prefer not to receive a CV at all in
application, but rather produce their own application form which must be
completed in applying for any position. Of those, some also allow applicants to
attach a CV in support of the application. The reason some companies prefer to
process applications this way is to standardize the information they receive, as
there can be many variables within a CV. Therefore, the company often does not
get all the information they require at the application stage.

CURRICULUM VITAE
The curriculum vitae also called resume or data sheet is an outline of all
you have to offer a prospective employer. It is a presentation of your
qualifications, your background, and your experiences, arranged in such a way as
to convince a busines sperson to grant you an interview It must look professional
and exemplify those traits you want the employer to believe you possess.
It must be typed on business-size band. It must have overall neat
appearance: margins should be wide and balanced. Headings should stand out and
should be parallel. Corrections should be invisible: the finished product must be
perfect.
The information contained on your CV must be accurate, expressed in
short phrases, rather than whole sentences, and complete. It should consist of
facts. Nowadays, it is preferable to keep a resume to one page. This means that
you must be efficient in selecting the facts to include and clever in arranging
them. In making these decisions, keep in mind the specific job for which you are
applying. A curriculum vitae must be factual, objective and brief and it usually
contains the following sections:

Personal data: name, address, date and place of birth, sex, marital
status,number of children, nationality.
80

Employment objective: many career conselors recommend that this be

included and listed first, immediately after your name and address.
Mentioning a clearly defined job goal creates the favorable impression that
you are a well-directed, motivated individual.

Education: list, in reverse chronological order, the schools you have

attended, with names, dates of attendance, and degrees or diplomas
awarded.

Work experience: each job experience should be listed ( again, with the
most recent job first ) with your position or title, employers name and
address, dates of employment, and a brief description of your
responsibilities.

Extracurricular activities and Special skills: list anything that might help
you to get the job, any facts that dont fit under Education or Work
Experience, but which demonstrate an important aspect of your value to
an employer (e.g. computer skills, command of foreign laguages, speed in
taking decisions, skills in using high-tech office tools, communication
skills, etc.).

References: The last section of your CV is a list of those people willing to

vouch for your ability and experience. Former employers and teachers
(especially teachers of job- related courses) are the best references. Each
reference should be listed by name, position or title, business address and
telephone number. A minimum of three names is recommended.
You need not use all of these sections; use, of course only those that are

most relevant. Also, the order in which you list the categories is flexible. You may
list your strongest sections first, or you may list first the section that is most
relevant to the job in question.
Some companies send application forms which contain more or less the
same information as a CV. In that case it is not necessary to send a separate CV.

81

Model of CURRICULUM VITAE

CURRICULUM VITAE

Personal data

First name: Cristian

Surname / Family name: Andone
Date of birth:
Place of birth: ..
Marital status: ..
Nationality: Romanian
Home address: .
Phone No.: ...
Business address: Romanian Bank for Development, IT Department
Phone No.:

Employment objective

Feeling capable of assuming more responsibility in an emerging market

economy, I would like the challenge of applying new concepts in real life.

Education

9 Banking College of the Romanian Banking Institute graduated in 1997,

specialised in banking
9 1995-1996 Bucharest, one week specialised courses on different banking
matters run within the Training Center of the Romanian Banking Institute
(RBI).
9 March-April 1996: a three week Fulbright scholarship in DenverColorado.
82

9 Work Experience: bank clerk for the Bancoop (1994-1996 - computer

assisted accountant for BRD

Present position

Head of the Computer Assisted Accountancy Unit of the IT Department,

Romanian Bank for Development.

Special skills
9 computer skills
9 command of English, French, German
9 speed in taking decisions
9 communication skills

Other personal details

9 I am a hard working person
9 I enjoy team work
9 I never need an extra day off

Date: 14th of September 2009

Cristian Andone

LETTER OF APPLICATION
A letter of application, a cover letter, covering letter, motivation letter,
motivational letter or a letter of motivation is a letter of introduction attached
to, or accompanying another document such as a resume or curriculum vitae.
Format
Cover letters are generally one page at most in length, divided into a header,
introduction, body, and closing.

