3D Modeling WikiBook

3D Modeling
WikiBook Mike Van Voorhis 2/3/2014
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Contents
Articles
3D modeling
3D computer graphics
3D computer graphics software
3D computer vision
10
3D data acquisition and object reconstruction
12
3D reconstruction
15
Binary space partitioning
16
Bounding interval hierarchy
21
Bounding volume
24
Bounding volume hierarchy
27
Box modeling
29
CatmullClark subdivision surface
30
Cloth modeling
32
COLLADA
34
Computed Corpuscle Sectioning
39
Computer representation of surfaces
40
Constructive solid geometry
44
Conversion between quaternions and Euler angles
47
Crowd simulation
50
Cutaway drawing
52
Demoparty
55
Depth map
59
Digital puppetry
61
Dilution of precision (computer graphics)
64
DooSabin subdivision surface
64
Draw distance
65
Edge loop
67
Euler operator
68
Explicit modeling
69
False radiosity
70
Fiducial marker
71
Fluid simulation
73
Forward kinematic animation
75
Forward kinematics
75
Freeform surface modelling
77
Geometry instancing
80
Geometry pipelines
81
Geometry processing
82
Gimbal lock
83
Glide API
88
GloriaFX
90
Hemicube (computer graphics)
95
Image plane
95
Image-based meshing
96
Inflatable icons
98
Interactive Digital Centre Asia
98
Interactive skeleton-driven simulation
99
Inverse kinematics
101
Isosurface
105
Joint constraints
106
Kinematic chain
106
Lambert's cosine law
109
Light stage
112
Light transport theory
113
Loop subdivision surface
114
Low poly
115
Marching cubes
117
Mesh parameterization
119
Metaballs
120
Micropolygon
122
Morph target animation
122
Motion capture
124
Newell's algorithm
133
Non-uniform rational B-spline
134
Nonobtuse mesh
143
Normal (geometry)
143
Painter's algorithm
147
Parallax barrier
149
Parallel rendering
154
Particle system
156
Point cloud
159
Polygon (computer graphics)
161
Polygon mesh
161
Polygon soup
170
Polygonal modeling
170
Pre-rendering
174
Precomputed Radiance Transfer
176
Procedural modeling
177
Procedural texture
178
Progressive meshes
182
3D projection
183
Projective texture mapping
186
Pyramid of vision
188
Quantitative Invisibility
188
Quaternions and spatial rotation
189
Andreas Raab
200
RealityEngine
202
Reflection (computer graphics)
204
Relief mapping (computer graphics)
206
Retained mode
207
Scene description language
207
Schlick's approximation
209
Sculpted prim
210
Silhouette edge
212
Skeletal animation
213
Sketch-based modeling
215
Smoothing group
216
Soft body dynamics
217
Solid modeling
221
Sparse voxel octree
227
Specularity
227
Static mesh
228
Stereoscopic acuity
229
Subdivision surface
231
Supinfocom
234
Surface caching
235
Surfel
235
Suzanne Award
236
Time-varying mesh
243
Timewarps
243
Triangle mesh
244
Vector slime
245
Vertex (geometry)
247
Vertex Buffer Object
249
Vertex (computer graphics)
254
Vertex pipeline
255
Viewing frustum
256
Viewport
257
Virtual actor
258
Virtual environment software
260
Virtual replay
262
Volume mesh
262
Voxel
262
Web3D
266
References
Article Sources and Contributors
268
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
274
Article Licenses
License
278
3D modeling
3D modeling
Basics
3D modeling / 3D scanning
3D rendering / 3D printing
Primary Uses
3D models / Computer-aided design

Graphic design / Video games
Visual effects / Visualization
Virtual engineering / Virtual reality
Virtual cinematography
Related concepts
CGI / Animation / 3D display

Wireframe model / Texture mapping
Computer animation / Motion capture
Skeletal animation / Crowd simulation
Global illumination / Volume rendering
v
t
e [1]
In 3D computer graphics, 3D modeling is the process of developing a mathematical representation of any

three-dimensional surface of object (either inanimate or living) via specialized software. The product is called a 3D
model. It can be displayed as a two-dimensional image through a process called 3D rendering or used in a computer
simulation of physical phenomena. The model can also be physically created using 3D printing devices.
Models may be created automatically or manually. The manual modeling process of preparing geometric data for 3D
computer graphics is similar to plastic arts such as sculpting. Recently, new concepts in 3D modeling have started to
emerge. Recently, a new technology departing from the traditional techniques starts to emerge, such as Curve
Controlled Modeling [2] that emphasizes the modeling of the movement of a 3D object instead of the traditional
modeling of the static shape.
3D modeling
Models
3D models represent a 3D object using a collection of points in 3D
space, connected by various geometric entities such as triangles, lines,
curved surfaces, etc. Being a collection of data (points and other
information), 3D models can be created by hand, algorithmically
(procedural modeling), or scanned.
3D models are widely used anywhere in 3D graphics. Actually, their
use predates the widespread use of 3D graphics on personal computers.
Many computer games used pre-rendered images of 3D models as
sprites before computers could render them in real-time.
3D model of a spectrograph
Today, 3D models are used in a wide variety of fields. The medical

industry uses detailed models of organs. The movie industry uses them
as characters and objects for animated and real-life motion pictures. The video game industry uses them as assets for
computer and video games. The science sector uses them as highly detailed models of chemical compounds. The
architecture industry uses them to demonstrate proposed buildings and landscapes through Software Architectural
Models. The engineering community uses them as designs of new devices, vehicles and structures as well as a host
of other uses. In recent decades the earth science community has started to construct 3D geological models as a
standard practice. 3D models can also be the basis for physical devices that are built with 3D printers or CNC
machines.
Representation
Almost all 3D models can be divided into two categories.
Solid - These models define the volume of the object they represent
(like a rock). These are more realistic, but more difficult to build.
Solid models are mostly used for nonvisual simulations such as
medical and engineering simulations, for CAD and specialized
visual applications such as ray tracing and constructive solid
geometry
Shell/boundary - these models represent the surface, e.g. the
boundary of the object, not its volume (like an infinitesimally thin
eggshell). These are easier to work with than solid models. Almost
all visual models used in games and film are shell models.
A modern render of the iconic Utah teapot model

developed by Martin Newell (1975). The Utah
teapot is one of the most common models used in
3D graphics education.
Because the appearance of an object depends largely on the exterior of the object, boundary representations are
common in computer graphics. Two dimensional surfaces are a good analogy for the objects used in graphics,
though quite often these objects are non-manifold. Since surfaces are not finite, a discrete digital approximation is
required: polygonal meshes (and to a lesser extent subdivision surfaces) are by far the most common representation,
although point-based representations have been gaining some popularity in recent years. Level sets are a useful
representation for deforming surfaces which undergo many topological changes such as fluids.
The process of transforming representations of objects, such as the middle point coordinate of a sphere and a point
on its circumference into a polygon representation of a sphere, is called tessellation. This step is used in
polygon-based rendering, where objects are broken down from abstract representations ("primitives") such as
spheres, cones etc., to so-called meshes, which are nets of interconnected triangles. Meshes of triangles (instead of
e.g. squares) are popular as they have proven to be easy to render using scanline rendering.[3] Polygon
representations are not used in all rendering techniques, and in these cases the tessellation step is not included in the
3D modeling
transition from abstract representation to rendered scene.
Modeling process
There are three popular ways to represent a model:
1. Polygonal modeling - Points in 3D space, called vertices, are
connected by line segments to form a polygonal mesh. The vast
majority of 3D models today are built as textured polygonal models,
because they are flexible and because computers can render them so
quickly. However, polygons are planar and can only approximate
curved surfaces using many polygons.
2. Curve modeling - Surfaces are defined by curves, which are
influenced by weighted control points. The curve follows (but does
not necessarily interpolate) the points. Increasing the weight for a
3D polygonal modeling of a human face.
point will pull the curve closer to that point. Curve types include
nonuniform rational B-spline (NURBS), splines, patches and geometric primitives
3. Digital sculpting - Still a fairly new method of modeling, 3D sculpting has become very popular in the few years
it has been around.[citation needed] There are currently 3 types of digital sculpting: Displacement, which is the most
widely used among applications at this moment, volumetric and dynamic tessellation. Displacement uses a dense
model (often generated by Subdivision surfaces of a polygon control mesh) and stores new locations for the
vertex positions through use of a 32bit image map that stores the adjusted locations. Volumetric which is based
loosely on Voxels has similar capabilities as displacement but does not suffer from polygon stretching when there
are not enough polygons in a region to achieve a deformation. Dynamic tesselation Is similar to Voxel but divides
the surface using triangulation to maintain a smooth surface and allow finer details. These methods allow for very
artistic exploration as the model will have a new topology created over it once the models form and possibly
details have been sculpted. The new mesh will usually have the original high resolution mesh information
transferred into displacement data or normal map data if for a game engine.
The modeling stage consists of shaping individual objects that are later used in the scene. There are a number of
modeling techniques, including:
constructive solid geometry
implicit surfaces
subdivision surfaces
Modeling can be performed by means of a dedicated program (e.g., Cinema 4D, formZ, Maya, 3DS Max, Blender,
Lightwave, Modo, solidThinking) or an application component (Shaper, Lofter in 3DS Max) or some scene
description language (as in POV-Ray). In some cases, there is no strict distinction between these phases; in such
cases modeling is just part of the scene creation process (this is the case, for example, with Caligari trueSpace and
Realsoft 3D).
Complex materials such as blowing sand, clouds, and liquid sprays are modeled with particle systems, and are a
mass of 3D coordinates which have either points, polygons, texture splats, or sprites assigned to them.
3D modeling
Compared to 2D methods
3D photorealistic effects are often achieved without
wireframe
modeling
and
are
sometimes
indistinguishable in the final form. Some graphic art
software includes filters that can be applied to 2D
vector graphics or 2D raster graphics on transparent
layers.
Advantages of wireframe 3D
exclusively 2D methods include:
modeling
over
Flexibility, ability to change angles or animate

images with quicker rendering of the changes;
Ease of rendering, automatic calculation and
rendering photorealistic effects rather than mentally
visualizing or estimating;
Accurate photorealism, less chance of human error
in misplacing, overdoing, or forgetting to include a
visual effect.
A fully textured and lit rendering of a 3D model.
Disadvantages compare to 2D photorealistic rendering may include a software learning curve and difficulty
achieving certain photorealistic effects. Some photorealistic effects may be achieved with special rendering filters
included in the 3D modeling software. For the best of both worlds, some artists use a combination of 3D modeling
followed by editing the 2D computer-rendered images from the 3D model.
3D model market
A large market for 3D models (as well as 3D-related content, such as textures, scripts, etc.) still exists - either for
individual models or large collections. Online marketplaces for 3D content, such as TurboSquid, The3DStudio,
CreativeCrash, CGTrader, NoneCG, CGPeopleNetwork and DAZ 3D, allow individual artists to sell content that
they have created. Often, the artists' goal is to get additional value out of assets they have previously created for
projects. By doing so, artists can earn more money out of their old content, and companies can save money by
buying pre-made models instead of paying an employee to create one from scratch. These marketplaces typically
split the sale between themselves and the artist that created the asset, artists get 40% to 95% of the sales according
the marketplace. In most cases, the artist retains ownership of the 3d model; the customer only buys the right to use
and present the model. Some artists sell their products directly in its own stores offering their products at a lower
price by not using intermediaries.
3D printing
3D printing is a form of additive manufacturing technology where a three dimensional object is created by laying
down successive layers of material.
Human models
The first widely available commercial application of human virtual models appeared in 1998 on the Lands' End web
site. The human virtual models were created by the company My Virtual Mode Inc. and enabled users to create a
model of themselves and try on 3D clothing. There are several modern programs that allow for the creation of virtual
human models (Poser being one example).
3D modeling
Uses
3D modelling is used in various industries like films, animation and gaming, interior designing and architecture.
They are also used in the medical industry for the interactive representations of anatomy. A wide number of 3D
softwares are also used in constructing digital representation of mechanical models or parts before they are actually
manufactured. CAD/CAM related softwares are used in such fields, and with these softwares, not only can you
construct the parts, but also assemble them, and observe their functionality.
3D modelling is also used in the field of Industrial Design, wherein products are 3D modeled before representing
them to the clients. In Media and Event industries, 3D modelling is used in Stage/Set Design.
References
[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:3D_computer_graphics& action=edit
[2] Ding, H., Hong, Y. (2003), NURBS curve controlled modeling for facial animation, Computers and Graphics, 27(3):373-385
[3] Jon Radoff, Anatomy of an MMORPG (http:/ / radoff. com/ blog/ 2008/ 08/ 22/ anatomy-of-an-mmorpg/ ), August 22, 2008
Basics
Primary Uses

Related concepts

v
t
e [1]
3D computer graphics (in contrast to 2D computer graphics) are graphics that use a three-dimensional
representation of geometric data (often Cartesian) that is stored in the computer for the purposes of performing
calculations and rendering 2D images. Such images may be stored for viewing later or displayed in real-time.
3D computer graphics rely on many of the same algorithms as 2D computer vector graphics in the wire-frame model
and 2D computer raster graphics in the final rendered display. In computer graphics software, the distinction
between 2D and 3D is occasionally blurred; 2D applications may use 3D techniques to achieve effects such as
lighting, and 3D may use 2D rendering techniques.
3D computer graphics are often referred to as 3D models. Apart from the rendered graphic, the model is contained
within the graphical data file. However, there are differences. A 3D model is the mathematical representation of any
three-dimensional object. A model is not technically a graphic until it is displayed. Due to 3D printing, 3D models
are not confined to virtual space. A model can be displayed visually as a two-dimensional image through a process
called 3D rendering, or used in non-graphical computer simulations and calculations.
History
William Fetter was credited with coining the term computer graphics in 1961[1] to describe his work at Boeing. One
of the first displays of computer animation was Futureworld (1976), which included an animation of a human face
and a hand that had originally appeared in the 1971 experimental short A Computer Animated Hand, created by
University of Utah students Edwin Catmull and Fred Parke.
Overview
3D computer graphics creation falls into three basic phases:
3D modeling the process of forming a computer model of an object's shape
Layout and animation the motion and placement of objects within a scene
3D rendering the computer calculations that, based on light placement, surface types, and other qualities,
generate the image
Modeling
The model describes the process of forming the shape of an object. The two most common sources of 3D models are
those that an artist or engineer originates on the computer with some kind of 3D modeling tool, and models scanned
into a computer from real-world objects. Models can also be produced procedurally or via physical simulation.
Basically, a 3D model is formed from points called vertices (or vertexes) that define the shape and form polygons. A
polygon is an area formed from at least three vertexes (a triangle). A four-point polygon is a quad, and a polygon of
more than four points is an n-gon[citation needed]. The overall integrity of the model and its suitability to use in
animation depend on the structure of the polygons.
Layout and animation

Before rendering into an image, objects must be placed (laid out) in a scene. This defines spatial relationships
between objects, including location and size. Animation refers to the temporal description of an object, i.e., how it
moves and deforms over time. Popular methods include keyframing, inverse kinematics, and motion capture. These
techniques are often used in combination. As with modeling, physical simulation also specifies motion.
Rendering
Rendering converts a model into an image either by simulating light transport to get photo-realistic images, or by
applying some kind of style as in non-photorealistic rendering. The two basic operations in realistic rendering are
transport (how much light gets from one place to another) and scattering (how surfaces interact with light). This step
is usually performed using 3D computer graphics software or a 3D graphics API. Altering the scene into a suitable
form for rendering also involves 3D projection, which displays a three-dimensional image in two dimensions.
Examples of 3D rendering
Left: A 3D rendering with ray tracing and ambient occlusion using Blender and YafaRay.
Center: A 3d model of a Dunkerque-class battleship rendered with flat shading.
Right: During the 3D rendering step, the number of reflections light rays can take, as well as various other
attributes, can be tailored to achieve a desired visual effect. Rendered with Cobalt.
Communities
There are a multitude of websites designed to help educate and support 3D graphic artists. Some are managed by
software developers and content providers, but there are standalone sites as well. These communities allow for
members to seek advice, post tutorials, provide product reviews or post examples of their own work.
Distinction from photorealistic 2D graphics

Not all computer graphics that appear 3D are based on a wireframe model. 2D computer graphics with 3D
photorealistic effects are often achieved without wireframe modeling and are sometimes indistinguishable in the
final form. Some graphic art software includes filters that can be applied to 2D vector graphics or 2D raster graphics
on transparent layers. Visual artists may also copy or visualize 3D effects and manually render photorealistic effects
without the use of filters. See also still life. [citation needed]
References
[1] Computer Graphics, comphist.org (http:/ / www. comphist. org/ computing_history/ new_page_6. htm)
External links
A Critical History of Computer Graphics and Animation (http://accad.osu.edu/~waynec/history/lessons.html)
How Stuff Works - 3D Graphics (http://computer.howstuffworks.com/3dgraphics.htm)
History of Computer Graphics series of articles (http://hem.passagen.se/des/hocg/hocg_1960.htm)

Basics
Primary Uses

Related concepts

v
t
e [1]
3D computer graphics software produces computer-generated imagery (CGI) through 3D modeling and 3D
rendering.
Classification
Modeling
3D modeling software is a class of 3D computer graphics software used to produce 3D models. Individual programs
of this class are called modeling applications or modelers.
3D modelers allow users to create and alter models via their 3D mesh. Users can add, subtract, stretch and otherwise
change the mesh to their desire. Models can be viewed from a variety of angles, usually simultaneously. Models can
be rotated and the view can be zoomed in and out.
3D modelers can export their models to files, which can then be imported into other applications as long as the
metadata are compatible. Many modelers allow importers and exporters to be plugged-in, so they can read and write
data in the native formats of other applications.
Most 3D modelers contain a number of related features, such as ray tracers and other rendering alternatives and
texture mapping facilities. Some also contain features that support or allow animation of models. Some may be able
to generate full-motion video of a series of rendered scenes (i.e. animation).
Rendering
Although 3D modeling and CAD software may perform 3D rendering as well (e.g.Autodesk 3ds Max or Blender),
exclusive 3D rendering software also exist.
Computer-aided design
Computer aided design software may employ the same fundamental 3D modeling techniques that 3D modeling
software use but their goal differs. They are used in computer-aided engineering, computer-aided manufacturing,
Finite element analysis, product lifecycle management, 3D printing and Computer-aided architectural design.
10
Complementary tools
After producing video, studios then edit or composite the video using programs such as Adobe Premiere Pro or Final
Cut Pro at the low end, or Autodesk Combustion, Digital Fusion, Shake at the high-end. Match moving software is
commonly used to match live video with computer-generated video, keeping the two in sync as the camera moves.
Use of real-time computer graphics engines to create a cinematic production is called machinima.
References
External links
3D Tools table (http://wiki.cgsociety.org/index.php/Comparison_of_3d_tools) from the CGSociety wiki
Comparison of 10 most popular modeling software (http://tideart.com/?id=4e26f595) from TideArt
3D computer vision
3D computer vision, or human-like computer vision, is the ability of double camera processor powered devices to
acquire a real time picture of the world in three dimensions. It was not possible to achieve such instant speeds of 3D
info capturing using the traditional technology of stereo cameras due to huge resources required to process and
compare/combine images received from two misaligned image sensors.
In 2006 Science Bureau Inc. came up with an idea how to seamlessly
transition from 2D to 3D technology in personal computers and other
mobile devices to enable them to see the world as humans. The idea
behind the invention was quite simple. In order to avoid enormous
processing resources for compensation of misalignment of two image
sensors said image sensors need to be precisely aligned so that the
rows of their sensing elements are parallel to the line connecting their
optical centers. Then the rows can be easily compared on the fly. There
is no further need in powerful image processors what makes the
technology very inexpensive and suitable for its low budget mass
implementation.
The idea was introduced to all major companies playing in the market
of home electronics and computer games back in 2007 but was not
3D Computer Vision System
acquired by any of them. In 2010 US Patent 7,729,530 [1] was issued to
protect the intellectual rights. The same year all kinds of 3D devices
began flooding the market in the North America.
Despite this recent breakthrough in 3D technologies there is still a lack of real time 3D vision computer systems on
the market. There are a few high profile products that are close to achieving instant 3D image reconstruction.
Nevertheless, they are still far from providing real time image and gesture recognition for computer games and
device control. Lets take a closer look at them.
1. Microsofts Kinect for Xbox 360. The product uses the suggested advanced technology in part of having two
image sensors with aligned rows of sensing elements. However, Microsoft utilizes a special source of light
producing a large pattern on surrounding objects to get captured and recognized by the imaging part. Due to
specifics of the pattern the image resolution is very low and the device is only capable of recognizing major body
movements. The device uses low resolution image sensors and still not fast enough to process received images.
3D computer vision
2. Fujis stereo camera. Precisely aligned sensors with high grade optics. Could provide a great 3D real time image
if connected and controlled by computer.
3. Panasonics 3D camcorder. Great idea with mechanically alignable sensors to get 3D video images.
4. HTC has unveiled the EVO 3D, a follow-up to Sprint Nextel's breakout smartphone. It has a 4.3-inch (110mm)
touchscreen, which can display eye-popping 3D without needing glasses. Users will also be able to capture photos
and videos in 3D using a pair of cameras on the back.
5. LG Electronics has been working for a year and half on a 3D smartphone of its own.The Optimus 3D, as it's been
called, will launch on AT&T Mobility's network with the name Thrill 4G. LG developers spent a great deal of
time fine-tuning the pair of 5-megapixel cameras to accurately capture 3D media. Calibrating the cameras to
produce good-looking stills and video is more difficult than pulling off a glasses-free display.
6. Nintendo's 3DS also has a pair of cameras for capturing scenes in 3D, and it works quite well. Being the first out
of the gate to offer a mainstream glasses-free 3D gadget, Nintendo expected to find competitors, and it soon did
when LG announced its phone.
7. Both LG and HTC are planning to debut tablet computers that should be able, like their phones, capture 3D with
a pair of cameras.
It is obvious that all of the above companies are on the right track building their products based on the technology to
align two image sensors as precisely as possible. Therefore, if the technology keeps going in the defined direction,
we are to soon witness computers recognizing and communicating with their users; robots being everywhere and
doing everything from surgeries to driving cars; 3D virtual games with instant Avatar image creation of the players;
3D technologies everywhere from smartphones to TV.
References
[1] http:/ / patft. uspto. gov/ netacgi/ nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1& Sect2=HITOFF& d=PALL& p=1& u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsrchnum.
htm& r=1& f=G& l=50& s1=7729530. PN. & OS=PN/ 7729530& RS=PN/ 7729530
Faugeras, Olivier (1999). Three-dimensional computer vision : a geometric viewpoint (http://mitpress.mit.edu/

catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=8427) (3. print. ed.). Cambridge, Mass. [u.a.]: MIT Press.
ISBN978-0-262-06158-2. Retrieved 21 August 2012.
Trucco, Emanuele; Verri, Alessandro (1998). Introductory techniques for 3-D computer vision. Upper Saddle
River, NJ [u.a.]: Prentice Hall. ISBN9780132611084.
Klette, Reinhard; Schlns, Karsten; Koschan, Andreas (1998). Computer vision : three-dimensional data from
images (http://www.springer.com/computer/ai/book/978-981-3083-71-4). Singapore [u.a.]: Springer.
ISBN978-9813083714. Retrieved 21 August 2012.
External links
"3-D smartphones ditch the glasses, CNN, 03/24/2011" (http://www.cnn.com/2011/TECH/mobile/03/24/3d.
phones.tablets/index.html?hpt=Sbin)
"Finepix Real 3DW1 Stereo Camera by Fuji" (http://www.fujifilm.com/products/3d/camera/
finepix_real3dw1/)
"3D Camcorder by Panasonic" (http://www2.panasonic.com/consumer-electronics/shop/
Cameras-Camcorders/Camcorders/model.HDC-SDT750K_11002_7000000000000005702)
"Kinect Xbox 360" (http://www.xbox.com/en-ca/kinect/?WT.srch=1)
"United States Patent and Trademark Office: US Patent 7,729,530" (http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/
nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=/netahtml/PTO/srchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&
l=50&s1=7729530.PN.&OS=PN/7729530&RS=PN/7729530)
11

3D data acquisition and reconstruction is the generation of three dimensional or spatiotemporal models from
sensor data. The techniques and theories, generally speaking, work with most or all sensor types including optical,
acoustic, laser scanning, radar, thermal, seismic.[1][2]
Acquisition
Acquisition can occur from a multitude of methods including 2D images, acquired sensor data and on site sensors.
Acquisition from 2D images

3D data acquisition and object reconstruction can be performed using stereo image pairs. Stereo photogrammetry or
photogrammetry based on a block of overlapped images is the primary approach for 3D mapping and object
reconstruction using 2D images. Close-range photogrammetry has also matured to the level where cameras or digital
cameras can be used to capture the close-look images of objects, e.g., buildings, and reconstruct them using the very
same theory as the aerial photogrammetry. An example of software which could do this is Vexcel FotoG 5.[3][4] This
software has now been replaced by Vexcel GeoSynth.[5] Another similar software program is Microsoft
Photosynth.[6][7]
A semi-automatic method for acquiring 3D topologically structured data from 2D aerial stereo images has been
presented by Sisi Zlatanova. The process involves the manual digitizing of a number of points necessary for
automatically reconstructing the 3D objects. Each reconstructed object is validated by superimposition of its wire
frame graphics in the stereo model. The topologically structured 3D data is stored in a database and are also used for
visualization of the objects. Software used for 3D data acquisition using 2D images include e.g. ENSAIS
Engineering College TIPHON (Traitement d'Image et PHOtogrammtrie Numrique).[8] CyberCity 3D Modeler,
ORPHEUS, ...
A method for semi-automatic building extraction together with a concept for storing building models alongside
terrain and other topographic data in a topographical information system has been developed by Franz Rottensteiner.
His approach was based on the integration of building parameter estimations into the photogrammetry process
applying a hybrid modeling scheme. Buildings are decomposed into a set of simple primitives that are reconstructed
individually and are then combined by Boolean operators. The internal data structure of both the primitives and the
compound building models are based on the boundary representation methods[9][10]
Multiple images are used in Zeng's approach to surface reconstruction from multiple images. A central idea is to
explore the integration of both 3D stereo data and 2D calibrated images. This approach is motivated by the fact that
only robust and accurate feature points that survived the geometry scrutiny of multiple images are reconstructed in
space. The density insufficiency and the inevitable holes in the stereo data should then be filled in by using
information from multiple images. The idea is thus to first construct small surface patches from stereo points, then to
progressively propagate only reliable patches in their neighborhood from images into the whole surface using a
best-first strategy. The problem thus reduces to searching for an optimal local surface patch going through a given
set of stereo points from images.
Multi-spectral images are also used for 3D building detection. The first and last pulse data and the normalized
difference vegetation index are used in the process.[11]
New measurement techniques are also employed to obtain measurements of and between objects from single images
by using the projection, or the shadow as well as their combination. This technology is gaining attention given its
fast processing time, and far lower cost than stereo measurements. GeoTango SilverEye technology is the first of this
kind commercial product that can produce very realistic city models and buildings from single satellite and aerial
images.
12
Acquisition from acquired sensor data

Semi-Automatic building extraction from LIDAR Data and High-Resolution Images is also a possibility. Again, this
approach allows modelling without physically moving towards the location or object.[12] From airborne LIDAR data,
digital surface model (DSM) can be generated and then the objects higher than the ground are automatically detected
from the DSM. Based on general knowledge about buildings, geometric characteristics such as size, height and shape
information are then used to separate the buildings from other objects. The extracted building outlines are then
simplified using an orthogonal algorithm to obtain better cartographic quality. Watershed analysis can be conducted
to extract the ridgelines of building roofs. The ridgelines as well as slope information are used to classify the
buildings per type. The buildings are then reconstructed using three parametric building models (flat, gabled,
hipped).[13]
Acquisition from on-site sensors

LIDAR and other terrestrial laser scanning technology[14] offers the fastest, automated way to collect height or
distance information. LIDAR or laser for height measurement of buildings is becoming very promising.[15]
Commercial applications of both airborne LIDAR and ground laser scanning technology have proven to be fast and
accurate methods for building height extraction. The building extraction task is needed to determine building
locations, ground elevation, orientations, building size, rooftop heights, etc. Most buildings are described to
sufficient details in terms of general polyhedra, i.e., their boundaries can be represented by a set of planar surfaces
and straight lines. Further processing such as expressing building footprints as polygons is used for data storing in
GIS databases.
Using laser scans and images taken from ground level and a bird's-eye perspective, Fruh and Zakhor present an
approach to automatically create textured 3D city models. This approach involves registering and merging the
detailed facade models with a complementary airborne model. The airborne modeling process generates a half-meter
resolution model with a bird's-eye view of the entire area, containing terrain profile and building tops. Ground-based
modeling process results in a detailed model of the building facades.Using the DSM obtained from airborne laser
scans, they localize the acquisition vehicle and register the ground-based facades to the airborne model by means of
Monte Carlo localization (MCL). Finally, the two models are merged with different resolutions to obtain a 3D
model.
Using an airborne laser altimeter, Haala, Brenner and Anders combined height data with the existing ground plans of
buildings. The ground plans of buildings had already been acquired either in analog form by maps and plans or
digitally in a 2D GIS. The project was done in order to enable an automatic data capture by the integration of these
different types of information. Afterwards virtual reality city models are generated in the project by texture
processing, e.g. by mapping of terrestrial images. The project demonstrated the feasibility of rapid acquisition of 3D
urban GIS. Ground plans proved are another very important source of information for 3D building reconstruction.
Compared to results of automatic procedures, these ground plans proved more reliable since they contain aggregated
information which has been made explicit by human interpretation. For this reason, ground plans, can considerably
reduce costs in a reconstruction project. An example of existing ground plan data usable in building reconstruction is
the Digital Cadastral map, which provides information on the distribution of property, including the borders of all
agricultural areas and the ground plans of existing buildings. Additionally information as street names and the usage
of buildings (e.g. garage, residential building, office block, industrial building, church) is provided in the form of text
symbols. At the moment the Digital Cadastral map is build up as a data base covering an area, mainly composed by
digitizing preexisting maps or plans.
13
Software
Software used for airborne laser scanning includes OPALS (Orientation and Processing of Airborne Laser Scanning
data), ...[16]
Cost
Terrestric laserscandevices (pulse or phase devices) + processing software generally start at a price of 150,000 .
Some less precise devices (as the Trimble VX) cost around 75,000.
Terrestric LIDAR systems cost around 300,000 .
Systems using regular still cameras mounted on RC helicopters (Photogrammetry) are also possible, and cost
around 25,000. Systems that use still cameras with balloons are even cheaper (around 2,500 ), but require
additional manual processing. As the manual processing takes around 1 month of labor for every day of taking
pictures, this is thus also still an expensive solution in the long run.
Obtaining satellite images is also an expensive endeavor. High resolution stereo images (0.5 m resolution) cost
around 11,000. Image satellites include Quikbird, Ikonos. High resolution monoscopic images cost around
5,500. Somewhat lower resolution images (e.g. from the CORONA satellite; with a 2m resolution) cost around
1.000 per 2 images. Note that Google Earth images are too low in resolution to make an accurate 3D model.[17]
Object reconstruction
After the data has been collected, the acquired (and sometimes already processed) data from images or sensors needs
to be reconstructed. This may be done in the same program or in some cases, the 3D data needs to be exported and
imported into another program for further refining, and/or to add additional data. Such additional data could be
gps-location data, ... Also, after the reconstruction, the data might be directly implemented into a local (GIS)
map[18][19] or a worldwide map such as Google Earth.
Software
Several software packets are used in which the acquired (and sometimes already processed) data from images or
sensors is imported. The software packets include[20] (in alphabetical order) :
3DF Zephyr
Canoma
Cyclone
Leica Photogrammetry Suite
MountainsMap SEM (microscopy applications only)
Neitra 3D pro
Orthoware
PhotoModeler
SketchUp
Smart3Dcapture (acute3D)
Rhinophoto
14
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
Seismic 3D data acquisition (http:/ / www. georgedreher. com/ 3D_Seismic. html)

Optical and laser remote sensing (http:/ / www. lr. tudelft. nl/ live/ pagina. jsp?id=17783744-e048-4707-a38a-b3b9e2574d03& lang=en)
Vexcel FotoG (http:/ / www. highbeam. com/ doc/ 1G1-88825431. html)
3D data acquisition (http:/ / www. directionsmag. com/ article. php?article_id=628)
Vexcel GeoSynth (http:/ / www. vexcel. com/ geospatial/ geosynth/ index. asp)
Photosynth (http:/ / photosynth. net/ about. aspx)
3D data acquisition and object reconstruction using photos (http:/ / grail. cs. washington. edu/ rome/ )
3D data acquisition and modeling in a Topographic Information System (http:/ / www. ifp. uni-stuttgart. de/ publications/ commIV/
koehl2neu. pdf)
[9] Franz Rottensteiner article (http:/ / www. commission3. isprs. org/ pia/ papers/ pia03_s2p1. pdf)
[10] Semi-automatic extraction of buildings based on hybrid adjustment using 3D surface models and management of building data in a TIS by
F. Rottensteiner
[11] Multi-spectral images for 3D building detection (http:/ / www. cmis. csiro. au/ Hugues. Talbot/ dicta2003/ cdrom/ pdf/ 0673. pdf)
[12] Semi-Automatic building extraction from LIDAR Data and High-Resolution Image (http:/ / www. gisdevelopment. net/ application/ urban/
products/ mi08_226. htm)
[13] Building extraction from airborne LIDAR data (http:/ / www. icrest. missouri. edu/ Projects/ NASA/ FeatureExtraction-Buildings/ Building
Extraction)
[14] Terrestrial laser scanning (http:/ / geoweb. ugent. be/ 3dda/ areas/ )
[15] Terrestrial laser scanning project (http:/ / www. ifp. uni-stuttgart. de/ publications/ 1998/ ohio_laser. pdf)
[16] OPALS (http:/ / www. ipf. tuwien. ac. at/ opals/ opals_docu/ index. php)
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
Ghent University, Department of Geography

Implementing data to GIS map (http:/ / www. geo. tudelft. nl/ frs/ papers/ 2001/ ildi_manchester. pdf)
3D data implementation to GIS maps (http:/ / www. itc. nl/ personal/ vosselman/ papers/ suveg2001. bmvc. pdf)
Reconstruction software (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ v48q80865254jl08/ )
3D reconstruction
In computer vision and computer graphics, 3D reconstruction is the
process of capturing the shape and appearance of real objects. This
process can be accomplished either by active or passive methods. If the
model is allowed to change its shape in time, this is referred to as
non-rigid or spatio-temporal reconstruction.
Active methods
3D reconstruction of the general anatomy of the
These methods actively interfere with the reconstructed object, either
right side view of a small marine slug Pseudunela
mechanically or radiometrically. A simple example of a mechanical
viatoris.
method would use a depth gauge to measure a distance to a rotating
object put on a turntable. More applicable radiometric methods emit
radiance towards the object and then measure its reflected part. Examples range from moving light sources, colored
visible light, time-of-flight lasers to microwaves or ultrasound. See 3D scanning for more details.
15
3D reconstruction
Passive methods
Passive methods of 3D reconstruction do not interfere with the reconstructed object, they only use a sensor to
measure the radiance reflected or emitted by the object's surface to infer its 3D structure. Typically, the sensor is an
image sensor in a camera sensitive to visible light and the input to the method is a set of digital images (one, two or
more) or video. In this case we talk about image-based reconstruction and the output is a 3D model.
External links
3D Reconstruction from Multiple Images [1]
References
[1] http:/ / homepages. inf. ed. ac. uk/ rbf/ CVonline/ LOCAL_COPIES/ MOHR_TRIGGS/ node51. html

In computer science, binary space partitioning (BSP) is a method for recursively subdividing a space into convex
sets by hyperplanes. This subdivision gives rise to a representation of objects within the space by means of a tree
data structure known as a BSP tree.
Binary space partitioning was developed in the context of 3D computer graphics, where the structure of a BSP tree
allows spatial information about the objects in a scene that is useful in rendering, such as their ordering from
front-to-back with respect to a viewer at a given location, to be accessed rapidly. Other applications include
performing geometrical operations with shapes (constructive solid geometry) in CAD, collision detection in robotics
and 3-D video games, ray tracing and other computer applications that involve handling of complex spatial scenes.
Overview
Binary space partitioning is a generic process of recursively dividing a scene into two until the partitioning satisfies
one or more requirements. It can be seen as a generalisation of other spatial tree structures such as k-d trees and
quadtrees, one where hyperplanes that partition the space may have any orientation, rather than being aligned with
the coordinate axes as they are in k-d trees or quadtrees. When used in computer graphics to render scenes composed
of planar polygons, the partitioning planes are frequently (but not always) chosen to coincide with the planes defined
by polygons in the scene.
The specific choice of partitioning plane and criterion for terminating the partitioning process varies depending on
the purpose of the BSP tree. For example, in computer graphics rendering, the scene is divided until each node of the
BSP tree contains only polygons that can render in arbitrary order. When back-face culling is used, each node
therefore contains a convex set of polygons, whereas when rendering double-sided polygons, each node of the BSP
tree contains only polygons in a single plane. In collision detection or ray tracing, a scene may be divided up into
primitives on which collision or ray intersection tests are straightforward.
Binary space partitioning arose from the computer graphics need to rapidly draw three dimensional scenes composed
of polygons. A simple way to draw such scenes is the painter's algorithm, which produces polygons in order of
distance from the viewer, back to front, painting over the background and previous polygons with each closer object.
This approach has two disadvantages: time required to sort polygons in back to front order, and the possibility of
errors in overlapping polygons. Fuchs and co-authors showed that constructing a BSP tree solved both of these
problems by providing a rapid method of sorting polygons with respect to a given viewpoint (linear in the number of
polygons in the scene) and by subdividing overlapping polygons to avoid errors that can occur with the painter's
algorithm. A disadvantage of binary space partitioning is that generating a BSP tree can be time-consuming.
16

Typically, it is therefore performed once on static geometry, as a pre-calculation step, prior to rendering or other
realtime operations on a scene. The expense of constructing a BSP tree makes it difficult and inefficient to directly
implement moving objects into a tree.
BSP trees are often used by 3D video games, particularly first-person shooters and those with indoor environments.
Game engines utilising BSP trees include the Doom engine (probably the earliest game to use a BSP data structure
was Doom), the Quake engine and its descendants. In video games, BSP trees containing the static geometry of a
scene are often used together with a Z-buffer, to correctly merge movable objects such as doors and characters onto
the background scene. While binary space partitioning provides a convenient way to store and retrieve spatial
information about polygons in a scene, it does not solve the problem of visible surface determination.
Generation
The canonical use of a BSP tree is for rendering polygons (that are double-sided, that is, without back-face culling)
with the painter's algorithm. Each polygon is designated with a front side and a back side which could be chosen
arbitrarily and only affects the structure of the tree but not the required result. Such a tree is constructed from an
unsorted list of all the polygons in a scene. The recursive algorithm for construction of a BSP tree from that list of
polygons is:
1. Choose a polygon P from the list.
2. Make a node N in the BSP tree, and add P to the list of polygons at that node.
3. For each other polygon in the list:
1. If that polygon is wholly in front of the plane containing P, move that polygon to the list of nodes in front of
P.
2. If that polygon is wholly behind the plane containing P, move that polygon to the list of nodes behind P.
3. If that polygon is intersected by the plane containing P, split it into two polygons and move them to the
respective lists of polygons behind and in front of P.
4. If that polygon lies in the plane containing P, add it to the list of polygons at node N.
4. Apply this algorithm to the list of polygons in front of P.
5. Apply this algorithm to the list of polygons behind P.
The following diagram illustrates the use of this algorithm in converting a list of lines or polygons into a BSP tree.
At each of the eight steps (i.-viii.), the algorithm above is applied to a list of lines, and one new node is added to the
tree.
Start with a list of lines, (or in 3-D, polygons) making up the scene. In the tree diagrams, lists are denoted
by rounded rectangles and nodes in the BSP tree by circles. In the spatial diagram of the lines, direction
chosen to be the 'front' of a line is denoted by an arrow.
i.
Following the steps of the algorithm above,

