Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1. GRADING BASICS
2. IMPORTANCE OF GRADING
3. PRINCIPLES OF GRADING TECHNIQUE
4. GRADING PLANS
5. GRADIENT
C 6. SPOT ELEVATION
7. INTERPOLATION
O 8. FIELD SURVEY AND PLOTTING CONTOURS
N 9. GRADING OF DEFINED AREA
10. GRADING OF OPEN AREAS
TE 11. IMPLEMENTATION AND CONSTRUCTION
N 12. FINAL GRADING PLAN
13. CUT ANF FILL
TS 14. RECOMMENDED GRADINGS
15. EARTHWORK COMPUTATIONS
– Average Depth Method
– Average End area Method
– The Contour Method
16. REMOVAL OF WATER FROM SITE
17. GRADING AND DRAINAGE
18. SUBSURFACE SYSTEMS AND STRUCTURES
19. SURFACE SYSTEMS AND STRUCTURES
20. GUIDELINES FOR GRADING PLANS
21. GRADING FOR STREETS AND ROADS
22. PAVEMENTS AND PAVINGS
23. FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
•
G Grading is the process of modification of
existing landform to accommodate new
R structures, parking and circulation and
A to ensure positive drainage.
Consideration must be given to
DI
The quantities of Cut and Fill are
calculated from these drawings.
The drawings must be accurate to deliver
exact cost estimates.
Landscape architects, engineers, and
architects who do grading plans, as well
as the contractor who does the actual
grading, should understand a common
terminology.
•
•
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Gradient refers to the changing elevation
along the Earth's surface or the rate of
the slope.
It is expressed in % or ratio or degrees.
G – 1% slope = 100:1
R – 10% slope = 10:1 = 6o
A Percentage of slope is expressed as the
number of meters (feet) rise in 100 m (100
DI ft) of horizontal distance, typically
referred to as rise/run.
E If the slope rises2 m (2 ft) in 100 m (100 ft),
N it is considered a 2 percent slope. The
percentage of slope can be calculated by the
T following formula:
Where
D=vertical rise, mm (ft)
L=horizontal distance, mm (ft)
G = gradient, %
•
Elevation of point B=48 347
mm Elevation of point A =47
463 mm
Vertical difference D=884 mm
Horizontal difference L= 35
357 mm
There fore:
Proportion of Slope can also be expressed
as a ratio of the horizontal distance to the
vertical rise , such as three to one (3:1).
The ratio method is used typically for
slopes 4:1 (25%) or steeper.
Degree of Slope is expressed in degrees only
on larges scale earth-moving projects such
as strip mining and other extractive
operations.
•
Spot elevations provide additional
SP information beyond that given by the
O contour lines. They indicate Micro
grading.
T Spot elevations are used to establish
limits of slope, to locate contour lines,
EL and to provide detail for establishing
E control points that cannot be obtained
via contour lines.
V Typical locations for taking spot
elevations are:
A Top and bottom of steps.
TI Tops of retaining wall.
Outside entrances to buildings.
O Inside floor levels of buildings.
N
Corners of all structures.
Beak points.
S Centers of all swales.
The elevation of any point on an accurately
drawn contour plan may be determined by
interpolation.
IN In the figure, point A lies about 7/10 the
TE distance from contour 53 to contour 54; thus,
A has an approximate elevation of 53.7.
R •
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R All intersection points of a grid are marked
on the ground with temporary stakes.
V The elevations of each intersection point are
EY taken with a transit or level and the
elevation data is plotted on a gridded plan
& of the site.
PL The elevations of critical high or low points
that fall between the intersections are also
O located on the plan.
TT Once all spot elevations have been determined,
contours at regular intervals [typically 1
IN 000 mm, 500 mm, or 250 mm (5 ft, 2 ft, or 1
ft)] can be located and plotted on a map, as
G shown in Figure ahead.
C Often this can be done by eye, since few
contour maps require great precision.