83

Header. Cover letters use standard business letter style, with the sender's
address and other information, the recipient's contact information, and the
date sent after either the sender's or the recipient's address. Following that
is an optional reference section (e.g. "RE: Internship Opportunity at Global
Corporation") and an optional transmission note (e.g. "Via Email to
jobs@example.net"). The final part of the header is a salutation (e.g.,
"Dear Hiring Managers").

Introduction.The introduction briefly states the specific position desired,

and should be designed to catch the employer's immediate interest.

Body. The body highlights or amplifies on material in the resume or job

application, and explains why the job seeker is interested in the job and
would be of value to the employer. Also, matters discussed typically
include skills, qualifications, and past experience. If there are any special
things to note such as availability date, they may be included as well.

Closing. A closing sums up the letter and indicates the next step the
applicant expects to take. It may indicate that the applicant intends to
contact the employer, although many favor the more indirect approach of
simply saying that the applicant will look forward to hearing from or
speaking with the employer. After the closing is a valediction
("Sincerely"), and then a signature line. Optionally, the abbreviation
"ENCL" may be used to indicate that there are enclosures.

The purpose of a letter of application is to attract an employers attention and

persuade him or her to grant you an interview. To do this, the letter presents what
you can offer the employer, rather than what you want from the job.
Like a CV, a letter of application is a sample of your work, and it is, as
well, an opportunity to demonstrate, not just talk about, your skills and
personality.
Because a letter of application must sell your qualifications, it must do
more than simply restate your CV. It should state explicitly how your background
relates to the specific job and it should emphazise your strongest and most
pertinent characteristics. The letter should demonstrate that you know both
yourself and the company.
When writing a letter of application, keep in mind the following
principles:
84

9 start by attracting attention

9 continue by describing your qualifications
9 assure the employer that you are the person for the job
9 conclude by requesting an interview
A complete application should contain both a letter of application and a
CV. It is always most professional to include both.

Model of APPLICATION LETTER

APPLICATION LETTER
----------------------Street
---------------------------Phone:-----------------------Mrs. Lesly Quirk
Information Engineering Group Ltd.
Lloyd House
22 Lloyd Street
Manchester
M2 5WA
Dear Mrs. Quirk,
I would like to apply for-----------------------------------------

advertised in -----------------------------------------As you can see -------------------------- I have had-------------I enclose ------------------------------------------

and I will be available --------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

I will be free

--------------------Yours sincerely,

85

EUROPASS
What is Europass?
Whether you are planning to enrol in an education or training programme,
looking for a job, or getting experience abroad, it is important to be able to make
your skills and competences clearly understood.
Europass is a new way of helping people to:

make their skills and qualifications clearly and easily understood in

Europe (European Union, EFTA/EEA and candidate countries);

move anywhere in Europe.

Europass consists of five documents:

two documents (Europass curriculum vitae (CV) and European language

Passport) you can fill in yourself; and

three other documents (Europass Certificate Supplement, Europass

Diploma Supplement and Europass Mobility) filled in and issued by
competent organisations.

Europass is supported by a network of National Europass Centres.

Europass is a European Union (Directorate General for Education and Culture)
initiative to increase transparency of qualification and mobility of citizens in
Europe. It aims to be a "Life Long Learning Portfolio" of documents containing
the descriptions of all learning achievements, official qualifications, work results,
skills and competencies, acquired over time, along with the related
documentation. The five Europass documents are the curriculum vitae, Language
Passport, Europass Mobility, Certificate supplement, and Diploma supplement,
sharing a common brand name and logo. It aims to make a person's skills and
qualifications clearly understood throughout Europe (including the European
Union, European Economic Area and candidate countries).

86

Model of EUROPASS CURRICULUM VITAE

EUROPASS CURRICULUM VITAE

Insert photograph.