1. We choose a line, A, from the list and,...
2. ...add it to a node.
3. We split the remaining lines in the list into those in front of A (i.e. B2, C2, D2), and those behind (B1,
C1, D1).
4. We first process the lines in front of A (in steps iiv),...
5. ...followed by those behind (in steps vivii).
ii.
We now apply the algorithm to the list of lines in front of A (containing B2, C2, D2). We choose a line, B2,
add it to a node and split the rest of the list into those lines that are in front of B2 (D2), and those that are
behind it (C2, D3).
iii.
Choose a line, D2, from the list of lines in front of B2. It is the only line in the list, so after adding it to a
node, nothing further needs to be done.
17
iv.
We are done with the lines in front of B2, so consider the lines behind B2 (C2 and D3). Choose one of
these (C2), add it to a node, and put the other line in the list (D3) into the list of lines in front of C2.
v.
Now look at the list of lines in front of C2. There is only one line (D3), so add this to a node and continue.
vi.
We have now added all of the lines in front of A to the BSP tree, so we now start on the list of lines behind
A. Choosing a line (B1) from this list, we add B1 to a node and split the remainder of the list into lines in
front of B1 (i.e. D1), and lines behind B1 (i.e. C1).
vii.
Processing first the list of lines in front of B1, D1 is the only line in this list, so add this to a node and
continue.
viii. Looking next at the list of lines behind B1, the only line in this list is C1, so add this to a node, and the BSP
tree is complete.
The final number of polygons or lines in a tree is often larger (sometimes much larger) than the original list, since
lines or polygons that cross the partitioning plane must be split into two. It is desirable to minimize this increase, but
also to maintain reasonable balance in the final tree. The choice of which polygon or line is used as a partitioning
plane (in step 1 of the algorithm) is therefore important in creating an efficient BSP tree.
Traversal
A BSP tree is traversed in a linear time, in an order determined by the particular function of the tree. Again using the
example of rendering double-sided polygons using the painter's algorithm, to draw a polygon P correctly requires
that all polygons behind the plane P lies in must be drawn first, then polygon P, then finally the polygons in front of
P. If this drawing order is satisfied for all polygons in a scene, then the entire scene renders in the correct order. This
procedure can be implemented by recursively traversing a BSP tree using the following algorithm. From a given
viewing location V, to render a BSP tree,
1. If the current node is a leaf node, render the polygons at the current node.
2. Otherwise, if the viewing location V is in front of the current node:
1. Render the child BSP tree containing polygons behind the current node
2. Render the polygons at the current node
3. Render the child BSP tree containing polygons in front of the current node
3. Otherwise, if the viewing location V is behind the current node:
2. Render the polygons at the current node
4. Otherwise, the viewing location V must be exactly on the plane associated with the current node. Then:
Applying this algorithm recursively to the BSP tree generated above results in the following steps:
The algorithm is first applied to the root node of the tree, node A. V is in front of node A, so we apply the
algorithm first to the child BSP tree containing polygons behind A
18

This tree has root node B1. V is behind B1 so first we apply the algorithm to the child BSP tree containing
polygons in front of B1:
This tree is just the leaf node D1, so the polygon D1 is rendered.
We then render the polygon B1.
We then apply the algorithm to the child BSP tree containing polygons behind B1:
This tree is just the leaf node C1, so the polygon C1 is rendered.
We then draw the polygons of A
We then apply the algorithm to the child BSP tree containing polygons in front of A
This tree has root node B2. V is behind B2 so first we apply the algorithm to the child BSP tree containing
polygons in front of B2:
We then render the polygon B2.
We then apply the algorithm to the child BSP tree containing polygons behind B2:
This tree has root node C2. V is in front of C2 so first we would apply the algorithm to the child BSP tree
containing polygons behind C2. There is no such tree, however, so we continue.
We render the polygon C2.
We apply the algorithm to the child BSP tree containing polygons in front of C2
The tree is traversed in linear time and renders the polygons in a far-to-near ordering (D1, B1, C1, A, D2, B2, C2,
D3) suitable for the painter's algorithm.
Timeline
1969 Schumacker et al. published a report that described how carefully positioned planes in a virtual environment
could be used to accelerate polygon ordering. The technique made use of depth coherence, which states that a
polygon on the far side of the plane cannot, in any way, obstruct a closer polygon. This was used in flight
simulators made by GE as well as Evans and Sutherland. However, creation of the polygonal data organization
was performed manually by scene designer.
1980 Fuchs et al. extended Schumackers idea to the representation of 3D objects in a virtual environment by
using planes that lie coincident with polygons to recursively partition the 3D space. This provided a fully
automated and algorithmic generation of a hierarchical polygonal data structure known as a Binary Space
Partitioning Tree (BSP Tree). The process took place as an off-line preprocessing step that was performed once
per environment/object. At run-time, the view-dependent visibility ordering was generated by traversing the tree.
1981 Naylor's Ph.D thesis containing a full development of both BSP trees and a graph-theoretic approach using
strongly connected components for pre-computing visibility, as well as the connection between the two methods.
BSP trees as a dimension independent spatial search structure was emphasized, with applications to visible
surface determination. The thesis also included the first empirical data demonstrating that the size of the tree and
the number of new polygons was reasonable (using a model of the Space Shuttle).
1983 Fuchs et al. describe a micro-code implementation of the BSP tree algorithm on an Ikonas frame buffer
system. This was the first demonstration of real-time visible surface determination using BSP trees.
1987 Thibault and Naylor described how arbitrary polyhedra may be represented using a BSP tree as opposed to
the traditional b-rep (boundary representation). This provided a solid representation vs. a surface
based-representation. Set operations on polyhedra were described using a tool, enabling Constructive Solid
Geometry (CSG) in real-time. This was the fore runner of BSP level design using brushes, introduced in the
Quake editor and picked up in the Unreal Editor.
19

1990 Naylor, Amanatides, and Thibault provide an algorithm for merging two BSP trees to form a new BSP tree
from the two original trees. This provides many benefits including: combining moving objects represented by
BSP trees with a static environment (also represented by a BSP tree), very efficient CSG operations on polyhedra,
exact collisions detection in O(log n * log n), and proper ordering of transparent surfaces contained in two
interpenetrating objects (has been used for an x-ray vision effect).
1990 Teller and Squin proposed the offline generation of potentially visible sets to accelerate visible surface
determination in orthogonal 2D environments.
1991 Gordon and Chen [CHEN91] described an efficient method of performing front-to-back rendering from a
BSP tree, rather than the traditional back-to-front approach. They utilised a special data structure to record,
efficiently, parts of the screen that have been drawn, and those yet to be rendered. This algorithm, together with
the description of BSP Trees in the standard computer graphics textbook of the day (Computer Graphics:
Principles and Practice) was used by John Carmack in the making of Doom.
1992 Tellers PhD thesis described the efficient generation of potentially visible sets as a pre-processing step to
acceleration real-time visible surface determination in arbitrary 3D polygonal environments. This was used in
Quake and contributed significantly to that game's performance.
1993 Naylor answers the question of what characterizes a good BSP tree. He used expected case models (rather
than worst case analysis) to mathematically measure the expected cost of searching a tree and used this measure
to build good BSP trees. Intuitively, the tree represents an object in a multi-resolution fashion (more exactly, as a
tree of approximations). Parallels with Huffman codes and probabilistic binary search trees are drawn.
1993 Hayder Radha's PhD thesis described (natural) image representation methods using BSP trees. This includes
the development of an optimal BSP-tree construction framework for any arbitrary input image. This framework is
based on a new image transform, known as the Least-Square-Error (LSE) Partitioning Line (LPE) transform. H.
Radha' thesis also developed an optimal rate-distortion (RD) image compression framework and image
manipulation approaches using BSP trees.
References
Additional references
[NAYLOR90] B. Naylor, J. Amanatides, and W. Thibualt, "Merging BSP Trees Yields Polyhedral Set
Operations", Computer Graphics (Siggraph '90), 24(3), 1990.
[NAYLOR93] B. Naylor, "Constructing Good Partitioning Trees", Graphics Interface (annual Canadian CG
conference) May, 1993.
[CHEN91] S. Chen and D. Gordon. Front-to-Back Display of BSP Trees. (http://cs.haifa.ac.il/~gordon/
ftb-bsp.pdf) IEEE Computer Graphics & Algorithms, pp 7985. September 1991.
[RADHA91] H. Radha, R. Leoonardi, M. Vetterli, and B. Naylor Binary Space Partitioning Tree Representation
of Images, Journal of Visual Communications and Image Processing 1991, vol. 2(3).
[RADHA93] H. Radha, "Efficient Image Representation using Binary Space Partitioning Trees.", Ph.D. Thesis,
Columbia University, 1993.
[RADHA96] H. Radha, M. Vetterli, and R. Leoonardi, Image Compression Using Binary Space Partitioning
Trees, IEEE Transactions on Image Processing, vol. 5, No.12, December 1996, pp.16101624.
[WINTER99] AN INVESTIGATION INTO REAL-TIME 3D POLYGON RENDERING USING BSP TREES.
Andrew Steven Winter. April 1999. available online
Mark de Berg, Marc van Kreveld, Mark Overmars, and Otfried Schwarzkopf (2000). Computational Geometry
(2nd revised ed.). Springer-Verlag. ISBN3-540-65620-0. Section 12: Binary Space Partitions: pp.251265.
Describes a randomized Painter's Algorithm.
20

Christer Ericson: Real-Time Collision Detection (The Morgan Kaufmann Series in Interactive 3-D Technology).
Verlag Morgan Kaufmann, S. 349-382, Jahr 2005, ISBN 1-55860-732-3
External links
BSP trees presentation (http://www.cs.wpi.edu/~matt/courses/cs563/talks/bsp/bsp.html)
Another BSP trees presentation (http://web.archive.org/web/20110719195212/http://www.cc.gatech.edu/
classes/AY2004/cs4451a_fall/bsp.pdf)
A Java applet that demonstrates the process of tree generation (http://symbolcraft.com/graphics/bsp/)
A Master Thesis about BSP generating (http://archive.gamedev.net/archive/reference/programming/features/
bsptree/bsp.pdf)
BSP Trees: Theory and Implementation (http://www.devmaster.net/articles/bsp-trees/)
BSP in 3D space (http://www.euclideanspace.com/threed/solidmodel/spatialdecomposition/bsp/index.htm)

A bounding interval hierarchy (BIH) is a partitioning data structure similar to that of bounding volume hierarchies
or kd-trees. Bounding interval hierarchies can be used in high performance (or real-time) ray tracing and may be
especially useful for dynamic scenes.
The BIH was first presented under the name of SKD-Trees,[1] presented by Ooi et al., and BoxTrees,[2]
independently invented by Zachmann.
Overview
Bounding interval hierarchies (BIH) exhibit many of the properties of both bounding volume hierarchies (BVH) and
kd-trees. Whereas the construction and storage of BIH is comparable to that of BVH, the traversal of BIH resemble
that of kd-trees. Furthermore, BIH are also binary trees just like kd-trees (and in fact their superset, BSP trees).
Finally, BIH are axis-aligned as are its ancestors. Although a more general non-axis-aligned implementation of the
BIH should be possible (similar to the BSP-tree, which uses unaligned planes), it would almost certainly be less
desirable due to decreased numerical stability and an increase in the complexity of ray traversal.
The key feature of the BIH is the storage of 2 planes per node (as opposed to 1 for the kd tree and 6 for an axis
aligned bounding box hierarchy), which allows for overlapping children (just like a BVH), but at the same time
featuring an order on the children along one dimension/axis (as it is the case for kd trees).
It is also possible to just use the BIH data structure for the construction phase but traverse the tree in a way a
traditional axis aligned bounding box hierarchy does. This enables some simple speed up optimizations for large ray
bundles [3] while keeping memory/cache usage low.
Some general attributes of bounding interval hierarchies (and techniques related to BIH) as described by [4] are:
Very fast construction times

Low memory footprint
Simple and fast traversal
Very simple construction and traversal algorithms
High numerical precision during construction and traversal
Flatter tree structure (decreased tree depth) compared to kd-trees
21
Operations
Construction
To construct any space partitioning structure some form of heuristic is commonly used. For this the surface area
heuristic, commonly used with many partitioning schemes, is a possible candidate. Another, more simplistic
heuristic is the "global" heuristic described by which only requires an axis-aligned bounding box, rather than the full
set of primitives, making it much more suitable for a fast construction.
The general construction scheme for a BIH:
calculate the scene bounding box
use a heuristic to choose one axis and a split plane candidate perpendicular to this axis
sort the objects to the left or right child (exclusively) depending on the bounding box of the object (note that
objects intersecting the split plane may either be sorted by its overlap with the child volumes or any other
heuristic)
calculate the maximum bounding value of all objects on the left and the minimum bounding value of those on the
right for that axis (can be combined with previous step for some heuristics)
store these 2 values along with 2 bits encoding the split axis in a new node
continue with step 2 for the children
Potential heuristics for the split plane candidate search:
Classical: pick the longest axis and the middle of the node bounding box on that axis
Classical: pick the longest axis and a split plane through the median of the objects (results in a leftist tree which is
often unfortunate for ray tracing though)
Global heuristic: pick the split plane based on a global criterion, in the form of a regular grid (avoids unnecessary
splits and keeps node volumes as cubic as possible)
Surface area heuristic: calculate the surface area and amount of objects for both children, over the set of all
possible split plane candidates, then choose the one with the lowest costs (claimed to be optimal, though the cost
function poses unusual demands to proof the formula, which can not be fulfilled in real life. also an exceptionally
slow heuristic to evaluate)
Ray traversal
The traversal phase closely resembles a kd-tree traversal: One has to distinguish 4 simple cases, where the ray
just intersects the left child

just intersects the right child
intersects both children
intersects neither child (the only case not possible in a kd traversal)
For the third case, depending on the ray direction (negative or positive) of the component (x, y or z) equalling the
split axis of the current node, the traversal continues first with the left (positive direction) or the right (negative
direction) child and the other one is pushed onto a stack.
Traversal continues until a leaf node is found. After intersecting the objects in the leaf, the next element is popped
from the stack. If the stack is empty, the nearest intersection of all pierced leafs is returned.
It is also possible to add a 5th traversal case, but which also requires a slightly complicated construction phase. By
swapping the meanings of the left and right plane of a node, it is possible to cut off empty space on both sides of a
node. This requires an additional bit that must be stored in the node to detect this special case during traversal.
Handling this case during the traversal phase is simple, as the ray
just intersects the only child of the current node or
intersects nothing
22
Properties
Numerical stability
All operations during the hierarchy construction/sorting of the triangles are min/max-operations and comparisons.
Thus no triangle clipping has to be done as it is the case with kd-trees and which can become a problem for triangles
that just slightly intersect a node. Even if the kd implementation is carefully written, numerical errors can result in a
non-detected intersection and thus rendering errors (holes in the geometry) due to the missed ray-object intersection.
Extensions
Instead of using two planes per node to separate geometry, it is also possible to use any number of planes to create a
n-ary BIH or use multiple planes in a standard binary BIH (one and four planes per node were already proposed in
and then properly evaluated in [5]) to achieve better object separation.
References
Papers
[1] Nam, Beomseok; Sussman, Alan. A comparative study of spatial indexing techniques for multidimensional scientific datasets (http:/ /
ieeexplore. ieee. org/ Xplore/ login. jsp?url=/ iel5/ 9176/ 29111/ 01311209. pdf)
[2] Zachmann, Gabriel. Minimal Hierarchical Collision Detection (http:/ / zach. in. tu-clausthal. de/ papers/ vrst02. html)
[3] Wald, Ingo; Boulos, Solomon; Shirley, Peter (2007). Ray Tracing Deformable Scenes using Dynamic Bounding Volume Hierarchies (http:/ /
www. sci. utah. edu/ ~wald/ Publications/ 2007/ / / BVH/ download/ / togbvh. pdf)
[4] Wchter, Carsten; Keller, Alexander (2006). Instant Ray Tracing: The Bounding Interval Hierarchy (http:/ / ainc. de/ Research/ BIH. pdf)
[5] Wchter, Carsten (2008). Quasi-Monte Carlo Light Transport Simulation by Efficient Ray Tracing (http:/ / vts. uni-ulm. de/ query/ longview.
meta. asp?document_id=6265)
External links
BIH implementations: Javascript (http://github.com/imbcmdth/jsBIH).
23
Bounding volume
24
Bounding volume
For building code compliance, see Bounding.
In computer graphics and computational geometry, a bounding
volume for a set of objects is a closed volume that completely contains
the union of the objects in the set. Bounding volumes are used to
improve the efficiency of geometrical operations by using simple
volumes to contain more complex objects. Normally, simpler volumes
have simpler ways to test for overlap.
A bounding volume for a set of objects is also a bounding volume for
the single object consisting of their union, and the other way around.
Therefore it is possible to confine the description to the case of a single
object, which is assumed to be non-empty and bounded (finite).
A three dimensional model with its bounding box
drawn in dashed lines.
Uses of bounding volumes

Bounding volumes are most often used to accelerate certain kinds of tests.
In ray tracing, bounding volumes are used in ray-intersection tests, and in many rendering algorithms, they are used
for viewing frustum tests. If the ray or viewing frustum does not intersect the bounding volume, it cannot intersect
the object contained in the volume. These intersection tests produce a list of objects that must be displayed. Here,
displayed means rendered or rasterized.
In collision detection, when two bounding volumes do not intersect, then the contained objects cannot collide, either.
Testing against a bounding volume is typically much faster than testing against the object itself, because of the
bounding volume's simpler geometry. This is because an 'object' is typically composed of polygons or data structures
that are reduced to polygonal approximations. In either case, it is computationally wasteful to test each polygon
against the view volume if the object is not visible. (Onscreen objects must be 'clipped' to the screen, regardless of
whether their surfaces are actually visible.)
To obtain bounding volumes of complex objects, a common way is to break the objects/scene down using a scene
graph or more specifically bounding volume hierarchies like e.g. OBB trees. The basic idea behind this is to organize
a scene in a tree-like structure where the root comprises the whole scene and each leaf contains a smaller subpart.
Common types of bounding volume

The choice of the type of bounding volume for a given application is determined by a variety of factors: the
computational cost of computing a bounding volume for an object, the cost of updating it in applications in which
the objects can move or change shape or size, the cost of determining intersections, and the desired precision of the
intersection test. The precision of the intersection test is related to the amount of space within the bounding volume
not associated with the bounded object, called void space. Sophisticated bounding volumes generally allow for less
void space but are more computationally expensive. It is common to use several types in conjunction, such as a
cheap one for a quick but rough test in conjunction with a more precise but also more expensive type.
The types treated here all give convex bounding volumes. If the object being bounded is known to be convex, this is
not a restriction. If non-convex bounding volumes are required, an approach is to represent them as a union of a
number of convex bounding volumes. Unfortunately, intersection tests become quickly more expensive as the
Bounding volume
bounding boxes become more sophisticated.
A bounding box is a cuboid, or in 2-D a rectangle, containing the object. In dynamical simulation, bounding boxes
are preferred to other shapes of bounding volume such as bounding spheres or cylinders for objects that are roughly
cuboid in shape when the intersection test needs to be fairly accurate. The benefit is obvious, for example, for objects
that rest upon other, such as a car resting on the ground: a bounding sphere would show the car as possibly
intersecting with the ground, which then would need to be rejected by a more expensive test of the actual model of
the car; a bounding box immediately shows the car as not intersecting with the ground, saving the more expensive
test.
A bounding capsule is a swept sphere (i.e. the volume that a sphere takes as it moves along a straight line segment)
containing the object. Capsules can be represented by the radius of the swept sphere and the segment that the sphere
is swept across). It has traits similar to a cylinder, but is easier to use, because the intersection test is simpler. A
capsule and another object intersect if the distance between the capsule's defining segment and some feature of the
other object is smaller than the capsule's radius. For example, two capsules intersect if the distance between the
capsules' segments is smaller than the sum of their radii. This holds for arbitrarily rotated capsules, which is why
they're more appealing than cylinders in practice.
A bounding cylinder is a cylinder containing the object. In most applications the axis of the cylinder is aligned with
the vertical direction of the scene. Cylinders are appropriate for 3-D objects that can only rotate about a vertical axis
but not about other axes, and are otherwise constrained to move by translation only. Two vertical-axis-aligned
cylinders intersect when, simultaneously, their projections on the vertical axis intersect which are two line
segments as well their projections on the horizontal plane two circular disks. Both are easy to test. In video
games, bounding cylinders are often used as bounding volumes for people standing upright.
A bounding ellipsoid is an ellipsoid containing the object. Ellipsoids usually provide tighter fitting than a sphere.
Intersections with ellipsoids are done by scaling the other object along the principal axes of the ellipsoid by an
amount equal to the multiplicative inverse of the radii of the ellipsoid, thus reducing the problem to intersecting the
scaled object with a unit sphere. Care should be taken to avoid problems if the applied scaling introduces skew.
Skew can make the usage of ellipsoids impractical in certain cases, for example collision between two arbitrary
ellipsoids.
A bounding slab is related to the AABB and used to speed up ray tracing[1]
A bounding sphere is a sphere containing the object. In 2-D graphics, this is a circle. Bounding spheres are
represented by centre and radius. They are very quick to test for collision with each other: two spheres intersect
when the distance between their centres does not exceed the sum of their radii. This makes bounding spheres
appropriate for objects that can move in any number of dimensions.
In many applications the bounding box is aligned with the axes of the co-ordinate system, and it is then known as an
axis-aligned bounding box (AABB). To distinguish the general case from an AABB, an arbitrary bounding box is
sometimes called an oriented bounding box (OBB). AABBs are much simpler to test for intersection than OBBs,
but have the disadvantage that when the model is rotated they cannot be simply rotated with it, but need to be
recomputed.
A bounding triangle in 2-D is quite useful to speedup the clipping or visibility test of a B-Spline curve. See "Circle
and B-Splines clipping algorithms" under the subject Clipping (computer graphics) for an example of use.
A convex hull is the smallest convex volume containing the object. If the object is the union of a finite set of points,
its convex hull is a polytope.
A discrete oriented polytope (DOP) generalizes the AABB. A DOP is a convex polytope containing the object (in
2-D a polygon; in 3-D a polyhedron), constructed by taking a number of suitably oriented planes at infinity and
moving them until they collide with the object. The DOP is then the convex polytope resulting from intersection of
the half-spaces bounded by the planes. Popular choices for constructing DOPs in 3-D graphics include the
25
Bounding volume
26
axis-aligned bounding box, made from 6 axis-aligned planes, and the beveled bounding box, made from 10 (if
beveled only on vertical edges, say), 18 (if beveled on all edges), or 26 planes (if beveled on all edges and corners).
A DOP constructed from k planes is called a k-DOP; the actual number of faces can be less than k, since some can
become degenerate, shrunk to an edge or a vertex.
A minimum bounding rectangle or MBR the least AABB in 2-D is frequently used in the description of
geographic (or "geospatial") data items, serving as a simplified proxy for a dataset's spatial extent (see geospatial
metadata) for the purpose of data search (including spatial queries as applicable) and display. It is also a basic
component of the R-tree method of spatial indexing.
Basic intersection checks

For some types of bounding volume (OBB and convex polyhedra), an effective check is that of the separating axis
theorem. The idea here is that, if there exists an axis by which the objects do not overlap, then the objects do not
intersect. Usually the axes checked are those of the basic axes for the volumes (the unit axes in the case of an AABB,
or the 3 base axes from each OBB in the case of OBBs). Often, this is followed by also checking the cross-products
of the previous axes (one axis from each object).
In the case of an AABB, this tests becomes a simple set of overlap tests in terms of the unit axes. For an AABB
defined by M,N against one defined by O,P they do not intersect if (Mx>Px) or (Ox>Nx) or (My>Py) or (Oy>Ny) or
(Mz>Pz) or (Oz>Nz).
An AABB can also be projected along an axis, for example, if it has edges of length L and is centered at C, and is
being projected along the axis N:
, and
or
, and
where m and n are the minimum and maximum extents.
An OBB is similar in this respect, but is slightly more complicated. For an OBB with L and C as above, and with I, J,
and K as the OBB's base axes, then:
For the ranges m,n and o,p it can be said that they do not intersect if m>p or o>n. Thus, by projecting the ranges of 2
OBBs along the I, J, and K axes of each OBB, and checking for non-intersection, it is possible to detect
non-intersection. By additionally checking along the cross products of these axes (I0I1, I0J1, ...) one can be more
certain that intersection is impossible.
This concept of determining non-intersection via use of axis projection also extends to convex polyhedra, however
with the normals of each polyhedral face being used instead of the base axes, and with the extents being based on the
minimum and maximum dot products of each vertex against the axes. Note that this description assumes the checks
are being done in world space.
References
[1] POV-Ray Documentation (http:/ / www. povray. org/ documentation/ view/ 3. 6. 1/ 323/ )
External links
Illustration of several DOPs for the same model, from epicgames.com (http://udn.epicgames.com/Two/rsrc/
Two/CollisionTutorial/kdop_sizes.jpg)

A bounding volume hierarchy
(BVH) is a tree structure on a set of
geometric objects. All geometric
objects are wrapped in bounding
volumes that form the leaf nodes of the
tree. These nodes are then grouped as
small sets and enclosed within larger
An example of a bounding volume hierarchy using rectangles as bounding volumes.
bounding volumes. These, in turn, are
also grouped and enclosed within other
larger bounding volumes in a recursive fashion, eventually resulting in a tree structure with a single bounding
volume at the top of the tree. Bounding volume hierarchies are used to support several operations on sets of
geometric objects efficiently, such as in collision detection[1] or ray tracing
Although wrapping objects in bounding volumes and performing collision tests on them before testing the object
geometry itself simplifies the tests and can result in significant performance improvements, the same number of
pairwise tests between bounding volumes are still being performed. By arranging the bounding volumes into a
bounding volume hierarchy, the time complexity (the number of tests performed) can be reduced to logarithmic in
the number of objects. With such a hierarchy in place, during collision testing, children do not have to be examined
if their parent volumes are not intersected.
BVH design issues

The choice of bounding volume is determined by a trade-off between two objectives. On the one hand, we would
like to use bounding volumes that have a very simple shape. Thus, we need only a few bytes to store them, and
intersection tests and distance computations are simple and fast. On the other hand, we would like to have bounding
volumes that fit the corresponding data objects very tightly. One of the most commonly used bounding volumes is an
axis-aligned minimum bounding box. The axis-aligned minimum bounding box for a given set of data objects is easy
to compute, needs only few bytes of storage, and robust intersection tests are easy to implement and extremely fast.
There are several desired properties for a BVH that should be taken into consideration when designing one for a
specific application:[2]
The nodes contained in any given sub-tree should be near each other. The lower down the tree, the nearer the
nodes should be to each other.
Each node in the BVH should be of minimum volume.
The sum of all bounding volumes should be minimal.
Greater attention should be paid to nodes near the root of the BVH. Pruning a node near the root of the tree
removes more objects from further consideration.
The volume of overlap of sibling nodes should be minimal.
The BVH should be balanced with respect to both its node structure and its content. Balancing allows as much of
the BVH as possible to be pruned whenever a branch is not traversed into.
In terms of the structure of BVH, it has to be decided what degree (the number of children) and height to use in the
tree representing the BVH. A tree of a low degree will be of greater height. That increases root-to-leaf traversal time.
On the other hand, less work has to be expended at each visited node to check its children for overlap. The opposite
holds for a high-degree tree: although the tree will be of smaller height, more work is spent at each node. In practice,
binary trees (degree = 2) are by far the most common. One of the main reasons is that binary trees are easier to build.
27
Construction
There are three primary categories of tree construction methods: top-down, bottom-up, and insertion methods.
Top-down methods proceed by partitioning the input set into two (or more) subsets, bounding them in the chosen
bounding volume, then keep partitioning (and bounding) recursively until each subset consists of only a single
primitive (leaf nodes are reached). Top-down methods are easy to implement, fast to construct and by far the most
popular, but do not result in the best possible trees in general. Bottom-up methods start with the input set as the
leaves of the tree and then group two (or more) of them to form a new (internal) node, proceed in the same manner
until everything has been grouped under a single node (the root of the tree). Bottom-up methods are more difficult to
implement, but likely to produce better trees in general. Both top-down and bottom-up methods are considered
off-line methods as they both require all primitives to be available before construction starts. Insertion methods build
the tree by inserting one object at a time, starting from an empty tree. The insertion location should be chosen that
causes the tree to grow as little as possible according to a cost metric. Insertion methods are considered on-line
methods since they do not require all primitives to be available before construction starts and thus allow updates to
be performed at runtime.
Usage
BVHs are often used in ray tracing to eliminate potential intersection candidates within a scene by omitting
geometric objects located in bounding volumes, which are not intersected by the current ray. [3]
References
[1] Herman Johannes Haverkort, Results on geometric networks and data structures, 2004. Chapter 1: Introduction, page 9-10 + 16. Chapter 1
(http:/ / igitur-archive. library. uu. nl/ dissertations/ 2004-0506-101707/ c1. pdf)
[2] Christer Ericson, Real-Time Collision Detection, Page 236237
[3] Johannes Gnther, Stefan Popov, Hans-Peter Seidel and Philipp Slusallek, Realtime Ray Tracing on GPU with BVH-based Packet Traversal
(http:/ / www. mpi-inf. mpg. de/ ~guenther/ BVHonGPU/ )
External links
BVH implementations: Javascript (http://github.com/imbcmdth/jsBVH).
28
Box modeling
Box modeling
Box modeling is a technique in 3D modeling where you take a basic primitive shape (like a box, cylinder or others)
and make the basic shape rough draft of your final model from there you sculpt out your final model. The process
uses various tools and steps that sometimes get repeated again and again until you're done. Despite the fact youre
repeating these steps you will model faster and control the amount of detail you wish to add, slowly building your
model up from ground level of detail to high level.
Subdivision
Subdivision modeling is derived from the idea that as a work is progressed, should the artist want to make his work
appear less sharp, or "blocky", each face would be divided up into smaller, more detailed faces (usually into sets of
four). However, more experienced box modelers manage to create their model without subdividing the faces of the
model. Basically, box modeling is broken down into the very basic concept of polygonal management.
Quads
Quadrilateral faces, commonly named "quads", are the fundamental entity in box modeling. If an artist were to start
with a cube, the artist would have six quad faces to work with before extrusion. While most applications for
three-dimensional art provide abilities for faces up to any size, results are often more predictable and consistent
when working with quads. This is so because if one were to draw an X connecting the corner vertices of a quad, the
surface normal is nearly always the same. We say nearly because, when a quad is something other than a perfect
parallelogram (such as a rhombus or trapezoid), the surface normal would be different. Also, a quad subdivides into
two or four triangles cleanly, making it easier to prepare the model for software that can only handle triangles.
Advantages and disadvantages

Box modeling is a modeling method that is quick and easy to learn. It is also appreciably faster than placing each
point individually. However, it is difficult to add high amounts of detail to models created using this technique
without practice.
References
29
30

The CatmullClark algorithm is a technique used in computer
graphics to create smooth surfaces by subdivision surface modeling. It
was devised by Edwin Catmull and Jim Clark in 1978 as a
generalization of bi-cubic uniform B-spline surfaces to arbitrary
topology. In 2005, Edwin Catmull received an Academy Award for
Technical Achievement together with Tony DeRose and Jos Stam for
their invention and application of subdivision surfaces.
Recursive evaluation
CatmullClark surfaces are defined recursively, using the following
refinement scheme:
Start with a mesh of an arbitrary polyhedron. All the vertices in this
mesh shall be called original points.
For each face, add a face point
Set each face point to be the average of all original points for the
respective face.
First three steps of CatmullClark subdivision of

a cube with subdivision surface below
For each edge, add an edge point.

Set each edge point to be the average of the two neighbouring face points and its two original endpoints.
For each face point, add an edge for every edge of the face, connecting the face point to each edge point for the
face.
For each original point P, take the average F of all n (recently created) face points for faces touching P, and take
the average R of all n edge midpoints for edges touching P, where each edge midpoint is the average of its two
endpoint vertices. Move each original point to the point
This is the barycenter of P, R and F with respective weights (n-3), 2 and 1.
Connect each new Vertex point to the new edge points of all original edges incident on the original vertex.
Define new faces as enclosed by edges
The new mesh will consist only of quadrilaterals, which won't in general be planar. The new mesh will generally
look smoother than the old mesh.
Repeated subdivision results in smoother meshes. It can be shown that the limit surface obtained by this refinement
process is at least
at extraordinary vertices and
everywhere else (when n indicates how many derivatives are
continuous, we speak of
continuity). After one iteration, the number of extraordinary points on the surface
remains constant.
The arbitrary-looking barycenter formula was chosen by Catmull and Clark based on the aesthetic appearance of the
resulting surfaces rather than on a mathematical derivation, although Catmull and Clark do go to great lengths to
rigorously show that the method yields bicubic B-spline surfaces.
Exact evaluation
The limit surface of CatmullClark subdivision surfaces can also be evaluated directly, without any recursive
refinement. This can be accomplished by means of the technique of Jos Stam. This method reformulates the
recursive refinement process into a matrix exponential problem, which can be solved directly by means of matrix
diagonalization.
Software using CatmullClark subdivision surfaces
3ds max
3D-Coat
AC3D
Anim8or
AutoCAD
Blender
Carrara
CATIA (Imagine and Shape)
CGAL
Cheetah3D
Cinema4D
Clara.io
DAZ Studio, 2.0
Gelato
Hammer
Hexagon
Houdini
K-3D
LightWave 3D, version 9
Maya
Metasequoia
modo
Mudbox
PRMan
Realsoft3D
Remo 3D
Shade
Rhinoceros 3D - Grasshopper 3D Plugin - Weaverbird Plugin
Silo
SketchUp - Requires a Plugin.
Softimage XSI
Strata 3D CX
Wings 3D
Zbrush
TopMod
31
References
Cloth modeling
Cloth modeling is the term used for simulating cloth within a computer program; usually in the context of 3D
computer graphics. The main approaches used for this may be classified into three basic types: geometric, physical,
and particle/energy.
Background
Most models of cloth are based on "particles" of mass connected in some manner of mesh. Newtonian Physics is
used to model each particle through the use of a "black box" called a physics engine. This involves using the basic
law of motion (Newton's Second Law):
In all of these models, the goal is to find the position and shape of a piece of fabric using this basic equation and
several other methods.
Geometric methods
Weil pioneered the first of these, the geometric technique, in 1986.[1] His work was focused on approximating the
look of cloth by treating cloth like a collection of cables and using Hyperbolic cosine (catenary) curves. Because of
this, it is not suitable for dynamic models but works very well for stationary or single-frame renders. This technique
creates an underlying shape out of single points; then, it parses through each set of three of these points and maps a
catenary curve to the set. It then takes the lowest out of each overlapping set and uses it for the render.
Physical methods
The second technique treats cloth like a grid work of particles connected to each other by springs. Whereas the
geometric approach accounted for none of the inherent stretch of a woven material, this physical model accounts for
stretch (tension), stiffness, and weight:
s terms are elasticity (by Hooke's Law)

b terms are bending
g terms are gravity (see Acceleration due to gravity)
Now we apply the basic principle of mechanical equilibrium in which all bodies seek lowest energy by
differentiating this equation to find the minimum energy.
32
Cloth modeling
Particle/energy methods
The last method is more complex than the first two. The particle technique takes the physical technique from (f) a
step further and supposes that we have a network of particles interacting directly. That is to say, that rather than
springs, we use the energy interactions of the particles to determine the cloths shape. For this we use an energy
equation that adds onto the following:
The energy of repelling is an artificial element we add to prevent cloth from intersecting itself.
The energy of stretching is governed by Hooke's law as with the Physical Method.
The energy of bending describes the stiffness of the fabric
The energy of trellising describes the shearing of the fabric (distortion within the plane of the fabric)
The energy of gravity is based on acceleration due to gravity
We can also add terms for energy added by any source to this equation, then derive and find minima, which
generalizes our model. This allows us to model cloth behavior under any circumstance, and since we are treating the
cloth as a collection of particles its behavior can be described with the dynamics provided in our physics engine.
References
Cloth Modeling [2]
Notes
[1] Tutorial on Cloth Modeling (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ query?url=http:/ / www. geocities. com/ SiliconValley/ Heights/ 5445/ cloth.
html& date=2009-10-25+ 09:48:40)
[2] http:/ / davis. wpi. edu/ ~matt/ courses/ cloth/
33
COLLADA
34
COLLADA
COLLADA
Filename extension .dae
Internet media type model/vnd.collada+xml
Developed by
Sony Computer Entertainment,

Khronos Group
Initial release
October2004
Latest release
1.5.0 / August2008
Type of format
Extended from
XML
Website
collada.org
[1]
COLLADA (from collaborative design activity) is an interchange file format for interactive 3D applications. It is
managed by the nonprofit technology consortium, the Khronos Group, and has been adopted by ISO as a publicly
available specification, ISO/PAS 17506.
COLLADA defines an open standard XML schema for exchanging digital assets among various graphics software
applications that might otherwise store their assets in incompatible file formats. COLLADA documents that describe
digital assets are XML files, usually identified with a .dae (digital asset exchange) filename extension.
History
Originally created at Sony Computer Entertainment by Rmi Arnaud and Mark C. Barnes, it has since become the
property of the Khronos Group, a member-funded industry consortium, which now shares the copyright with Sony.
The COLLADA schema and specification are freely available from the Khronos Group. The COLLADA DOM uses
the SCEA Shared Source License [2].
Several graphics companies collaborated with Sony from COLLADA's beginnings to create a tool that would be
useful to the widest possible audience, and COLLADA continues to evolve through the efforts of Khronos
contributors. Early collaborators included Alias Systems Corporation, Criterion Software, Autodesk, Inc., and Avid
Technology. DozensWikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers of commercial game studios and game engines
have adopted the standard.
Members of the developer team:
Lilli Thompson[3]
In March 2011, Khronos released[4] the COLLADA Conformance Test Suite (CTS). The suite allows applications
that import and export COLLADA to test against a large suite of examples, ensuring that they conform properly to
the specification. In July 2012, the CTS software was released on GitHub,[5] allowing for community contributions.
ISO/PAS 17506:2012 Industrial automation systems and integration -- COLLADA digital asset schema specification
for 3D visualization of industrial data was published in July 2012.
COLLADA
Software tools
COLLADA was originally intended as an intermediate format for transporting data from one digital content creation
(DCC) tool to another application. Applications exist to support the usage of several DCCs, including:
3ds Max (ColladaMax)

Adobe Photoshop
ArtiosCAD
Blender
Bryce
Carrara
Cheddar Cheese Press (model processor) [6]
Chief Architect Software
Cinema 4D (MAXON)
CityEngine
CityScape
Clara.io
DAZ Studio
E-on Vue 9 xStream
EskoArtwork Studio
FreeCAD
FormZ
GPure
Houdini (Side Effects Software)
iBooks Author
LightWave 3D (v 9.5)
Maya (ColladaMaya)
MeshLab
Mobile Model Viewer (Android) [7]
modo
Okino PolyTrans [8] for bidirectional Collada conversions
OpenRAVE
Poser Pro (v 7.0)
Presagis Creator
Robot Operating System
SAP Visual Enterprise Author
Shade 3D (E Frontier, Mirye)
SketchUp (v 8.0) KMZ file is a zip file containing a KML file, a COLLADA file, and texture images
Softimage|XSI
Strata 3D
rban PAD
Vectorworks
Visual3D Game Development Tool for Collada scene and model viewing, editing, and exporting
Wings 3D
Xcode (v 4.4)
35
COLLADA
Game engines
Although originally intended as an interchange format, many game engines now support COLLADA natively,
including:
Ardor3D
C4 Engine
CryEngine 2
GLGE
Irrlicht Engine
Panda3d
ShiVa
Spring
Torque 3D
Turbulenz
Unity
Unreal Engine
Vanda Engine [9]
Visual3D Game Engine
GamePlay
Applications
Some games and 3D applications have started to support COLLADA:
ArcGIS
Autodesk Infrastructure Modeler
Google Earth (v 4) users can simply drag and drop a COLLADA file on top of the virtual Earth
Maple (software) - 3D plots can be exported as COLLADA
Open Wonderland
OpenSimulator
Mac OS X 10.6's Preview
NASA World Wind
Second Life
TNTmips
SAP Visual Enterprise Author supports import and export .dae files.
Google Sketchup - import .dae files.
Kerbal Space Program - .dae files for 3d model mods.
Libraries
There are several libraries available to read and write COLLADA files under programmatic control:
COLLADA DOM [10] (C++) - The COLLADA DOM is generated at compile-time from the COLLADA schema.
It provides a low-level interface that eliminates the need for hand-written parsing routines, but is limited to
reading and writing only one version of COLLADA, making it difficult to upgrade as new versions are released.
FCollada [11] (C++) - A utility library available from Feeling Software. In contrast to the COLLADA DOM,
Feeling Software's FCollada provides a higher-level interface. FCollada is used in ColladaMaya [12], ColladaMax
[13]
, and several commercial game engines. The development of the open source part was discontinued by Feeling
Software in 2008. The company continues to support its paying customers and licenses with improved versions of
its software.
36
COLLADA
OpenCOLLADA [14] (C++) - The OpenCOLLADA project provides plugins for 3ds Max and Maya and the
sources of utility libraries which were developed for the plugins.
pycollada [15] (Python) - A Python module for creating, editing and loading COLLADA. The library allows the
application to load a COLLADA file and interact with it as a Python object. In addition, it supports creating a
COLLADA Python object from scratch, as well as in-place editing.
Scene Kit [16] (Objective-C) - An Objective-C framework introduced in OS X 10.8 Mountain Lion that allows
reading, high-level manipulation and display of COLLADA scenes.
GLGE (JavaScript) - a JavaScript library presenting COLLADA files in a web browser using WebGL.
Three.js (JavaScript) - a 3D Javascript library capable of loading COLLADA files in a web browser.
StormEngineC (JavaScript) - Javascript 3D graphics library with option of loading COLLADA files.
Physics
As of version 1.4, physics support was added to the COLLADA standard. The goal is to allow content creators to
define various physical attributes in visual scenes. For example, one can define surface material properties such as
friction. Furthermore, content creators can define the physical attributes for the objects in the scene. This is done by
defining the rigid bodies that should be linked to the visual representations. More features include support for
ragdolls, collision volumes, physical constraints between physical objects, and global physical properties such as
gravitation.
Physics middleware products that support this standard include Bullet Physics Library, Open Dynamics Engine, PAL
and NVIDIA's PhysX. These products support by reading the abstract found in the COLLADA file and transferring
it into a form that the middleware can support and represent in a physical simulation. This also enables different
middleware and tools to exchange physics data in a standardized manner.
The Physics Abstraction Layer provides support for COLLADA Physics to multiple physics engines that do not
natively provide COLLADA support including JigLib, OpenTissue, Tokamak physics engine and True Axis. PAL
also provides support for COLLADA to physics engines that also feature a native interface.
Versions
1.0: October 2004