O •
N •
T •
TRANSIT SURVEY GRID
CONTOURS INTERPOLATED FROM GRID
A
DI
N
Slopes of less than about 2 percent in the
G open landscape appear flat to the human eye.
F However, in areas adjacent to built
structures, even the slightest slope becomes
O noticeable because of the relationship of
the grade to mortar joints, roof lines and
R other level architectural features.
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Perimeter Edge Level:
Figures schematically illustrate alternative
methods for manipulating a surface for drainage
while allowing at least one peripheral edge to
remain level.
Two Perimeter Edges Level:
Figures schematically illustrate drainage
schemes applicable when two perimeter edges need
to be level.
Entire Area Level:
Some circumstances, such as rooftop
landscapes or enclosed courtyards, require that
the entire surface of the enclosed area be
level.
Figure ahead illustrates two ways that an
area can remain level and still drain properly
by the use of porous surface material, such as
sand/gravel the use of individually elevated
Each case requires an adequate system beneath
the pavers to carry required rainfall
effectively.
These alternatives are applicable to relatively
flat surfaces as tennis courts and other types of
courts.
A
TI Preparing site grading plan
C – Grading of a site should be thoughtful
systematic process that begins with an
G analysis and understanding of the site
R and ends with an overall detailed
Grading plan.
A – Site Analysis:
DI Study the general lay of the land by
using topographic maps and site visits.
N 1. Determine high points, low points,
areas.
5, Defining an area that could be altered
N 6.
The process of removal of earth from one
part of site to achieve required grading
and the place and using the dug up earth
C to achieve required grading by filling
it at another place on the same sit.
U
The amount of material from cuts roughly
T matches the amount of fill needed to
A make nearby embankments, so minimizing
the amount of construction labor.
N •
D
FI
LL
When soil is dug or blasted it looses the
original position and adds to the bulk
result in increase of volume, this is
termed as a swell.
When the soil placed in new location with
nominal compaction, the voids present
there are filled and this is called as
shrinkage.
Standards for grading around a typical
building.
Surface drainage can be achieved by
views.
Grading to expose
vistas
Grading related to bad
views.
Grading to fit structures to
sites.
Grading to facilitate better plant
growth
Grading to emphasize or control
circulation.
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Schematic grading
for outdoor
basketball court
Schematic grading
for outdoor tennis
court
Schematic Grading of football/Soccer/hockey
field
T
H Earth work computations require measuring
irregularly shaped areas on plans and
W sections. The quickest way to do this
manually is to use an instrument called
O compensating polar Planimeter.
R There are three methods used to estimate
K earthwork volumes:
1. The average depth method,
C 2. Average end area method and,
O 3. The contour method.
M
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V
It is most often employed to estimate
E excavation quantities.
R 1. A grid is placed over area that is to
have the earth work quantities
A estimated.
G 2. The existing elections are estimated from
the topographic plan, or the original
E survey grid may be used if available.
3. The new elevation are recorded for each
D point.
EP 4. The difference in the elevations are
found for each point in the grid.
T 5. The differences in elevation are then
H averaged for each corner of the grid
square to find n average depth for
M that grid.
ET 6. This is repeated for each grid.
Very accurate. Suitable for small areas.
H
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O
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R It utilizes sections cut through the site at
A regular intervals.
The end area of cross section, is averaged with
G the adjacent section and then multiplied by
the distance between the sections to obtain
E the volume.
E Cut and Fill:
N – The new profiles after the cut or fill
are placed over existing ones and the
D are to be cut and filled in the
section are calculated and the
A multiplied separately with distance
between two contours to get the
R volumes.
E
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It uses existing and proposed contour pairs to
O estimated volume.
N This method is not as accurate as the others.
Does not require use of grid or preparation of
T section .
O The area between existing contour and the
proposed contour is calculated.
U This area is multiplied by the value of
R contour interval to obtain volume.