Europass
Curriculum Vitae
Personal information
First name(s) / Surname(s)

First name(s) Surname(s)

Address(es)

House number, street name, postcode, city, country

Telephone(s)
Fax(es)
E-mail
Nationality
Date of birth
Gender

Desired
employment
Occupational field

/ (remove if not relevant)

Work experience
Dates

Add separate entries for each relevant post occupied.

Occupation or position held

Main activities and responsibilities
Name and address of employer
Type of business or sector

Education and training

Dates

Add separate entries for each relevant course you have completed
.

Title of qualification awarded

Principal subjects/occupational skills
covered
Name and type of organisation
providing education and training
Level in national or international
classification

Personal
skills
competences
Mother tongue(s)

and
Specify mother tongue (if relevant add other mother tongue(s))

Other language(s)

87

Self-assessment

Understanding

European level (*)

Listening

Speaking
Reading

Spoken interaction

Spoken production

Language
Language

Social skills and competences

Organisational
competences

skills

and

Technical skills and competences

Computer skills and competences

Artistic skills and competences

Other skills and competences

Driving licence

Additional information
Annexes

EXPLANATORY NOTES

Words and Phrases:

application = a request for something, e.g. a job, a place in a college.

application form = a document which is filled and signed by a person who is
applying for something, e.g. a job, a passport, a driving license
applicant = a person who puts in an application for something.
asset = something that is owned by a person or a company, such as money, a
building, a car.
to asses = to judge the quality or worth of ( a person or thing )
grant = a gift of money, e.g. from the government especially for education
to advertise = to make ( something, usually goods or services) known to
companies or the general

public e.g. by means of newspaper,

magazines, posters, cinema, television or radio.

advertisment = a notice of something which is being advertised
vacancy = the state of being vacant, a post which is vacant
88

consumer market = all the people who buy to satisfy their own needs or those of
their families.
cost effectiveness = is a method etc., giving value for money, often in comparison
with something

else, e.g. spending money on advertising

in newspaper instead of television.

# EXERCISES
COMPREHENSION
1. Read the following advertisment and write your CV and a letter of
application for the position mentioned. Before writing them have a
look at the explanatory notes above:

MARKET RESEARCH SPECIALIST

MONSATO has a vacancy in its fast growing Agricultural Products

Company, for a MARKET RESEARCH SPECALIST (M/F) with responsibility
for a selection of European countries. The position is based at our European
Headquarters in Brussels and reports to the Market Research Mgr, Europe.
The ideal candidate will be a university graduate, preferably with a degree
in agricultural sciences or economics and have three to five years experience in
the consumer market research area. Experience in advertising research as well as
acquaintance with basic operations research would be assets. Frequent travel will
be called for, and fluency in English as well as French and/or German is useful.
The position holds responsibility for quality, methodology, cost
effectiveness analysis and impact of market research projects in Europe.

89

Opportunities for career growth associated with this appointment are

exceptionally good. A competitive salary is offered and overall conditions are in
line with what is expected of a major international company.
Application in confidence should be addressed to L.Borrill Manager,
Personnel at Monsato Europe S.A., avenue de Tervuren 270-272 at 1150 Brussels.

TEST PAPER
Translate into English:
Odat cu formarea diverselor instituii si organizaii din cadrul Uniunii
Europene a aprut i necesitatea de procese i instrumente care s faciliteze
atingerea diverselor obiective n cadrul Uniunii Europene. Astfel a aprut i a
nceput a fi promovat CV-ul n format Europass, CV care este considerat de foarte
muli cel mai elocvent model i format de CV european. Deja acesta este folosit
intens n multe, dac nu chiar toate instituiile Uniunii Europene, fiind unul dintre
principalii pai cu care un candidat, n cutarea unui loc de munc n cadrul
institutiilor UE, trebuie s se familiarize.
Multe companii private au considerat modelul de CV n format Europass
ca fiind foarte util. Ca urmare la locurile de munc disponibile n domeniul privat
putei ntlni mai mult sau mai puin ocazional cerina ca CV-ul candidailor s fie
trimis n format european. Totodat muli candidai au gsit foarte facil i util
modelul de CV europass, i ca urmare au adoptat folosirea acestuia chiar i n
mediul privat n momentul aplicrii pentru un anumit post.