1.2: February 2005
1.3: June 2005
1.4.0: January 2006; added features such as character skinning and morph targets, rigid body dynamics, support
for OpenGL ES materials, and shader effects for multiple shading languages including the Cg programming
language, GLSL, and HLSL. First release through Khronos.
1.4.1: July 2006; primarily a patch release.
1.5.0: August 2008; added kinematics and B-rep as well as some FX redesign and OpenGL ES support.
Formalised as ISO/PAS 17506:2012.
37
COLLADA
References
[1] http:/ / collada. org/
[2] http:/ / research. scea. com/ scea_shared_source_license. html
[3] Building Game Development Tools with App Engine, GWT, and WebGL (http:/ / www. google. com/ events/ io/ 2011/ sessions/
building-game-development-tools-with-app-engine-gwt-and-webgl. html), Google i/o 2011, Lilli Thompson.
[4] http:/ / www. khronos. org/ news/ press/ khronos-group-releases-free-collada-conformance-test-suite
[5] http:/ / www. khronos. org/ news/ permalink/ opencollada-and-collada-cts-now-on-github
[6] http:/ / www. cheddarcheesepress. com/
[7] http:/ / www. mobilemodelviewer. com/
[8] http:/ / www. okino. com/ conv/ exp_collada. htm
[9] http:/ / www. vandaengine. com
[10] http:/ / collada. org/ mediawiki/ index. php/ COLLADA_DOM
[11] http:/ / collada. org/ mediawiki/ index. php/ FCollada
[12] http:/ / collada. org/ mediawiki/ index. php/ ColladaMaya
[13] http:/ / collada. org/ mediawiki/ index. php/ ColladaMax
[14] https:/ / github. com/ khronosGroup/ OpenCOLLADA
[15] http:/ / pycollada. github. com/
[16] http:/ / developer. apple. com/ library/ mac/ documentation/ 3DDrawing/ Conceptual/ SceneKit_PG/ Introduction/ Introduction. html
External links
Official homepage (http://www.khronos.org/collada/)

COLLADA website (http://collada.org/)
COLLADA DOM (http://sourceforge.net/projects/collada-dom/)
OpenCOLLADA Project (https://github.com/khronosGroup/OpenCOLLADA)
pycollada (http://pycollada.github.com/)
GLC_Player (http://sourceforge.net/projects/glc-player/)
Media Grid : News : "Create Once, Experience Everywhere" Format Unveiled for Immersive Education (http://
mediagrid.org/news/2010-11_iED_Create_Once_Experience_Everywhere.html)
38

Computed Corpuscle Sectioning is a general method for determining the volume, profile area, and perimeter of a
slab section of any computer-modeled three-dimensional object in any orientation and at any position. It was
originally developed as a model of cell nuclei in a tissue section in conjunction with the Reference Curve Method for
correcting ploidy measurements by image analysis in a tissue section, but it is useful for evaluating any algorithm
that corrects ploidy measurements for the effect of sectioning. Computed Corpuscle Sectioning has obvious
pertinence to stereology, but has not been exploited in that field. The patents on this method (U.S. Patent numbers
5,918,038, 6,035,258, and 6,603,869) are no longer in force.
References
Freed JA. Possibility of correcting image cytometric DNA (ploidy) measurements in tissue sections: Insights from
computed corpuscle sectioning and the reference curve method. Analyt Quant Cytol Histol 19(5):376-386, 1997.
[1]
Freed JA. Improved correction of quantitative nuclear DNA (ploidy) measurements in tissue sections. Analyt
Quant Cytol Histol 21(2):103-112, 1999.[2]
Freed JA. Conceptual comparison of two computer models of corpuscle sectioning and of two algorithms for
correction of ploidy measurements in tissue sections. Analyt Quant Cytol Histol 22(1): 17-25, 2000. [3]
"A general method for determining the volume and profile area of a sectioned corpuscle", U.S. Pat. No. 5,918,038
issued 6/29/99 to Jeffrey A. Freed. [4]
"Method for correction of quantitative DNA measurements in a tissue section", U.S. Pat. No. 6,035,258 issued
3/7/00 to Jeffrey A. Freed. [5]
Use of perimeter measurements to improve ploidy measurements in a tissue section, U.S. Pat. No. 6,603,869
issued 8/5/03 to Jeffrey A. Freed. [6]
External links
Computed Corpuscle Sectioning and the Reference Curve Method [7]
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
http:/ / www. aqch. com/ toc/ auto_abstract. php?id=3135

http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?q=5918038
http:/ / www. fortunecity. com/ skyscraper/ terabyte/ 562/ jfccs. htm
39

In technical applications of 3D computer
graphics (CAx) such as computer-aided
design and computer-aided manufacturing,
surfaces are one way of representing
objects. The other ways are wireframe (lines
and curves) and solids. Point clouds are also
sometimes used as temporary ways to
represent an object, with the goal of using
the points to create one or more of the three
permanent representations.
Open and closed surfaces

If one considers a local parametrization of a
surface:
then the curves obtained by varying u while

keeping v fixed are sometimes called the u
An open surface with u- and v-flow lines and Z-contours shown.
flow lines. The curves obtained by varying v
while u is fixed are called the v flow lines.
These are generalizations of the x and y lines in the plane and of the meridians and circles of latitude on a sphere.
Open surfaces are not closed in either direction. This means moving in any direction along the surface will cause an
observer to hit the edge of the surface. The top of a car hood is an example of a surface open in both directions.
Surfaces closed in one direction include a cylinder, cone, and hemisphere. Depending on the direction of travel, an
observer on the surface may hit a boundary on such a surface or travel forever.
Surfaces closed in both directions include a sphere and a torus. Moving in any direction on such surfaces will cause
the observer to travel forever without hitting an edge.
Places where two boundaries overlap (except at a point) are called a seam. For example, if one imagines a cylinder
made from a sheet of paper rolled up and taped together at the edges, the boundaries where it is taped together are
called the seam.
Flattening a surface
Some open surfaces and surfaces closed in one direction may be flattened into a plane without deformation of the
surface. For example, a cylinder can be flattened into a rectangular area without distorting the surface distance
between surface features (except for those distances across the split created by opening up the cylinder). A cone may
also be so flattened. Such surfaces are linear in one direction and curved in the other (surfaces linear in both
directions were flat to begin with). Sheet metal surfaces which have flat patterns can be manufactured by stamping
a flat version, then bending them into the proper shape, such as with rollers. This is a relatively inexpensive process.
Other open surfaces and surfaces closed in one direction, and all surfaces closed in both directions, can't be flattened
without deformation. A hemisphere or sphere, for example, can't. Such surfaces are curved in both directions. This is
why maps of the Earth are distorted. The larger the area the map represents, the greater the distortion. Sheet metal
surfaces which lack a flat pattern must be manufactured by stamping using 3D dies (sometimes requiring multiple
40

dies with different draw depths and/or draw directions), which tend to be more expensive.
Surface patches
A surface may be composed of one or more patches, where each patch has its own U-V coordinate system. These
surface patches are analogous to the multiple polynomial arcs used to build a spline. They allow more complex
surfaces to be represented by a series of relatively simple equation sets rather than a single set of complex equations.
Thus, the complexity of operations such as surface intersections can be reduced to a series of patch intersections.
Surfaces closed in one or two directions frequently must also be broken into two or more surface patches by the
software.
Faces
Surfaces and surface patches can only be trimmed at U and V flow lines. To overcome this severe limitation, surface
faces allow a surface to be limited to a series of boundaries projected onto the surface in any orientation, so long as
those boundaries are collectively closed. For example, trimming a cylinder at an angle would require such a surface
face.
A single surface face may span multiple surface patches on a single surface, but can't span multiple surfaces.
Planar faces are similar to surface faces, but are limited by a collectively closed series of boundaries projected to an
infinite plane, instead of a surface.
Skins and volumes

As with surfaces, surface faces closed in one or two directions frequently must also be broken into two or more
surface faces by the software. To combine them back into a single entity, a skin or volume is created. A skin is an
open collection of faces and a volume is a closed set. The constituent faces may have the same support surface or
face or may have different supports.
Transition to solids
Volumes can be filled in to build a solid model (possibly with other volumes subtracted from the interior). Skins and
faces can also be offset to create solids of uniform thickness.
Types of continuity
A surface's patches and the faces built on that surface typically have point continuity (no gaps) and tangent
continuity (no sharp angles). Curvature continuity (no sharp radius changes) may or may not be maintained.
Skins and volumes, however, typically only have point continuity. Sharp angles between faces built on different
supports (planes or surfaces) are common.
Surface visualization / display

Surfaces may be displayed in many ways:
Wireframe mode. In this representation the surface is drawn as a series of lines and curves, without hidden line
removal. The boundaries and flow lines (isoparametric curves) may each be shown as solid or dashed curves. The
advantage of this representation is that a great deal of geometry may be displayed and rotated on the screen with
no delay needed for graphics processing.
41
wireframe
hidden edges
42
wireframe
uv isolines
Faceted mode. In this mode each surface is drawn as a series of planar regions, usually rectangles. Hidden line
removal is typically used with such a representation. Static hidden line removal does not update which lines are
hidden during rotation, but only once the screen is refreshed. Dynamic hidden line removal continuously updates
which curves are hidden during rotations.
Facet wireframe
Facet shaded
Shaded mode. Shading can then be added to the facets, possibly with blending between the regions for a
smoother display. Shading can also be static or dynamic. A lower quality of shading is typically used for dynamic
shading, while high quality shading, with multiple light sources, textures, etc., requires a delay for rendering.
shaded
43
reflection lines
reflected image
CAD/CAM representation of a surface

CAD/CAM systems use primarily two types of surfaces:
Regular (or canonical) surfaces include surfaces of revolution such as cylinders, cones, spheres, and tori, and
ruled surfaces (linear in one direction) such as surfaces of extrusion.
Freeform surfaces (usually NURBS) allow more complex shapes to be represented via freeform surface modeling.
Other surface forms such as facet and voxel are also used in a few specific applications.
CAE/FEA representation of a surface

In computer-aided engineering and finite element analysis, an object may be represented by a surface mesh of node
points connected by triangles or quadrilaterals (polygon mesh). More accurate, but also far more CPU-intensive,
results can be obtained by using a solid mesh. The process of creating a mesh is called tessellation. Once tessellated,
the mesh can be subjected to simulated stresses, strains, temperature differences, etc., to see how those changes
propagate from node point to node point throughout the mesh.
VR/computer animation representation of a surface

In virtual reality and computer animation, an object may also be represented by a surface mesh of node points
connected by triangles or quadrilaterals. If the goal is only to represent the visible portion of an object (and not show
changes to the object) a solid mesh serves no purpose, for this application. The triangles or quadrilaterals can each be
shaded differently depending on their orientation toward the light sources and/or viewer. This will give a rather
faceted appearance, so an additional step is frequently added where the shading of adjacent regions is blended to
provide smooth shading. There are several methods for performing this blending.
External links
3D-XplorMath: Program to visualize many kinds of surfaces in wireframe, patch and anaglyph mode. [1]
References
[1] http:/ / 3d-xplormath. org
44

Constructive solid geometry (CSG) is a
technique used in solid modeling. Constructive
solid geometry allows a modeler to create a
complex surface or object by using Boolean
operators to combine objects. Often CSG presents
a model or surface that appears visually complex,
but is actually little more than cleverly combined
or decombined objects.
In 3D computer graphics and CAD CSG is often
used in procedural modeling. CSG can also be
performed on polygonal meshes, and may or may
not be procedural and/or parametric.
Workings of CSG
The simplest solid objects used for the
representation are called primitives. Typically
Venn diagram created with CSG
they are the objects of simple shape: cuboids,
The source is on the description page.
cylinders, prisms, pyramids, spheres, cones. The
set of allowable primitives is limited by each
software package. Some software packages allow CSG on curved objects while other packages do not.
It is said that an object is constructed from primitives by means of allowable operations, which are typically
Boolean operations on sets: union, intersection and difference.
A primitive can typically be described by a procedure which accepts some number of parameters; for example, a
sphere may be described by the coordinates of its center point, along with a radius value. These primitives can be
combined into compound objects using operations like these:
Union
Merger of two objects into one
Difference
Subtraction of one object from another
Intersection
Portion common to both objects
Combining these elementary operations, it is possible to build up objects with high complexity starting from simple
ones.
Applications of CSG
Constructive solid geometry has a number of
practical uses. It is used in cases where simple
geometric objects are desired, or where
mathematical accuracy is important. The Quake
engine and Unreal engine both use this system, as
does Hammer (the native Source engine level
editor), and Torque Game Engine/Torque Game
Engine Advanced. CSG is popular because a
modeler can use a set of relatively simple objects
to create very complicated geometry. When CSG
is procedural or parametric, the user can revise
their complex geometry by changing the position
of objects or by changing the Boolean operation
used to combine those objects.
One of the advantages of CSG is that it can easily
CSG objects can be represented by binary trees, where leaves represent
assure that objects are "solid" or water-tight if all
primitives, and nodes represent operations. In this figure, the nodes are
of the primitive shapes are water-tight. This can
labeled
for intersection,
for union, and
for difference.
be important for some manufacturing or
engineering computation applications. By comparison, when creating geometry based upon boundary
representations, additional topological data is required, or consistency checks must be performed to assure that the
given boundary description specifies a valid solid object.
A convenient property of CSG shapes is that it is easy to classify arbitrary points as being either inside or outside the
shape created by CSG. The point is simply classified against all the underlying primitives and the resulting boolean
expression is evaluated. This is a desirable quality for some applications such as collision detection.
Applications with CSG support
3Delight
Blender (provides meta objects)
BRL-CAD
Clara.io
NETGEN [1] - an automatic 3d tetrahedral mesh generator. It accepts input from constructive solid geometry
(CSG) or boundary representation (BRep)
Feature Manipulation Engine
FreeCAD
GtkRadiant
HyperFun
OpenSCAD
PhotoRealistic RenderMan
PLaSM - Programming Language of Solid Modeling
POV-Ray
SimpleGeo [2] A solid modeling for particle transport Monte Carlo simulations
SolidWorks mechanical CAD suite
UnBBoolean [3] a Java3D implementation

Vectorworks
45

GiDES++ [4] a gesture-based CSG CAD
Gaming
3D World Studio
UnrealEd
Valve Hammer Editor
Leadwerks [5]
Libraries
Carve CSG [6] - a fast and robust constructive solid geometry library
CSG.js [7] A JavaScript implementation using WebGL
GTS [8] - an Open Source Free Software Library intended to provide a set of useful functions to deal with 3D
surfaces meshed with interconnected triangles
sgCore C++/C# library [9]
External links
Leadwerks Software 'What is Constructive Solid Geometry?' [10] - explanation of CSG definitions, equations,
techniques, and uses.
References
[1] http:/ / sourceforge. net/ projects/ netgen-mesher
[2] http:/ / www. cern. ch/ theis/ simplegeo
[3] http:/ / unbboolean. sourceforge. net/
[4] http:/ / www. inevo. pt/ portfolio/ gides/
[5] http:/ / www. leadwerks. com/
[6] http:/ / code. google. com/ p/ carve/
[7] http:/ / evanw. github. com/ csg. js/
[8] http:/ / gts. sourceforge. net/ index. html
[9] http:/ / www. geometros. com
[10] http:/ / www. leadwerks. com/ files/ csg. pdf
46
Conversion between quaternions and Euler

angles
Spatial rotations in three dimensions can be parametrized using both Euler angles and unit quaternions. This article
explains how to convert between the two representations. Actually this simple use of "quaternions" was first
presented by Euler some seventy years earlier than Hamilton to solve the problem of magic squares. For this reason
the dynamics community commonly refers to quaternions in this application as "Euler parameters".
Definition
A unit quaternion can be described as:
We can associate a quaternion with a rotation around an axis by the following expression
where is a simple rotation angle (the value in radians of the angle of rotation) and cos(x), cos(y) and cos(z) are
the "direction cosines" locating the axis of rotation (Euler's Theorem).
47
48
Rotation matrices
The orthogonal matrix (post-multiplying a
column vector) corresponding to a
clockwise/left-handed rotation by the unit
quaternion
is
given by the inhomogeneous expression:
Euler angles The xyz (fixed) system is shown in blue, the XYZ (rotated) system
is shown in red. The line of nodes, labelled N, is shown in green.
or equivalently, by the homogeneous expression:
If
is not a unit quaternion then the homogeneous form is still a scalar multiple of a rotation
matrix, while the inhomogeneous form is in general no longer an orthogonal matrix. This is why in numerical work
the homogeneous form is to be preferred if distortion is to be avoided.
The direction cosine matrix corresponding to a Body 3-2-1 sequence with Euler angles (, , ) is given by:
49
Conversion
By combining the quaternion representations of the Euler rotations we get for the Body 3-2-1 sequence, where the
airplane first does yaw (body-z) turn during taxing on the runway, then pitches (body-y) during take-off, and finally
rolls (body-x) in the air. The resulting orientation of Body 3-2-1 sequence is equivalent to that of Lab 1-2-3
sequence, where the airplane is rolled first (lab-X axis), and then nosed up around the horizontal lab-Y axis, and
finally rotated around the vertical Lab-Z axis:
Other rotation sequences use different conventions.
Relationship with TaitBryan angles

Similarly for Euler angles, we use the TaitBryan angles (in terms
of flight dynamics):
Roll
Pitch
: rotation about the X-axis

: rotation about the Y-axis
Yaw
: rotation about the Z-axis
where the X-axis points forward, Y-axis to the right and Z-axis
downward and in the example to follow the rotation occurs in the
order yaw, pitch, roll (about body-fixed axes).
Singularities
One must be aware of singularities in the Euler angle
parametrization when the pitch approaches 90 (north/south
pole). These cases must be handled specially. The common name
for this situation is gimbal lock.
TaitBryan angles for an aircraft
Code to handle the singularities is derived on this site:

www.euclideanspace.com [1]
External links
Q60. How do I convert Euler rotation angles to a quaternion? [2] and related questions at The Matrix and
Quaternions FAQ
References
[1] http:/ / www. euclideanspace. com/ maths/ geometry/ rotations/ conversions/ quaternionToEuler/
[2] http:/ / www. j3d. org/ matrix_faq/ matrfaq_latest. html#Q60
Crowd simulation
50
Crowd simulation
Basics
Primary Uses

Related concepts

v
t
e [1]
Crowd simulation is the process of simulating the movement of a large number of entities or characters, now often
appearing in 3D computer graphics for film. While simulating these crowds, observed human behavior interaction is
taken into account, to replicate the collective behavior. It is a method of creating virtual cinematography.
The need for crowd simulation arises when a scene calls for more characters than can be practically animated using
conventional systems, such as skeletons/bones. Simulating crowds offer the advantages of being cost effective as
well as allow for total control of each simulated character or agent.
Animators typically create a library of motions, either for the entire character or for individual body parts. To
simplify processing, these animations are sometimes baked as morphs. Alternatively, the motions can be generated
procedurally - i.e. choreographed automatically by software.
The actual movement and interactions of the crowd is typically done in one of two ways:
Crowd simulation
Particle Motion
The characters are attached to point particles, which are then animated by simulating wind, gravity, attractions, and
collisions. The particle method is usually inexpensive to implement, and can be done in most 3D software packages.
However, the method is not very realistic because it is difficult to direct individual entities when necessary, and
because motion is generally limited to a flat surface.
Crowd AI
The entities - also called agents - are given artificial intelligence, which guides the entities based on one or more
functions, such as sight, hearing, basic emotion, energy level, aggressiveness level, etc. The entities are given goals
and then interact with each other as members of a real crowd would. They are often programmed to respond to
changes in environment, enabling them to climb hills, jump over holes, scale ladders, etc. This system is much more
realistic than particle motion, but is very expensive to program and implement.
The most notable examples of AI simulation can be seen in New Line Cinema's The Lord of the Rings films, where
AI armies of many thousands battle each other. The crowd simulation was done using Weta Digital's Massive
software.
Sociology
Crowd simulation can also refer to simulations based on group dynamics and crowd psychology, often in public
safety planning. In this case, the focus is just the behavior of the crowd, and not the visual realism of the simulation.
Crowds have been studied as a scientific interest since the end of the 19th Century. A lot of research has focused on
the collective social behavior of people at social gatherings, assemblies, protests, rebellions, concerts, sporting events
and religious ceremonies. Gaining insight into natural human behavior under varying types of stressful situations
will allow better models to be created which can be used to develop crowd controlling strategies.
Emergency response teams such as policemen, the National Guard, military and even volunteers must undergo
some type of crowd control training. Using researched principles of human behavior in crowds can give disaster
training designers more elements to incorporate to create realistic simulated disasters. Crowd behavior can be
observed during panic and non-panic conditions. When natural and unnatural events toss social ideals into a twisting
chaotic bind, such as the events of 9/11 and hurricane Katrina, humanitys social capabilities are truly put to the test.
Military programs are looking more towards simulated training, involving emergency responses, due to their cost
effective technology as well as how effective the learning can be transferred to the real world.[citation needed] Many
events that may start out controlled can have a twisting event that turns them into catastrophic situations, where
decisions need to be made on the spot. It is these situations in which crowd dynamical understanding would play a
vital role in reducing the potential for anarchy.
Modeling techniques of crowds vary from holistic or network approaches to understanding individualistic or
behavioral aspects of each agent. For example the Social Force Model describes a need for individuals to find a
balance between social interaction and physical interaction. An approach that incorporates both aspects, and is able
to adapt depending on the situation, would better describe natural human behavior, always incorporating some
measure of unpredictability. With the use of multi-agent models understanding these complex behaviors has become
a much more comprehensible task. With the use of this type of software, systems can now be tested under extreme
conditions, and simulate conditions over long periods of time in the matter of seconds.
51
Crowd simulation
52
External links
CrowdManagementSimulation.com [1]
CrowdSimulation.org [2], Open discussion forum on crowd simulations
CSG [3], Crowd simulation research.
UNC GAMMA Group [4], Crowd simulation research at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
SteerSuite [5], An open-source framework for developing and evaluating crowd simulation algorithms
Crowd Tracking [6], Crowd tracking research in computer vision
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
http:/ / crowdmanagementsimulation. com

http:/ / crowdsimulation. org/ forum
http:/ / www. crowdsimulationgroup. co. uk
http:/ / gamma. cs. unc. edu/ research/ crowds/
http:/ / steersuite. cse. yorku. ca/
http:/ / www. di. ens. fr/ ~rodrigue/ crowd_tracking. html
Cutaway drawing
A cutaway drawing of a 1942 Nash Ambassador
Part of a series on
Graphical
projection
v
t
e [1]
Cutaway drawing
53
A cutaway drawing, also called a cutaway diagram is a 3D graphics, drawing, diagram and or illustration, in which
surface elements a three-dimensional model are selectively removed, to make internal features visible, but without
sacrificing the outer context entirely.
Overview
According to Diepstraten et al. (2003) "the purpose of a cutaway drawing is to allow the viewer to have a look into
an otherwise solid opaque object. Instead of letting the inner object shine through the surrounding surface, parts of
outside object are simply removed. This produces a visual appearance as if someone had cutout a piece of the object
or sliced it into parts. Cutaway illustrations avoid ambiguities with respect to spatial ordering, provide a sharp
contrast between foreground and background objects, and facilitate a good understanding of spatial ordering".[2]
Though cutaway drawing are not dimensioned manufacturing blueprints, they are meticulously drawn by a handful
of devoted artists who either had access to manufacturing details or deduced them by observing the visible evidence
of the hidden skeleton (e.g. rivet lines, etc.). The goal of this drawings in studies can be to identify common design
patterns for particular vehicle classes. Thus, the accuracy of most of these drawings, while not 100 percent, is
certainly high enough for this purpose.[3]
The technique is used extensively in computer-aided design, see first image. It has also been incorporated into the
user interface of some video games. In The Sims, for instance, users can select through a control panel whether to
view the house they are building with no walls, cutaway walls, or full walls.
History
The cutaway view and the exploded view were minor graphic
inventions of the Renaissance that also clarified pictorial
representation. This cutaway view originates in the early fifteenth
century notebooks of Marino Taccola (1382 1453). In the 16th
century cutaway views in definite form were used in Georgius
Agricola's (1494-1555) mining book De Re Metallica to illustrate
underground operations. [4] The 1556 book is a complete and
systematic treatise on mining and extractive metallurgy, illustrated
with many fine and interesting woodcuts which illustrate every
conceivable process to extract ores from the ground and metal from the
ore, and more besides. It shows the many watermills used in mining,
such as the machine for lifting men and material into and out of a mine
shaft, see image.
An engraving by Georgius Agricola illustrating

the mining practice of fire-setting
The term "Cutaway drawing" was already in use in the 19th century but, became popular in the 1930s.
Cutaway drawing
54
Technique
The location and shape to cut the outside object depends on many different factors, for example:
the sizes and shapes of the inside and outside objects,
the semantics of the objects,
personal taste, etc.
These factors, according to Diepstraten et al. (2003), "can seldom be formalized in a simple algorithm, But the
properties of cutaway can be distinguish in two classes of cutaways of a drawing":
cutout : illustrations were the cutaway is retricted to very simple and regularly shaped of often only a small
number of planar slices into the outside object.
breakaway : a cutaway realized by a single hole in the outside of the object.
Examples
Some more examples of cutaway drawings, from products and systems to architectural building.
A dynamic loudspeaker
Mercury spacecraft.
16"/50 caliber Mark 7 gun
Lake Washington Ship Canal Fish

Ladder
Cutaway of an inkjet printer
Cutaway of a hybrid car
References
[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Views& action=edit
[2] J. Diepstraten, D. Weiskopf & T. Ertl (2003). "Interactive Cutaway Illustrations" (http:/ / www. vis. uni-stuttgart. de/ ~weiskopf/ publications/
eg2003. pdf). in: Eurographics 2003. P. Brunet and D. Fellner (ed). Vol 22 (2003), Nr 3.
[3] Mark D. Sensmeier, and Jamshid A. Samareh (2003). "A Study of Vehicle Structural Layouts in Post-WWII Aircraft" (http:/ / 140. 116. 81.
56/ FS/ NASA-aiaa-2004-1624. pdf) Paper American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
[4] Eugene S. Ferguson (1999). Engineering and the Mind's Eye. p.82.
Demoparty
55
Demoparty
Demoscene
Concepts
Demo
Intro
Demoparty
Effects
Demogroup
Compo
Music disk
Diskmag
Module file
Tracker
Alternative demo platforms
Amiga
Apple IIGS
Atari ST
Commodore 64
Vic-20
Text mode
ZX Spectrum
Current parties
Alternative Party
Assembly
Buenzli
Evoke
The Gathering
Revision
Sundown
X
Past parties
Breakpoint
The Party
Websites
Scene.org
Mod Archive
Software
Demoparty
56
ProTracker
Scream Tracker
Fast Tracker
Impulse Tracker
ModPlug
Renoise
Tracker musicians
Demosceners
v
t
e [1]
A demoparty is an event that gathers demosceners[2] and other computer enthusiasts to compete in competitions.[3]
A typical demoparty is a non-stop event lasting over a weekend, providing the visitors a lot of time to socialize. The
competing works, at least those in the most important competitions, are usually shown at night, using a video
projector and big loudspeakers. The most important competition is usually the demo compo.[4]
Concept
The visitors of a demoparty often bring their own computers to compete and show off their works. To this end, most
parties provide a large hall with tables, electricity and usually a local area network connected to the Internet. In this
respect, many demoparties resemble LAN parties, and many of the largest events also gather gamers and other
computer enthusiasts in addition to demosceners. A major difference between a real demoparty and a LAN party is
that demosceners typically spend more time socializing (often outside the actual party hall) than in front of their
computers.[5]
Large parties have often tried to come up with alternative terms to describe the concept to the general public. While
the events have always been known as "demoparties", "copyparties" or just "parties" by the subculture itself, they are
often referred to as "computer conferences", "computer fairs", "computer festivals", "computer art festivals",
"youngsters' computer events" or even "geek gatherings" or "nerd festivals" by the mass media and the general
public.
Demoscene events are most frequent in continental Europe, with around fifty parties every year. In comparison, there
has only been a dozen or so demoparties in the United States in total. Most events are local, gathering demomakers
mostly from a single country, while the largest international parties (such as Breakpoint and Assembly) attract
visitors from all over the globe.[6]
Most demoparties are relatively small in size, with the number of visitors varying from dozens to a few hundred. The
largest events typically gather thousands of visitors, although most of them have little or no connection to the
demoscene. In that aspect, the scene separates "pure" parties (which abandons non-scene related activities and
promotion) from "crossover" parties.
Demoparty
57
History
Demoparties started to appear in the 1980s in the form
of copyparties, where software pirates and demomakers
gathered to meet each other and share their software.
Competitions did not become a major aspect of the
events until the early 1990s.
Copyparties mainly pertained to the Amiga and C64
scene. As the PC compatibles started to take over the
market, the difficulties in easily making nice demos
and intros increased. Along with increased police
crackdowns on copying of pirated software, the
"underground" copyparties were gradually replaced by
slightly higher-profile events that came to be known as
demoparties. However, some of the "old-school"
demosceners still prefer to use the word copyparty even
for today's demoparties.
Breakpoint 2005: The real party is outside.
During the 1990s, the focus of the events shifted away

from illegal activities into demomaking and
competitions. The copying of copyrighted material was
often explicitly prohibited by the organizers, and many
events also forbade the consumption of alcohol.
However, illegal copying and "boozing" still continued
to take place, although in a less public form.
Three well-known and appreciated large-scale
demoparties were established in the early 1990s: The
Party in Denmark, Assembly in Finland and The
Gathering in Norway. Taking place every year and
Assembly 2004 - a combination of a demoparty and a LAN party
gathering thousands of visitors, these parties used to be
the leading demoscene events in this period. Assembly still retains this status today. The Gathering continues to be
organized yearly as a generic "computer party", but most of the demosceners now prefer Breakpoint in Germany,
which takes place at the same time.
The emergence of high-profile demoparties gave rise to phenomena that were not always well welcomed by the
scene. The events started to attract unaffiliated computer enthusiasts who were often generally referred to as
"lamers" by the original attendants. A particularly visible group in the large gatherings since the mid-1990s have
been the LAN gamers, who often have very little interest in the demoscene and mainly use the party facilities for
playing multi-player computer games. However, many of today's demosceners received their first interest for demos
and demomaking from a visit to a large demoparty.
Demoparty
58
Common properties
Parties usually last from two to four days, most often
from Friday to Sunday to ensure that sceners who work
or study are also able to attend. Small parties (under
100 attendants) usually take place in cultural centres or
schools, whereas larger parties (over 400500 people)
typically take place in sports halls.
Entrance fees are usually between 10 and 40, given
the size and location of the party. It is still a common
practice in many countries to allow females to enter the
party for free (mostly due to the low concentration of
female attendees, which is usually under 20%), albeit
most parties enforce an "only vote with ticket" rule,
which means that an attendee who got in free can only
vote with a paid ticket.
Evoke 2002: Spectators at one of the demoshow rooms watch

computer animations in 3D.
Attendees are allowed to bring their desktop computer along, but this is by no means a necessity and is usually
omitted by most sceners, especially those who travel long distance. Those who have computer-related jobs may even
regard a demoparty as a well-deserved break from sitting in front of a computer. For those who do bring a computer,
it is becoming increasingly common to bring a laptop or some sort of handheld device rather than a complete desktop
PC.
Partygoers often bring various senseless gadgets to parties to make their desk space look unique; this can be anything
from a disco ball or a plasma lamp to a large LED display panel complete with a scrolling message about how "elite"
its owner is. Many visitors also bring large loudspeakers for playing music. This kind of activity is particularly
common among new partygoers, while the more experienced attendees tend to prefer a more quiet and relaxed
atmosphere.
Those who need housing during the party are often offered a separate "sleeping room", usually an isolated empty
room with some sort of carpet or mats, where the attendees are able to sleep, separated from the noise. Most sceners
prefer bringing sleeping bags for this, as well as inflatable mattresses or polyfoam rolls. Parties that do not offer a
sleeping room generally allow sceners to sleep under the tables.
Partyplaces often become decorated by visitors with flyers and banners. These all serve promotional reasons, in most
cases to advertise a certain group, but sometimes to create promotion for a given demoscene product, such as a demo
or a diskmag, possibly to be released later at the party.
A major portion of the events at a demoparty often takes place outdoors. Demosceners usually spend considerable
time outside to have a beer and talk, or engage into some sort of open-air activity such as barbecueing or sport, such
as hardware throwing or soccer. It is also a common tradition to gather around a bonfire during the night, usually
after the compos.
In recent years, many parties were available for spectators through the Internet: This tradition was first started by the
live team of demoscene.tv, who broadcast from the event live or created footage for a postmortem video-report. This
has since been ostensibly replaced by the SceneSat radio crew, who provide live streaming radio shows from parties,
and larger parties now offer their own dedicated streaming video solution.
Demoparty
59
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Demoscene& action=edit

demoscene study (http:/ / www. scheib. net/ play/ demos/ what/ borzyskowski/ index. html)
demoparty (http:/ / catb. org/ jargon/ html/ D/ demoparty. html)
-demos- (http:/ / www. scheib. net/ play/ demos/ what/ index. html)
Breakpoint 2008 - Digital Garden // Bingen am Rhein, Germany, Easter Weekend 2008 (http:/ / breakpoint. untergrund. net/ newvisitors. php)
demoscene.info - the portal on the demoscene (http:/ / www. demoscene. info/ )
External links
Demoparty.net (http://www.demoparty.net) - collective demoscene party database

Slengpung (http://www.slengpung.com) - demoscene party pictures, videos and party reports
Assembly07 (http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=mjf5dAeeHs0&feature=related) TV report
breakpoint05 (http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-5626513091120110384) report on German TV
(English subtitles)
faq (http://tomaes.32x.de/text/faq.php) about demoscene
Depth map
In 3D computer graphics a depth map is an image or image channel that contains information relating to the
distance of the surfaces of scene objects from a viewpoint. The term is related to and may be analogous to depth
buffer, Z-buffer, Z-buffering and Z-depth.[1] The "Z" in these latter terms relates to a convention that the central
axis of view of a camera is in the direction of the camera's Z axis, and not to the absolute Z axis of a scene.
Examples
Cubic Structure
Depth Map: Nearer is darker
Depth Map: Nearer the Focal Plane is darker
Two different depth maps can be seen here, together with the original model from which they are derived. The first
depth map shows luminance in proportion to the distance from the camera. Nearer surfaces are darker; further
surfaces are lighter. The second depth map shows luminance in relation to the distances from a nominal focal plane.
Surfaces closer to the focal plane are darker; surfaces further from the focal plane are lighter, (both closer to and also
further away from the viewpoint).
Depth map
60
Uses
Depth maps have a number of uses,
including:
Simulating the effect of uniformly
dense semi-transparent media
within a scene - such as fog, smoke
or large volumes of water.
Simulating shallow depths of field where some parts of a scene appear
to be out of focus. Depth maps can
be used to selectively blur an image
to varying degrees. A shallow depth
of field can be a characteristic of
macro photography and so the
technique may form a part of the
process of miniature faking.
Z-buffering and z-culling,
techniques which can be used to
make the rendering of 3D scenes
more efficient. They can be used to
identify objects hidden from view
and which may therefore be ignored
for some rendering purposes. This
is particularly important in real time
applications such as computer
games, where a fast succession of
completed renders must be
available in time to be displayed at
a regular and fixed rate.
Fog effect
Shallow depth of field effect
Shadow mapping - part of one process used to create shadows cast by illumination in 3D computer graphics. In
this use, the depth maps are calculated from the perspective of the lights, not the viewer.
To provide the distance information needed to create and generate autostereograms and in other related
applications intended to create the illusion of 3D viewing through stereoscopy .
Subsurface scattering - can be used as part of a process for adding realism by simulating the semi-transparent
properties of translucent materials such as human skin.
Limitations
Single channel depth maps record the first surface seen, and so cannot display information about those surfaces
seen or refracted through transparent objects, or reflected in mirrors. This can limit their use in accurately
simulating depth of field or fog effects.
Single channel depth maps cannot convey multiple distances where they occur within the view of a single pixel.
This may occur where more than one object occupies the location of that pixel. This could be the case - for
example - with models featuring hair, fur or grass. More generally, edges of objects may be ambiguously
described where they partially cover a pixel.
Depth map
Depending on the intended use of a depth map, it may be useful or necessary to encode the map at higher bit
depths. For example, an 8 bit depth map can only represent a range of up to 256 different distances.
Depending on how they are generated, depth maps may represent the perpendicular distance between an object
and the plane of the scene camera. For example, a scene camera pointing directly at - and perpendicular to - a flat
surface may record a uniform distance for the whole surface. In this case, geometrically, the actual distances from
the camera to the areas of the plane surface seen in the corners of the image are greater than the distances to the
central area. For many applications, however, this discrepancy is not a significant issue.
References
[1] Computer Arts / 3D World Glossary (ftp:/ / ftp. futurenet. co. uk/ pub/ arts/ Glossary. pdf), Document retrieved 26th January 2011.
Digital puppetry
Digital puppetry is the manipulation and performance of digitally animated 2D or 3D figures and objects in a
virtual environment that are rendered in real time by computers. It is most commonly used in filmmaking and
television production, but has also been utilized in interactive theme park attractions and live theatre.
The exact definition of what is and is not digital puppetry is subject to debate among puppeteers and computer
graphics designers, but it is generally agreed that digital puppetry differs from conventional computer animation in
that it involves performing characters in real time, rather than animating them frame by frame.
Digital puppetry is closely associated with motion capture technologies and 3D animation, as well as skeletal
animation. Digital puppetry is also known as virtual puppetry, performance animation, living animation, live
animation and real-time animation (although the latter also refers to animation generated by computer game
engines). Machinima is another form of digital puppetry, and Machinima performers are increasingly being
identified as puppeteers.
History and usage

Early experiments
One of the earliest pioneers of digital puppetry was Lee Harrison III. He conducted experiments in the early 1960s
that animated figures using analog circuits and a cathode ray tube. Harrison rigged up a body suit with
potentiometers and created the first working motion capture rig, animating 3D figures in real-time on his CRT
screen. He made several short films with this system, which he called ANIMAC.[1]
Waldo C. Graphic
Perhaps the first truly commercially successful example of a digitally animated figure being performed and rendered
in real-time is Waldo C. Graphic, a character created in 1988 by Jim Henson and Pacific Data Images for the Muppet
television series The Jim Henson Hour. Henson had been trying to create computer generated puppets as early as
1985[2] and Waldo grew out of experiments Henson conducted to create a computer generated version of his
character Kermit the Frog.[3]
Waldo's strength as a computer generated puppet was that he could be controlled by a single puppeteer (Steve
Whitmire[4]) in real-time in concert with conventional puppets. The computer image of Waldo was mixed with the
video feed of the camera focused on physical puppets so that all of the puppeteers in a scene could perform together.
(It was already standard Muppeteering practice to use monitors while performing, so the use of a virtual puppet did
not significantly increase the complexity of the system.) Afterwards, in post production, PDI re-rendered Waldo in
full resolution, adding a few dynamic elements on top of the performed motion.[5]
61
Digital puppetry
Waldo C. Graphic can be seen today in Jim Henson's Muppet*Vision 3D at the Disney's Hollywood Studios and
Disney California Adventure Park theme parks.
Mike Normal
Another significant development in digital puppetry in 1988 was Mike Normal, which Brad DeGraf and partner
Michael Wahrman developed to show off the real-time capabilities of Silicon Graphics' then-new 4D series
workstations. Unveiled at the 1988 SIGGRAPH convention, it was the first live performance of a digital character.
Mike was a sophisticated talking head driven by a specially built controller that allowed a single puppeteer to control
many parameters of the character's face, including mouth, eyes, expression, and head position.[6]
The system developed by deGraf/Wahrman to perform Mike Normal was later used to create a representation of the
villain Cain in the motion picture RoboCop 2, which is believed to be the first example of digital puppetry being
used to create a character in a full-length motion picture.
Trey Stokes was the puppeteer for both Mike Normal's SIGGRAPH debut and Robocop II.
Sesame Street: Elmo's World

One of the most widely seen successful examples of digital puppetry in a TV series is Sesame Street's "Elmo's
World" segment. A set of furniture characters were created with CGI, to perform simultaneously with Elmo and
other real puppets. They were performed in real time on set, simultaneously with live puppet performances. As with
the example of Henson's Waldo C. Graphic above, the digital puppets' video feed was seen live by both the digital
and physical puppet performers, allowing the digital and physical characters to interact. [7]
Cave Troll and Gollum on "The Lord of the Rings, The Fellowship of The Ring" (2001)
In 2000, Ramon Rivero was the first person to perform a digital puppet using Optical Motion Capture against
pre-recorded action footage of a feature film. The character was the Cave Troll in the first episode of the The Lord of
the Rings trilogy. The motion capture technology was created by Biomechanics Inc in Atlanta (now Giant Studios),
Ramon's ideas contributed to enhancements to the technology, directly related to markering systems; virtual
feedback of footage and computerised versions of the film sets; as well as the retargeting software called
CharMapper (short for Character Mapper). Although the final footage was made with keyframe animation, a few
seconds of Ramon's original performance can still be appreciated in the film. The character Gollum, tested by Ramon
but performed by Andy Serkis, was also made with the same technology and is still considered the epitome of a
virtual character in the film industry. Contrary to the Cave Troll, most of the animation of Gollum made it to the
final footage using the original motion captured performance.
Bugs Live
"Bugs Live" was a digital puppet of Bugs Bunny created by Phillip Reay for Warner Brothers Pictures. The puppet
was created using hand drawn frames of animation that were puppeteered by Bruce Lanoil and David Barclay. The
Bugs Live puppet was used to create nearly 900 minutes of live, fully interactive interviews of 2D animated Bugs
character about his role in the movie Looney Tunes: Back in Action in English and Spanish. Bugs Live also appeared
at the 2004 SIGGRAPH Digital Puppetry Special Session with the Muppet puppet Gonzo.
62
Digital puppetry
Disney theme parks