M
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O One of the principle objective of grading
V plan is to collect transfer, and dispose of
surface water.
AL There are various methods of removal of water
AI
N
A
G
E The most common techniques for estimating
runoff are :
ST – Soil conservation method
IM – Runoff curve number method
A – Rational method
– The small storm hydrology WQV method.
TI The SCS Runoff method is more sophisticated
N model useful for larger watersheds and larger
design storms.
G The rational method is more commonly used for
R small watersheds.
Modified rational method:
U – This method for calculating runoff rate assumes-
N 1. Rainfall intensity is uniform throughout the duration
of the storm.
2. Precipitation falls on the entire drainage area for
O duration of the storm
3. Peak discharge of the rainfall is equal to at the time
FF of concentration.
4. Time of concentration is atleast six minutes.
STEP1: choose an appropriate design storm,
R delineate the watershed, identify outlet and
calculate watershed area (A) in hectares.
A STEP 2: determine app. Runoff coefficient (C)
TI based on land cover characteristics and
hydrologic soil group. In landscapes with
O several soil types, composite value of C is
N used. If the design storm return period is
greater tan 10 years, multiply runoff
AL coefficient (cf).
STEP 3: calculate the time of concentration for
M the watershed (Tc) in minutes, using Kirpich
ET formula.
STEP 4: Calculate rainfall intensity using
H Steel formula
O STEP 5: calculate the peak discharge (Q) using
the formula:
D – Q=KCIA
F
A
Subsurface runoff is collected in area drains,
C catch basins, and trench drains.
E The are drain should be located at the lowest
point in a drainage area. It is conceptually
SY like a big shower drain through which all of
the water falling in a specified area
ST passes.
E • Trench drain is
term that has been
M given to any linear
S drain, this
structure is often
A used at bottom of
the slope where
N water needs to be
D collected to
protect an adjacent
ST area.
R
U
The catch basin is also a drain but it is
designed to catch debris in its base
below the pipe that transfers the water
to a point of disposal. When the lid of
the catch basin is lifted, the debris and
sediment would otherwise have clogged
the drainage system can be removed.
Subsurface collection is often accomplished
with perforated pipe set in ditches
filled with gravel
•
Dry wells provide an
underground disposal system
for surface runoff: but
their effectiveness is in
direct proportion to the
porosity of surrounding
soils, and they are
efficient only for draining
small areas. High rainfall
runoff rates cannot be
absorbed at the rather low
percolation rates of most
soils, so the difference is
stored temporarily in a dry
well. Efficiency is reduced
during extended periods of
wet weather when receiving
soils are saturated and the
well is refilled before it
drains completely.
R
F
Surface drainage systems intercept and collect
A storm water runoff and convey it away from a
building and site with the use of large
C inlets and storm drains.
E Surface and Subsurface systems typically
require discharge either through a pumping
D station or by gravity drainage to an
R adequate outfall.
Surface drainage systems are designed to
AI collect and dispose of rainfall runoff to
prevent the flow of water from damaging
N building structures (through foundation
A leakage), site structures, and the surface
grade (through erosion).
G •
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SY
ST
E
The two basic types of surface drainage are:
– The open system and
– The closed system.
The open system, which utilizes a ditch/swale
and culvert, is used in less densely
populated, more open areas where the flow of
water above grade can be accommodated fairly
easily.
The closed system, which utilizes pipes, an
inlet/catch basin, and manholes, is used in
more urban, populated areas, where land must
be used efficiently and water brought below
the surface quickly to avoid interference
with human activity. The two systems are
commonly combined where terrain, human
density, and land uses dictate.
Swales are shallow channels with parabolic
cross section. They may be very wide at
times. They are used to divert water
around a building. They are not used
where wind flow is more than 1.2 m/s.
Ditches are also channels with a deeper
section. They are used wind velocities
are higher.