90

BIBLIOGRAPHY
MODULE IV (UNIT 7 UNIT 11)

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OTILIA,

English

for

natural

sciences,

upper,

intermediate, advanced, Ed. Ovidius University Press, Constana, 2005

CICIUC OLEA, TNSESCU EUGENIA, English for Business
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HOHAN, LUCIA TRANCOT, tii s redactai o scrisoare n limba
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91

SIDE R., GUY W., Grammar and Vocabulary for Cambridge Advanced
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DICIONARE

Dicionar englez romn, Ed. Acad. Romn, 1974

Dicionar romn englez, Ed. tiinific, Bucureti, 1973
Dicionar agricol n opt limbi, Praga, 1970
Dicionar de tiina solului, Ed. tiinific i enciclopedic,
Bucureti,1977
Dicionar de economie romn englez i englez romn, Ed. Niculescu
S.R.L., Bucureti,1997
The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English, Oxford, 1964
Collins Business English Dictionary, London 1989

http://ecology. uedavis.edu
http// en.wikipedia.org./wiki/Biodiversity
http://www.environment.nsw
http://www.answers.com
http://www europass.cedefop europa.eu
Britanica Concise Encyclopedia on line
Food and Culture Encyclopedia on line
92

BIBLIOGRAPHY
(MODULE I-VIII)
ALEXANDRESCU C., ndreptar de limb englez pentru agronomi, Ed.
Ceres, Bucureti, 1984.
ALEXANDRESCU C., Limba englez pentru horticultori, Ed. Moldova,
1998
ALTIERI MIGUEL, Agroecology: the Science of Sustainable Agriculture,
Westview Press, Boulder, Co, 1995
ANDREI LUMINIA, Business English Grammar, Ed. Timpul, Iai, 2006
BLAKE FRANCIS, Organic Farming and Growing, WBC

Book

Mnufactures Ltd., Bridgend, Mid Glamorgan, 1990

BUTLER RICHARD, HALL C. MICHAEL, Tourism and Recreation in
Rural Areas, John Wiley and Sons Ltd, Baffins Lane, West Sussex, 1998
CALLUT JEAN PAUL, Business Vocabulary Based on English for
Managers (a selection of texts ), Louvain la Neuve 1988
CHEFNEAUX GABRIELA, Techniques of communication, Ed. Univ
Transilvania, Braov, 2008
CHILRESCU M., PAIDOS C., Practical Course of English, Ed.
Polirom, Iai, 2006
CHIROBOCEA

OTILIA,

English

for

natural

sciences,

upper,

intermediate, advanced, Ed. Ovidius University Press, Constana, 2005

CICIUC OLEA, TNSESCU EUGENIA, English for Business
Purposes, Ed. Teora, Bucureti, 1998
DAVID FRANCIS , Family Agriculture (Tradition and Transformation),
Earthscan Publications Ltd., London, l994
DUDE ROXANA, High speed English for tourism and the hospitality
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EKINS PAUL, Economic growth and environmental sustainability : the
prospects for green growth, London: Routledge, 2000
GEPTS P., A Comparison between Crop Domestication, Classical Plant
Breeding, and Genetic Engineering, Crop Science 42, 2002

93

GLAVAN VASILE, Turism rural. Agroturism. Turism durabil. Ecoturism,

Editura Economic, Bucureti, 2003
GORE AL., Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the Human Spirit, Pinguin
Books, USA, 1993
HOHAN, LUCIA TRANCOT, tii s redactai o scrisoare n limba
englez ?, Ed. Albatros, Bucureti, 1984
IUGA ANA MARIA, English for professional communication in a crosscultural context, Ed.Alma Mater, Sibiu, 2006
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