Walt Disney Imagineering has also been an important innovator in the field of digital puppetry, developing new
technologies as part of its "Living Character Initiative" in Disney theme parks. In 2004 they used digital puppetry
techniques to create the Turtle Talk with Crush attractions at Epcot and Disney California Adventure Park. In the
attraction, a hidden puppeteer performs and voices a digital puppet of Crush, the laid-back sea turtle from Finding
Nemo, on a large rear-projection screen. To the audience Crush appears to be swimming inside an aquarium and
engages in unscripted, real-time conversations with theme park guests.
Disney Imagineering continued its use of digital puppetry with the Monsters Inc. Laugh Floor, a new attraction in
Tomorrowland at Walt Disney World's Magic Kingdom, which opened in the spring of 2007. Guests temporarily
enter the "monster world" introduced in Disney and Pixar's 2001 film, Monsters, Inc., where they are entertained by
Mike Wazowski and other monster comedians who are attempting to capture laughter, which they convert to energy.
Much like Turtle Talk, the puppeteers interact with guests in real-time, just as a real-life comedian would interact
with his/her audience.
Disney also uses digital puppetry techniques in Stitch Encounter, which opened in 2006 at the Hong Kong
Disneyland park. Disney has another version of the same attraction in Disneyland Resort Paris called Stitch Live!
Types of digital puppetry

Waldo puppetry
A digital puppet is controlled onscreen by a puppeteer who uses a telemetric input device connected to the computer.
The X-Y-Z axis movement of the input device causes the digital puppet to move correspondingly. A keyboard,
mouse or joystick-like device is sometimes used in place of a telemetric control. Software for this purpose has been
developed by Reallusion, GoAnimate and others.
Motion capture puppetry (mocap puppetry) or Performance Animation

An object (puppet) or human body is used as a physical representation of a digital puppet and manipulated by a
puppeteer. The movements of the object or body are matched correspondingly by the digital puppet in real-time.
Machinima
A production technique that can be used to perform digital puppets. Machinima involves creating
computer-generated imagery (CGI) using the low-end 3D engines in video games. Players act out scenes in real-time
using characters and settings within a game and the resulting footage is recorded and later edited into a finished film.
References
[1] A Critical History of Computer Graphics and Animation: Analog approaches, non-linear editing, and compositing (http:/ / accad. osu. edu/
~waynec/ history/ lesson12. html), accessed April 28, 2007
[2] Sturman, David J. A Brief History of Motion Capture for Computer Character Animation (http:/ / www. siggraph. org/ education/ materials/
HyperGraph/ animation/ character_animation/ motion_capture/ history1. htm), accessed February 9, 2007
[3] Finch, Christopher. Jim Henson: The Works (New York: Random House, 1993)
[4] Henson.com Featured Creature: Waldo C. Graphic (archive.org) (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20030222193241/ http:/ / henson. com/ fun/
fcreature/ waldo_fcbts. html), accessed February 9, 2007
[5] Walters, Graham. The story of Waldo C. Graphic. Course Notes: 3D Character Animation by Computer, ACM SIGGRAPH '89, Boston, July
1989, pp. 65-79
[6] Barbara Robertson, Mike, the talking head Computer Graphics World, July 1988, pp. 15-17.
[7] Yilmaz, Emre. Elmo's World: Digital Puppetry on Sesame Street. Conference Abstracts and Applications, SIGGRAPH '2001, Los Angeles,
August 2001, p. 178
63
Digital puppetry
64
External links
The Henson Digital Puppetry Wiki - Wiki for Henson Digital Puppetry projects, people, characters, and
technology.
Animata (http://animata.kibu.hu) - Free, open source real-time animation software commonly used to create
digital puppets.
Mike the talking head (http://mambo.ucsc.edu/psl/mike.html) - Web page about Mike Normal, one of the
earliest examples of digital puppetry.
Dilution of precision (computer graphics)

Dilution of precision is an algorithmic trick used to handle difficult problems in hidden line removal, caused when
horizontal and vertical edges lie on top of each other due to numerical instability. Numerically, the severity escalates
when a CAD model is viewed along the principal axii or when a geometric form is viewed end-on. The trick is to
alter the view vector by a small amount, thereby hiding the flaws. Unfortunately, this mathematical modification
introduces new issues of its own, namely that the exact nature of the original problem has been destroyed, and visible
artifacts of this kludge will continue to haunt the algorithm. One such issue is that edges that were well defined and
hidden will now be problematic. Another common issue is that the bottom edges on circles viewed end-on will often
become visible and propagate their visibility throughout the problem.
External links
http://wheger.tripod.com/vhl/vhl.htm

In computer graphics, DooSabin subdivision surface is a type of
subdivision surface based on a generalization of bi-quadratic uniform
B-splines. It was developed in 1978 by Daniel Doo and Malcolm
Sabin.[1][2]
This process generates one new face at each original vertex, n new
faces along each original edge, and n x n new faces at each original
face. A primary characteristic of the DooSabin subdivision method is
the creation of four faces around every vertex. A drawback is that the
faces created at the vertices are not necessarily coplanar.
Evaluation
Simple Doo-Sabin sudivision surface. The figure

shows the limit surface, as well as the control
point wireframe mesh.
DooSabin surfaces are defined recursively. Each refinement iteration

replaces the current mesh with a smoother, more refined mesh, following the procedure described in. After many
iterations, the surface will gradually converge onto a smooth limit surface. The figure below show the effect of two
refinement iterations on a T-shaped quadrilateral mesh.
65
Just as for CatmullClark surfaces,
DooSabin limit surfaces can also be
evaluated directly without any
recursive refinement, by means of the
technique of Jos Stam.[3] The solution
is, however, not as computationally
efficient as for Catmull-Clark surfaces
because the DooSabin subdivision
matrices are not in general diagonalizable.
External links
[1] D. Doo: A subdivision algorithm for smoothing down irregularly shaped polyhedrons, Proceedings on Interactive Techniques in Computer
Aided Design, pp. 157 - 165, 1978 ( pdf (http:/ / trac2. assembla. com/ DooSabinSurfaces/ export/ 12/ trunk/ docs/ Doo 1978 Subdivision
algorithm. pdf))
[2] D. Doo and M. Sabin: Behavior of recursive division surfaces near extraordinary points, Computer-Aided Design, 10 (6) 356360 (1978), (
doi (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ 0010-4485(78)90111-2), pdf (http:/ / www. cs. caltech. edu/ ~cs175/ cs175-02/ resources/ DS. pdf))
[3] Jos Stam, Exact Evaluation of CatmullClark Subdivision Surfaces at Arbitrary Parameter Values, Proceedings of SIGGRAPH'98. In
Computer Graphics Proceedings, ACM SIGGRAPH, 1998, 395404 ( pdf (http:/ / www. dgp. toronto. edu/ people/ stam/ reality/ Research/
pdf/ sig98. pdf), downloadable eigenstructures (http:/ / www. dgp. toronto. edu/ ~stam/ reality/ Research/ SubdivEval/ index. html))
DooSabin surfaces (http://graphics.cs.ucdavis.edu/education/CAGDNotes/Doo-Sabin/Doo-Sabin.html)
Draw distance
Draw distance is a computer graphics term, defined as the maximum distance of objects in a three dimensional
scene that are drawn by the rendering engine. Polygons that lie behind the draw distance won't be drawn to the
screen.
As the draw distance increases more distant polygons need to be drawn onto the screen that would regularly be
clipped. This requires more computing power; the graphic quality and realism of the scene will increase as draw
distance increases, but the overall performance (frames per second) will decrease. Many games and applications will
allow users to manually set the draw distance to balance performance and visuals.
Problems in older games

Older games had far shorter draw distances, most noticeable in vast, open scenes. Racing arcade games were
particularly infamous, as the open highways and roads often led to "pop-up graphics", or "pop-in" - an effect where
distant objects suddenly appear without warning as the camera gets closer to it. This is a hallmark of poor draw
distance, and still plagues large, open-ended games like the Grand Theft Auto series and Second Life.[citation needed]
Formula 1 97 offered a setting so the player could choose between fixed draw distance (with variable frame rate) or
fixed frame rate (with variable draw distance).
Draw distance
Alternatives
A common trick used in games to disguise a short draw distance is to obscure the area with a distance fog.
Alternative methods have been developed to sidestep the problem altogether using level of detail manipulation.
Black & White was one of the earlier games to use adaptive level of detail to decrease the number of polygons in
objects as they moved away from the camera, allowing it to have a massive draw distance while maintaining detail in
close-up views.
The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker uses a variant of the level of detail programming mentioned above. The game
overworld is divided into 49 squares. Each square has an island inside of it; the distance between the island and the
borders of the square are considerable. Everything within a square is loaded when entered, including all models used
in close-up views and animations. Utilizing the telescope item, one can see just how detailed even far away areas are.
However, textures are not displayed; they are faded in as one gets closer to the square's island-this may actually be
an aesthetic effect and not to free up system resources. Islands outside of the current square are less
detailed-however, these far-away island models do not degenerate any further than that, even though some of these
islands can be seen from everywhere else in the overworld. In both indoor and outdoor areas, there is no distance
fog-however, there are some areas where "distance" fog is used as an atmospheric effect. As a consequence to the
developers' excessive attention to detail, however, some areas of the game have lower framerates due to the large
amount of enemies on screen.
Grand Theft Auto III made particular use of fogging, however, this made the game less playable when driving or
flying at high speed, as objects would pop-up out of the fog and cause the player to crash into them.
Halo 3 is claimed by its creators at Bungie Studios to have a draw distance upwards of 14 miles. This is an example
of the vastly improved draw distances made able by more recent game consoles. In addition, Crysis is said to have a
draw distance up to 16 kilometers (9.9mi), while Cube 2: Sauerbraten, has a potentially unlimited draw distance,
possibly due to the larger map size. Grand Theft Auto V was praised by its seemingly infinite draw distance despite
having a large, detailed map.
External links
draw distance/fog problem - Beyond3D Forum [1]
How to: Optimize Your Frame Rates - Features at GameSpot [2]
References
[1] http:/ / forum. beyond3d. com/ showthread. php?t=42599
[2] http:/ / www. gamespot. com/ features/ 6168650/ index. html?cpage=9
66
Edge loop
Edge loop
An edge loop, in computer graphics, can loosely be defined as a set of connected edges across a surface. Usually the
last edge meets again with the first edge, thus forming a loop. The set or string of edges can for example be the outer
edges of a flat surface or the edges surrounding a 'hole' in a surface.
In a stricter sense an edge loop is defined as a set of edges where the loop follows the middle edge in every 'four way
junction'.[1] The loop will end when it encounters another type of junction (three or five way for example). Take an
edge on a mesh surface for example, say at one end of the edge it connects with three other edges, making a four way
junction. If you follow the middle 'road' each time you would either end up with a completed loop or the edge loop
would end at another type of junction.
Edge loops are especially practical in organic models which need to be animated. In organic modeling edge loops
play a vital role in proper deformation of the mesh.[2] A properly modeled mesh will take into careful consideration
the placement and termination of these edge loops. Generally edge loops follow the structure and contour of the
muscles that they mimic. For example, in modeling a human face edge loops should follow the orbicularis oculi
muscle around the eyes and the orbicularis oris muscle around the mouth. The hope is that by mimicking the way the
muscles are formed they also aid in the way the muscles are deformed by way of contractions and expansions. An
edge loop closely mimics how real muscles work, and if built correctly, will give you control over contour and
silhouette in any position.
An important part in developing proper edge loops is by understanding poles.[3] The E(5) Pole and the N(3) Pole are
the two most important poles in developing both proper edge loops and a clean topology on your model. The E(5)
Pole is derived from an extruded face. When this face is extruded, four 4-sided polygons are formed in addition to
the original face. Each lower corner of these four polygons forms a five-way junction. Each one of these five-way
junctions is an E-pole. An N(3) Pole is formed when 3 edges meet at one point creating a three-way junction. The
N(3) Pole is important in that it redirects the direction of an edge loop.
References
[1] Edge Loop (http:/ / wiki. cgsociety. org/ index. php/ Edge_Loop), CG Society
[2] Modeling With Edge Loops (http:/ / zoomy. net/ 2008/ 04/ 02/ modeling-with-edge-loops/ ), Zoomy.net
[3] "The pole" (http:/ / www. subdivisionmodeling. com/ forums/ showthread. php?t=907), SubdivisionModeling.com
External links
Edge Loop (http://wiki.cgsociety.org/index.php/Edge_Loop), CG Society
67
Euler operator
68
Euler operator
In mathematics Euler operators may refer to:
EulerLagrange differential operator d/dx see Lagrangian system
CauchyEuler operators e.g. xd/dx
quantum white noise conservation or QWN-Euler operator QWN-Euler operator
Euler operators (Euler operations)

In solid modeling and computer-aided design, the Euler operators modify the graph of connections to add or remove
details of a mesh while preserving its topology. They are named by Baumgart [1] after the EulerPoincar
charateristic. He chose a set of operators sufficient to create useful meshes, some lose information and so are not
invertible.
The boundary representation for a solid object, its surface, is a polygon mesh of vertices, edges and faces. Its
topology is captured by the graph of the connections between faces. A given mesh may actually contain multiple
unconnected shells (or bodies); each body may be partitioned into multiple connected components each defined by
their edge loop boundary. To represent a hollow object, the inside and outside surfaces are separate shells.
Let the number of vertices be V, edges be E, faces be F, components H, shells S, and let the genus be G (S and G
correspond to the b0 and b2 Betti numbers respectively). Then, to denote a meaningful geometric object, the mesh
must satisfy the generalized EulerPoincar formula
V E + F = H + 2 * (S G)
The Euler operators preserve this characteristic. The Eastman paper lists the following basic operators, and their
effects on the various terms:
Name
Description
V E F H S G
MBFLV
Make Body-Face-Loop-Vertex
MEV
Make Edge-Vertex
MEFL
Make Edge-Face-Loop
MEKL
Make Edge, Kill Loop
-1
KFLEVB
Kill Faces-Loops-Edges-Vertices-Body
-1
KFLEVMG Kill Faces-Loops-Edges-Vertices, Make Genus 2
Geometry
Euler operators modify the mesh's graph creating or removing faces, edges and vertices according to simple rules
while preserving the overall topology thus maintaining a valid boundary (i.e. not introducing holes). The operators
themselves don't define how geometric or graphical attributes map to the new graph: e.g. position, gradient, uv
texture coordinate, these will depend on the particular implementation.
References
[1] Baumgart, B.G^ "Winged edge polyhedron representation", Stanford Artificial Intelligence Report No. CS-320, October, 1972.
(see also Winged edge#External links)

Eastman, Charles M. and Weiler, Kevin J., "Geometric modeling using the Euler operators" (1979). Computer
Science Department. Paper 1587. http://repository.cmu.edu/compsci/1587 (http://repository.cmu.edu/
Euler operator
compsci/1587). Unfortunately this typo-ridden (OCRd?) paper can be quite hard to read.
Easier-to-read reference (http://solidmodel.me.ntu.edu.tw/lessoninfo/file/Chapter03.pdf), from a
solid-modelling course at NTU.
Another reference (http://www.cs.mtu.edu/~shene/COURSES/cs3621/NOTES/model/euler-op.html) that
uses a slightly different definition of terms.
Sven Havemann, Generative Mesh Modeling (http://www.eg.org/EG/DL/dissonline/doc/havemann.pdf),
PhD thesis, Braunschweig University, Germany, 2005.
Martti Mntyl, An Introduction to Solid Modeling, Computer Science Press, Rockville MD, 1988. ISBN
0-88175-108-1.
Explicit modeling
With the explicit modeling, designers quickly and easily create 3D CAD designs, which they then modify through
direct, on-the-fly interactions with the model geometry.
Advantages
The explicit approach is flexible and easy to use, so its ideal for companies that create one-off or highly customized
products products that simply dont require all the extra effort of up-front planning and the embedding of
information within models. With an explicit approach to 3D design, the interaction is with the model geometry and
not with an intricate sequence of design features. That makes initial training on the software easier. But it also means
designers working with an explicit 3D CAD system can easily pick up a design where others left offmuch like
anyone can open up and immediately continue working on a Microsoft Word document. Thus explicit modeling
appeals to a variety of audiences: companies with flexible staff; infrequent users of 3D CAD; and anyone who is
concurrently involved in a large number of design projects.
Use in repurposing
When designers repurpose a model, they take an existing 3D CAD design and radically transform it by
cutting/copying/pasting geometry to derive a new model that has no relationship to the original model. With an
explicit approach, companies have demonstrated accelerated product development by repurposing existing designs
into new and completely different products. This unique characteristic of an explicit approach can shave weeks or
even months from project schedules.
Even with direct modeling capabilities, the parametric approach is still designed to leverage embedded product
information. The explicit approach, on the other hand, intentionally limits the amount of information captured as part
of the model definition in order to provide a genuinely lightweight and flexible product design process.
Parametric vs. explicit approach

With a parametric approach, data files include parameters, dimensions, features, and relationships that capture
intended behavior. An explicit approach, however, reduces data files to the 3D geometry only, dramatically reducing
the design data of each individual part, so large and complex designs dont overwhelm hardware or software. Smaller
file sizes mean designers can load and store data files faster, reload and update parts to new revisions instantly, and
make better overall use of their computer memory.
69
Explicit modeling
Use in data management

When combined with a data management system, an explicit 3D CAD system can also help manage complex
relationships associated with large assemblies. For example, an integrated data management system automates
revisioning and encourages true concurrent team design because all designers have access to the most up-to-date
design data. When all design data is centralized in a common database, companies can ensure that no one works on
the wrong revision of a component, or changes a component reserved by someone else.
Explicit 3D CAD systems excel at importing and modifying of multisource CAD data, which benefits companies
working across an extended supply chain for procured components or subcontracted design. STEP and IGES are
essentially native 3D design data formats in an explicit approach because explicit 3D CAD systems interact
intelligently and on-the-fly with geometry, and geometry is the only common element across all CAD systems. The
explicit approach to 3D design, with its lower overhead and flexibility, offers a better solution, especially for
companies that rely on the ability to radically adapt and change to new and shifting design requirements.
Use in product development

Companies that develop new-to-market and one-off product designs often face changing customer and product
requirements throughout the development cycle. An explicit approach is always open to change, so companies can
keep the window for new product information and major product changes open longer. Unlike other 3D design
approaches, including hybrids, explicit modeling can offer true flexibility because it doesnt require any upfront
planning or the embedding of design information within models.
False radiosity
False Radiosity is a 3D computer graphics technique used to create texture mapping for objects that emulates patch
interaction algorithms in radiosity rendering. Though practiced in some form since the late 90s, this term was coined
only around 2002 by architect Andrew Hartness, then head of 3D and real-time design at Ateliers Jean Nouvel.
During the period of nascent commercial enthusiasm for radiosity-enhanced imagery, but prior to the
democratization of powerful computational hardware, architects and graphic artists experimented with time-saving
3D rendering techniques. By darkening areas of texture maps corresponding to corners, joints and recesses, and
applying maps via self-illumination or diffuse mapping in a 3D program, a radiosity-like effect of patch interaction
could be created with a standard scan-line renderer. Successful emulation of radiosity required a theoretical
understanding and graphic application of patch view factors, path tracing and global illumination algorithms. Texture
maps were usually produced with image editing software, such as Adobe Photoshop. The advantage of this method is
decreased rendering time and easily modifiable overall lighting strategies.
Another common approach similar to false radiosity is the manual placement of standard omni-type lights with
limited attenuation in places in the 3D scene where the artist would expect radiosity reflections to occur. This
method uses many lights and can require an advanced light-grouping system, depending on what assigned
materials/objects are illuminated, how many surfaces require false radiosity treatment, and to what extent it is
anticipated that lighting strategies be set up for frequent changes.
70
False radiosity
References
Autodesk interview with Hartness about False Radiosity and real-time design [1]
References
[1] http:/ / usa. autodesk. com/ adsk/ servlet/ item?siteID=123112& id=5549510& linkID=10371177
Fiducial marker
A fiducial marker or fiducial is an object placed in the field of view of an imaging system which appears in the
image produced, for use as a point of reference or a measure. It may be either something placed into or on the
imaging subject, or a mark or set of marks in the reticle of an optical instrument.
Accuracy
In high-resolution optical microscopy, fiducials can be used to actively stabilize the field of view. Stabilization to
better than 0.1 nm is achievable (Carter et al. Applied Optics, (2007)).
Applications
Physics
In physics, 3D computer graphics, and photography, fiducials are reference points: fixed points or lines within a
scene to which other objects can be related or against which objects can be measured. Cameras outfitted with reseau
plates produce these reference marks (also called reseau crosses) and are commonly used by NASA. Such marks are
closely related to the timing marks used in optical mark recognition.
Geographical Survey
Airborne geophysical surveys also use the term "fiducial" as a sequential reference number in the measurement of
various geophysical instruments during a survey flight. This application of the term evolved from air photo frame
numbers that were originally used to locate geophysical survey lines in the early days of airborne geophysical
surveying. This method of positioning has since been replaced by GPS, but the term "fiducial" continues to be used
as the time reference for data measured during flights.
Virtual Reality
In applications of augmented reality or virtual reality, fiducials are often manually applied to objects in a scene so
that the objects can be recognized in images of the scene. For example, to track some object, a light-emitting diode
can be applied to it. With knowledge of the color of the emitted light, the object can easily be identified in the
picture.
The appearance of markers in images may act as a reference for image scaling, or may allow the image and physical
object, or multiple independent images, to be correlated. By placing fiducial markers at known locations in a subject,
the relative scale in the produced image may be determined by comparison of the locations of the markers in the
image and subject. In applications such as photogrammetry, the fiducial marks of a surveying camera may be set so
that they define the principal point, in a process called "collimation". This would be a creative use of how the term
collimation is conventionally understood.
71
Fiducial marker
72
Medical Imaging
Fiducial markers are used in a wide range of medical imaging applications. Images of the same subject produced
with two different imaging systems may be correlated by placing a fiducial marker in the area imaged by both
systems. In this case, a marker which is visible in the images produced by both imaging modalities must be used. By
this method, functional information from SPECT or positron emission tomography can be related to anatomical
information provided by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).[1] Similarly, fiducial points established during MRI can
be correlated with brain images generated by magnetoencephalography to localize the source of brain activity. Such
fiducial points or markers are often created in tomographic images such as magnetic resonance and computed
tomography images using a device known as the N-localizer.
ECG
In electrocardiography, fiducial points are landmarks on the ECG complex such as the isoelectric line (PQ junction),
and onset of individual waves such as PQRST.
Cell Biology
In processes that involve following a labelled molecule as it is incorporated in some larger polymer, such markers
can be used to follow the dynamics of growth/shrinkage of the polymer, as well as its movement. Commonly used
fiducial markers are fluorescently labelled monomers of bio-polymers. The task of measuring and quantifying what
happens to these is borrowed from methods in physics and computational imaging like Speckle imaging.
Radio Therapy
In radiotherapy and radiosurgical systems such as the CyberKnife, fiducial points are landmarks in the tumour to
facilitate correct targets for treatment. In neuronavigation, a fiducial spatial coordinate system is used as a
reference, for use in neurosurgery, to describe the position of specific structures within the head or elsewhere in the
body. Such fiducial points or landmarks are often created in magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography
images by using the N-localizer.
PCB
In printed circuit board (PCB) design, fiducial marks, also known as
circuit pattern recognition marks or simply "fids," allow automated
assembly equipment to accurately locate and place parts on boards.
These devices locate the circuit pattern by providing common
measurable points. They are usually made by leaving a circular area of
the board bare from solder-stop coating (similar to clearcoat), in which
a filled copper circle is placed. This center metallic disc can be
solder-coated, gold-plated or otherwise treated, although bare copper is
most common as it is not a current-carrying contact.
Fiducial marker for a chip to the right and the

whole PCB beneath
Most placement devices are fed boards for assembly by a rail conveyor, with the board being clamped down in the
assembly area of the machine. Each board will clamp slightly differently than the others, and the variance -- which
will generally be only tenths of a millimeter -- is sufficient to ruin a board without proper calibration. Consequently,
a typical PCB will have three fids to allow placement robots to precisely determine the board's orientation. By
measuring the location of the fids relative to the board plan stored in the machine's memory, the machine can reliably
compute the degree to which parts must be moved relative to the plan, called offset, to ensure accurate placement.
Using three fiducials enables the machine to determine offset in both the X and Y axes, as well as to determine if the
board has rotated during clamping, allowing the machine to rotate parts to be placed to match. Parts requiring a very
Fiducial marker
73
high degree of placement precision, such as integrated circuit chip packages with many fine leads, may have
subsidiary fiducial marks near the package placement area of the board to further fine-tune the targeting.
Conversely, low end, low-precision boards may only have two fiducials, or use fiducials applied as part of the screen
printing process applied to most circuit boards. Some very low-end boards may use the plated mounting screw holes
as ersatz fiducials, although this yields very low accuracy.
For prototyping and small batch production runs, the use of a fiducial camera can greatly improve the process of
board fabrication. By automatically locating fiducial markers, the camera automates board alignment. This helps
with front to back and multilayer applications, eliminating the need for set pins.[2]
Printing
In color printing, fiducialsalso called "registration black"are used at the edge of the cyan, magenta, yellow and
black (CMYK) printing plates so that they can be correctly aligned with each other.
References
[1] Correlation of single photon emission CT with MR image data using fiduciary markers. (http:/ / www. ajnr. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 14/ 3/
713) BJ Erickson and CR Jack Jr., American Journal of Neuroradiology, Vol 14, Issue 3 713-720 (1993).
[2] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=-tVZ-sdxG2o
Fluid simulation
Fluid simulation is an increasingly popular tool in computer graphics
for generating realistic animations of water, smoke, explosions, and
related phenomena. Given some input configuration of fluid and scene
geometry, a fluid simulator evolves the motion of the fluid forward in
time, making use of the (possibly heavily simplified) Navier-Stokes
equations which describe the physics of fluids. In computer graphics,
such simulations range in complexity from extremely time-consuming
high quality animations for film & visual effects, to simple real-time
particle systems used in modern games.
Example of fluid simulation
Approaches
There are several competing techniques for liquid simulation with a variety of trade-offs. The most common are
Eulerian grid-based methods, smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) methods, vorticity-based methods, and
Lattice Boltzmann methods. These methods originated in the computational fluid dynamics community, and have
steadily been adopted by graphics practitioners. The key difference in the graphics setting is that the results need
only be plausible. That is, if a human observer is unable to identify by inspection whether a given animation is
physically correct, the results are sufficient, whereas in physics, engineering, or mathematics, more rigorous error
metrics are necessary.
Fluid simulation
Development
In computer graphics, the earliest attempts to solve the Navier-Stokes equations in full 3D came in 1996, by Nick
Foster and Dimitris Metaxas, who based their work primarily on a classic CFD paper from 1965 by Harlow &
Welch. Prior to this, many methods were built on ad-hoc particle systems, lower dimensional techniques such as 2D
shallow water models, and semi-random turbulent noise fields. In 1999, Jos Stam published the so-called Stable
Fluids method at SIGGRAPH, which exploited a semi-Lagrangian advection technique and implicit integration of
viscosity to provide unconditionally stable behaviour. This allowed for much larger time steps and in general, faster
simulations. This general technique was extended by Fedkiw & collaborators to handle complex 3d water
simulations using the level set method in papers in 2001 and 2002.
Some notable academic researchers in this area include James F. O'Brien, Ron Fedkiw, Mark Carlson, Greg Turk,
Robert Bridson, Ken Museth and Jos Stam.
Software
Several options are available for fluid simulation in off-the-shelf 3D packages. A popular open source package is
Blender 3D, with a stable Lattice Boltzmann method implemented, in addition to two distinct SPH approaches.
Another option is Glu3d, a plugin for 3ds Max very similar to Blender's fluid capability. Other options are RealFlow,
FumeFx and AfterBurn for Max, Dynamite for LightWave 3D, ICE SPH Fluids and Mootzoid's emFluid4 for
Softimage; Turbulence.4D, PhyFluids3D, DPIT for Cinema 4D. Houdini and Maya support fluids natively however
plugins can be bought to improve the simulations.
External links
Fusion CI Studios, Fluid FX Specialists [1]

Flowline Homepage [2]
Glu3d Homepage [3]
ICE SPH Fluids Homepage [4]
Mootzoid's emFluid4 Webpage [5]
RealFlow Homepage [6]
Blender Homepage [7]
AfterBurn Homepage [8]
DPIT Nature Spirit Homepage [9]
Ron Fedkiw's Homepage [10]
Berkeley Computer Animation Homepage [11]
Fluid Simulation for Video Games [12]
References
[1] http:/ / www. fusioncis. com/
[2] http:/ / www. flowlines. info/
[3] http:/ / 3daliens. com/ glu3D/ index. htm
[4] http:/ / groups. google. com/ group/ ICE_SPH
[5] http:/ / www. mootzoid. com/ wb/ pages/ softimagexsi/ emfluid4. php
[6] http:/ / www. realflow. com/
[7] http:/ / www. blender3d. com
[8] http:/ / www. afterworks. com/
[9] http:/ / www. dpit2. de/
[10] http:/ / graphics. stanford. edu/ ~fedkiw/
[11] http:/ / www. cs. berkeley. edu/ b-cam/
[12] http:/ / software. intel. com/ en-us/ articles/ fluid-simulation-for-video-games-part-1/
74
75

Forward kinematic animation is a method in 3D computer graphics for animating models.
The essential concept of forward kinematic animation is that the positions of particular parts of the model at a
specified time are calculated from the position and orientation of the object, together with any information on the
joints of an articulated model. So for example if the object to be animated is an arm with the shoulder remaining at a
fixed location, the location of the tip of the thumb would be calculated from the angles of the shoulder, elbow, wrist,
thumb and knuckle joints. Three of these joints (the shoulder, wrist and the base of the thumb) have more than one
degree of freedom, all of which must be taken into account. If the model were an entire human figure, then the
location of the shoulder would also have to be calculated from other properties of the model.
Forward kinematic animation can be distinguished from inverse kinematic animation by this means of calculation in inverse kinematics the orientation of articulated parts is calculated from the desired position of certain points on
the model. It is also distinguished from other animation systems by the fact that the motion of the model is defined
directly by the animator - no account is taken of any physical laws that might be in effect on the model, such as
gravity or collision with other models.
Forward kinematics
Forward kinematics refers to the use of the kinematic equations
of a robot to compute the position of the end-effector from
specified values for the joint parameters. The kinematics equations
of the robot are used in robotics, computer games, and animation.
The reverse process that computes the joint parameters that
achieve a specified position of the end-effector is known as
inverse kinematics.
Kinematics equations
An articulated six DOF robotic arm uses forward
The kinematics equations for the series chain of a robot are

kinematics to position the gripper.
obtained using a rigid transformation [Z] to characterize the
relative movement allowed at each joint and separate rigid
transformation [X] to define the dimensions of each link. The result is a sequence of rigid transformations alternating
joint and link transformations from the base of the chain to its end link, which is equated to the specified position for
the end link,
where [T] is the transformation locating the end-link. These equations are called the kinematics equations of the
serial chain.[1]
Forward kinematics
76
Link transformations
In 1955, Jacques Denavit and Richard Hartenberg introduced a
convention for the definition of the joint matrices [Z] and link
matrices [X] to standardize the coordinate frame for spatial
linkages.[2][3] This convention positions the joint frame so that it
consists of a screw displacement along the Z-axis
and it positions the link frame so it consists of a screw

displacement along the X-axis,
Using this notation, each transformation-link goes along a serial

chain robot, and can be described by the coordinate
transformation,
The forward kinematics equations define the trajectory
of the end-effector of a PUMA robot reaching for parts.
where i, di, i,i+1 and ai,i+1 are known as the Denavit-Hartenberg parameters.
Kinematics equations revisited

The kinematics equations of a serial chain of n links, with joint parameters i are given by
where
is the transformation matrix from the frame of link
to link
. In robotics, these are
conventionally described by DenavitHartenberg parameters.
Denavit-Hartenberg matrix
The matrices associated with these operations are:
Similarly,
The use of the Denavit-Hartenberg convention yields the link transformation matrix, [i-1Ti] as
Forward kinematics
77
known as the Denavit-Hartenberg matrix.
References
[1] J. M. McCarthy, 1990, Introduction to Theoretical Kinematics, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
[2] J. Denavit and R.S. Hartenberg, 1955, "A kinematic notation for lower-pair mechanisms based on matrices." Trans ASME J. Appl. Mech,
23:215221.
[3] Hartenberg, R. S., and J. Denavit. Kinematic Synthesis of Linkages. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964 on-line through KMODDL (http:/ /
ebooks. library. cornell. edu/ k/ kmoddl/ toc_hartenberg1. html)

Freeform surface modelling is the art of engineering Freeform Surfaces with a CAD or CAID system.
The technology has encompassed two main fields. Either creating aesthetic (class A surfaces) that also perform a
function; for example, car bodies and consumer product outer forms, or technical surfaces for components such as
gas turbine blades and other fluid dynamic engineering components.
CAD software packages use two basic methods for the creation of surfaces. The first begins with construction curves
(splines) from which the 3D surface is then swept (section along guide rail) or meshed (lofted) through.
The second method is direct creation of the surface with manipulation
of the surface poles/control points.
A surface being created from curves.

Animated version
From these initially created surfaces, other

surfaces are constructed using either derived
methods such as offset or angled extensions from
surfaces; or via bridging and blending between
groups of surfaces.
Surface edit by poles
Surfaces
Freeform surface, or freeform surfacing, is used in CAD and other
computer graphics software to describe the skin of a 3D geometric
element. Freeform surfaces do not have rigid radial dimensions, unlike
regular surfaces such as planes, cylinders and conic surfaces. They are
used to describe forms such as turbine blades, car bodies and boat
hulls. Initially developed for the automotive and aerospace industries,
Variable smooth blend between surfaces.
freeform surfacing is now widely used in all engineering design
Animated version
disciplines from consumer goods products to ships. Most systems
today use nonuniform rational B-spline (NURBS) mathematics to describe the surface forms; however, there are
other methods such as Gorden surfaces or Coons surfaces .
The forms of freeform surfaces (and curves) are not stored or defined in CAD software in terms of polynomial
equations, but by their poles, degree, and number of patches (segments with spline curves). The degree of a surface
determines its mathematical properties, and can be seen as representing the shape by a polynomial with variables to
the power of the degree value. For example, a surface with a degree of 1 would be a flat cross section surface. A
surface with degree 2 would be curved in one direction, while a degree 3 surface could (but does not necessarily)
change once from concave to convex curvature. Some CAD systems use the term order instead of degree. The order
of a polynomial is one greater than the degree, and gives the number of coefficients rather than the greatest exponent.
The poles (sometimes known as control
points) of a surface define its shape. The
natural surface edges are defined by the
positions of the first and last poles. (Note
that a surface can have trimmed
boundaries.) The intermediate poles act like
magnets drawing the surface in their
direction. The surface does not, however, go
through these points. The second and third
poles as well as defining shape, respectively
determine the start and tangent angles and
the curvature. In a single patch surface
(Bzier surface), there is one more pole than
Example surface pole map
the degree values of the surface. Surface
patches can be merged into a single NURBS surface; at these points are knot lines. The number of knots will
determine the influence of the poles on either side and how smooth the transition is. The smoothness between
patches, known as continuity, is often referred to in terms of a C value:
C0: just touching, could have a nick
C1: tangent, but could have sudden change in curvature
C2: the patches are curvature continuous to one another
Two more important aspects are the U and V parameters. These are values on the surface ranging from 0 to 1, used
in the mathematical definition of the surface and for defining paths on the surface: for example, a trimmed boundary
edge. Note that they are not proportionally spaced along the surface. A curve of constant U or constant V is known
as an isoperimetric curve, or U (V) line. In CAD systems, surfaces are often displayed with their poles of constant U
or constant V values connected together by lines; these are known as control polygons.
78
Modelling
When defining a form, an important factor is the continuity between surfaces - how smoothly they connect to one
another.
One example of where surfacing excels is automotive body panels. Just blending two curved areas of the panel with
different radii of curvature together, maintaining tangential continuity (meaning that the blended surface doesn't
change direction suddenly, but smoothly) won't be enough. They need to have a continuous rate of curvature change
between the two sections, or else their reflections will appear disconnected.
The continuity is defined using the terms
G0 position (touching)
G1 tangent (angle)
G2 curvature (radius)
G3 acceleration (rate of change of curvature)
To achieve a high quality NURBS or Bzier surface, degrees of 5 or greater are generally used. Depending on the
product and production process, different levels of accuracy are used but tolerances usually range from 0.02mm to
.001mm (for example, in the fairing of BIW concept surfaces to production surface). For ship building, this need not
be so tight, but for precision gears and medical devices it is much finer.
History of terms
The term lofting originally came from the shipbuilding industry where loftsmen worked on "barn loft" type
structures to create the keel and bulkhead forms out of wood. This was then passed on to the aircraft then automotive
industries who also required streamline shapes.
The term spline also has nautical origins coming from East Anglian dialect word for a thin long strip of wood
(probably from old English and Germanic word splint).
Freeform surface modelling software
CATIA
Cobalt (Ashlar-Vellum [1])
formZ (form-Z [2])
PowerSHAPE (PowerSHAPE [3])
Solidworks
SolidThinking
ICEM Surf
Imageware
ProEngineer ISDX ([4])
NX (Unigraphics)
ProEngineer
Rhinoceros 3D
VSR Shape Modeling ([5])
FreeForm Modeling Plus from SensAble Technologies (Sensable.com [6]) Now part of Geomagic Design.
Autodesk Inventor
Alias StudioTools
FreeSHIP (FreeSHIP [7]) Link broken as of Jan 2014.
GenesisIOD (GenesisIOD [8])

OmniCAD (OmniCAD [9])
Thinkdesign (Thinkdesign [10])
79
MicroStation (Bentley Systems Inc [11])

Shark FX (Punch! [12])
Moi Moment of Inspiration 3D modeling for designers and artists (Moi3d [13])
Blender Free 3D Modelling Software from Blender Foundation
References
[1] http:/ / www. ashlar. com/ sections/ products/ cobalt/ cobalt. html
[2] http:/ / www. formz. com
[3] http:/ / www. powershape. com/
[4] http:/ / www. ptc. com/ products/ creo/ interactive-surface-design-extension
[5] http:/ / www. virtualshape. com/ en/ products/ shape-modeling
[6] http:/ / www. sensable. com/
[7] http:/ / www. freeship. org
[8] http:/ / www. right-toolbox. com. ar/ genesis/ index. html
[9] http:/ / www. omnicad. com
[10] http:/ / www. superfici3d. com
[11] http:/ / www. Bentley. com
[12] http:/ / punchcad. com/ index_pro. htm
[13] http:/ / moi3d. com/
Geometry instancing
In real-time computer graphics, geometry instancing is the practice of rendering multiple copies of the same mesh
in a scene at once. This technique is primarily used for objects such as trees, grass, or buildings which can be
represented as repeated geometry without appearing unduly repetitive, but may also be used for characters. Although
vertex data is duplicated across all instanced meshes, each instance may have other differentiating parameters (such
as color, or skeletal animation pose) changed in order to reduce the appearance of repetition.
API support for geometry instancing

Starting in Direct3D version 9, Microsoft included support for geometry instancing. This method improves the
potential runtime performance of rendering instanced geometry by explicitly allowing multiple copies of a mesh to
be rendered sequentially by specifying the differentiating parameters for each in a separate stream. The same
functionality is available in the OpenGL core in versions 3.1 and up, and may be accessed in some earlier
implementations using the EXT_draw_instanced extension.
Geometry instancing in offline rendering

Geometry instancing in Houdini, Maya or other 3D packages usually involves mapping a static or pre-animated
object or geometry to particles or arbitrary points in space, which can then be rendered almost any offline renderer.
Geometry instancing in offline rendering is useful for creating things like swarms of insects, in which each one can
be detailed, but still behaves in a realisitic way that does not have to be determined by the animator. Most packages
allow variation of the material or material parameters on a per instance basis, which helps ensure that instances do
not appear to be exact copies of each other. In Houdini, many object level attributes (e.g. such as scale) can also be
varied on a per instance basis. Because instancing geometry in most 3D packages only references the original object,
file sizes are kept very small and changing the original changes all of the instances.
In many offline renderers, such as Pixar's PhotoRealistic RenderMan, instancing is achieved by using delayed load
render procedurals to only load geometry when the bucket containing the instance is actually being rendered. This
means that the geometry for all the instances does not have to be in memory at once.
80
Geometry instancing
Video cards that support geometry instancing