•
A pervious or porous paving system is often
used for parking and other hard site
surfaces. This drainage system allows water
to percolate through the paved surface into
the soil, similar to the way the land would
naturally absorb water.
•
Porous Type Paving
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1. New runoff must never be purposefully
IN diverted from its natural course on one
E property so as to become a nuisance to
other property.
F 2. Always consider some method to retard the
O velocity of the water so that it might
be absorbed into the soil.
R 3. Design the grading and drainage plan as to
G respect, reinforce and duplicate the
existing natural systems.
R
4. While on occasions there are few
A alternative, a drainage plan with more
DI than one outlet course is considered
good planning.
N 5.
G
PL
A
5. Avoid draining large paved area across
pedestrian paths. Catch basins and trench
drains can be used to collect the
substantial quantities of runoff created by
parking lots. Or pedestrian plazas.
6. Identify any areas that appear to be
appropriate for drainage structures. Sinks,
depressions, or long channels are always
primary candidates for a catch basin or
drains.
7. In the design, subsurface systems begin at
higher elevation of the site and work their
way towards the lower elevations.
Surface drainage systems are generally preferred
–
N
G The road has a constant slope and thus
F presents more problem.
The function of the road is to serve as an
O path for vehicles and as an adjunct to
R the drainage system.
A road must be designed:
ST – in conformance to strict design
R standards, maintaining appropriate
grades, curvatures and sight
E distances.
ET – To minimize fluctuations across
S variable terrain.
– To have a constant slope or gradient.
A – To provide shortest route possible.
N – To minimize cut and fill.
D – As far as possible parallel to the
contour lines.
R
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Pavement:
Pavements are classified as being either
flexible or rigid and as either monolithic or
unit. Additionally, they are porous or non-porous.
P
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The pavement material receives traffic wear and
transfers loads to the base and sub grade.
They may be classified in three ways:
– Material
Soft cover
Hard cover
– Construction
Flexible pavement
Rigid pavement
– Porosity
Porous
Non porous
– Structure
Unit
monolithic
•
Flexible Pavements:
– Flexible monolithic pavements consist of
aggregates. shredded rubber, or polymers
which are mixed with an asphalt or
proprietary binder and placed on a
prepared base to create a seamless
monolithic surface.
– These pavements may be porous or non.
porous, and firm or resilient, depending
on aggregate and binder composition.
– Asphalt and resilient athletic surfacing
are common examples and are typically 40-
100 mm (1 1/2- 4 In) thick,
– Flexible unit pavements typically consist
of dry-laid, sand swept, butt jointed
concrete. brick, stone. or synthetic
paving units placed on a sand setting bed
and d prepared aggregate base.
– These pavement by virtue of their butt
joint construction are porous to semi-
porous.
Rigid Pavements:
– Rigid pavements (i.e. reinforced cone are
structurally different than flexible
pavements, Pavement loads are
distributed internally within the Rigid
pavement and transferred to the sub-
grade over a broad area, in a manner
similar to that found in a concrete
spread footing.
– Rigid monolithic pavements are typically
constructed as cast-in-place reinforced
concrete slabs. Rigid unit pavements
require paver to be mortared or glued to
a reinforced concrete base.
TYPES OF PAVINGS
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1. LAWS OF CONTOUR
E 2. METHOD OF CALCULATING CUT AND FILL VOLUMES
N 3. CONSIDERATIONS OF WORKING ON A SLOPING SITE
TL 4. SLOPES FOR OUTDOOR FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITIES
5. IMPORTANCE OF GRADING
Y 6. STEPS OF GRADING
A 7. KINDS OF PAVINGS
8. CONSTRUCTION DETAILS OF PAVINGS
S 9. INTERPOLATION
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1. Time saver standards : landscape architecture
2. Landscape architecture graphic standards
BI 3. Landscape architecture construction :
BL Harlowe C. Landphair
4. Landscape architecture : Michael Laurie
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