GeForce 6000 and up (NV40 GPU or later)
ATI Radeon 9500 and up (R300 GPU or later).
External links
EXT_draw_instanced documentation [1]
A quick overview on D3D9 instancing on MSDN [2]
References
[1] http:/ / www. opengl. org/ registry/ specs/ EXT/ draw_instanced. txt
[2] http:/ / msdn. microsoft. com/ en-us/ library/ bb173349(VS. 85). aspx
Geometry pipelines
Geometric manipulation of modeling primitives, such as that performed by a geometry pipeline, is the first stage in
computer graphics systems which perform image generation based on geometric models. While Geometry Pipelines
were originally implemented in software, they have become highly amenable to hardware implementation,
particularly since the advent of very-large-scale integration (VLSI) in the early 1980s. A device called the Geometry
Engine developed by Jim Clark and Marc Hannah at Stanford University in about 1981 was the watershed for what
has since become an increasingly commoditized function in contemporary image-synthetic raster display systems.
Geometric transformations are applied to the vertices of polygons, or other geometric objects used as modelling
primitives, as part of the first stage in a classical geometry-based graphic image rendering pipeline. Geometric
computations may also be applied to transform polygon or patch surface normals, and then to perform the lighting
and shading computations used in their subsequent rendering.
History
Hardware implementations of the geometry pipeline were introduced in the early Evans & Sutherland Picture
System, but perhaps received broader recognition when later applied in the broad range of graphics systems products
introduced by Silicon Graphics (SGI). Initially the SGI geometry hardware performed simple model space to screen
space viewing transformations with all the lighting and shading handled by a separate hardware implementation
stage, but in later, much higher performance applications such as the RealityEngine, they began to be applied to
perform part of the rendering support as well.
More recently, perhaps dating from the late 1990s, the hardware support required to perform the manipulation and
rendering of quite complex scenes has become accessible to the consumer market. Companies such as Nvidia and
AMD Graphics (formerly ATI) are two current leading representatives of hardware vendors in this space. The
GeForce line of graphics cards from Nvidia was the first to support full OpenGL and Direct3D hardware geometry
processing in the consumer PC market, while some earlier products such as Rendition Verite incorporated hardware
geometry processing through proprietary programming interfaces. On the whole, earlier graphics accelerators by
3Dfx, Matrox and others relied on the CPU for geometry processing.
This subject matter is part of the technical foundation for modern computer graphics, and is a comprehensive topic
taught at both the undergraduate and graduate levels as part of a computer science education.
81
Geometry pipelines
References
Geometry processing
Geometry processing, or mesh processing, is a fast-growing[citation needed] area of research that uses concepts from
applied mathematics, computer science and engineering to design efficient algorithms for the acquisition,
reconstruction, analysis, manipulation, simulation and transmission of complex 3D models.
Applications of geometry processing algorithms already cover a wide range of areas from multimedia, entertainment
and classical computer-aided design, to biomedical computing, reverse engineering and scientific computing.[citation
needed]
References
External links
Siggraph 2001 Course on Digital Geometry Processing (http://www.multires.caltech.edu/pubs/DGPCourse/),
by Peter Schroder and Wim Sweldens
Symposium on Geometry Processing (http://www.geometryprocessing.org/)
Multi-Res Modeling Group (http://www.multires.caltech.edu/), Caltech
Mathematical Geometry Processing Group (http://geom.mi.fu-berlin.de/index.html), Free University of
Berlin
Computer Graphics Group (http://www.graphics.rwth-aachen.de), RWTH Aachen University
Polygonal Mesh Processing Book (http://www.pmp-book.org/)
82
Gimbal lock
83
Gimbal lock
Gimbal lock is the loss of one degree of freedom in a
three-dimensional, three-gimbal mechanism that occurs when the axes
of two of the three gimbals are driven into a parallel configuration,
"locking" the system into rotation in a degenerate two-dimensional
space.
The word lock is misleading: no gimbal is restrained. All three gimbals
can still rotate freely about their respective axes of suspension.
Nevertheless, because of the parallel orientation of two of the gimbals
axes there is no gimbal available to accommodate rotation along one
axis.
Gimbals
A gimbal is a ring that is so suspended as to rotate about an axis.
Gimbals typically nest one within another to accommodate rotation
about multiple axes.
Gimbal with 3 axes of rotation. A set of three

gimbals mounted together to allow three degrees
of freedom: roll, pitch and yaw. When two
gimbals rotate around the same axis, the system
loses one degree of freedom.
They so appear in gyroscopes and in inertial measurement units as to

allow the inner gimbal's orientation to remain fixed while the outer
gimbal suspension assumes any orientation. In compasses and flywheel
energy storage mechanisms they allow objects to remain upright. They
are used to orient thrusters on rockets.
Some coordinate systems in mathematics behave as if real gimbals
were used to measure the angles, notably Euler angles.
For cases of three or fewer nested gimbals, gimbal lock inevitably
occurs at some point in the system due to properties of covering spaces
(described below).
Gimbal lock in mechanical engineering

Gimbal lock in two dimensions
Adding a fourth rotational axis can solve the

problem of gimbal lock, but it requires the
outermost ring to be actively driven so that it
stays 90 degrees out of alignment with the
innermost axis (the flywheel shaft). Without
active driving of the outermost ring, all four axes
can become aligned in a plane as shown above,
again leading to gimbal lock and inability to roll.
Gimbal lock can occur in gimbal systems with two degrees of freedom
such as a theodolite with rotations about an azimuth and elevation in
two dimensions. These systems can gimbal lock at zenith and nadir, because at those points azimuth is not
well-defined, and rotation in the azimuth direction does not change the direction the theodolite is pointing.
Consider tracking a helicopter flying towards the theodolite from the horizon. The theodolite is a telescope mounted
on a tripod so that it can move in azimuth and elevation to track the helicopter. The helicopter flies towards the
theodolite and is tracked by the telescope in elevation and azimuth. The helicopter flies immediately above the tripod
(i.e. it is at zenith) when it changes direction and flies at 90 degrees to its previous course. The telescope cannot track
this maneuver without a discontinuous jump in one or both of the gimbal orientations. There is no continuous motion
that allows it to follow the target. It is in gimbal lock. So there is an infinity of directions around zenith that the
telescope cannot continuously track all movements of a target. Note that even if the helicopter does not pass through
zenith, but only near zenith, so that gimbal lock does not occur, the system must still move exceptionally rapidly to
Gimbal lock
84
track it, as it rapidly passes from one bearing to the other. The closer to zenith the nearest point is, the faster this
must be done, and if it actually goes through zenith, the limit of these "increasingly rapid" movements becomes
infinitely fast, namely discontinuous.
To recover from gimbal lock the user has to go around the zenith explicitly: reduce the elevation, change the
azimuth to match the azimuth of the target, then change the elevation to match the target.
Mathematically, this corresponds to the fact that spherical coordinates do not define a coordinate chart on the sphere
at zenith and nadir. Alternatively, that the corresponding map T2S2 from the torus T2 to the sphere S2 (given by the
point with given azimuth and elevation) is not a covering map at these points.
Gimbal lock in three dimensions

Consider a case of a level sensing platform on an aircraft flying due
North with its three gimbal axes mutually perpendicular (i.e., roll, pitch
and yaw angles each zero). If the aircraft pitches up 90 degrees, the
aircraft and platform's Yaw axis gimbal becomes parallel to the Roll
axis gimbal, and changes about yaw can no longer be compensated for.
Solutions
This problem may be overcome by use of a fourth gimbal, intelligently
driven by a motor so as to maintain a large angle between roll and yaw
gimbal axes. Another solution is to rotate one or more of the gimbals to
an arbitrary position when gimbal lock is detected and thus reset the
device.
Modern practice is to avoid the use of gimbals entirely. In the context
of inertial navigation systems, that can be done by mounting the
inertial sensors directly to the body of the vehicle (this is called a
strapdown system) and integrating sensed rotation and acceleration
digitally using quaternion methods to derive vehicle orientation and
velocity. Another way to replace gimbals is to use fluid bearings or a
flotation chamber.
Gimbal locked airplane. When the pitch (green)

and yaw (magenta) gimbals become aligned,
changes to roll (blue) and yaw apply the same
rotation to the airplane.
Gimbal lock on Apollo 11

A well-known gimbal lock incident happened in the Apollo 11 Moon
mission. On this spacecraft, a set of gimbals was used on an inertial
measurement unit (IMU). The engineers were aware of the gimbal lock
problem but had declined to use a fourth gimbal. Some of the
reasoning behind this decision is apparent from the following quote:
"The advantages of the redundant gimbal seem to be outweighed
by the equipment simplicity, size advantages, and corresponding
implied reliability of the direct three degree of freedom unit."
Normal situation: the three gimbals are

independent
David Hoag,Apollo Lunar Surface Journal

They preferred an alternate solution using an indicator that would be triggered when near to 85 degrees pitch.
Gimbal lock
85
"Near that point, in a closed stabilization loop, the torque motors

could theoretically be commanded to flip the gimbal 180 degrees
instantaneously. Instead, in the LM, the computer flashed a
'gimbal lock' warning at 70 degrees and froze the IMU at 85
degrees"
Paul Fjeld,Apollo Lunar Surface Journal
Rather than try to drive the gimbals faster than they could go, the
system simply gave up and froze the platform. From this point, the
spacecraft would have to be manually moved away from the gimbal
lock position, and the platform would have to be manually realigned
using the stars as a reference.
Gimbal lock: two out of the three gimbals are in

the same plane, one degree of freedom is lost
After the Lunar Module had landed, Mike Collins aboard the Command Module joked "How about sending me a
fourth gimbal for Christmas?"
Robotics
In robotics, gimbal lock is commonly referred to as "wrist flip", due to
the use of a "triple-roll wrist" in robotic arms, where three axes of the
wrist, controlling yaw, pitch, and roll, all pass through a common
point.
An example of a wrist flip, also called a wrist singularity, is when the
path through which the robot is traveling causes the first and third axes
of the robot's wrist to line up. The second wrist axis then attempts to
spin 180 in zero time to maintain the orientation of the end effector.
The result of a singularity can be quite dramatic and can have adverse
effects on the robot arm, the end effector, and the process.
The importance of non-singularities in robotics has led the American
Industrial robot operating in a foundry.
National Standard for Industrial Robots and Robot Systems Safety
Requirements to define it as "a condition caused by the collinear
alignment of two or more robot axes resulting in unpredictable robot motion and velocities".[1]
Gimbal lock in applied mathematics

The problem of gimbal lock appears when one uses Euler angles in applied mathematics; developers of 3D computer
programs, such as 3D modeling, embedded navigation systems, and video games must take care to avoid it.
In formal language, gimbal lock occurs because the map from Euler angles to rotations (topologically, from the
3-torus T3 to the real projective space RP3) is not a covering map it is not a local homeomorphism at every point,
and thus at some points the rank (degrees of freedom) must drop below 3, at which point gimbal lock occurs. Euler
angles provide a means for giving a numerical description of any rotation in three-dimensional space using three
numbers, but not only is this description not unique, but there are some points where not every change in the target
space (rotations) can be realized by a change in the source space (Euler angles). This is a topological constraint
there is no covering map from the 3-torus to the 3-dimensional real projective space; the only (non-trivial) covering
map is from the 3-sphere, as in the use of quaternions.
Gimbal lock
86
To make a comparison, all the translations can be described using three numbers
of three consecutive linear movements along three perpendicular axes
rotations, all the rotations can be described using three numbers
, and
, and
and
, as the succession
axes. That's the same for

, as the succession of three
rotational movements around three axes that are perpendicular one to the next. This similarity between linear
coordinates and angular coordinates makes Euler angles very intuitive, but unfortunately they suffer from the gimbal
lock problem.
Loss of a degree of freedom with Euler angles

A rotation in 3D space can be represented numerically with matrices in several ways. One of these representations is:
with
and
constrained in the interval
, and
Let's examine for example what happens when
constrained in the interval

. Knowing that
.
and
, the above
expression becomes equal to:
The second matrix is the identity matrix and has no effect on the product. Carrying out matrix multiplication of first
and third matrices:
And finally using the trigonometry formulas:
Changing the values of
and
the rotation axis remains in the
in the above matrix has the same effects: the rotation angle
changes, but
direction: the last column and the last row in the matrix won't change. Only one
degree of freedom (corresponding to
) remains; one other (corresponding to
degree of freedom corresponding to the choice
). The only solution for
) has been lost (the third

and
to recover different roles
is to change to some value other than 0. A similar problem appears when

.
One can choose another convention for representing a rotation with a matrix using Euler angles than the Z-X-Z
convention above, and also choose other variation intervals for the angles, but in the end there is always at least one
value for which a degree of freedom is lost.
Note that the gimbal lock problem does not make Euler angles "invalid" (they always serve as a well-defined
coordinate system), but it makes them unsuited for some practical applications.
Alternate orientation representation

The cause of gimbal lock is representing an orientation as 3 axial rotations with Euler angles. A potential solution
therefore is to represent the orientation in some other way. This could be as a rotation matrix, a quaternion, or a
similar orientation representation that treats the orientation as a value rather than 3 separate and related values. Given
such a representation, the user stores the orientation as a value. To apply angular changes, the orientation is modified
by a delta angle/axis rotation. The resulting orientation must be re-normalized to prevent floating-point error from
successive transformations from accumulating. For matrices, re-normalizing the result requires converting the matrix
Gimbal lock
into its nearest orthonormal representation. For quaternions, re-normalization requires performing quaternion
normalization.
References
[1] ANSI/RIA R15.06-1999
External links
Euler angles and gimbal lock (video) Part 1 (http://guerrillacg.org/home/3d-rigging/the-rotation-problem),
Part 2 (http://guerrillacg.org/home/3d-rigging/euler-rotations-explained)
Gimble Lock - Explained (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rrUCBOlJdt4) at YouTube
87
Glide API
88
Glide API
Glide
Original author(s) 3dfx Interactive
Stable release
3.10 / April 3, 2013
Written in
Assembly, C
Operating system
Cross-platform
Type
3D graphics API
License
GNU General Public License
Website
glide.sourceforge.net
Glide is a 3D graphics API developed by 3dfx

Interactive for their Voodoo Graphics 3D accelerator
cards. Although it originally started as a proprietary
API, it was later open sourced by 3dfx.[2] It was
dedicated to gaming performance, supporting geometry
and texture mapping primarily, in data formats identical
to those used internally in their cards. Wide adoption of
3Dfx led to Glide being extensively used in the late
1990s[citation needed], but further refinement of
Microsoft's Direct3D and the appearance of full
OpenGL implementations from other graphics card
vendors, in addition to growing diversity in 3D
hardware, eventually caused it to become
superfluous.[citation needed]
[1]
Unreal utilizing its Glide renderer on Voodoo Graphics hardware
API
Glide is based on the basic geometry and "world view" of OpenGL. OpenGL is a large graphics library with 336
calls[citation needed] in the API, many of which are of limited use. Glide was an effort to select primarily features that
were useful for real-time rendering of 3D games. The result was an API that was small enough to be implemented
entirely in late-1990s hardware. However, this focus led to various limitations in Glide, such as a 16-bit color depth
limit in the display buffer.[3]
Glide API
Use in games
The combination of the hardware performance of Voodoo Graphics (Voodoo 1) and Glide's easy-to-use API resulted
in Voodoo cards generally dominating the gaming market during the latter half of the 1990s. The name Glide was
chosen to be indicative of the GL underpinnings, while being different enough to avoid trademark problems. [citation
needed]
Glide wrappers and emulators

Glide emulator development has been in progress since the late 1990s. During 3dfx's lifetime, the company was
aggressive at trying to stop these attempts to emulate their proprietary API, shutting down early emulation projects
with legal threats.[4] However, just before it ceased operations and had its assets purchased by Nvidia, 3dfx released
the Glide API, along with the Voodoo 2 and Voodoo 3 specifications, under an open source license,[5] which later
evolved into an open source project.[6] Although no games released after 1999 depend on Glide for 3D acceleration
(Direct3D and OpenGL are used instead), Glide emulation is still needed to run older games in hardware accelerated
mode. With the specifications and code now open source, there are several capable emulators and wrappers available
allowing older games that make use of the Glide API to run on non-Voodoo hardware. Other projects like Glidos
allow even older games to use Glide.
References
[1] http:/ / glide. sourceforge. net/
[2] (http:/ / www. ohloh. net/ licenses/ 3DFX GLIDE Source Code General Public License) The 3DFX GLIDE Source Code General Public
License
[3] http:/ / www. gamers. org/ dEngine/ xf3D/ glide/ glidepgm. htm GLIDE programming manual
[4] 3dfx wraps up wrapper Web sites (http:/ / www. theregister. co. uk/ 1999/ 04/ 08/ 3dfx_wraps_up_wrapper_web/ ), The Register, April 8,
1999.
[5] http:/ / www. theregister. co. uk/ 1999/ 12/ 07/ 3dfx_open_sources_glide_voodoo/
[6] http:/ / sourceforge. net/ projects/ glide/
External links
Glide Sourceforge Project (http://glide.sourceforge.net/)

GLIDE programming manual (http://www.gamers.org/dEngine/xf3D/glide/glidepgm.htm)
Glide Wrappers List (http://www.sierrahelp.com/Utilities/DisplayUtilities/GlideWrappers.html)
OpenGL Documentation (http://www.opengl.org/documentation)
89
GloriaFX
90
GloriaFX
GloriaFX
Gloria FX
The Head logo of GloriaFX
Type
Incorporated
Industry
VFX, Animation, Design
Founded
2008
Headquarters
Dnepropetrovsk,
Ukraine
Key people
Tomash Kuzmitskiy
Owner(s)
Tomash Kuzmitskiy (Creative Director)
Website
http:/ / gloriafx. com/
Gloria FX is a Ukrainian visual effects company based in Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine. The company known for
creating high-quality visual effects for feature films, music videos and commercials.[1]
It was founded in 2008 by Tomash Kuzmitskiy. The company has more than 45 creative artists: VFX supervisors,
Animators, Modelers, FX TD, Matte painters, Compositors, Rotoscopers, Matchmove artists.[2]
In 2013 was opened the Gloria FX School, which allows to prepare the appropriate level professionals for the further
success projects.
The company collaborates with major U.S .and European production companies such as Riveting Entertainment,
London Alley Entertainment, RockHard, DNA, Iconoclast, the Masses, Saatchi&Saatchi, BHC Films, Friendly Films
AS , NE Derection, Ramble West Productions, Aggressive Group, Doomsday Entertainment, Star Media. Also
worked with such directors as Colin Tilley, Ray Kay, Nabil, Chris Marrs Piliero.
Gloria FX has completed many successful effects projects for music artists, including Chris Brown,[3] Lil
Wayne,[4]Wiz Khalifa,[5]Rick Ross,[6] Kelly Clarkson, Nicki Minaj,[7] Daft Punk, Tyga, Justin Bieber,[8] Foals,[9]
Madcon, Cher, Ciara,Busta Rhymes, Hurts, Snoop Dogg and many other.
GloriaFX
91
Awards
Year
Project
2013 Austin Mahone- What about love

Lil Wayne - Love Me (Explicit) ft. Drake, Future
2012 Chris Brown Turn Up the Music
Gloria FX reel
2011 Chris Brown ft Lil Wayne & Busta Rhymes - Look at
Me Now
Gloria FX reel
Ceremony
Result
MTV Video Music Awards
Artist to watch
Music Video Production

Association
Best Hip Hop Video in 2013
MTV
Best Male Video and Best Dance

Video
Won
CG Event 2012 (Moscow)
Commercials & Motion Design
Won
BET
Video Of The Year
[10]
CG Event 2011 (Moscow)
Music videography
2013
Category
Rick Ross - "No Games ft. Future"

Enrique Iglesias - "Heart Attack"
French Montana - "Gifted ft. The Weeknd"
JAMES BLAKE [life round here] ft. Chance The Rapper
Cris Cab - "Liar Liar"
Paris Hilton - "Good Time ft. Lil Wayne"
Tyga - "Hijack ft. 2 Chainz"
Zendaya - "Replay"
DJ Smash - Stop The Time
Mike WILL Made It ft Miley, Wiz Khalifa, Juicy J "23"
Vali - "Dimes ft. Wiz Khalifa"
Chris Brown - "Love More (Explicit) ft. Nicki Minaj"
Cher - "Woman's World"
Arctic Monkeys - "Why'd You Only Call Me When You're High?"
JUST BLAZE X BAAUER x JAYZ. [HIGHER]
Krewella - "Live for the Night"
Jay Sean - "Mars ft. Rick Ross"
Demi Lovato - "Made in the USA"
Jason Derulo - "Marry Me"
Masspike Miles - "Flatline ft Wiz Khalifa"
SKINNY - "TALK 4 ME"
Jason Derulo - "Talk Dirty" feat. 2 Chainz"
Nelly ft. Nicki Minaj & Pharrell Williams - "Get Like Me"
Fifth Harmony - "Miss Movin' On"
Ciara ft. Nicki Minaj "I'm Out"
Snoop Dogg "Let The Bass Go"
Hurts - "Somebody to Die For"
DJ Khaled f/ Drake, Rick Ross, Lil Wayne "No New Friends"
Austin Mahone "What About Love"
CG Event Reel 2011
Won
Won
Won
Won
GloriaFX
Tyga Ft. Chris Brown - Fuck For The Road

Jason Derulo - The Other Side
Rich Gang Tapout (feat. Lil Wayne, Birdman, Mack Maine, Nicki Minaj & Future)
Sean Kingston - Beat It ft. Chris Brown, Wiz Khalifa
Ray J - I Hit It First ft. Bobby Brackins
Tyga - Molly (Explicit)
Jay Sean - Where You Are
Lil Poopy - I think I'm French Montana I Think I am RICK ROSS
Kelly Rowland - Kisses Down Low
Lil Wayne - Love Me (Explicit) ft. Drake, Future
Cher Lloyd - With Ur Love
Madcon - In My Head
Mirami Amour
Tyga - Dope (Explicit) ft. Rick Ross
David Guetta - Just One Last Time ft. Taped Rai
Juicy J ft. Lil Wayne - Bands A Make Her Dance
Salud [OFFICIAL VIDEO] - Sky Blu ft. Reek Rude, Sensato and Wilmer Valderrama
Lil Wayne "God Bless Amerika"

Ex.Producer: Andrew Listermann
Chris Brown Feat Aaliyah - Don't Think They Know
FOALS - Bad habit
U.G.L.Y. - REDD (feat. Maad Scientist)
POLICA - TIFF (feat. Justin Vernon)
Kelly Clarkson - People Like Us
Daft Punk New Video (Teaser)
James Blake [overgrown]
Chris Brown - Fine China
Lil Wayne ft. 2 Chainz - Rich As Fuck ft. 2 Chainz
Mack Maine - Celebrate (Explicit) ft. Talib Kweli, Lil Wayne
Sabrina Antoinette - I Know You're Out There
Amex Sync On Twitter - American Express COMMERCIAL
Sevyn Streeter - "I Like
2012
LL Cool J - Take It ft. Joe

Nicki Minaj Pink Friday - Official Fragrance Commercial
feat. Craig David - Sex In The Bathroom
Nicki Minaj, Cassie - The Boys
Colin Tilley
Chris Brown "Dont Judge Me"
Taio Cruz - Fast Car
Machine Gun Kelly Stereo
Conor Maynard - Turn Around ft. Ne-Yo
Dappy - Good Intentions
Tulisa ft. Tyga - Live it Up
Nicki Minaj I am your leader

DJ SMASH feat T-MOOR RODRIGUEZ JUM
92
GloriaFX
Director Parris Stewart

Lil Wayne feat. Big Sean "My Homies Still"
Director - Colin Tilley
David Guetta - I Can Only Imagine ft. Chris Brown, Lil Wayne
Melanie Fiona - This Time ft. J. Cole
Chris Brown - Don't Wake Me Up
Chris Brown ft. Big Sean & Wiz Khalifa - Till I Die
Chris Brown - Sweet Love
Kevin McCall - Naked ft. Big Sean
Birdman "Dark Shades" Ft Lil Wayne and Mack Maine
DJ KHALED "Take It to the Head" ft. Chris Brown . Rick Ross . Nicki Minaj . Lil Wayne
Chris Brown - Sweet Love
Rick Ross, Meek Mill & T-Pain - Bag of Money
Mercedes-Benz : Stars
Clara Louise feat. Fabian Buch - Happy Birthday (Once Again)
Mary J. Blige feat Rick Ross Why
Justin Bieber Boyfriend
TYGA feat BIG SEAN - "IM GONE"

Tyga feat Lil Wayne - Faded
Platnum - SoulRSystem
Timati - RockStar
J.Cole feat Missy Elliot - Nobody's perfect
Aura Dione feat Rock Mafia - Friends
Timati feat Sergey Lazarev and DJ M.E.G. - Moscow to California
Kem - You're On My Mind
LABRINTH - Last Time
Chris Brown - "Turn up the music"
French Montana ft. Rick Ross, Diddy & Charlie Rock - Shot Caller (Remix)
Wale feat Big Sean - Slight Work
Shanell - "My Buttons"
-
Lil Wayne ft. Bruno Mars Mirror
Mike Posner She looks like sex
Cher Lloyd ft. Astro Want U Back
2011
Jawan Harris feat. Chris Brown Another Planet

Lara Scandar- Chains
Kevin Cossom ft. Fabolous&Diddy Baby I Like It
Diddy / Dirty Money Feat. Chris Brown Yesterday
Mary J. Blige Someone To Love Me (Naked) feat. Diddy& Lil Wayne
Romeo Santos You
Melanie Fiona NeverComingBack
Diddy Dirty Money feat. TreySongzandRickRoss YourLove
Chipmunk Feat. KeriHilson InTheAir
Lil Wayne John (Explicit) ft. RickRoss

Chris Brown SheAin'tYou
93
GloriaFX
Chris Brown ft. BustaRhymes&LilWayne LookAtMeNow

Keri Hilson - "LoseControl" ft. Nelly
New Boyz ft. Chris Brown Better With The Lights Off
Chris Brown feat. Justin Bieber Next 2 You
JLS feat. Dev She Makes Me Wanna
Young Jeezy ft. Lil Wayne Ballin
Katy B WitchesBrew
WizKhalifa NoSleep
Sean Garrett (Feat. Rick Ross) In Da Box
Fabian Buch Turn Off The Lights
Melanie Fiona 4 AM
Loick Essien Me Without You
Jason Derulo Breathing
Kristian Valen - Letting go
Chris Brown ft. Kevin K-MAC McCall Strip
FreeSol Ft. Justin Timberlake &Timbaland Fascinated
Jessie J Domino
References
[1] http:/ / vfxg. org/ profiles/ blogs/ the-kick-ass-ukrainian-vfx-company-you-ve-never-heard-of?fb_action_ids=430594120387072&
fb_action_types=og. likes& fb_source=aggregation& fb_aggregation_id=288381481237582
[2] http:/ / www. cgmeetup. net/ home/ gloriafx-visual-effects-demoreel-2012/
[3] http:/ / gloriafx. com/ chris-brown-love-more- ft-nicki-minaj/
[4] http:/ / www. videostatic. com/ watch-it/ 2013/ 07/ 15/ lil-wayne-god-bless-amerika-eif-rivera-dir
[5] http:/ / gloriafx. com/ wiz-khalifa-no-sleep/
[6] http:/ / www. hotnewhiphop. com/ rick-ross-feat-future-no-games-video-video. 21251. html
[7] http:/ / www. dailymotion. com/ video/ xugfh2_nicki-minaj-cassie-the-boys-explicit_music
[8] http:/ / www. directlyrics. com/ justin-bieber-boyfriend-lyrics. html
[9] http:/ / www. stereogum. com/ 1383932/ foals-bad-habit-video-nsfw/ video/
[10] https:/ / www. facebook. com/ media/ set/ ?set=a. 314901068528152. 82780. 160300277321566& type=1
94
95

See also Hemicube (geometry)
A hemicube is a concept used in 3D computer graphics rendering. A
hemicube is one way to represent a 180 view from a surface or point
in space.
Shape
Unfolding a hemicube
Although the name implies any half of a cube, a hemicube is usually a

cube cut through a plane parallel to one of its faces. Therefore it consists of one square face, two 2:1 aspect ratio
rectangles, and two 1:2 aspect ratio rectangles.
Uses
The hemicube may be used in the Radiosity algorithm or other Light Transport algorithms in order to determine the
amount of light arriving at a particular point on a surface.
In some cases, a hemicube may be used in Environment Mapping or Reflection Mapping.
Image plane
In 3D computer graphics, the image plane is that plane in the world which is identified with the plane of the
monitor. If one makes the analogy of taking a photograph to rendering a 3D image, the surface of the film is the
image plane. In this case, the viewing transformation is a projection that maps the world onto the image plane. A
rectangular region of this plane, called the viewing window or viewport, maps to the monitor. This establishes the
mapping between pixels on the monitor and points (or rather, rays) in the 3D world.
In optics, the image plane is the plane that contains the object's projected image, and lies beyond the back focal
plane.
Image-based meshing
Image-based meshing
Image-based meshing is the automated process of creating computer models for computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) and finite element analysis (FEA) from 3D image data (such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI),
computed tomography (CT) or microtomography). Although a wide range of mesh generation techniques are
currently available, these were usually developed to generate models from computer-aided design (CAD), and have
therefore difficulties meshing from 3D imaging data.
Mesh generation from 3D imaging data

Meshing from 3D imaging data presents a number of challenges but also unique opportunities for presenting a more
realistic and accurate geometrical description of the computational domain. There are generally two ways of meshing
from 3D imaging data:
CAD-based approach
The majority of approaches used to date still follow the traditional CAD route by using an intermediary step of
surface reconstruction which is then followed by a traditional CAD-based meshing algorithm.[1] CAD-based
approaches use the scan data to define the surface of the domain and then create elements within this defined
boundary. Although reasonably robust algorithms are now available, these techniques are often time consuming, and
virtually intractable for the complex topologies typical of image data. They also do not easily allow for more than
one domain to be meshed, as multiple surfaces are often non-conforming with gaps or overlaps at interfaces where
one or more structures meet.[2]
Image-based approach
This approach is the more direct way as it combines the geometric detection and mesh creation stages in one process
which offers a more robust and accurate result than meshing from surface data. Voxel conversion technique
providing meshes with brick elements [3] and with tetrahedral elements [4] have been proposed. Another approach
generates 3D hexahedral or tetrahedral elements throughout the volume of the domain, thus creating the mesh
directly with conforming multipart surfaces. [5]
Generating a model
The steps involved in the generation of models based on 3D imaging data are:
Scan and image processing

An extensive range of image processing tools can be used to generate highly accurate models based on data from 3D
imaging modalities, e.g. MRI, CT, MicroCT (XMT), and Ultrasound. Features of particular interest include:
Segmentation tools (e.g. thresholding, floodfill, level set methods, etc.)
Filters and smoothing tools (e.g. volume- and topology-preserving smoothing).
96
Image-based meshing
Volume and surface mesh generation

The image-based meshing technique allows the straightforward generation of meshes out of segmented 3D data.
Features of particular interest include:
Multi-part meshing (mesh any number of structures simultaneously)
Mapping functions to apply material properties based on signal strength (e.g. Young's modulus to Hounsfield
scale)
Smoothing of meshes (e.g. topological preservation of data to ensure preservation of connectivity, and volume
neutral smoothing to prevent shrinkage of convex hulls)
Export to FEA and CFD codes for analysis (e.g. nodes, elements, material properties, contact surfaces)
Typical use
Biomechanics and design of medical and dental implants

Food science
Forensic science
Materials science (composites and foams)
Nondestructive testing (NDT)
Paleontology and functional morphology

Reverse engineering
Soil science and petrology
References
[1] Viceconti et al, 1998. TRI2SOLID: an application of reverse engineering methods to the creation of CAD models of bone segments.
Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine, 56, 211220.
[2] Young et al, 2008. An efficient approach to converting 3D image data into highly accurate computational models. Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society A, 366, 31553173.
[3] Fyhrie et al, 1993. The probability distribution of trabecular level strains for vertebral cancellous bone. Transactions of the 39th Annual
Meeting of the Orthopaedic Research Society, San Francisco.
[4] Frey et al, 1994. Fully automatic mesh generation for 3-D domains based upon voxel sets. International Journal of Methods in Engineering,
37, 27352753.
[5] Young et al, 2008. An efficient approach to converting 3D image data into highly accurate computational models. Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society A, 366, 31553173.
External links
ScanIP commercial image-based meshing software: www.simpleware.com (http://www.simpleware.com)
Mimics 3D image-based engineering software for FEA and CFD on anatomical data: Mimics website (http://
www.materialise.com/mimics)
Google group on image-based modelling: (http://groups.google.co.uk/group/image-based-modelling)
Avizo Software's 3D image-based meshing tools for CFD and FEA
iso2mesh: a free 3D surface and volumetric mesh generator for matlab/octave (http://iso2mesh.sourceforge.net/
)
97
Inflatable icons
98
Inflatable icons
Inflatable Icons refers to a technique that turns 2D icons into 3D
models. There are many applications for this technique such as rapid
prototyping, simulations and presentations, where non-professional
computer users could benefit from the ability to create simple 3D
models. Existing tools are geared towards the creation of production
quality 3D models by professional users with sufficient background,
time and motivation to overcome steep learning curves.
3D model
References
Repenning, A. 2005. Inflatable Icons: Diffusion-based Interactive Extrusion of 2D Images into 3D
Models [1]. * The Journal of Graphical Tools, 10(1): 1-15
2D icon
References
[1] http:/ / jgt. akpeters. com/ papers/ Repenning05/

Interactive Digital Centre Asia (IDCA) is a strategic partnership among Temasek Polytechnic, IM Innovations Pte
Ltd and global technology companies, focusing on 3D Interactive Digital Media (IDM) solutions and services for
various industries. IDCA aims to be a leading virtual and physical hub for connectivity, innovation and collaboration
amongst the IDM community, especially in Singapore and the Asia-Pacific region.
History
IDCA is an expansion of the original strategic partnership between Temasek Polytechnic and IM Innovations Pte Ltd
which started with the establishment of the 3D Media Studio in 2005 to promote the pervasive use of 3D
visualisation and digital media solutions and services. With the success of 3D Media Studio, Temasek Polytechnic,
IM Innovations and EON Reality Inc. formally launched IDCA on 1st November 2007, supported by the Infocomm
Development Authority of Singapore (IDA).
3D Research & Development
Development of 3D interactive applications

Creation of 3D digital contents, animation and visual effects
Training to use various 3D software tools
Professional, consulting and system integration services
Innovative proof-of-concept projects
Use-inspired applied research
External links
Interactive Digital Centre Asia (IDCA) [1]

Temasek Polytechnic [2]
IM Innovations [3]
Infocomm Development Authority of Singapore (IDA) [4]
EON Reality [5]
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
http:/ / www. idc-asia. com. sg

http:/ / www. tp. edu. sg
http:/ / www. im-innovations. com
http:/ / www. ida. gov. sg
http:/ / www. eonreality. com

Interactive skeleton-driven simulation (or Interactive skeleton-driven dynamic deformations) is a scientific
computer simulation technique used to approximate realistic physical deformations of dynamic bodies in real-time. It
involves using elastic dynamics and mathematical optimizations to decide the body-shapes during motion and
interaction with forces. It has various applications within realistic simulations for medicine, 3D computer animation
and virtual reality.
Background
Methods for simulating deformation, such as changes of shapes, of dynamic bodies involve intensive calculations,
and several models have been developed. Some of these are known as free-form deformation, skeleton-driven
deformation, dynamic deformation and anatomical modelling. Skeletal animation is well known in computer
animation and 3D character simulation. Because of the calculation intensitivity of the simulation, few interactive
systems are available which realistically can simulate dynamic bodies in real-time. Being able to interact with such a
realistic 3D model would mean that calculations would have to be performed within the constraints of a frame rate
which would be acceptable via a user interface.
Recent research has been able to build on previously developed models and methods to provide sufficiently efficient
and realistic simulations. The promise for this technique can be as widespread as mimicing human facial expressions
for perception of simulating a human actor in real-time or other cell organisms. Using skeletal constraints and
parameterized force to calculate deformations also has the benefit of matching how a single cell has a shaping
skeleton, as well as how a larger living organism might have an internal bone skeleton - such as the vertebraes. The
generalized external body force simulations makes elasticity calculations more efficient, and means real-time
interactions are possible.
99
100
Basic theory
There are several components to such a simulation system:
a polygon mesh defining the body shape of the model

a coarse volumetric mesh using finite element methods to ensure complete integration over the model
line constraints corresponding to internal skeleton and instrumented to the model
linearizing of equations of motion to achieve interactive rates
hierarchical regions of the mesh associated with skeletal lines
blending of locally linearlized simulations
a control lattice through subdivision fitting the model by surrounding and covering it
a hierarchical basis containing functions which will provide values for deformation of each lattice
domain with calculations of these hierarchical functions similar to that of lazy wavelets
Rather than fitting the object to the skeleton, as is common, the skeleton is used to set constraints for deformation.
Also the hierarchical basis means that detail levels can be introduced or removed when needed - for example,
observing from a distance or hidden surfaces.
Pre-calculated poses are used to be able to interpolate between shapes and achieve realistic deformations throughout
motions. This means traditional keyframes are avoided.
There are performance tuning similarities between this technique and procedural generation, wavelet and data
compression methods.
Algorithmic considerations
To achieve interactivity there are several optimizations necessary which are implementation specific.
Start
by
defining
the
object
you
.
wish
to
animate
as
set
(i.e.
define
all
the
points):
non-wobble
point):
Then get a handle on it. Let

Then
you
need
to
define
the
rest
state
of
the
object
(the
Projects
Projects are taking place to further develop this technique and presenting results to SIGGRAPH, with available
reference of details. Academic institutions and commercial enterprises like Alias Systems Corporation (the makers of
the Maya rendering software), Intel and Electronic Arts are among the known proponents of this work. There are
also videos available showcasing the techniques, with editors showing interactivity in real-time with realistic results.
The computer game Spore also has showcased similar techniques.
References
Interactive Character Animation Using Dynamic Elastic Simulation [1], 2004, Steve Capell Ph.D. dissertation.
Interactive Skeleton-Driven Dynamic Deformations [2], 2002 SIGGRAPH. Authors: Steve Capell, Seth Green,
Brian Curless, Tom Duchamp and Zoran Popovi.
A Multiresolution Framework for Dynamic Deformations [3], 2002 SIGGRAPH.Authors: Steve Capell, Seth
Green, Brian Curless, Tom Duchamp and Zoran Popovi.
Physically Based Rigging for Deformable Characters [4], 2005 SIGGRAPH. Authors: Steve Capell, Matthew
Burkhart, Brian Curless, Tom Duchamp and Zoran Popovi.
101
Skeleton-driven Deformation - lecture on physically-based modelling, simulation and animation [5], 2005, Ming
C. Lin, University of North Carolina, USA.
External links
Video of an interactive skeletal and model editor with introduction to the basic theory [6], University of
Washington, USA.
Deformable Objects and Characters project [7], University of Washington, USA. Has example videos of the
techniques.
Motion Libraries for Character Animation project [8], University of Washington, USA. Has example videos of
the techniques.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
http:/ / grail. cs. washington. edu/ theses/ CapellPhd. pdf

http:/ / grail. cs. washington. edu/ pub/ papers/ Capell-2002-ISD. pdf
http:/ / grail. cs. washington. edu/ pub/ papers/ Capell-2002-MFD. pdf
http:/ / grail. cs. washington. edu/ pub/ papers/ Capell-2005-PBR. pdf
http:/ / www. cs. unc. edu/ ~lin/ COMP259-S05/ LEC/ 24. ppt
[6] http:/ / grail. cs. washington. edu/ projects/ deformation/ Capell-2002-ISD-divx. avi
[7] http:/ / grail. cs. washington. edu/ projects/ deformation/
[8] http:/ / grail. cs. washington. edu/ projects/ charanim/
Inverse kinematics
Inverse kinematics refers to the use of the kinematics equations of a
robot to determine the joint parameters that provide a desired position
of the end-effector. Specification of the movement of a robot so that its
end-effector achieves a desired task is known as motion planning.
Inverse kinematics transforms the motion plan into joint actuator
trajectories for the robot.
The movement of a kinematic chain whether it is a robot or an
animated character is modeled by the kinematics equations of the
chain. These equations define the configuration of the chain in terms of
its joint parameters. Forward kinematics uses the joint parameters to
compute the configuration of the chain, and inverse kinematics
reverses this calculation to determine the joint parameters that achieves
a desired configuration.[1][2][3]
For example, inverse kinematics formulas allow calculation of the joint
parameters that position a robot arm to pick up a part. Similar formulas
determine the positions of the skeleton of an animated character that is
to move in a particular way.
An industrial robot performing arc welding.

Inverse kinematics computes the joint trajectories
needed for the robot to guide the welding tip
along the part.
Inverse kinematics
102
Kinematic analysis
Kinematic analysis is one of the first steps in the design of most industrial
robots. Kinematic analysis allows the designer to obtain information on
the position of each component within the mechanical system. This
information is necessary for subsequent dynamic analysis along with
control paths.
Inverse kinematics is an example of the kinematic analysis of a
constrained system of rigid bodies, or kinematic chain. The kinematic
equations of a robot can be used to define the loop equations of a
complex articulated system. These loop equations are non-linear
constraints on the configuration parameters of the system. The
independent parameters in these equations are known as the degrees of
freedom of the system.
While analytical solutions to the inverse kinematics problem exist for a
wide range of kinematic chains, computer modeling and animation tools
often use Newton's method to solve the non-linear kinematics equations.
Other applications of inverse kinematic algorithms include interactive
manipulation, animation control and collision avoidance.
Inverse kinematics and 3D animation

Inverse kinematics is important to game programming and 3D animation,
where it is used to connect game characters physically to the world, such
as feet landing firmly on top of terrain.
A model of the human skeleton as a kinematic

chain allows positioning using inverse
kinematics.
An animated figure is modeled with a skeleton of rigid segments

connected with joints, called a kinematic chain. The kinematics equations of the figure define the relationship
between the joint angles of the figure and its pose or configuration. The forward kinematic animation problem uses
the kinematics equations to determine the pose given the joint angles. The inverse kinematics problem computes the
joint angles for a desired pose of the figure.
It is often easier for computer-based designers, artists and animators to define the spatial configuration of an
assembly or figure by moving parts, or arms and legs, rather than directly manipulating joint angles. Therefore,
inverse kinematics is used in computer-aided design systems to animate assemblies and by computer-based artists
and animators to position figures and characters.
The assembly is modeled as rigid links connected by joints that are defined as mates, or geometric constraints.
Movement of one element requires the computation of the joint angles for the other elements to maintain the joint
constraints. For example, inverse kinematics allows an artist to move the hand of a 3D human model to a desired
position and orientation and have an algorithm select the proper angles of the wrist, elbow, and shoulder joints.
Successful implementation of computer animation usually also requires that the figure move within reasonable
anthropomorphic limits.
Inverse kinematics
103
Approximating solutions to IK systems

There are many methods of modelling and solving inverse kinematics problems. The most flexible of these methods
typically rely on iterative optimization to seek out an approximate solution, due to the difficulty of inverting the
forward kinematics equation and the possibility of an empty solution space. The core idea behind several of these
methods is to model the forward kinematics equation using a Taylor series expansion, which can be simpler to invert
and solve than the original system.
The Jacobian inverse technique

The Jacobian inverse technique is a simple yet effective way of implementing inverse kinematics. Let there be
variables that govern the forward-kinematics equation, i.e the position function. These variables may be joint angles,
lengths, or other arbitrary real values. If the IK system lives in a 3-dimensional space, the position function can be
viewed as a mapping
. Let
give the initial position of the system, and
be
the goal position of the system. The Jacobian inverse technique simply attempts to generate iteratively improved
estimates of to minimize the error given by
. Each one of the intermediate estimates
can be added to
and evaluated by the position function to animate the system.
For small -vectors, the series expansion of the position function gives:
Where
is the (3 x m) Jacobian matrix of the position function at
Note that the (i, k)-th entry of the Jacobian matrix can be determined numerically:
Where
gives the i-th component of the position function,
is simply
with a small delta added to
its k-th component, and is a reasonably small positive value.

Taking the Moore-Penrose pseudoinverse of the Jacobian and re-arranging terms results in:
Where
. It is possible to use a singular value decomposition to obtain the
pseudo-inverse of the Jacobian.

Applying the inverse Jacobian method once will result in a very rough estimate of the desired -vector. A line
search should be used to scale this to an acceptable value. The estimate for can be improved via the following
algorithm (known as the Newton-Raphson method):
Once some -vector has caused the error to drop close to zero, the algorithm should terminate. Existing methods
based on the Hessian matrix of the system have been reported to converge to desired values using fewer
iterations, though, in some cases more computational resources.
Inverse kinematics
References
[2] J. J. Uicker, G. R. Pennock, and J. E. Shigley, 2003, Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, Oxford University Press, New York.
[3] J. M. McCarthy and G. S. Soh, 2010, Geometric Design of Linkages, (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=jv9mQyjRIw4C& pg=PA231&
lpg=PA231& dq=geometric+ design+ of+ linkages& source=bl& ots=j6TS1043qE& sig=R5ycw5DximWrQOEVshfiytflD6Q& hl=en&
sa=X& ei=0Zj4TuiCFvCGsgKyvO3FAQ& ved=0CGAQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage& q=geometric design of linkages& f=false) Springer, New
York.
External links
Robotics and 3D Animation in FreeBasic (http://sites.google.com/site/proyectosroboticos/
cinematica-inversa-iii) (Spanish)
Analytical Inverse Kinematics Solver (http://openrave.programmingvision.com/index.
php?title=Component:Ikfast) - Given an OpenRAVE robot kinematics description, generates a C++ file that
analytically solves for the complete IK.
Inverse Kinematics algorithms (http://freespace.virgin.net/hugo.elias/models/m_ik2.htm)
Robot Inverse solution for a common robot geometry (http://www.learnaboutrobots.com/inverseKinematics.
htm)
HowStuffWorks.com article How do the characters in video games move so fluidly? (http://entertainment.
howstuffworks.com/question538.htm) with an explanation of inverse kinematics
3D Theory Kinematics (http://www.euclideanspace.com/physics/kinematics/joints/index.htm)
Protein Inverse Kinematics (http://cnx.org/content/m11613/latest/)
Simple Inverse Kinematics example with source code using Jacobian (http://diegopark.googlepages.com/
computergraphics)
Detailed description of Jacobian and CCD solutions for inverse kinematics (http://billbaxter.com/courses/290/
html/index.htm)
104
Isosurface
105
Isosurface
An isosurface is a three-dimensional analog of an isoline. It is a
surface that represents points of a constant value (e.g. pressure,
temperature, velocity, density) within a volume of space; in other
words, it is a level set of a continuous function whose domain is
3D-space.
Isosurfaces are normally displayed using computer graphics, and are
used as data visualization methods in computational fluid dynamics
(CFD), allowing engineers to study features of a fluid flow (gas or
liquid) around objects, such as aircraft wings. An isosurface may
represent an individual shock wave in supersonic flight, or several
isosurfaces may be generated showing a sequence of pressure values in
the air flowing around a wing. Isosurfaces tend to be a popular form of
visualization for volume datasets since they can be rendered by a
simple polygonal model, which can be drawn on the screen very
quickly.
Zirconocene with an isosurface showing areas of

the molecule susceptible to electrophilic attack.
In medical imaging, isosurfaces may be used to represent regions of a

particular density in a three-dimensional CT scan, allowing the
visualization of internal organs, bones, or other structures.
Numerous other disciplines that are interested in three-dimensional
data often use isosurfaces to obtain information about pharmacology,
chemistry, geophysics and meteorology.
A popular method of constructing an isosurface from a data volume is
the marching cubes algorithm, and another, very similar method is the
marching tetrahedrons algorithm. Yet another is called the asymptotic
decider.
Examples of isosurfaces are 'Metaballs' or 'blobby objects' used in 3D
visualisation. A more general way to construct an isosurface is to use
the function representation.
Isosurface of vorticity trailed from a propeller

blade
References
Charles D. Hansen; Chris R. Johnson (2004). Visualization Handbook [1]. Academic Press. pp.711.
ISBN978-0-12-387582-2.
Isosurface
External links
Isosurface Polygonization [2]
References
[1] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ZFrlULckWdAC& pg=PA7
[2] http:/ / www2. imm. dtu. dk/ ~jab/ gallery/ polygonization. html
Joint constraints
Joint constraints are rotational constraints on the joints of an artificial bone system. They are used in an inverse
kinematics chain, for such things as 3D animation or robotics. Joint constraints can be implemented in a number of
ways, but the most common method is to limit rotation about the X, Y and Z axis independently. An elbow, for
instance, could be represented by limiting rotation on Y and Z axis to 0 degrees, and constraining the X-axis rotation
to 130 degrees.
To simulate joint constraints more accurately, dot-products can be used with an independent axis to repulse the child
bones orientation from the unreachable axis. Limiting the orientation of the child bone to a border of vectors tangent
to the surface of the joint, repulsing the child bone away from the border, can also be useful in the precise restriction
of shoulder movement.
Kinematic chain
Kinematic chain refers to an assembly of
rigid bodies connected by joints that is the
mathematical model for a mechanical
system.[1] As in the familiar use of the word
chain, the rigid bodies, or links, are
constrained by their connections to other
links. An example is the simple open chain
formed by links connected in series, like the
usual chain, which is the kinematic model
for a typical robot manipulator.[2]
Mathematical models of the connections, or
joints, between two links are termed
kinematic pairs. Kinematic pairs model the
hinged and sliding joints fundamental to
The JPL mobile robot ATHLETE is a platform with six serial chain legs ending in
robotics, often called lower pairs and the
wheels.
surface contact joints critical to cams and
gearing, called higher pairs. These joints are
generally modeled as holonomic constraints. A kinematic diagram is a schematic of the mechanical system that
shows the kinematic chain.
106
Kinematic chain
107
The modern use of kinematic chains

includes compliance that arises from flexure
joints in precision mechanisms, link
compliance in compliant mechanisms and
micro-electro-mechanical systems, and
cable compliance in cable robotic and
tensegrity systems.[3] [4]
Mobility formula
The degrees of freedom, or mobility, of a
kinematic chain is the number of parameters
that define the configuration of the chain.[5]
A system of n rigid bodies moving in space
has 6n degrees of freedom measured relative
to a fixed frame. This frame is included in
the count of bodies, so that mobility does
not depend on link that forms the fixed
frame. This means the degree-of-freedom of
this system is M=6(N-1), where N=n+1 is
the number of moving bodies plus the fixed
body.
The arms, fingers and head of the JSC Robonaut are modeled as kinematic chains.
Joints that connect bodies impose

constraints. Specifically, hinges and sliders
each impose five constraints and therefore
remove five degrees of freedom. It is
convenient to define the number of
constraints c that a joint imposes in terms of
the joint's freedom f, where c=6-f. In the
case of a hinge or slider, which are one
degree of freedom joints, have f=1 and
therefore c=6-1=5.
The result is that the mobility of a kinematic
chain formed from n moving links and j
joints each with freedom fi, i=1, ..., j, is
given by
Recall that N includes the fixed link.
Analysis of kinematic chains

The constraint equations of a kinematic
chain couple the range of movement
The movement of the Boulton & Watt steam engine is studied as a system of rigid
bodies connected by joints forming a kinematic chain.
Kinematic chain
108
allowed at each joint to the dimensions of the links in the chain, and form
algebraic equations that are solved to determine the configuration of the
chain associated with specific values of input parameters, called degrees
of freedom.
The constraint equations for a kinematic chain are obtained using rigid
transformations [Z] to characterize the relative movement allowed at each
joint and separate rigid transformations [X] to define the dimensions of
each link. In the case of a serial open chain, the result is a sequence of
rigid transformations alternating joint and link transformations from the
base of the chain to its end link, which is equated to the specified position
for the end link. A chain of n links connected in series has the kinematic
equations,
where [T] is the transformation locating the end-link---notice that the

chain includes a "zeroth" link consisting of the ground frame to which it
is attached. These equations are called the forward kinematics equations
of the serial chain.[6]
Kinematic chains of a wide range of complexity are analyzed by equating
the kinematics equations of serial chains that form loops within the
kinematic chain. These equations are often called loop equations.
The complexity (in terms of calculating the forward and inverse
kinematics) of the chain is determined by the following factors:
Its topology: a serial chain, a parallel manipulator, a tree structure, or a
graph.
A model of the human skeleton as a kinematic

chain allows positioning using forward and
inverse kinematics.
Its geometrical form: how are neighbouring joints spatially connected to each other?
Explanation:Two or more rigid bodies in space are collectively called a rigid body system. We can hinder the motion of these
independent rigid bodies with kinematic constraints. Kinematic constraints are constraints between rigid bodies that
result in the decrease of the degrees of freedom of rigid body system.
Synthesis of kinematic chains

The constraint equations of a kinematic chain can be used in reverse to determine the dimensions of the links from a
specification of the desired movement of the system. This is termed kinematic synthesis.[7]
Perhaps the most developed formulation of kinematic synthesis is for four-bar linkages, which is known as
Burmester theory.[8][9][10]
Ferdinand Freudenstein is often called the father of modern kinematics for his contributions to the kinematic
synthesis of linkages beginning in the 1950s. His use of the newly developed computer to solve Freudenstein's
equation became the prototype of computer-aided design systems.
This work has been generalized to the synthesis of spherical and spatial mechanisms.
Kinematic chain
References
[1] Reuleaux, F., 1876 The Kinematics of Machinery, (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=WUZVAAAAMAAJ& printsec=frontcover&
dq=kinematics+ of+ machinery& hl=en& sa=X& ei=qpn4Tse-E9SasgLcsZytDw& ved=0CEQQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage& q=kinematics of
machinery& f=false) (trans. and annotated by A. B. W. Kennedy), reprinted by Dover, New York (1963)
[2] J. M. McCarthy and G. S. Soh, 2010, Geometric Design of Linkages, (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=jv9mQyjRIw4C& pg=PA231&
lpg=PA231& dq=geometric+ design+ of+ linkages& source=bl& ots=j6TS1043qE& sig=R5ycw5DximWrQOEVshfiytflD6Q& hl=en&
sa=X& ei=0Zj4TuiCFvCGsgKyvO3FAQ& ved=0CGAQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage& q=geometric design of linkages& f=false) Springer, New
York.
[3] Larry L. Howell, 2001, Compliant mechanisms (http:/ / books. google. com/ books/ about/ Compliant_mechanisms. html?id=tiiSOuhsIfgC),
John Wiley & Sons.
[4] Alexander Slocum, 1992, Precision Machine Design (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uG7aqgal65YC& printsec=frontcover&
source=gbs_ge_summary_r& cad=0#v=onepage& q& f=false), SME
[5] J. J. Uicker, G. R. Pennock, and J. E. Shigley, 2003, Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, Oxford University Press, New York.
[7] R. S. Hartenberg and J. Denavit, 1964, Kinematic Synthesis of Linkages, McGraw-Hill, New York.
[8] Suh, C. H., and Radcliffe, C. W., Kinematics and Mechanism Design, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1978.
[9] Sandor,G.N.,andErdman,A.G.,1984,AdvancedMechanismDesign:AnalysisandSynthesis, Vol. 2. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
[10] Hunt, K. H., Kinematic Geometry of Mechanisms, Oxford Engineering Science Series, 1979

In optics, Lambert's cosine law says that the radiant intensity or luminous intensity observed from an ideal diffusely
reflecting surface or ideal diffuse radiator is directly proportional to the cosine of the angle between the observer's
line of sight and the surface normal.[1][2] The law is also known as the cosine emission law or Lambert's emission
law. It is named after Johann Heinrich Lambert, from his Photometria, published in 1760.
A surface which obeys Lambert's law is said to be Lambertian, and exhibits Lambertian reflectance. Such a surface
has the same radiance when viewed from any angle. This means, for example, that to the human eye it has the same
apparent brightness (or luminance). It has the same radiance because, although the emitted power from a given area
element is reduced by the cosine of the emission angle, the apparent size (solid angle) of the observed area, as seen
by a viewer, is decreased by a corresponding amount. Therefore, its radiance (power per unit solid angle per unit
projected source area) is the same.
Lambertian scatterers and radiators

When an area element is radiating as a result of being illuminated by an external source, the irradiance (energy or
photons/time/area) landing on that area element will be proportional to the cosine of the angle between the
illuminating source and the normal. A Lambertian scatterer will then scatter this light according to the same cosine
law as a Lambertian emitter. This means that although the radiance of the surface depends on the angle from the
normal to the illuminating source, it will not depend on the angle from the normal to the observer. For example, if
the moon were a Lambertian scatterer, one would expect to see its scattered brightness appreciably diminish towards
the terminator due to the increased angle at which sunlight hit the surface. The fact that it does not diminish
illustrates that the moon is not a Lambertian scatterer, and in fact tends to scatter more light into the oblique angles
than would a Lambertian scatterer.
The emission of a Lambertian radiator does not depend upon the amount of incident radiation, but rather from
radiation originating in the emitting body itself. For example, if the sun were a Lambertian radiator, one would
expect to see a constant brightness across the entire solar disc. The fact that the sun exhibits limb darkening in the
visible region illustrates that it is not a Lambertian radiator. A black body is an example of a Lambertian radiator.
109
110
Details of equal brightness effect

The situation for a Lambertian surface (emitting or scattering) is
illustrated in Figures 1 and 2. For conceptual clarity we will think in
terms of photons rather than energy or luminous energy. The wedges in
the circle each represent an equal angle d, and for a Lambertian
surface, the number of photons per second emitted into each wedge is
proportional to the area of the wedge.
It can be seen that the length of each wedge is the product of the
diameter of the circle and cos(). It can also be seen that the maximum
rate of photon emission per unit solid angle is along the normal and
diminishes to zero for = 90. In mathematical terms, the radiance
along the normal is Iphotons/(scm2sr) and the number of photons per
second emitted into the vertical wedge is I d dA. The number of
photons per second emitted into the wedge at angle is
Icos()ddA.
Figure 1: Emission rate (photons/s) in a normal

and off-normal direction. The number of
photons/sec directed into any wedge is
proportional to the area of the wedge.
Figure 2 represents what an observer sees. The observer directly above

the area element will be seeing the scene through an aperture of area
dA0 and the area element dA will subtend a (solid) angle of d0. We
can assume without loss of generality that the aperture happens to
subtend solid angle d when "viewed" from the emitting area element.
This normal observer will then be recording IddA photons per
second and so will be measuring a radiance of
photons/(scm2sr).
The observer at angle to the normal will be seeing the scene through
the same aperture of area dA0 and the area element dA will subtend a
(solid) angle of d0cos(). This observer will be recording
Icos()ddA photons per second, and so will be measuring a
radiance of
Figure 2: Observed intensity (photons/(scm2sr))

for a normal and off-normal observer; dA0 is the
area of the observing aperture and d is the solid
angle subtended by the aperture from the
viewpoint of the emitting area element.
photons/(scm2sr),
which is the same as the normal observer.
Relating peak luminous intensity and luminous flux

In general, the luminous intensity of a point on a surface varies by direction; for a Lambertian surface, that
distribution is defined by the cosine law, with peak luminous intensity in the normal direction. Thus when the
Lambertian assumption holds, we can calculate the total luminous flux,
, from the peak luminous intensity,
, by integrating the cosine law:
111
and so
where
is the determinant of the Jacobian matrix for the unit sphere, and realizing that
per steradian.[3] Similarly, the peak intensity will be
is luminous flux
of the total radiated luminous flux. For Lambertian
surfaces, the same factor of

relates luminance to luminous emittance, radiant intensity to radiant flux, and
[citation needed]
radiance to radiant emittance.
Radians and steradians are, of course, dimensionless and so "rad" and
"sr" are included only for clarity.
Example: A surface with a luminance of say 100cd/m2 (= 100 nits, typical PC monitor) will, if it is a perfect
Lambert emitter, have a luminous emittance of 314 lm/m2. If its area is 0.1 m2 (~19" monitor) then the total light
emitted, or luminous flux, would thus be 31.4 lm.
Uses
Lambert's cosine law in its reversed form (Lambertian reflection) implies that the apparent brightness of a
Lambertian surface is proportional to the cosine of the angle between the surface normal and the direction of the
incident light.
This phenomenon is, among others, used when creating mouldings, which are a means of applying light- and
dark-shaded stripes to a structure or object without having to change the material or apply pigment. The contrast of
dark and light areas gives definition to the object. Mouldings are strips of material with various cross-sections used
to cover transitions between surfaces or for decoration.
References
[1] RCA Electro-Optics Handbook, p.18 ff
[2] Modern Optical Engineering, Warren J. Smith, McGraw-Hill, p.228, 256
[3] Incropera and DeWitt, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 5th ed., p.710.
Light stage
112
Light stage
A light stage or light cage is an instrumentation set-up used for reflectance, texture and motion capture often with
structured light and a multi-camera setup.
Reflectance capture
The reflectance field over a human face was first captured in 2000 by Paul Debevec et al. The method they used to
find the light that travels under the skin was based on the existing scientific knowledge that light reflecting off the
air-to-oil retains its polarization while light that travels under the skin loses its polarization.
Using this information and the simplest, yet most
revolutionary to date, light stage was built by Paul
Debevec et al. and it consisted of
1. Moveable digital camera
2. Moveable simple light source (full rotation with
adjustable radius and height)
3. 2 polarizers set into various angles in front of the
light and the camera
4. A computer with relatively simple programs doing
relatively simple tasks.
BSSRDF: BRDF + Subsurface scattering
The setup enabled the team to find the subsurface

scattering component of the BSDF over the human face
which was required for fully virtual cinematography
with ultra-photorealistic digital look-alikes like seen in
the Matrix Reloaded and Matrix Revolutions and
numerous other movies since the early 2000s.
Following great scientific success Debevec et al.
constructed a further 5 newer more elaborate versions
of the light stage at the University of Southern
California Institute for Creative Technologies and
Ghosh et al. built the USC light stage X, the seventh
version.
See
Digital Emily [1] presented to the SIGGRAPH
convention in 2008 for which the reflection field of
actress Emily O'Brien was captured using the USC
light stage 5.[2] and the prerendered digital
look-alike was made in association with Image
Metrics. Video includes USC light stage 5 and USC
light stage 6.
BSDF: BRDF + BTDF
Digital Ira [3] that runs in precomputed but also is fairly convincingly rendered also in real-time was presented at
the 2013 SIGGRAPH in association with Activision. Digital Emily shown in 2008 was a pre-computed simulation
meanwhile Digital Ira run in real-time in 2013 and is fairly realistic looking even in real-time rendering of
animation. The field is rapidly moving from movies to computer games and leisure applications Video includes
Light stage
USC light stage X.
References
[1] http:/ / www. ted. com/ talks/ paul_debevec_animates_a_photo_real_digital_face. html
[2] Paul Debevec animates a photo-real digital face - Digital Emily (http:/ / www. ted. com/ talks/
paul_debevec_animates_a_photo_real_digital_face. html) 2008
[3] http:/ / gl. ict. usc. edu/ Research/ DigitalIra

Light transport theory deals with the mathematics behind calculating the energy transfers between media that
affect visibility. This article is currently specific to light transport in rendering processes such as global illumination
and HDRI.
Light
thumbnail
Light Transport
The amount of light transported is measured by flux density, that is flux per unit area. See this link here [1] for a PDF
explaining A Theory of Inverse Light Transport.
Models
Hemisphere
Given a surface S, a hemisphere H can be projected on to S to calculate the amount of incoming and outgoing light .
If a point P is selected at random on the surface S, the amount of light incoming and outgoing can be calculated by
its projection onto the hemisphere.
Hemicube
The hemicube model works in a similar way that the hemisphere model works, with the exception that a hemicube is
projected as opposed to a hemisphere. The similarity is only in concept, the actual calculation done by integration
has a different form factor.
113
114
Equations
Rendering
Rendering converts a model into an image either by simulating light transport to get physically based photorealistic
images, or by applying some kind of style as in non-photorealistic rendering. The two basic operations in realistic
rendering are transport (how much light gets from one place to another) and scattering (how surfaces interact with
light).
References
[1] http:/ / www. cs. toronto. edu/ ~kyros/ pubs/ 05. iccv. interreflect. pdf

In computer graphics, Loop subdivision surface is a subdivision scheme
developed by Charles Loop in 1987 for triangular meshes.
Each triangle is divided into four subtriangles, adding new vertices in the middle of
each edge.
External links
Charles Loop: Smooth Subdivision Surfaces Based on Triangles, M.S.
Mathematics thesis, University of Utah, 1987 (pdf [1]).
Homepage of Charles Loop [2].
Jos Stam: Evaluation of Loop Subdivision Surfaces, Computer Graphics
Proceedings ACM SIGGRAPH 1998, (pdf [3], downloadable eigenstructures
[4]
).
Loop Subdivision of an
icosahedron (top) after one and
after two refinement steps
115
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
http:/ / research. microsoft. com/ ~cloop/ thesis. pdf

http:/ / research. microsoft. com/ ~cloop/
http:/ / www. dgp. toronto. edu/ people/ stam/ reality/ Research/ pdf/ loop. pdf
http:/ / www. dgp. toronto. edu/ ~stam/ reality/ Research/ SubdivEval/ index. html
Low poly
Low poly is a polygon mesh in 3D computer graphics
that has a relatively small number of polygons. Low
poly meshes occur in real-time applications (e.g.
games) and contrast with high poly meshes in animated
movies and special effects of the same era. The term
low poly is used in both a technical and a descriptive
sense; the number of polygons in a mesh is an
important factor to optimize for performance but can
give an undesirable appearance to the resulting
graphics.
This polygon mesh representing a dolphin would be considered low
poly by modern (2013) standards.
Motivation for low poly meshes

Polygon meshes are one of the major methods of modelling a 3D object for display by a computer. Polygons can, in
theory, have any number of sides but are commonly broken down into triangles for display. In general the more
triangles in a mesh the more detailed the object is, but the more computationally intensive it is to display. In order to
decrease render times (i.e. increase frame rate) the number of triangles in the scene must be reduced, by using low
poly meshes.
Polygon budget
A combination of the game engine or rendering method and the computer being used defines the polygon budget;
the number of polygons which can appear in a scene and still be rendered at an acceptable frame rate. Therefore the
use of low poly meshes are mostly confined to computer games and other software a user must manipulate 3D
objects in real time because processing power is limited to that of a typical personal computer or games console and
the frame rate must be high. Computer generated imagery, for example, for films or still images have a higher
polygon budget because rendering does not need to be done in real-time, which requires higher frame rates. In
addition, computer processing power in these situations is typically less limited, often using a large network of
computers or what is known as a render farm. Each frame can take hours to create, despite the enormous computer
power involved. A common example of the difference this makes is full motion video sequences in computer games
which, because they can be pre-rendered, and look much smoother than the games themselves.
Appearance of low poly meshes

Objects that are said to be low poly often appear blocky (such as square heads) and lacking in detail (such as no
individual fingers). Objects that are supposed to be circular or spherical are most obviously low poly as the number
of triangles needed to make a curve appear smooth is high and polygons are restricted to straight edges. Low poly
meshes do not necessarily look bad, for example a flat sheet of paper represented by one polygon looks extremely
accurate. As computer graphics are getting more powerful, low poly graphics may be used to achieve a certain retro
Low poly
116
style conceptually similar to pixel art orienting on 'classic' video games.

Computer graphics techniques such as normal and bump mapping have
been designed to make a low poly object appear to contain more
polygons than it does. This is done by altering the shading of polygons
to contain internal detail which is not in the mesh.
Low poly as a relative term

There is no defined threshold for a mesh to be low poly; low poly is
always a relative term and depends on (amongst other factors):
An example of normal mapping used to add detail

to a low poly (500 triangle) mesh.
The time the meshes were designed and for what hardware
The detail required in the final mesh
The shape and properties of the object in question
As computing power inevitably increases, the number of polygons that can be used increases too. For example,
Super Mario 64 would be considered low poly today, but was considered a stunning achievement when it was
released in 1996. Similarly, in 2009, using hundreds of polygons on a leaf in the background of a scene would be
considered high poly, but using that many polygons on the main character would be considered low poly.
Low poly meshes in physics engines

Physics engines have presented a new role for low poly meshes. Whilst the display of computer graphics has become
very efficient, allowing (as of 2009) the display of tens to hundreds of thousands of polygons at 25 frames per
second on a desktop computer, the calculation of physical interactions is still slow. A low poly simplified version of
the mesh is often used for simplifying the calculation of collisions with other meshes, in some cases this is as simple
as a 6 polygon bounding box.
References
Marching cubes
117
Marching cubes
Marching cubes is a computer graphics algorithm,
published in the 1987 SIGGRAPH proceedings by
Lorensen and Cline,[1] for extracting a polygonal mesh
of an isosurface from a three-dimensional scalar field
(sometimes called voxels). This paper has been one the
most cited papers in the computer graphics field. The
applications of this algorithm are mainly concerned
with medical visualizations such as CT and MRI scan
data images, and special effects or 3-D modelling with
what is usually called metaballs or other metasurfaces.
An analogous two-dimensional method is called the
marching squares algorithm.
History
The Algorithm was developed by William E. Lorensen
and Harvey E. Cline as a result of their research for
General Electric. At General Electric they worked on a
way to efficiently visualize data from CT and MRI
devices.
Head and cerebral structures (hidden) extracted from 150 MRI slices
using marching-cubes (about 150,000 triangles)
Their first published version exploited

rotational and reflective symmetry and
also sign changes to build the table
with 15 unique cases. However, in
meshing the faces there are possibly
ambiguous cases. These ambiguous
cases can lead to meshings with holes.
Topologically correct isosurfaces can
still be constructed with extra effort.
The problem was that for cases with
The originally published 15 cube configurations
"rippling" signs, there are at least two
correct choices for where the correct
contour should pass. The actual choice does not matter, but it has to be topologically consistent. The original cases
made consistent choices, but the sign change could lead to mistakes. The extended table in shows 33 configurations.
The ambiguities were improved upon in later algorithms such as the 1991 asymptotic decider of Nielson and
Hamann which corrected these mistakes. Several other analyses of ambiguities and related improvements have been
proposed since then; see the 2005 survey of Lopes and Bordlie for instance.
Marching cubes
Algorithm
The algorithm proceeds through the scalar field, taking eight neighbor locations at a time (thus forming an imaginary
cube), then determining the polygon(s) needed to represent the part of the isosurface that passes through this cube.
The individual polygons are then fused into the desired surface.
This is done by creating an index to a precalculated array of 256 possible polygon configurations (28=256) within the
cube, by treating each of the 8 scalar values as a bit in an 8-bit integer. If the scalar's value is higher than the
iso-value (i.e., it is inside the surface) then the appropriate bit is set to one, while if it is lower (outside), it is set to
zero. The final value after all 8 scalars are checked, is the actual index to the polygon indices array.
Finally each vertex of the generated polygons is placed on the appropriate position along the cube's edge by linearly
interpolating the two scalar values that are connected by that edge.
The gradient of the scalar field at each grid point is also the normal vector of a hypothetical isosurface passing from
that point. Therefore, we may interpolate these normals along the edges of each cube to find the normals of the
generated vertices which are essential for shading the resulting mesh with some illumination model.
Patent issues
The marching cubes algorithm is claimed by anti-software patent advocates as a prime example in the graphics field
of the woes of patenting software[citation needed]. An implementation was patented (United States Patent 4,710,876)
despite being a relatively obvious solution to the surface-generation problem, they claim. Another similar algorithm
was developed, called marching tetrahedra, in order to circumvent the patent as well as solve a minor ambiguity
problem of marching cubes with some cube configurations. This patent expired in 2005, and it is now legal for the
graphics community to use it without royalties since more than 17 years have passed from its issue date (December
1, 1987).
Sources
[1] William E. Lorensen, Harvey E. Cline: Marching Cubes: A high resolution 3D surface construction algorithm. In: Computer Graphics, Vol.
21, Nr. 4, July 1987
External links
Lorensen, W. E.; Cline, Harvey E. (1987). "Marching cubes: A high resolution 3d surface construction
algorithm". ACM Computer Graphics 21 (4): 163169. doi: 10.1145/37402.37422 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/
37402.37422).
Nielson, G. M.; Hamann, Bernd (1991). "The asymptotic decider: resolving the ambiguity in marching cubes"
(http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=949621). Proc. 2nd conference on Visualization (VIS' 91): 8391.
Montani, Claudio; Scateni, Riccardo; Scopigno, Roberto (1994). "A modified look-up table for implicit
disambiguation of Marching cubes". The Visual Computer 10 (6): 353355. doi: 10.1007/BF01900830 (http://
dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01900830).
Nielson, G. M.; Sung, Junwon (1997). "Interval volume tetrahedrization". 8th IEEE Visualization (VIS'97). doi:
10.1109/VISUAL.1997.663886 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/VISUAL.1997.663886).
Paul Bourke. "Overview and source code" (http://paulbourke.net/geometry/polygonise/).
Matthew Ward. "GameDev overview" (http://www.gamedev.net/page/resources/_/technical/
math-and-physics/overview-of-marching-cubes-algorithm-r424).
"Introductory description with additional graphics" (http://users.polytech.unice.fr/~lingrand/MarchingCubes/
algo.html).
"Marching Cubes" (http://www.marchingcubes.org/index.php/Marching_Cubes).. Some of the early history
of Marching Cubes.
118
Marching cubes
Newman, Timothy S.; Yia, Hong (2006). "A survey of the marching cubes algorithm". Computers and Graphics
30 (5): 854879. doi: 10.1016/j.cag.2006.07.021 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cag.2006.07.021).
Stephan Diel. "Specializing visualization algorithms" (http://extras.springer.com/2003/978-1-4020-7259-8/
media/diehl/diehl.pdf).
Given two surfaces with the same topology, a bijective mapping between them exists. On triangular mesh surfaces,
the problem of computing this mapping is called mesh parameterization. The parameter domain is the surface that
the mesh is mapped onto.
Parameterization was mainly used for mapping textures to surfaces. Recently, it has become a powerful tool for
many applications in mesh processing.[citation needed] Various techniques are developed for different types of
parameter domains with different parameterization properties.
Applications
Texture mapping
Normal mapping
Detail transfer
Morphing
Mesh completion
Mesh Editing
Mesh Databases
Remeshing
Surface fitting
Techniques
Barycentric Mappings
Differential Geometry Primer
Non-Linear Methods
Implementations
A fast and simple stretch-minimizing mesh parameterization [1]
Graphite [2]: ABF, ABF++, DPBF, LSCM, HLSCM, Barycentric, mean-value coordinates, L2 stretch, spectral
conformal, Periodic Global Parameterization, Constrained texture mapping, texture atlas generation
Linear discrete conformal parameterization [3]
Discrete Exponential Map [4]
119
120
External links
"Mesh Parameterization: theory and practice" [5]
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
http:/ / www. riken. jp/ brict/ Yoshizawa/ Research/ Param. html

http:/ / alice. loria. fr/ index. php/ software/ 3-platform/ 22-graphite. html
http:/ / www. cs. caltech. edu/ ~keenan/ project_dgp. html
http:/ / www. dgp. toronto. edu/ ~rms/ software/ expmapdemo. html
http:/ / www. inf. usi. ch/ hormann/ parameterization/ index. html
Metaballs
Metaballs are, in computer graphics, organic-looking
n-dimensional objects. The technique for rendering metaballs was
invented by Jim Blinn in the early 1980s.
Each metaball is defined as a function in n-dimensions (i.e. for
three dimensions,
; three-dimensional metaballs tend
to be most common, with two-dimensional implementations
popular as well). A thresholding value is also chosen, to define a
solid volume. Then,
represents whether the volume enclosed by the surface defined by

metaballs is filled at
or not.
A
typical
function
chosen
for
metaballs
is
,
where
is the center of the metaball. However, due to
the divide, it is computationally expensive. For this reason,

approximate polynomial functions are typically used.[citation needed]
When seeking a more efficient falloff function, several qualities
are desired:
1: The influence of 2 positive metaballs on each other.

2: The influence of a negative metaball on a positive
metaball by creating an indentation in the positive
metaball's surface.
Finite support. A function with finite support goes to zero at a

maximum radius. When evaluating the metaball field, any
points beyond their maximum radius from the sample point can
be ignored. A hierarchical culling system can thus ensure only
the closest metaballs will need to be evaluated regardless of the total number in the field.
Smoothness. Because the isosurface is the result of adding the fields together, its smoothness is dependent on the
smoothness of the falloff curves.
The simplest falloff curve that satisfies these criteria is:
, where r is the distance to the point.
This formulation avoids expensive square root calls.

More complicated models use a Gaussian potential constrained to a finite radius or a mixture of polynomials to
achieve smoothness. The Soft Object model by the Wyvill brothers provides higher degree of smoothness and still
avoids square roots.
A simple generalization of metaballs is to apply the falloff curve to distance-from-lines or distance-from-surfaces.
Metaballs
121
There are a number of ways to render the metaballs to the screen. In the case of three dimensional metaballs, the two
most common are brute force raycasting and the marching cubes algorithm.
2D metaballs were a very common demo effect in the 1990s. The effect is also available as an XScreensaver module.
Further reading
The interaction between two differently coloured

3D positive metaballs, created in Bryce.
Note that the two smaller metaballs combine to
create one larger object.
Blinn, J. F. (July 1982). "A Generalization of Algebraic Surface

Drawing". ACM Transactions on Graphics 1 (3): 235256.
doi:10.1145/357306.357310 [1].
External links
Implicit Surfaces article [2] by Paul Bourke
Meta Objects article [3] from Blender wiki

Metaballs article [4] from SIGGRAPH website
Exploring Metaballs and Isosurfaces in 2D [5] by Stephen Whitmore (gamedev article)
Simulating 2D Metaball Blobbies with Photoshop [6]
References
Intro to Metaballs [7]
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1145%2F357306. 357310

http:/ / local. wasp. uwa. edu. au/ ~pbourke/ miscellaneous/ implicitsurf/
http:/ / wiki. blender. org/ index. php/ Manual/ Meta_Objects
http:/ / www. siggraph. org/ education/ materials/ HyperGraph/ modeling/ metaballs/ metaballs. htm
http:/ / www. gamedev. net/ page/ resources/ _/ / feature/ fprogramming/ exploring-metaballs-and-isosurfaces-in-2d-r2556
http:/ / www. digitalartform. com/ archives/ 2009/ 06/ simulating_2d_m. html
http:/ / steve. hollasch. net/ cgindex/ misc/ metaballs. html
Micropolygon
Micropolygon
In 3D computer graphics, a micropolygon (or -polygon) is a polygon that is very small relative to the image being
rendered. Commonly, the size of a micropolygon is close to or even less than the area of a pixel. Micropolygons
allow a renderer to create a highly detailed image.
The concept of micropolygons was developed within the Reyes algorithm, in which geometric primitives are
tessellated at render time into a rectangular grid of tiny, four-sided polygons. A shader might fill each micropolygon
with a single color or assign colors on a per-vertex basis. Shaders that operate on micropolygons can process an
entire grid of them at once in SIMD fashion. This often leads to faster shader execution, and allows shaders to
compute spatial derivatives (e.g. for texture filtering) by comparing values at neighboring micropolygon vertices.
Furthermore, a renderer using micropolygons can support displacement mapping simply by perturbing micropolygon
vertices during shading. This displacement is usually not limited to the local surface normal but can be given an
arbitrary direction.
Further reading
Robert L. Cook., Loren Carpenter, and Edwin Catmull. "The Reyes image rendering architecture." Computer
Graphics (SIGGRAPH '87 Proceedings), pp. 95102.
Anthony A. Apodaca, Larry Gritz: Advanced RenderMan: Creating CGI for Motion Pictures, Morgan Kaufmann
Publishers, ISBN 1-55860-618-1

Morph target animation, per-vertex animation, shape
interpolation, or blend shapes is a method of 3D computer animation
used together with techniques such as skeletal animation. In a morph
target animation, a "deformed" version of a mesh is stored as a series
of vertex positions. In each key frame of an animation, the vertices are
then interpolated between these stored positions.
Technique
The "morph target" is a deformed version of a shape. When applied to
In this example from the open source project
a human face, for example, the head is first modelled with a neutral
Sintel, four facial expressions have been defined
as deformations of the face geometry. The mouth
expression and a "target deformation" is then created for each other
is then animated by morphing between these
expression. When the face is being animated, the animator can then
deformations. Dozens of similar controllers are
smoothly morph (or "blend") between the base shape and one or
used to animate the rest of the face.
several morph targets. Typical examples of morph targets used in facial
animation is a smiling mouth, a closed eye, and a raised eyebrow, but the technique can also be used to morph
between, for example, Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde.
When used for facial animation, these morph target are often referred to as "key poses". The interpolations between
key
poses
when
an
122
123
animation is being rendered, are typically small and simple

transformations of movement, rotation, and scale performed by the 3D
software.
Not all morph target animation has to be done by actually editing
vertex positions. It is also possible to take vertex positions found in
skeletal animation and then use those rendered as morph target
animation.
An arbitrary object deformed by morphing
An animation composed in one 3D application suite sometimes needs

between defined vertex positions.
to be transferred to another, as for rendering. Because different 3D
applications tend to implement bones and other special effects differently, the morph target technique is sometimes
used to transfer animations between 3D applications to avoid export issues.
Benefits and drawbacks

There are advantages to using morph target animation over skeletal animation. The artist has more control over the
movements because he or she can define the individual positions of the vertices within a keyframe, rather than being
constrained by skeletons. This can be useful for animating cloth, skin, and facial expressions because it can be
difficult to conform those things to the bones that are required for skeletal animation.
However, there are also disadvantages. Vertex animation is usually a lot more labour-intensive than skeletal
animation because every vertex position must be manually manipulated and, for this reason, the number of pre-made
target morphs is typically limited. Also, in methods of rendering where vertices move from position to position
during in-between frames, a distortion is created that does not happen when using skeletal animation. This is
described by critics of the technique as looking "shaky". On the other hand, this distortion may be part of the desired
"look".
References
External links
Morph target example using C# and Microsoft XNA (http://mvinetwork.co.uk/2011/02/02/
xna-morph-targets/)
Motion capture
Motion capture
Motion capture is the process of recording
the movement of objects or people. It is
used in military, entertainment, sports, and
medical applications, and for validation of
computer vision[1] and robotics. In
filmmaking and video game development, it
refers to recording actions of human actors,
and using that information to animate digital
character models in 2D or 3D computer
animation. When it includes face and fingers
Motion capture of two pianists' fingers playing the same piece (slow motion, no
or captures subtle expressions, it is often
sound).
referred to as performance capture. In many
fields, motion capture is sometimes called
motion tracking, but in filmmaking and games, motion tracking more usually refers to match moving.
In motion capture sessions, movements of one or more actors are sampled many times per second. Whereas early
techniques used images from multiple cameras to calculate 3D positions, often the purpose of motion capture is to
record only the movements of the actor, not his or her visual appearance. This animation data is mapped to a 3D
model so that the model performs the same actions as the actor. This process may be contrasted to the older
technique of rotoscope, such as the Ralph Bakshi 1978 The Lord of the Rings and 1981 American Pop animated
films where the motion of an actor was filmed, then the film used as a guide for the frame-by-frame motion of a
hand-drawn animated character.
Camera movements can also be motion captured so that a virtual camera in the scene will pan, tilt, or dolly around
the stage driven by a camera operator while the actor is performing, and the motion capture system can capture the
camera and props as well as the actor's performance. This allows the computer-generated characters, images and sets
to have the same perspective as the video images from the camera. A computer processes the data and displays the
movements of the actor, providing the desired camera positions in terms of objects in the set. Retroactively obtaining
camera movement data from the captured footage is known as match moving or camera tracking.
Advantages
Motion capture offers several advantages over traditional computer animation of a 3D model:
More rapid, even real time results can be obtained. In entertainment applications this can reduce the costs of
keyframe-based animation. The Hand Over technique is an example of this.
The amount of work does not vary with the complexity or length of the performance to the same degree as when
using traditional techniques. This allows many tests to be done with different styles or deliveries, giving a
different personality only limited by the talent of the actor.
Complex movement and realistic physical interactions such as secondary motions, weight and exchange of forces
can be easily recreated in a physically accurate manner.
The amount of animation data that can be produced within a given time is extremely large when compared to
traditional animation techniques. This contributes to both cost effectiveness and meeting production deadlines.
Potential for free software and third party solutions reducing its costs.
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Motion capture
Disadvantages
Specific hardware and special software programs are required to obtain and process the data.
The cost of the software, equipment and personnel required can be prohibitive for small productions.
The capture system may have specific requirements for the space it is operated in, depending on camera field of
view or magnetic distortion.
When problems occur, it is easier to reshoot the scene rather than trying to manipulate the data. Only a few
systems allow real time viewing of the data to decide if the take needs to be redone.
The initial results are limited to what can be performed within the capture volume without extra editing of the
data.
Movement that does not follow the laws of physics cannot be captured.
Traditional animation techniques, such as added emphasis on anticipation and follow through, secondary motion
or manipulating the shape of the character, as with squash and stretch animation techniques, must be added later.
If the computer model has different proportions from the capture subject, artifacts may occur. For example, if a
cartoon character has large, over-sized hands, these may intersect the character's body if the human performer is
not careful with their physical motion.
Applications
Video games often use motion capture to animate
athletes, martial artists, and other in-game characters.[2]
This has been done since the Atari Jaguar CD-based
game Highlander: The Last of the MacLeods, released
in 1995
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs used an early form
of motion capture technology. Actors and actresses
would act out scenes and would be filmed. The
animators would then use the individual frames as a
guide to their drawings.
Movies use motion capture for CG effects, in some
cases replacing traditional cel animation, and for
completely computer-generated creatures, such as
Gollum, The Mummy, King Kong, Davy Jones from
Pirates of the Caribbean, the Na'vi from the film
Avatar, and Clu from Tron: Legacy. The Great Goblin,
the three Stone-trolls, many of the orcs and goblins in
the 2012 film The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey, and
Smaug were created using motion capture.
Sinbad: Beyond the Veil of Mists was the first movie
Motion Capture Performers at Centroid, Pinewood Studios
made primarily with motion capture, although many
character animators also worked on the film, which had
a very limited release. Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within was the first widely released movie made primarily with
motion capture.
The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers was the first feature film to utilize a real-time motion capture system. This
method streamed the actions of actor Andy Serkis into the computer generated skin of Gollum / Smeagol as it was
being performed.
125
Motion capture
126
Out of the three nominees for the 2006 Academy Award for Best Animated Feature, two of the nominees (Monster
House and the winner Happy Feet) used motion capture, and only DisneyPixar's Cars was animated without motion
capture. In the ending credits of Pixar's film Ratatouille, a stamp appears labelling the film as "100% Pure Animation
No Motion Capture!"
Motion capture has begun to be used extensively to produce films which attempt to simulate or approximate the look
of live-action cinema, with nearly photorealistic digital character models. The Polar Express used motion capture to
allow Tom Hanks to perform as several distinct digital characters (in which he also provided the voices). The 2007
adaptation of the saga Beowulf animated digital characters whose appearances were based in part on the actors who
provided their motions and voices. James Cameron's Avatar used this technique to create the Na'vi that inhabit
Pandora. The Walt Disney Company has produced Robert Zemeckis's A Christmas Carol using this technique. In
2007, Disney acquired Zemeckis' ImageMovers Digital (that produces motion capture films), but then closed it in
2011, after a string of failures.
Television series produced entirely with motion capture animation include Laflaque in Canada, Sprookjesboom and
Cafe de Wereld in The Netherlands, and Headcases in the UK.
Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality allow users to interact with digital content in real-time. This can be useful for
training simulations, visual perception tests, or performing a virtual walk-throughs in a 3D environment. Motion
capture technology is frequently used in digital puppetry systems to drive computer generated characters in
real-time.
Gait analysis is the major application of motion capture in clinical medicine. Techniques allow clinicians to evaluate
human motion across several biometric factors, often while streaming this information live into analytical software.
During the filming of James Cameron's Avatar all of the scenes involving this process were directed in realtime
using Autodesk Motion Builder software to render a screen image which allowed the director and the actor to see
what they would look like in the movie, making it easier to direct the movie as it would be seen by the viewer. This
method allowed views and angles not possible from a pre-rendered animation. Cameron was so proud of his results
that he even invited Steven Spielberg and George Lucas on set to view the system in action.
In Marvel's The Avengers, Mark Ruffalo used motion capture so he could play his character the Hulk, rather than
have him be only CGI like previous films.
Methods and systems

Motion tracking or motion capture started as a photogrammetric
analysis tool in biomechanics research in the 1970s and 1980s, and
expanded into education, training, sports and recently computer
animation for television, cinema, and video games as the technology
matured. A performer wears markers near each joint to identify the
motion by the positions or angles between the markers. Acoustic,
inertial, LED, magnetic or reflective markers, or combinations of any
of these, are tracked, optimally at least two times the frequency rate of
the desired motion, to submillimeter positions. The resolution of the
system is important in both the spatial resolution and temporal
resolution as motion blur causes almost the same problems as low
resolution.
Reflective markers attached to skin to identify

bony landmarks and the 3D motion of body
segments
Motion capture
127
Optical systems
Optical systems utilize data captured from image sensors to triangulate the 3D position of a subject between one or
more cameras calibrated to provide overlapping projections. Data acquisition is traditionally implemented using
special markers attached to an actor; however, more recent systems are able to generate accurate data by tracking
surface features identified dynamically for each particular subject. Tracking a large number of performers or
expanding the capture area is accomplished by the addition of more cameras. These systems produce data with 3
degrees of freedom for each marker, and rotational information must be inferred from the relative orientation of three
or more markers; for instance shoulder, elbow and wrist markers providing the angle of the elbow. Newer hybrid
systems are combining inertial sensors with optical sensors to reduce occlusion, increase the number of users and
improve the ability to track without having to manually clean up data.
Passive markers
Passive optical system use markers coated with a retroreflective
material to reflect light that is generated near the cameras lens. The
camera's threshold can be adjusted so only the bright reflective markers
will be sampled, ignoring skin and fabric.
The centroid of the marker is estimated as a position within the 2
dimensional image that is captured. The grayscale value of each pixel
can be used to provide sub-pixel accuracy by finding the centroid of
the Gaussian.
An object with markers attached at known positions is used to calibrate
the cameras and obtain their positions and the lens distortion of each
camera is measured. If two calibrated cameras see a marker, a 3
dimensional fix can be obtained. Typically a system will consist of
around 2 to 48 cameras. Systems of over three hundred cameras exist
to try to reduce marker swap. Extra cameras are required for full
coverage around the capture subject and multiple subjects.
A dancer wearing a suit used in an optical motion

capture system
Vendors have constraint software to reduce the problem of marker

swapping since all passive markers appear identical. Unlike active
marker systems and magnetic systems, passive systems do not require
the user to wear wires or electronic equipment. Instead, hundreds of
rubber balls are attached with reflective tape, which needs to be
replaced periodically. The markers are usually attached directly to the
skin (as in biomechanics), or they are velcroed to a performer wearing
Several markers are placed at specific points on
a full body spandex/lycra suit designed specifically for motion capture.
an actor's face during facial optical motion
This type of system can capture large numbers of markers at frame
capture
rates usually around 120 to 160 fps although by lowering the resolution
and tracking a smaller region of interest they can track as high as 10000 fps.
Motion capture
Active marker
Active optical systems triangulate positions by illuminating one LED at a time very quickly or multiple LEDs with
software to identify them by their relative positions, somewhat akin to celestial navigation. Rather than reflecting
light back that is generated externally, the markers themselves are powered to emit their own light. Since Inverse
Square law provides 1/4 the power at 2 times the distance, this can increase the distances and volume for capture.
The TV series ("Stargate SG1") produced episodes using an active optical system for the VFX allowing the actor to
walk around props that would make motion capture difficult for other non-active optical systems.
ILM used active Markers in Van Helsing to allow capture of Dracula's flying brides on very large sets similar to
Weta's use of active markers in "Rise of the Planet of the Apes". The power to each marker can be provided
sequentially in phase with the capture system providing a unique identification of each marker for a given capture
frame at a cost to the resultant frame rate. The ability to identify each marker in this manner is useful in realtime
applications. The alternative method of identifying markers is to do it algorithmically requiring extra processing of
the data.
Time modulated active marker

Active marker systems can further be
refined by strobing one marker on at a time,
or tracking multiple markers over time and
modulating the amplitude or pulse width to
provide marker ID. 12 megapixel spatial
resolution modulated systems show more
subtle movements than 4 megapixel optical
systems by having both higher spatial and
temporal resolution. Directors can see the
actors performance in real time, and watch
the results on the motion capture driven CG
character. The unique marker IDs reduce the
turnaround, by eliminating marker swapping
and providing much cleaner data than other
A high-resolution active marker system with 3,600 3,600 resolution at 480 hertz
technologies.
LEDs
with
onboard
providing real time submillimeter positions.
processing and a radio synchronization
allow motion capture outdoors in direct sunlight, while capturing at 120 to 960 frames per second due to a high
speed electronic shutter. Computer processing of modulated IDs allows less hand cleanup or filtered results for lower
operational costs. This higher accuracy and resolution requires more processing than passive technologies, but the
additional processing is done at the camera to improve resolution via a subpixel or centroid processing, providing
both high resolution and high speed. These motion capture systems are typically $20,000 for an eight camera, 12
megapixel spatial resolution 120 hertz system with one actor.
128
Motion capture
Semi-passive imperceptible
marker
One can reverse the traditional approach
based on high speed cameras. Systems such
as Prakash use inexpensive multi-LED high
speed projectors. The specially built
multi-LED IR projectors optically encode
IR sensors can compute their location when lit by mobile multi-LED emitters, e.g.
the space. Instead of retro-reflective or
in a moving car. With Id per marker, these sensor tags can be worn under clothing
active light emitting diode (LED) markers,
and tracked at 500 Hz in broad daylight.
the system uses photosensitive marker tags
to decode the optical signals. By attaching tags with photo sensors to scene points, the tags can compute not only
their own locations of each point, but also their own orientation, incident illumination, and reflectance. Microsoft's
Kinect system, released for the Xbox 360, projects an invisible infra red pattern for depth recovery motion
acquisition.
These tracking tags work in natural lighting conditions and can be imperceptibly embedded in attire or other objects.
The system supports an unlimited number of tags in a scene, with each tag uniquely identified to eliminate marker
reacquisition issues. Since the system eliminates a high speed camera and the corresponding high-speed image
stream, it requires significantly lower data bandwidth. The tags also provide incident illumination data which can be
used to match scene lighting when inserting synthetic elements. The technique appears ideal for on-set motion
capture or real-time broadcasting of virtual sets but has yet to be proven.
Underwater motion capture system

Motion capture technology has been available for researchers and scientists for a few decades, which has given new
insight into many fields.
Underwater cameras
The vital part of the system, the Underwater camera, has a waterproof housing. The housing has a finish that
withstands corrosion and chlorine which makes it perfect for use in basins and swimming pools. The underwater
cameras comes with a cyan light strobe instead of the typical IR light for minimum falloff under water. Since the
index of refraction of water differs from air, a special internal and external calibration have been implemented.
Measurement volume
A Underwater camera is typically able to measure 1520 meters depending on the water quality and the type of
marker used. Unsurprisingly, the best range is achieved when the water is clear, and like always, the measurement
volume is also dependent on the number of cameras. A range of underwater markers are available for different
circumstances.
Tailored
Different pools require different mountings and fixtures. Therefore all underwater motion capture systems are
uniquely tailored to suit each specific pool installment. For cameras placed in the center of the pool, specially
designed tripods, using suction cups, are provided.
129
Motion capture
Markerless
Emerging techniques and research in computer vision are leading to the rapid development of the markerless
approach to motion capture. Markerless systems such as those developed at Stanford University, the University of
Maryland, MIT, and the Max Planck Institute, do not require subjects to wear special equipment for tracking. Special
computer algorithms are designed to allow the system to analyze multiple streams of optical input and identify
human forms, breaking them down into constituent parts for tracking. Applications of this technology extend deeply
into popular imagination about the future of computing technology. Several commercial solutions for markerless
motion capture have also been introduced, including systems by Organic Motion[3] and Xsens.[4] ESC entertainment
a subsidiary of Warner Brothers Pictures, created specially to enable virtual cinematography, including photorealistic
digital look-alikes for filming the Matrix Reloaded and Matrix Revolutions movies and used a technique called
Universal Capture that utilized 7 camera setup and the tracking the optical flow of all pixels over all the 2-D planes
of the cameras for motion, gesture and facial expression capture leading to photorealistic results.
Traditional systems
Traditionally markerless optical motion tracking is used to keep track on various objects, including airplanes, launch
vehicles, missiles and satellites. Many of such optical motion tracking applications occur outdoors, requiring
differing lens and camera configurations. High resolution images of the target being tracked can thereby provide
more information than just motion data. The image obtained from NASA's long-range tracking system on space
shuttle Challenger's fatal launch provided crucial evidence about the cause of the accident. Optical tracking systems
are also used to identify known spacecraft and space debris despite the fact that it has a disadvantage over radar in
that the objects must be reflecting or emitting sufficient light.
An optical tracking system typically consists of 3 subsystems. The optical imaging system, the mechanical tracking
platform and the tracking computer.
The optical imaging system is responsible for converting the light from the target area into digital image that the
tracking computer can process. Depending on the design of the optical tracking system, the optical imaging system
can vary from as simple as a standard digital camera to as specialized as an astronomical telescope on the top of a
mountain. The specification of the optical imaging system determines the upper-limit of the effective range of the
tracking system.
The mechanical tracking platform holds the optical imaging system and is responsible for manipulating the optical
imaging system in such a way that it always points to the target being tracked. The dynamics of the mechanical
tracking platform combined with the optical imaging system determines the tracking system's ability to keep the lock
on a target that changes speed rapidly.
The tracking computer is responsible for capturing the images from the optical imaging system, analyzing the image
to extract target position and controlling the mechanical tracking platform to follow the target. There are several
challenges. First the tracking computer has to be able to capture the image at a relatively high frame rate. This posts
a requirement on the bandwidth of the image capturing hardware. The second challenge is that the image processing
software has to be able to extract the target image from its background and calculate its position. Several textbook
image processing algorithms are designed for this task but each has its own limitations. This problem can be
simplified if the tracking system can expect certain characteristics that is common in all the targets it will track. The
next problem down the line is to control the tracking platform to follow the target. This is a typical control system
design problem rather than a challenge, which involves modeling the system dynamics and designing controllers to
control it. This will however become a challenge if the tracking platform the system has to work with is not designed
for real-time and highly dynamic applications, in which case the tracking software has to compensate for the
mechanical and software imperfections of the tracking platform.
Traditionally optical tracking systems often involves highly customized optical and electrical subsystems. The
software that runs such systems are also customized for the corresponding hardware components. Because of the
130
Motion capture
real-time nature of the application and the limited size of the market, commercializing optical tracking software posts
a big challenge. One example of such software is OpticTracker, which controls computerized telescopes to track
moving objects at great distances, such as planes and satellites.
Non-optical systems
Inertial systems
Inertial Motion Capture technology is based on miniature inertial sensors, biomechanical models and sensor fusion
algorithms. The motion data of the inertial sensors (inertial guidance system) is often transmitted wirelessly to a
computer, where the motion is recorded or viewed. Most inertial systems use gyroscopes to measure rotational rates.
These rotations are translated to a skeleton in the software. Much like optical markers, the more gyros the more
natural the data. No external cameras, emitters or markers are needed for relative motions, although they are required
to give the absolute position of the user if desired. Inertial motion capture systems capture the full six degrees of
freedom body motion of a human in real-time and can give limited direction information if they include a magnetic
bearing sensor, although these are much lower resolution and susceptible to electromagnetic noise. Benefits of using
Inertial systems include: no solving, portability, and large capture areas. Disadvantages include 'floating' where the
user looks like a marionette on strings, lower positional accuracy and positional drift which can compound over time.
These systems are similar to the Wii controllers but are more sensitive and have greater resolution and update rates.
They can accurately measure the direction to the ground to within a degree. The popularity of inertial systems is
rising amongst independent game developers, mainly because of the quick and easy set up resulting in a fast
pipeline. A range of suits are now available from various manufacturers and base prices range from $5,000 to
$80,000 USD. Ironically the $5,000 systems use newer chips and sensors and are wireless taking advantage of the
next generation of inertial sensors and wireless devices.
Mechanical motion
Mechanical motion capture systems directly track body joint angles and are often referred to as exo-skeleton motion
capture systems, due to the way the sensors are attached to the body. Performers attaches the skeletal-like structure
to their body and as they move so do the articulated mechanical parts, measuring the performers relative motion.
Mechanical motion capture systems are real-time, relatively low-cost, free-of-occlusion, and wireless (untethered)
systems that have unlimited capture volume. Typically, they are rigid structures of jointed, straight metal or plastic
rods linked together with potentiometers that articulate at the joints of the body. These suits tend to be in the $25,000
to $75,000 range plus an external absolute positioning system. Some suits provide limited force feedback or Haptic
input.
Magnetic systems
Magnetic systems calculate position and orientation by the relative magnetic flux of three orthogonal coils on both
the transmitter and each receiver. The relative intensity of the voltage or current of the three coils allows these
systems to calculate both range and orientation by meticulously mapping the tracking volume. The sensor output is
6DOF, which provides useful results obtained with two-thirds the number of markers required in optical systems;
one on upper arm and one on lower arm for elbow position and angle. The markers are not occluded by nonmetallic
objects but are susceptible to magnetic and electrical interference from metal objects in the environment, like rebar
(steel reinforcing bars in concrete) or wiring, which affect the magnetic field, and electrical sources such as monitors,
lights, cables and computers. The sensor response is nonlinear, especially toward edges of the capture area. The
wiring from the sensors tends to preclude extreme performance movements. The capture volumes for magnetic
systems are dramatically smaller than they are for optical systems. With the magnetic systems, there is a distinction
between AC and DC systems: one uses square pulses, the other uses sine wave pulse.
131
Motion capture
Related techniques
Facial motion capture
Most traditional motion capture hardware vendors provide for some type of low resolution facial capture utilizing
anywhere from 32 to 300 markers with either an active or passive marker system. All of these solutions are limited
by the time it takes to apply the markers, calibrate the positions and process the data. Ultimately the technology also
limits their resolution and raw output quality levels.
High fidelity facial motion capture, also known as performance capture, is the next generation of fidelity and is
utilized to record the more complex movements in a human face in order to capture higher degrees of emotion.
Facial capture is currently arranging itself in several distinct camps, including traditional motion capture data, blend
shaped based solutions, capturing the actual topology of an actor's face, and proprietary systems.
The two main techniques are stationary systems with an array of cameras capturing the facial expressions from
multiple angles and using software such as the stereo mesh solver from OpenCV to create a 3D surface mesh, or to
use light arrays as well to calculate the surface normals from the variance in brightness as the light source, camera
position or both are changed. These techniques tend to be only limited in feature resolution by the camera resolution,
apparent object size and number of cameras. If the users face is 50 percent of the working area of the camera and a
camera has megapixel resolution, then sub millimeter facial motions can be detected by comparing frames. Recent
work is focusing on increasing the frame rates and doing optical flow to allow the motions to be retargeted to other
computer generated faces, rather than just making a 3D Mesh of the actor and their expressions.
RF positioning
RF (radio frequency) positioning systems are becoming more viable as higher frequency RF devices allow greater
precision than older RF technologies such as traditional radar. The speed of light is 30 centimeters per nanosecond
(billionth of a second), so a 10 gigahertz (billion cycles per second) RF signal enables an accuracy of about 3
centimeters. By measuring amplitude to a quarter wavelength, it is possible to improve the resolution down to about
8mm. To achieve the resolution of optical systems, frequencies of 50 gigahertz or higher are needed, which are
almost as line of sight and as easy to block as optical systems. Multipath and reradiation of the signal are likely to
cause additional problems, but these technologies will be ideal for tracking larger volumes with reasonable accuracy,
since the required resolution at 100 meter distances is not likely to be as high. Many RF scientists believe that radio
frequency will never produce the accuracy required for motion capture.
Non-traditional systems
An alternative approach was developed where the actor is given an unlimited walking area through the use of a
rotating sphere, similar to a hamster ball, which contains internal sensors recording the angular movements,
removing the need for external cameras and other equipment. Even though this technology could potentially lead to
much lower costs for motion capture, the basic sphere is only capable of recording a single continuous direction.
Additional sensors worn on the person would be needed to record anything more.
Another alternative is using a 6DOF (Degrees of freedom) motion platform with an integrated omni-directional
treadmill with high resolution optical motion capture to achieve the same effect. The captured person can walk in an
unlimited area, negotiating different uneven terrains. Applications include medical rehabilitation for balance training,
biomechanical research and virtual reality.
132
Motion capture
133
References
Library resources about
Motion capture
Resources in your library
[5]
[1] David Noonan, Peter Mountney, Daniel Elson, Ara Darzi and Guang-Zhong Yang. A Stereoscopic Fibroscope for Camera Motion and 3D
Depth Recovery During Minimally Invasive Surgery. In proc ICRA 2009 , pp. 4463-4468.
<http://www.sciweavers.org/external.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.doc.ic.ac.uk%2F%7Epmountne%2Fpublications%2FICRA%25202009.pdf&p=ieee>
[2] Jon Radoff, Anatomy of an MMORPG, http:/ / radoff. com/ blog/ 2008/ 08/ 22/ anatomy-of-an-mmorpg/
[3] http:/ / www. newsweek. com/ video/ 2007/ 03/ 06/ videogames-organic-motion. html
[4] http:/ / venturebeat. com/ 2009/ 08/ 04/ xsens-technologies-captures-every-human-motion-with-body-suit/
[5] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ ftl/ cgi-bin/ ftl?st=wp& su=Motion+ capture
Newell's algorithm
Newell's Algorithm is a 3D computer graphics procedure for elimination of polygon cycles in the depth sorting
required in hidden surface removal. It was proposed in 1972 by brothers Martin Newell and Dick Newell, and Tom
Sancha, while all three were working at CADCentre.
In the depth sorting phase of hidden surface removal, if two polygons have no overlapping extents or extreme
minimum and maximum values in the x, y, and z directions, then they can be easily sorted. If two polygons, Q and P,
do have overlapping extents in the Z direction, then it is possible that cutting is necessary.
In that case Newell's algorithm tests the following:
1. Test for Z overlap; implied in the selection of the face Q from the sort list
2. The extreme coordinate values in X of the two faces do not overlap (minimax test in
X)
3. The extreme coordinate values in Y of the two faces do not overlap (minimax test in
Y)
4. All vertices of P lie deeper than the plane of Q
5. All vertices of Q lie closer to the viewpoint than the plane of P
6. The rasterisation of P and Q do not overlap
Cyclic polygons must be

eliminated to correctly sort
them by depth
Note that the tests are given in order of increasing computational difficulty.
Note also that the polygons must be planar.
If the tests are all false, then the polygons must be split. Splitting is accomplished by selecting one polygon and
cutting it along the line of intersection with the other polygon. The above tests are again performed, and the
algorithm continues until all polygons pass the above tests.
Newell's algorithm
134
References
Sutherland, Ivan E.; Sproull, Robert F.; Schumacker, Robert A. (1974), "A characterization of ten hidden-surface
algorithms", Computing Surveys 6 (1): 155, doi:10.1145/356625.356626 [1].
Newell, M. E.; Newell, R. G.; Sancha, T. L. (1972), "A new approach to the shaded picture problem", Proc. ACM
National Conference, pp.443450.
References
[1] http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1145%2F356625. 356626

Non-uniform rational basis spline
(NURBS) is a mathematical model
commonly used in computer graphics
for generating and representing curves
and surfaces. It offers great flexibility
and precision for handling both
analytic (surfaces defined by common
mathematical formulae) and modeled
shapes.
History
Development of NURBS began in the
1950s by engineers who were in need
of
a
mathematically
precise
representation of freeform surfaces like
those used for ship hulls, aerospace
exterior surfaces, and car bodies,
which could be exactly reproduced
whenever technically needed. Prior
representations of this kind of surface
only existed as a single physical model
created by a designer.
Three-dimensional NURBS surfaces can have complex, organic shapes. Control points
influence the directions the surface takes. The outermost square below delineates the X/Y
extents of the surface.
A NURBS curve.
The pioneers of this development were

Animated version
Pierre Bzier who worked as an
engineer at Renault, and Paul de Casteljau who worked at Citron, both in France. Bzier worked nearly parallel to
de Casteljau, neither knowing about the work of the other. But because Bzier published the results of his work, the
average computer graphics user today recognizes splines which are represented with control points lying off the
curve itself as Bzier splines, while de Casteljaus name is only known and used for the algorithms he developed
to evaluate parametric surfaces. In the 1960s it became clear that non-uniform, rational B-splines are a generalization
of Bzier splines, which can be regarded as uniform, non-rational B-splines.
At first NURBS were only used in the proprietary CAD packages of car companies. Later they became part of
standard computer graphics packages.

Real-time, interactive rendering of NURBS curves and surfaces was first made available on Silicon Graphics
workstations in 1989. In 1993, the first interactive NURBS modeller for PCs, called NRBS, was developed by CAS
Berlin, a small startup company cooperating with the Technical University of Berlin. Today most professional
computer graphics applications available for desktop use offer NURBS technology, which is most often realized by
integrating a NURBS engine from a specialized company.
Use
NURBS are commonly used in computer-aided design
(CAD), manufacturing (CAM), and engineering (CAE)
and are part of numerous industry wide standards, such
as IGES, STEP, ACIS, and PHIGS. NURBS tools are
also found in various 3D modelling and animation
software packages.
They can be efficiently handled by the computer
programs and yet allow for easy human interaction.
NURBS surfaces are functions of two parameters
mapping to a surface in three-dimensional space. The
Motoryacht design.
shape of the surface is determined by control points.
NURBS surfaces can represent simple geometrical
shapes in a compact form. T-splines and subdivision surfaces are more suitable for complex organic shapes because
they reduce the number of control points twofold in comparison with the NURBS surfaces.
In general, editing NURBS curves and surfaces is highly intuitive and predictable. Control points are always either
connected directly to the curve/surface, or act as if they were connected by a rubber band. Depending on the type of
user interface, editing can be realized via an elements control points, which are most obvious and common for
Bzier curves, or via higher level tools such as spline modeling or hierarchical editing.
A surface under construction, e.g. the hull of a motor yacht, is usually composed of several NURBS surfaces known
as patches. These patches should be fitted together in such a way that the boundaries are invisible. This is
mathematically expressed by the concept of geometric continuity.
Higher-level tools exist which benefit from the ability of NURBS to create and establish geometric continuity of
different levels:
Positional continuity (G0)
holds whenever the end positions of two curves or surfaces are coincidental. The curves or surfaces may still
meet at an angle, giving rise to a sharp corner or edge and causing broken highlights.
Tangential continuity (G1)
requires the end vectors of the curves or surfaces to be parallel and pointing the same way, ruling out sharp
edges. Because highlights falling on a tangentially continuous edge are always continuous and thus look
natural, this level of continuity can often be sufficient.
Curvature continuity (G2)
further requires the end vectors to be of the same length and rate of length change. Highlights falling on a
curvature-continuous edge do not display any change, causing the two surfaces to appear as one. This can be
visually recognized as perfectly smooth. This level of continuity is very useful in the creation of models that
require many bi-cubic patches composing one continuous surface.
Geometric continuity mainly refers to the shape of the resulting surface; since NURBS surfaces are functions, it is
also possible to discuss the derivatives of the surface with respect to the parameters. This is known as parametric
135
136
continuity. Parametric continuity of a given degree implies geometric continuity of that degree.
First- and second-level parametric continuity (C0 and C1) are for practical purposes identical to positional and
tangential (G0 and G1) continuity. Third-level parametric continuity (C2), however, differs from curvature
continuity in that its parameterization is also continuous. In practice, C2 continuity is easier to achieve if uniform
B-splines are used.
The definition of the continuity 'Cn' requires that the nth derivative of the curve/surface (
) are equal
[1]
at a joint. Note that the (partial) derivatives of curves and surfaces are vectors that have a direction and a
magnitude. Both should be equal.
Highlights and reflections can reveal the perfect smoothing, which is otherwise practically impossible to achieve
without NURBS surfaces that have at least G2 continuity. This same principle is used as one of the surface
evaluation methods whereby a ray-traced or reflection-mapped image of a surface with white stripes reflecting on it
will show even the smallest deviations on a surface or set of surfaces. This method is derived from car prototyping
wherein surface quality is inspected by checking the quality of reflections of a neon-light ceiling on the car surface.
This method is also known as "Zebra analysis".
Technical specifications
A NURBS curve is defined by its order, a set of weighted control points, and a knot vector . NURBS curves and
surfaces are generalizations of both B-splines and Bzier curves and surfaces, the primary difference being the
weighting of the control points which makes NURBS curves rational (non-rational B-splines are a special case of
rational B-splines). Whereas Bzier curves evolve into only one parametric direction, usually called s or u, NURBS
surfaces evolve into two parametric directions, called s and t or u and v.
By evaluating a Bzier or a NURBS
curve at various values of the
parameter, the curve can be
represented in Cartesian two- or
three-dimensional space. Likewise, by
evaluating a NURBS surface at various
values of the two parameters, the
surface can be represented in Cartesian
space.
NURBS curves and surfaces are useful
for a number of reasons:
They are invariant under affine
transformations:[2] operations like
rotations and translations can be
applied to NURBS curves and surfaces by applying them to their control points.
They offer one common mathematical form for both standard analytical shapes (e.g., conics) and free-form
shapes.
They provide the flexibility to design a large variety of shapes.
They reduce the memory consumption when storing shapes (compared to simpler methods).
They can be evaluated reasonably quick by numerically stable and accurate algorithms.
In the next sections, NURBS is discussed in one dimension (curves). It should be noted that all of it can be
generalized to two or even more dimensions.
Control points
The control points determine the shape of the curve.[3] Typically, each point of the curve is computed by taking a
weighted sum of a number of control points. The weight of each point varies according to the governing parameter.
For a curve of degree d, the weight of any control point is only nonzero in d+1 intervals of the parameter space.
Within those intervals, the weight changes according to a polynomial function (basis functions) of degree d. At the
boundaries of the intervals, the basis functions go smoothly to zero, the smoothness being determined by the degree
of the polynomial.
As an example, the basis function of degree one is a triangle function. It rises from zero to one, then falls to zero
again. While it rises, the basis function of the previous control point falls. In that way, the curve interpolates between
the two points, and the resulting curve is a polygon, which is continuous, but not differentiable at the interval
boundaries, or knots. Higher degree polynomials have correspondingly more continuous derivatives. Note that
within the interval the polynomial nature of the basis functions and the linearity of the construction make the curve
perfectly smooth, so it is only at the knots that discontinuity can arise.
The fact that a single control point only influences those intervals where it is active is a highly desirable property,
known as local support. In modeling, it allows the changing of one part of a surface while keeping other parts equal.
Adding more control points allows better approximation to a given curve, although only a certain class of curves can
be represented exactly with a finite number of control points. NURBS curves also feature a scalar weight for each
control point. This allows for more control over the shape of the curve without unduly raising the number of control
points. In particular, it adds conic sections like circles and ellipses to the set of curves that can be represented
exactly. The term rational in NURBS refers to these weights.
The control points can have any dimensionality. One-dimensional points just define a scalar function of the
parameter. These are typically used in image processing programs to tune the brightness and color curves.
Three-dimensional control points are used abundantly in 3D modeling, where they are used in the everyday meaning
of the word 'point', a location in 3D space. Multi-dimensional points might be used to control sets of time-driven
values, e.g. the different positional and rotational settings of a robot arm. NURBS surfaces are just an application of
this. Each control 'point' is actually a full vector of control points, defining a curve. These curves share their degree
and the number of control points, and span one dimension of the parameter space. By interpolating these control
vectors over the other dimension of the parameter space, a continuous set of curves is obtained, defining the surface.
Knot vector
The knot vector is a sequence of parameter values that determines where and how the control points affect the
NURBS curve. The number of knots is always equal to the number of control points plus curve degree plus one (i.e.
number of control points plus curve order). The knot vector divides the parametric space in the intervals mentioned
before, usually referred to as knot spans. Each time the parameter value enters a new knot span, a new control point
becomes active, while an old control point is discarded. It follows that the values in the knot vector should be in
nondecreasing order, so (0, 0, 1, 2, 3, 3) is valid while (0, 0, 2, 1, 3, 3) is not.
Consecutive knots can have the same value. This then defines a knot span of zero length, which implies that two
control points are activated at the same time (and of course two control points become deactivated). This has impact
on continuity of the resulting curve or its higher derivatives; for instance, it allows the creation of corners in an
otherwise smooth NURBS curve. A number of coinciding knots is sometimes referred to as a knot with a certain
multiplicity. Knots with multiplicity two or three are known as double or triple knots. The multiplicity of a knot is
limited to the degree of the curve; since a higher multiplicity would split the curve into disjoint parts and it would
leave control points unused. For first-degree NURBS, each knot is paired with a control point.
The knot vector usually starts with a knot that has multiplicity equal to the order. This makes sense, since this
activates the control points that have influence on the first knot span. Similarly, the knot vector usually ends with a
137
138
knot of that multiplicity. Curves with such knot vectors start and end in a control point.
The individual knot values are not meaningful by themselves; only the ratios of the difference between the knot
values matter. Hence, the knot vectors (0, 0, 1, 2, 3, 3) and (0, 0, 2, 4, 6, 6) produce the same curve. The positions of
the knot values influences the mapping of parameter space to curve space. Rendering a NURBS curve is usually
done by stepping with a fixed stride through the parameter range. By changing the knot span lengths, more sample
points can be used in regions where the curvature is high. Another use is in situations where the parameter value has
some physical significance, for instance if the parameter is time and the curve describes the motion of a robot arm.
The knot span lengths then translate into velocity and acceleration, which are essential to get right to prevent damage
to the robot arm or its environment. This flexibility in the mapping is what the phrase non uniform in NURBS refers
to.
Necessary only for internal calculations, knots are usually not helpful to the users of modeling software. Therefore,
many modeling applications do not make the knots editable or even visible. It's usually possible to establish
reasonable knot vectors by looking at the variation in the control points. More recent versions of NURBS software
(e.g., Autodesk Maya and Rhinoceros 3D) allow for interactive editing of knot positions, but this is significantly less
intuitive than the editing of control points.
Comparison of Knots and Control Points

A common misconception is that each knot is paired with a control point. This is true only for degree 1 NURBS
(polylines). For higher degree NURBS, there are groups of 2 x degree knots that correspond to groups of (degree+1)
control points. For example, suppose we have a degree 3 NURBS with 7 control points and knots 0,0,0,1,2,5,8,8,8.
The first four control points are grouped with the first six knots. The second through fifth control points are grouped
with the knots 0,0,1,2,5,8. The third through sixth control points are grouped with the knots 0,1,2,5,8,8. The last four
control points are grouped with the last six knots.
Some modelers that use older algorithms for NURBS evaluation require two extra knot values for a total of
(degree+N+1) knots. When Rhino is exporting and importing NURBS geometry, it automatically adds and removes
these two superfluous knots as the situation requires.
Order
The order of a NURBS curve defines the number of nearby control points that influence any given point on the
curve. The curve is represented mathematically by a polynomial of degree one less than the order of the curve.
Hence, second-order curves (which are represented by linear polynomials) are called linear curves, third-order curves
are called quadratic curves, and fourth-order curves are called cubic curves. The number of control points must be
greater than or equal to the order of the curve.
In practice, cubic curves are the ones most commonly used. Fifth- and sixth-order curves are sometimes useful,
especially for obtaining continuous higher order derivatives, but curves of higher orders are practically never used
because they lead to internal numerical problems and tend to require disproportionately large calculation times.
Construction of the basis functions

The B-spline basis functions used in the construction of NURBS curves are usually denoted as
corresponds to the
-th control point, and
corresponds with the degree of the basis function.
dependence is frequently left out, so we can write

The degree-0 functions
The parameter
. The definition of these basis functions is recursive in
are piecewise constant functions. They are one on the corresponding knot span and
zero everywhere else. Effectively,

are non-zero for
, in which
[4]
is a linear interpolation of
knot spans, overlapping for
and
knot spans. The function
. The latter two functions

is computed as
139
rises linearly from zero to one on the interval where

non-zero, while
is
falls from one to zero on the interval where
is non-zero. As mentioned before,
is a triangular
function, nonzero over two knot spans rising from zero to one on the
first, and falling to zero on the second knot span. Higher order basis
functions are non-zero over corresponding more knot spans and have
correspondingly higher degree. If is the parameter, and
is the
-th knot, we can write the functions
and
as
From bottom to top: Linear basis functions

(blue) and
(green), their weight
and
functions
and
and the resulting quadratic
basis function. The knots are 0, 1, 2 and 2.5
The functions
and
are positive when the corresponding lower
order basis functions are non-zero. By induction on n it follows that the basis functions are non-negative for all
values of and . This makes the computation of the basis functions numerically stable.
Again by induction, it can be proved that the sum of the basis functions for a particular value of the parameter is
unity. This is known as the partition of unity property of the basis functions.
The figures show the linear and the quadratic basis functions for the
knots {..., 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 4.1, 5.1, 6.1, 7.1, ...}
One knot span is considerably shorter than the others. On that knot
span, the peak in the quadratic basis function is more distinct, reaching
almost one. Conversely, the adjoining basis functions fall to zero more
quickly. In the geometrical interpretation, this means that the curve
approaches the corresponding control point closely. In case of a double
knot, the length of the knot span becomes zero and the peak reaches
one exactly. The basis function is no longer differentiable at that point.
The curve will have a sharp corner if the neighbour control points are not collinear.
Linear basis functions
Quadratic basis functions
General form of a NURBS curve

Using the definitions of the basis functions
from the previous paragraph, a NURBS curve takes the following
[5]
form:
In this,
is the number of control points
and
are the corresponding weights. The denominator is a
normalizing factor that evaluates to one if all weights are one. This can be seen from the partition of unity property
of the basis functions. It is customary to write this as
in which the functions
140
are known as the rational basis functions.
General form of a NURBS surface

A NURBS surface is obtained as the tensor product of two NURBS curves, thus using two independent parameters
and (with indices and respectively):[6]
with
as rational basis functions.
Manipulating NURBS objects

A number of transformations can be applied to a NURBS object. For instance, if some curve is defined using a
certain degree and N control points, the same curve can be expressed using the same degree and N+1 control points.
In the process a number of control points change position and a knot is inserted in the knot vector. These
manipulations are used extensively during interactive design. When adding a control point, the shape of the curve
should stay the same, forming the starting point for further adjustments. A number of these operations are discussed
below.[7][8]
Knot insertion
As the term suggests, knot insertion inserts a knot into the knot vector. If the degree of the curve is
control points are replaced by
, then
new ones. The shape of the curve stays the same.
A knot can be inserted multiple times, up to the maximum multiplicity of the knot. This is sometimes referred to as
knot refinement and can be achieved by an algorithm that is more efficient than repeated knot insertion.
Knot removal
Knot removal is the reverse of knot insertion. Its purpose is to remove knots and the associated control points in
order to get a more compact representation. Obviously, this is not always possible while retaining the exact shape of
the curve. In practice, a tolerance in the accuracy is used to determine whether a knot can be removed. The process is
used to clean up after an interactive session in which control points may have been added manually, or after
importing a curve from a different representation, where a straightforward conversion process leads to redundant
control points.
141
Degree elevation
A NURBS curve of a particular degree can always be represented by a NURBS curve of higher degree. This is
frequently used when combining separate NURBS curves, e.g. when creating a NURBS surface interpolating
between a set of NURBS curves or when unifying adjacent curves. In the process, the different curves should be
brought to the same degree, usually the maximum degree of the set of curves. The process is known as degree
elevation.
Curvature
The most important property in differential geometry is the curvature . It describes the local properties (edges,
corners, etc.) and relations between the first and second derivative, and thus, the precise curve shape. Having
determined the derivatives it is easy to compute
second derivate
or approximated as the arclength from the
. The direct computation of the curvature
with these equations is the big
advantage of parameterized curves against their polygonal representations.
Example: a circle
Non-rational splines or Bzier curves may approximate a circle, but they cannot represent it exactly. Rational splines
can represent any conic section, including the circle, exactly. This representation is not unique, but one possibility
appears below:
x
weight
1 1 0
0
1 0
1 0
The order is three, since a circle is a quadratic curve and the spline's order is one more than the degree of its
piecewise polynomial segments. The knot vector is
. The
circle is composed of four quarter circles, tied together with double knots. Although double knots in a third order
NURBS curve would normally result in loss of continuity in the first derivative, the control points are positioned in
such a way that the first derivative is continuous. In fact, the curve is infinitely differentiable everywhere, as it must
be if it exactly represents a circle.
The curve represents a circle exactly, but it is not exactly parametrized in the circle's arc length. This means, for
example, that the point at does not lie at
(except for the start, middle and end point of each
quarter circle, since the representation is symmetrical). This would be impossible, since the x coordinate of the circle
would provide an exact rational polynomial expression for
, which is impossible. The circle does make one
full revolution as its parameter
as multiples of
goes from 0 to
, but this is only because the knot vector was arbitrarily chosen
References
Les Piegl & Wayne Tiller: The NURBS Book, Springer-Verlag 19951997 (2nd ed.). The main reference for
Bzier, B-Spline and NURBS; chapters on mathematical representation and construction of curves and surfaces,
interpolation, shape modification, programming concepts.
Dr. Thomas Sederberg, BYU NURBS, http://cagd.cs.byu.edu/~557/text/ch6.pdf
Dr. Lyle Ramshaw. Blossoming: A connect-the-dots approach to splines, Research Report 19, Compaq Systems
Research Center, Palo Alto, CA, June 1987, http://www.hpl.hp.com/techreports/Compaq-DEC/SRC-RR-19.
pdf
David F. Rogers: An Introduction to NURBS with Historical Perspective, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers 2001.
Good elementary book for NURBS and related issues.
Gershenfeld, Neil A. The nature of mathematical modeling. Cambridge university press, 1999.
Notes
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
Foley, van Dam, Feiner & Hughes: Computer Graphics: Principles and Practice, section 11.2, Addison-Wesley 1996 (2nd ed.).
David F. Rogers: An Introduction to NURBS with Historical Perspective, section 7.1
Gershenfeld: The Nature of Mathematical Modeling, page 141, Cambridge-University-Press 1999
Les Piegl & Wayne Tiller: The NURBS Book, chapter 2, sec. 2
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
Les Piegl & Wayne Tiller: The NURBS Book, chapter 5
L. Piegl, Modifying the shape of rational B-splines. Part 1: curves, Computer-Aided Design, Volume 21, Issue 8, October 1989, Pages
509-518, ISSN 0010-4485, http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ 0010-4485(89)90059-6.
External links
Clear explanation of NURBS for non-experts (http://www.rw-designer.com/NURBS)
Interactive NURBS demo (http://geometrie.foretnik.net/files/NURBS-en.swf)
About Nonuniform Rational B-Splines - NURBS (http://www.cs.wpi.edu/~matt/courses/cs563/talks/nurbs.
html)
An Interactive Introduction to Splines (http://ibiblio.org/e-notes/Splines/Intro.htm)
http://www.cs.bris.ac.uk/Teaching/Resources/COMS30115/all.pdf
http://homepages.inf.ed.ac.uk/rbf/CVonline/LOCAL_COPIES/AV0405/DONAVANIK/bezier.html
http://mathcs.holycross.edu/~croyden/csci343/notes.html (Lecture 33: Bzier Curves, Splines)
http://www.cs.mtu.edu/~shene/COURSES/cs3621/NOTES/notes.html
A free software package for handling NURBS curves, surfaces and volumes (http://octave.sourceforge.net/
nurbs) in Octave and Matlab
142
Nonobtuse mesh
143
Nonobtuse mesh
A nonobtuse triangle mesh is composed of a set of triangles in which every angle is less than or equal to 90 we
call these triangles nonobtuse triangles. If each (triangle) face angle is strictly less than 90, then the triangle mesh is
said to be acute. The immediate benefits of having a nonobtuse or acute mesh include more efficient and more
accurate geodesic computation on meshes using fast marching, and guaranteed validity for planar mesh embeddings
via discrete harmonic maps.
The first guaranteed nonobtuse mesh generation in 3D was introduced in Eurographics Symposium on Geometry
Processing [1] 2006 by Li [2] and Zhang [3].
References
Nonobtuse Remeshing and Mesh Decimation [4]
Guaranteed Nonobtuse Meshes via Constrainted Optimizations [5]
References
[1] http:/ / www. geometryprocessing. org/
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
http:/ / www. cs. sfu. ca/ ~ysl/ personal/

http:/ / www. cs. sfu. ca/ ~haoz/
http:/ / www. cs. sfu. ca/ ~ysl/ personal/ publication/ sgp06_electronic. pdf
http:/ / www. cs. sfu. ca/ ~ysl/ personal/ publication/ TR-CMPT2006-13. pdf
Normal (geometry)
In geometry, a normal is an object such as a line or vector that is
perpendicular to a given object. For example, in the two-dimensional
case, the normal line to a curve at a given point is the line
perpendicular to the tangent line to the curve at the point.
In the three-dimensional case a surface normal, or simply normal, to
a surface at a point P is a vector that is perpendicular to the tangent
plane to that surface at P. The word "normal" is also used as an
adjective: a line normal to a plane, the normal component of a force,
the normal vector, etc. The concept of normality generalizes to
orthogonality.
The concept has been generalized to differentiable manifolds of
arbitrary dimension embedded in a Euclidean space. The normal
vector space or normal space of a manifold at a point P is the set of
the vectors which are orthogonal to the tangent space at P. In the case
of differential curves, the curvature vector is a normal vector of special
interest.
A polygon and two of its normal vectors
The normal is often used in computer graphics to determine a surface's orientation toward a light source for flat
shading, or the orientation of each of the corners (vertices) to mimic a curved surface with Phong shading.
Normal (geometry)
144
Normal to surfaces in 3D space

Calculating a surface normal
For a convex polygon (such as a triangle), a surface normal can be
calculated as the vector cross product of two (non-parallel) edges of the
polygon.
For a plane given by the equation
vector
, the
is a normal.
For a plane given by the equation

,
i.e., a is a point on the plane and b and c are (non-parallel) vectors
lying on the plane, the normal to the plane is a vector normal to both b
and c which can be found as the cross product
.
A normal to a surface at a point is the same as a

normal to the tangent plane to that surface at that
point.
For a hyperplane in n+1 dimensions, given by the equation

,
where a0 is a point on the hyperplane and ai for i = 1, ..., n are non-parallel vectors lying on the hyperplane, a normal
to the hyperplane is any vector in the null space of A where A is given by
.
That is, any vector orthogonal to all in-plane vectors is by definition a surface normal.
If a (possibly non-flat) surface S is parameterized by a system of curvilinear coordinates x(s, t), with s and t real
variables, then a normal is given by the cross product of the partial derivatives
If a surface S is given implicitly as the set of points
satisfying
, then, a normal at a point
on the surface is given by the gradient

since the gradient at any point is perpendicular to the level set, and
(the surface) is a level set of
.
For a surface S given explicitly as a function
of the independent variables
(e.g.,
), its normal can be found in at least two equivalent ways. The first
one is obtaining its implicit form
, from which the normal follows readily as the
gradient
.
(Notice that the implicit form could be defined alternatively as
;
these two forms correspond to the interpretation of the surface being oriented upwards or downwards, respectively,
as a consequence of the difference in the sign of the partial derivative
.) The second way of obtaining the
normal follows directly from the gradient of the explicit form,
;
by inspection,
Normal (geometry)
145
, where
is the upward unit vector.
Note that this is equal to
, where
and
are the x and y unit
vectors.
If a surface does not have a tangent plane at a point, it does not have a normal at that point either. For example, a
cone does not have a normal at its tip nor does it have a normal along the edge of its base. However, the normal to
the cone is defined almost everywhere. In general, it is possible to define a normal almost everywhere for a surface
that is Lipschitz continuous.
Uniqueness of the normal

A normal to a surface does not have a
unique direction; the vector pointing in the
opposite direction of a surface normal is
also a surface normal. For a surface which is
the topological boundary of a set in three
dimensions, one can distinguish between the
inward-pointing
normal
and
outer-pointing normal, which can help
define the normal in a unique way. For an
oriented surface, the surface normal is
A vector field of normals to a surface
usually determined by the right-hand rule. If
the normal is constructed as the cross product of tangent vectors (as described in the text above), it is a pseudovector.
Transforming normals
When applying a transform to a surface it is sometimes convenient to derive normals for the resulting surface from
the original normals. All points P on tangent plane are transformed to P. We want to find n perpendicular to P. Let
t be a vector on the tangent plane and Ml be the upper 3x3 matrix (translation part of transformation does not apply
to normal or tangent vectors).
So use the inverse transpose of the linear transformation (the upper 3x3 matrix) when transforming surface normals.
Also note that the inverse transpose is equal to the original matrix if the matrix is orthonormal, i.e. purely rotational
with no scaling or shearing.
Hypersurfaces in n-dimensional space

The definition of a normal to a surface in three-dimensional space can be extended to
-dimensional
hypersurfaces in a -dimensional space. A hypersurface may be locally defined implicitly as the set of points
satisfying an equation
, where
is a given scalar function. If
is continuously
differentiable then the hypersurface is a differentiable manifold in the neighbourhood of the points where the
gradient is not null. At these points the normal vector space has dimension one and is generated by the gradient
Normal (geometry)
The normal line at a point of the hypersurface is defined only if the gradient is not null. It is the line passing through
the point and having the gradient as direction.
Varieties defined by implicit equations in n-dimensional space

A differential variety defined by implicit equations in the n-dimensional space is the set of the common zeros of a
finite set of differential functions in n variables
The Jacobian matrix of the variety is the kn matrix whose i-th row is the gradient of fi. By implicit function
theorem, the variety is a manifold in the neighborhood of a point of it where the Jacobian matrix has rank k. At such
a point P, the normal vector space is the vector space generated by the values at P of the gradient vectors of the fi.
In other words, a variety is defined as the intersection of k hypersurfaces, and the normal vector space at a point is
the vector space generated by the normal vectors of the hypersurfaces at the point.
The normal (affine) space at a point P of the variety is the affine subspace passing through P and generated by the
normal vector space at P.
These definitions may be extended verbatim to the points where the variety is not a manifold.
Example
Let V be the variety defined in the 3-dimensional space by the equations
This variety is the union of the x-axis and the y-axis.

At a point (a, 0, 0) where a0, the rows of the Jacobian matrix are (0, 0, 1) and (0, a, 0). Thus the normal affine
space is the plane of equation x=a. Similarly, if b0, the normal plane at (0, b, 0) is the plane of equation y=b.
At the point (0, 0, 0) the rows of the Jacobian matrix are (0, 0, 1) and (0,0,0). Thus the normal vector space and the
normal affine space have dimension 1 and the normal affine space is the z-axis.
Uses
Surface normals are essential in defining surface integrals of vector fields.

Surface normals are commonly used in 3D computer graphics for lighting calculations; see Lambert's cosine law.
Surface normals are often adjusted in 3D computer graphics by normal mapping.
Render layers containing surface normal information may be used in Digital compositing to change the apparent
lighting of rendered elements.
146
Normal (geometry)
147
Normal in geometric optics

The normal is the line perpendicular to the surface of an optical
medium. In reflection of light, the angle of incidence and the angle of
reflection are respectively the angle between the normal and the
incident ray and the angle between the normal and the reflected ray.
References
External links
An explanation of normal vectors (http://msdn.microsoft.com/
en-us/library/bb324491(VS.85).aspx) from Microsoft's MSDN
Clear pseudocode for calculating a surface normal (http://www.
opengl.org/wiki/Calculating_a_Surface_Normal) from either a
triangle or polygon.
Diagram of specular reflection
Painter's algorithm
The painter's algorithm, also known as a priority fill, is one of the simplest solutions to the visibility problem in
3D computer graphics. When projecting a 3D scene onto a 2D plane, it is necessary at some point to decide which
polygons are visible, and which are hidden.
The name "painter's algorithm" refers to the technique employed by many painters of painting distant parts of a scene
before parts which are nearer thereby covering some areas of distant parts. The painter's algorithm sorts all the
polygons in a scene by their depth and then paints them in this order, farthest to closest. It will paint over the parts
that are normally not visible thus solving the visibility problem at the cost of having painted invisible areas of
distant objects.
The distant mountains are painted first, followed by the closer meadows; finally, the closest objects in this scene, the
trees, are painted.Wikipedia:Please clarify
Painter's algorithm
The algorithm can fail in some cases, including cyclic overlap or

piercing polygons. In the case of cyclic overlap, as shown in the figure
to the right, Polygons A, B, and C overlap each other in such a way
that it is impossible to determine which polygon is above the others. In
this case, the offending polygons must be cut to allow sorting. Newell's
algorithm, proposed in 1972, provides a method for cutting such
polygons. Numerous methods have also been proposed in the field of
computational geometry.
The case of piercing polygons arises when one polygon intersects
another. As with cyclic overlap, this problem may be resolved by
cutting the offending polygons.
In basic implementations, the painter's algorithm can be inefficient. It
Overlapping polygons can cause the algorithm to
forces the system to render each point on every polygon in the visible
fail
set, even if that polygon is occluded in the finished scene. This means
that, for detailed scenes, the painter's algorithm can overly tax the computer hardware.
A reverse painter's algorithm is sometimes used, in which objects nearest to the viewer are painted first with
the rule that paint must never be applied to parts of the image that are already painted. In a computer graphic system,
this can be very efficient, since it is not necessary to calculate the colors (using lighting, texturing and such) for parts
of the more distant scene that are hidden by nearby objects. However, the reverse algorithm suffers from many of the
same problems as the standard version.
These and other flaws with the algorithm led to the development of Z-buffer techniques, which can be viewed as a
development of the painter's algorithm, by resolving depth conflicts on a pixel-by-pixel basis, reducing the need for a
depth-based rendering order. Even in such systems, a variant of the painter's algorithm is sometimes employed. As
Z-buffer implementations generally rely on fixed-precision depth-buffer registers implemented in hardware, there is
scope for visibility problems due to rounding error. These are overlaps or gaps at joins between polygons. To avoid
this, some graphics engine implementations "overrender"[citation needed], drawing the affected edges of both polygons
in the order given by painter's algorithm. This means that some pixels are actually drawn twice (as in the full
painter's algorithm) but this happens on only small parts of the image and has a negligible performance effect.
References
Foley, James; van Dam, Andries; Feiner, Steven K.; Hughes, John F. (1990). Computer Graphics: Principles and
Practice. Reading, MA, USA: Addison-Wesley. p.1174. ISBN0-201-12110-7.
148
Parallax barrier
Parallax barrier
A parallax barrier is a device placed in front of an image source, such
as a liquid crystal display, to allow it to show a stereoscopic image or
multiscopic image without the need for the viewer to wear 3D glasses.
Placed in front of the normal LCD, it consists of a layer of material
with a series of precision slits, allowing each eye to see a different set
of pixels, so creating a sense of depth through parallax in an effect
similar to what lenticular printing produces for printed products and
lenticular lenses for other displays. A disadvantage of the technology is
that the viewer must be positioned in a well-defined spot to experience
the 3D effect. Another disadvantage is that the effective horizontal
pixel count viewable for each eye is reduced by one half; however,
there is research attempting to improve these limitations.
History
The principle of the parallax barrier was independently invented by
Auguste Berthier, who published first but produced no practical
Comparison of parallax-barrier and lenticular
results,[1] and by Frederic E. Ives, who made and exhibited the first
autostereoscopic displays. Note: The figure is not
known functional autostereoscopic image in 1901. About two years
to scale. Lenticules can be modified and more
later, Ives began selling specimen images as novelties, the first known
pixels can be used to make automultiscopic
displays
commercial use. Nearly a century later, Sharp developed the electronic
flat-panel application of this old technology to commercialization,
briefly selling two laptops with the world's only 3D LCD screens. These displays are no longer available from Sharp
but still being manufactured and further developed from other companies like Tridelity and SpatialView. Similarly,
Hitachi has released the first 3D mobile phone for the Japanese market under distribution by KDDI. In 2009,
Fujifilm released the Fujifilm FinePix Real 3D W1 digital camera, which features a built-in autostereoscopic LCD
display measuring 2.8" diagonal. Nintendo has also implemented this technology on its latest portable gaming
console, the Nintendo 3DS.
Applications
In addition to films and computer games, the technique has found uses in areas such as molecular modelling[citation
needed]
and airport security. It is also being used for the navigation system in the 2010-model Range Rover, allowing
the driver to view (for example) GPS directions, while a passenger watches a movie. It is also used in the Nintendo
3DS hand-held game console and LG's Optimus 3D and Thrill smartphones, HTC's EVO 3D[2] as well as Sharp's
Galapagos Android SmartPhone series.
The technology is harder to apply for 3D television sets, because of the requirement for a wide range of possible
viewing angles. A Toshiba 21-inch 3D display uses parallax barrier technology with 9 pairs of images, to cover a
viewing angle of 30 degrees.
149
Parallax barrier
150
Parallax barrier design

The slits in the parallax barrier allow the viewer to see only left image pixels from the position of their left eye, right
image pixels from the right eye. When choosing the geometry of the parallax barrier the important parameters that
need to be optimised are; the pixel barrier separation d, the parallax barrier pitch f, the pixel aperture a, and the
parallax barrier slit width b.
Parallax barrier pixel separation

The closer the parallax barrier is to the pixels, the wider the angle of
separation between the left and right images. For a stereoscopic display
the left and right images must hit the left and right eyes, which means
the views must be separated by only a few degrees. The pixel- barrier
separation d for this case can be derived as follows.
From Snells law:
For small angles:
and
Therefore:
For a typical auto-stereoscopic display of pixel pitch 65 micrometers,
eye separation 63mm, viewing distance 30cm, and refractive index
1.52, the pixel-barrier separation needs to be about 470 micrometers.
A cross sectional diagram of a parallax barrier,

with all its important dimensions labelled.
Parallax barrier
151
Parallax barrier pitch

The pitch of a parallax barrier should ideally be roughly two times the pitch of the pixels, however the optimum
design should be slightly less than this. This perturbation to the barrier pitch compensates for the fact that the edges
of a display are viewed at a different angle to that of the centre, it enables the left and right images target the eyes
appropriately from all positions of the screen.
Optimum pixel aperture and barrier slit width

In a parallax barrier system for a high resolution display, the
performance (brightness and crosstalk) can be simulated by Fresnel
diffraction theory. From these simulations, the following can be
deduced. If the slit width is small, light passing the slits is diffracted
heavily causing crosstalk. The brightness of the display is also reduced.
If the slit width is large, light passing the slit does not diffract so much,
but the wider slits create crosstalk due to geometric ray paths.
Therefore the design suffers more crosstalk. The brightness of the
display is increased. Therefore the best slit width is given by a trade off
between crosstalk and brightness.
Barrier position
Note that the parallax barrier may also be placed behind the LCD
pixels. In this case, light from a slit passes the left image pixel in the
left direction, and vice versa. This produces the same basic effect as a
front parallax barrier.
Techniques for switching
a). If the parallax barrier had exactly twice the

pitch of the pixels, it would be aligned in
synchronisation with the pixel across whole of
the display. The left and right views would be
emitted at the same angles all across the display.
It can be seen that the viewers left eye does not
receive the left image from all points on the
screen. The display does not work well. b). If the
barrier pitch is modified, the views can be made
to converge, such that the viewer sees the correct
images from all points on the screen. c). Shows
the calculation which determines the pitch of the
barrier that is needed. p is the pixel pitch, d is the
pixel barrier separation, f is the barrier pitch.
In a parallax barrier system, the left eye sees only half the pixels (that
is to say the left image pixels) and the same is true for the right eye. Therefore the resolution of the display is
reduced, and so it can be advantageous to make a parallax barrier that can be switched on when 3D is needed or off
when a 2D image is required. One method of switching the parallax barrier on and off is to form it from a liquid
crystal material, the parallax barrier can then be created similar to the way that an image is formed in a liquid crystal
display.
Parallax barrier
152
Time multiplexing to increase resolution

Time multiplexing provides a means of increasing the resolution of a
parallax barrier system. In the design shown each eye is able to see the
full resolution of the panel.
An autostereoscopic display that is switchable
between 2D and 3D. In 3D mode the parallax
barrier is formed with an LC cell, in a similar
way to how an image is created on an LCD. In
2D mode the LC cell is switched into a
transparent state such that no parallax barrier
exists. In this case the light from the LCD pixels
can go in any direction and the display acts like a
normal 2D LCD.
The design requires a display that can switch fast enough to avoid
image flicker as the images swap each frame.
Tracking barriers for increased viewing freedom

In a standard parallax barrier system the viewer must position
themselves in an appropriate position so that the left and right eye
views can be seen by their left and right eyes respectively. In a tracked
3D system the viewing freedom can be increased considerably by
tracking the position of the user and adjusting parallax barrier so that
the left and right views are always directed to the users eyes correctly.
Identification of the users viewing angle can be done by using a
forward facing camera above the display and image processing
software that can recognise the position of the users face. Adjustment
of the angle at which the left and right views are projected can be done
by shifting the parallax barrier with respect to the pixels (for example
mechanically or electronically),.
Crosstalk in a parallax barrier system
A diagram showing how 3D can be created using

time multiplexed parallax barrier. In the first time
cycle, the slits in the barrier are arranged in a
conventional way for a 3D display, and the left
and right eyes see the left and right eye pixels. In
the next time cycle, the positions of the slits are
changed (possible because each slit is formed
with an LC shutter). In the new barrier position,
the right eye can see the pixels that were hidden
in the previous time cycle. These uncovered
pixels are set to show the right image (rather than
the left image which they showed in the previous
time cycle). The same is true for the left eye. This
cycling between the two positions of the barrier,
and the interlacing pattern, enables both eyes to
see the correct image from half the pixels in the
first time cycle, and the correct image from the
other half of the pixels in the other time cycle.
The cycles repeats every 50th of a second so that
the switching is not noticeable to the user, but
user has the impression that the appearance each
eye is seeing an image from all the pixels.
Consequently the display appears to have full
resolution.
Crosstalk is the interference that exists between the left and right views
in a 3D display. In a display with high crosstalk left eye would be able
to see the right eye image faintly in the background. The perception of
crosstalk in stereoscopic displays has been studied widely. It is widely
acknowledged that the presence of high levels of crosstalk in a
stereoscopic display are detrimental. The effects of crosstalk in an
image include: ghosting and loss of contrast, loss of 3D effect and
depth resolution, and viewer discomfort. The visibility of crosstalk (ghosting) increases with increasing contrast and
increasing binocular parallax of the image. For example, a stereoscopic image with high-contrast will exhibit more
ghosting on a particular stereoscopic display than will an image with low contrast.
Parallax barrier
153
Measurement
A technique to quantify the level of crosstalk from a 3D display involves measuring the percentage of light that
deviates from one view to the other.
The crosstalk in a typical parallax-barrier based 3D system at the best
eye position might be 3%. Results of subjective tests carried out to
determine the image quality of 3D images conclude that for high
quality 3D, crosstalk should be 'no greater than around 1 to 2%'.
Causes of crosstalk and counter measures

Diffraction can be a major cause of crosstalk. Theoretical simulations
of diffraction have been found to be a good predictor of experimental
crosstalk measurements in emulsion parallax barrier systems. These
Measurement of crosstalk in 3D displays.
Crosstalk is the percentage of light from one view
simulations predict that the amount of crosstalk caused by the parallax
leaking to the other view. The measurements and
barrier will be highly dependent on the sharpness of the edges of the
calculations above show how crosstalk is defined
slits. For example, if the transmission of the barrier goes from opaque
when measuring crosstalk in the left image.
to transparent sharply as it moves from barrier to slit then this produces
Diagrams a) sketch the intensity measurements
that need to be made for different outputs from
a wide diffraction pattern and consequently more crosstalk. If the
the
3D display. Table b) describe their purpose.
transition is smoother then the diffraction will not spread so widely and
Equation c) is used to derive the crosstalk. It is
less crosstalk will be produced. This prediction is consistent with
the ratio of the light leakage from the right image
experimental results for a slightly soft edged barrier (whose pitch was
into the left image, but note that the imperfect
black level of the LCD is subtracted out from the
182 micrometers, slit width was 48 micrometers, and transition
result so that it does not change the crosstalk
between opaque and transmissive occurred over a region of about 3
ratio.
micrometers). The slightly soft edged barrier has a crosstalk of 2.3%
which is slightly lower than the crosstalk from a harder edged barrier
which was about 2.7%. The diffraction simulations also suggest that if the parallax barrier slit edges had a
transmission that decreases over a 10 micrometers region, then crosstalk could become as 0.1. Image processing is
an alternative crosstalk counter measure. The figure shows the principle behind crosstalk correction.
There are 3 main types of Autostereoscopy displays with parallax
barrier
Early experimental prototypes would just put a series of precision
slits on regular LCD screen to see if it had any potential.
Pros
Easily attachable
Cons
Lowest image quality
First fully developed "Parallax barrier displays" would have
precision slits as one of its optical components over the pixels. This
blocks the image from one eye and shows it to another.
Pros
Cheaper for mass production
Cons
Least efficient with backlight,
Needs twice as much backlight as normal displays
Small viewing angles
The principle of crosstalk correction.
Parallax barrier
The newest and most convenient design, commercial products like the Nintendo 3DS, HTC Evo 3D, and LG
Optimus 3D do not have the physical parallax barrier in front of the pixels, but behind the pixels and in front of
the backlight. They thus send not different images to the two eyes but different light to each. This allows the two
channels of light to pass through the pixels, allowing glare over the opposite pixels giving the best image quality.
Pros
Clear image
Largest viewing angle
Cons
More expensive for mass production
Uses 20-25% more backlight than normal displays
References
[1] Berthier, Auguste. (May 16 and 23, 1896). "Images stroscopiques de grand format" (in French). Cosmos 34 (590, 591): 205210, 227-233
(see 229-231)
[2] HTC EVO 3D (http:/ / www. gsmarena. com/ htc_evo_3d-3895. php), from GSMArena
External links
Video explaining how the parallax barrier works (http://vimeo.com/44261419)
Principle of autostereo display (http://mrl.nyu.edu/~perlin/experiments/autostereo/) - Java applet illustrating
the idea
Parallel rendering
Parallel rendering (or Distributed rendering) is the application of parallel programming to the computational
domain of computer graphics. Rendering graphics can require massive computational resources for complex scenes
that arise in scientific visualization, medical visualization, CAD applications, and virtual reality. Rendering is an
embarrassingly parallel workload in multiple domains (e.g., pixels, objects, frames) and thus has been the subject of
much research.
Workload Distribution
There are two, often competing, reasons for using parallel rendering. Performance scaling allows frames to be
rendered more quickly while data scaling allows larger data sets to be visualized. Different methods of distributing
the workload tend to favor one type of scaling over the other. There can also be other advantages and disadvantages
such as latency and load balancing issues. The three main options for primitives to distribute are entire frames,
pixels, or objects (e.g. triangle meshes).
154
Parallel rendering
Frame distribution
Each processing unit can render an entire frame from a different point of view or moment in time. The frames
rendered from different points of view can improve image quality with anti-aliasing or add effects like depth-of-field
and three dimensional display output. This approach allows for good performance scaling but no data scaling.
When rendering sequential frames in parallel there will be a lag for interactive sessions. The lag between user input
and the action being displayed is proportional to the number of sequential frames being rendered in parallel.
Pixel distribution
Sets of pixels in the screen space can be distributed among processing units in what is often referred to as sort first
rendering.[1]
Distributing interlaced lines of pixels gives good load balancing but makes data scaling impossible. Distributing
contiguous 2D tiles of pixels allows for data scaling by culling data with the view frustum. However, there is a data
overhead from objects on frustum boundaries being replicated and data has to be loaded dynamically as the view
point changes. Dynamic load balancing is also needed to maintain performance scaling.
Object distribution
Distributing objects among processing units is often referred to as sort last rendering.[2] It provides good data scaling
and can provide good performance scaling, but it requires the intermediate images from processing nodes to be alpha
composited to create the final image. As the image resolution grows, the alpha compositing overhead also grows.
A load balancing scheme is also needed to maintain performance regardless of the viewing conditions. This can be
achieved by over partitioning the object space and assigning multiple pieces to each processing unit in a random
fashion, however this increases the number of alpha compositing stages required to create the final image. Another
option is to assign a contiguous block to each processing unit and update it dynamically, but this requires dynamic
data loading.
Hybrid distribution
The different types of distributions can be combined in a number of fashions. A couple of sequential frames can be
rendered in parallel while also rendering each of those individual frames in parallel using a pixel or object
distribution. Object distributions can try to minimize their overlap in screen space in order to reduce alpha
compositing costs, or even use a pixel distribution to render portions of the object space.
Open source applications

The open source software package Chromium (http:/ / chromium. sourceforge. net) provides a parallel rendering
mechanism for existing applications. It intercepts the OpenGL calls and processes them, typically to send them to
multiple rendering units driving a display wall.
Equalizer (http:/ / www. equalizergraphics. com) is an open source rendering framework and resource management
system for multipipe applications. Equalizer provides an API to write parallel, scalable visualization applications
which are configured at run-time by a resource server.
OpenSG (http:/ / www. opensg. org) is an open source scenegraph system that provides parallel rendering
capabilities, especially on clusters. It hides the complexity of parallel multi-threaded and clustered applications and
supports sort-first as well as sort-last rendering.
155
Parallel rendering
156
References
[1] Molnar, S., M. Cox, D. Ellsworth, and H. Fuchs. A Sorting Classification of Parallel Rendering. IEEE Computer Graphics and Algorithms,
pages 23-32, July 1994.
[2] Molnar, S., M. Cox, D. Ellsworth, and H. Fuchs. A Sorting Classification of Parallel Rendering. IEEE Computer Graphics and Algorithms,
pages 23-32, July 1994.
External links
Cluster Rendering at Princeton University (http://www.cs.princeton.edu/~rudro/cluster-rendering/)
Particle system
The term particle system refers to a computer graphics technique that
uses a large number of very small sprites or other graphic objects to
simulate certain kinds of "fuzzy" phenomena, which are otherwise very
hard to reproduce with conventional rendering techniques - usually
highly chaotic systems, natural phenomena, and/or processes caused by
chemical reactions.
Examples of such phenomena which are commonly replicated using
particle systems include fire, explosions, smoke, moving water (such
as a waterfall), sparks, falling leaves, clouds, fog, snow, dust, meteor
tails, stars and galaxies, or abstract visual effects like glowing trails,
magic spells, etc. - these use particles that fade out quickly and are then
re-emitted from the effect's source. Another technique can be used for
things that contain many strands - such as fur, hair, and grass involving rendering an entire particle's lifetime at once, which can then
be drawn and manipulated as a single strand of the material in
question.
A particle system used to simulate a fire, created

in 3dengfx.
Particle systems may be two-dimensional or three-dimensional.
Typical implementation
Typically a particle system's position and motion in 3D space are
Ad hoc particle system used to simulate a galaxy,
controlled by what is referred to as an emitter. The emitter acts as the
created in 3dengfx.
source of the particles, and its location in 3D space determines where
they are generated and whence they proceed. A regular 3D mesh
object, such as a cube or a plane, can be used as an emitter. The emitter has attached to it a set of particle behavior
parameters. These parameters can include the spawning rate (how many particles are generated per unit of time), the
particles' initial velocity vector (the direction they are emitted upon creation), particle lifetime (the length of time
each individual particle exists before disappearing), particle color, and many more. It is common for all or most of
these parameters to be "fuzzy" instead of a precise numeric value, the artist specifies
Particle system
157
a central value and the degree of randomness allowable on either side

of the center (i.e. the average particle's lifetime might be 50 frames
20%). When using a mesh object as an emitter, the initial velocity
vector is often set to be normal to the individual face(s) of the object,
making the particles appear to "spray" directly from each face.
A typical particle system's update loop (which is performed for each
frame of animation) can be separated into two distinct stages, the
parameter update/simulation stage and the rendering stage.
A particle system used to simulate a bomb
explosion, created in particleIllusion.
Simulation stage
During the simulation stage, the number of new particles that must be created is calculated based on spawning rates
and the interval between updates, and each of them is spawned in a specific position in 3D space based on the
emitter's position and the spawning area specified. Each of the particle's parameters (i.e. velocity, color, etc.) is
initialized according to the emitter's parameters. At each update, all existing particles are checked to see if they have
exceeded their lifetime, in which case they are removed from the simulation. Otherwise, the particles' position and
other characteristics are advanced based on a physical simulation, which can be as simple as translating their current
position, or as complicated as performing physically accurate trajectory calculations which take into account external
forces (gravity, friction, wind, etc.). It is common to perform collision detection between particles and specified 3D
objects in the scene to make the particles bounce off of or otherwise interact with obstacles in the environment.
Collisions between particles are rarely used, as they are computationally expensive and not visually relevant for most
simulations.
Rendering stage
After the update is complete, each particle is rendered, usually in the form of a textured billboarded quad (i.e. a
quadrilateral that is always facing the viewer). However, this is not necessary; a particle may be rendered as a single
pixel in small resolution/limited processing power environments. Particles can be rendered as Metaballs in off-line
rendering; isosurfaces computed from particle-metaballs make quite convincing liquids. Finally, 3D mesh objects
can "stand in" for the particles a snowstorm might consist of a single 3D snowflake mesh being duplicated and
rotated to match the positions of thousands or millions of particles.
"Snowflakes" versus "Hair"

Particle systems can be either animated or static; that is, the lifetime of each particle can either be distributed over
time or rendered all at once. The consequence of this distinction is similar to the difference between snowflakes and
hair - animated particles are akin to snowflakes, which move around as distinct points in space, and static particles
are akin to hair, which consists of a distinct number of curves.
The term "particle system" itself often brings to mind only the animated aspect, which is commonly used to create
moving particulate simulations sparks, rain, fire, etc. In these implementations, each frame of the animation
contains each particle at a specific position in its life cycle, and each particle occupies a single point position in
space. For effects such as fire or smoke that dissipate, each particle is given a fade out time or fixed lifetime; effects
such as snowstorms or rain instead usually terminate the lifetime of the particle once it passes out of a particular field
of view.
Particle system
158
However, if the entire life cycle of each particle is rendered simultaneously, the result is static particles strands of
material that show the particles' overall trajectory, rather than point particles. These strands can be used to simulate
hair, fur, grass, and similar materials. The strands can be controlled with the same velocity vectors, force fields,
spawning rates, and deflection parameters that animated particles obey. In addition, the rendered thickness of the
strands can be controlled and in some implementations may be varied along the length of the strand. Different
combinations of parameters can impart stiffness, limpness, heaviness, bristliness, or any number of other properties.
The strands may also use texture mapping to vary the strands' color, length, or other properties across the emitter
surface.
A cube emitting 5000 animated particles, obeying

a "gravitational" force in the negative Y direction.
The same cube emitter rendered using static

particles, or strands.
Artist-friendly particle system tools

Particle systems can be created and modified natively in many 3D modeling and rendering packages including
Cinema 4D, Lightwave, Houdini, Maya, XSI, 3D Studio Max and Blender. These editing programs allow artists to
have instant feedback on how a particle system will look with properties and constraints that they specify. There is
also plug-in software available that provides enhanced particle effects.
Developer-friendly particle system tools

Particle systems code that can be included in game engines, digital content creation systems, and effects applications
can be written from scratch or downloaded. Havok provides multiple particle system APIs. Their Havok FX API
focuses especially on particle system effects. Ageia - now a subsidiary of Nvidia - provides a particle system and
other game physics API that is used in many games, including Unreal Engine 3 games. Game Maker provides a
two-dimensional particle system often used by indie, hobbyist, or student game developers, though it cannot be
imported into other engines. Many other solutions also exist, and particle systems are frequently written from scratch
if non-standard effects or behaviors are desired.
Particle system
159
External links
Particle Systems: A Technique for Modeling a Class of Fuzzy Objects [1] William T. Reeves (ACM
Transactions on Graphics, April 1983)
The Particle Systems API [2] - David K. McAllister
The ocean spray in your face. [3] Jeff Lander (Graphic Content, July 1998)
Building an Advanced Particle System [4] John van der Burg (Gamasutra, June 2000)
Particle Engine Using Triangle Strips [5] Jeff Molofee (NeHe)
Designing an Extensible Particle System using C++ and Templates [6] Kent Lai (GameDev.net)
repository of public 3D particle scripts in LSL Second Life format [7] - Ferd Frederix
GPU-Particlesystems using WebGL [8] - Particle effects directly in the browser using WebGL for calculations.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
http:/ / portal. acm. org/ citation. cfm?id=357320

http:/ / particlesystems. org/
https:/ / www. lri. fr/ ~mbl/ ENS/ IG2/ devoir2/ files/ docs/ particles. pdf
http:/ / www. gamasutra. com/ view/ feature/ 3157/ building_an_advanced_particle_. php
http:/ / nehe. gamedev. net/ data/ lessons/ lesson. asp?lesson=19
http:/ / archive. gamedev. net/ archive/ reference/ articles/ article1982. html
[7] http:/ / secondlife. mitsi. com/ cgi/ llscript. plx?Category=Particles

[8] http:/ / www. gpu-particlesystems. de
Point cloud
A point cloud is a set of data points in some
coordinate system.
In a three-dimensional coordinate system,
these points are usually defined by X, Y, and
Z coordinates, and often are intended to
represent the external surface of an object.
Point clouds may be created by 3D scanners.
These devices measure in an automatic way
a large number of points on the surface of an
object, and often output a point cloud as a
data file. The point cloud represents the set
of points that the device has measured.
As the result of a 3D scanning process point
clouds are used for many purposes,
including to create 3D CAD models for
manufactured
parts,
metrology/quality
inspection, and a multitude of visualization,
animation,
rendering
and
mass
customization applications.
A point cloud image of a torus.
Point cloud
While point clouds can be directly rendered and inspected,[2] usually
point clouds themselves are generally not directly usable in most 3D
applications, and therefore are usually converted to polygon mesh or
triangle mesh models, NURBS surface models, or CAD models
through a process commonly referred to as surface reconstruction.
There are many techniques for converting a point cloud to a 3D
surface. Some approaches, like Delaunay triangulation, alpha shapes,
[1]
and ball pivoting, build a network of triangles over the existing vertices
Geo-referenced point cloud by DroneMapper
of the point cloud, while other approaches convert the point cloud into
a volumetric distance field and reconstruct the implicit surface so defined through a marching cubes algorithm.[3]
One application in which point clouds are directly usable is industrial metrology or inspection. The point cloud of a
manufactured part can be aligned to a CAD model (or even another point cloud), and compared to check for
differences. These differences can be displayed as color maps that give a visual indicator of the deviation between
the manufactured part and the CAD model. Geometric dimensions and tolerances can also be extracted directly from
the point cloud.
Point clouds can also be used to represent volumetric data used for example in medical imaging. Using point clouds
multi-sampling and data compression are achieved.[4]
In geographic information system, point clouds are one of the sources to make digital elevation model of the
terrain.[5] The point clouds are also employed in order to generate 3D model of urban environment, e.g.[6]
References
[1] http:/ / dronemapper. com
[2] Rusinkiewicz, S. and Levoy, M. 2000. QSplat: a multiresolution point rendering system for large meshes. In Siggraph 2000. ACM , New
York, NY, 343352. DOI= http:/ / doi. acm. org/ 10. 1145/ 344779. 344940
[3] Meshing Point Clouds (http:/ / meshlabstuff. blogspot. com/ 2009/ 09/ meshing-point-clouds. html) A short tutorial on how to build surfaces
from point clouds
[4] Sitek et al. "Tomographic Reconstruction Using an Adaptive Tetrahedral Mesh Defined by a Point Cloud" IEEE Trans. Med. Imag. 25 1172
(2006) (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1109/ TMI. 2006. 879319)
[5] From Point Cloud to Grid DEM: A Scalable Approach (http:/ / terrain. cs. duke. edu/ pubs/ lidar_interpolation. pdf)
[6] K. Hammoudi, F. Dornaika, B. Soheilian, N. Paparoditis. Extracting Wire-frame Models of Street Facades from 3D Point Clouds and the
Corresponding Cadastral Map. International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences (IAPRS), vol.
38, part 3A, pp. 9196, Saint-Mand, France, 13 September 2010. (http:/ / www. isprs. org/ proceedings/ XXXVIII/ part3/ a/ pdf/
91_XXXVIII-part3A. pdf)
External links
PCL (Point Cloud Library) a comprehensive BSD open source library forn-D Point Clouds and3D geometry
processing. http://pointclouds.org
160

Polygons are used in computer graphics to compose images that are three-dimensional in appearance. Usually (but
not always) triangular, polygons arise when an object's surface is modeled, vertices are selected, and the object is
rendered in a wire frame model. This is quicker to display than a shaded model; thus the polygons are a stage in
computer animation. The polygon count refers to the number of polygons being rendered per frame.
Competing methods for rendering polygons that avoid seams

Point
Floating Point
Fixed-Point
Polygon
because of rounding, every scanline has its own direction in space and may show its front or back side to the
viewer.
Fraction (mathematics)
Bresenham's line algorithm
Polygons have to be split into triangles
The whole triangle shows the same side to the viewer
The point numbers from the Transform and lighting stage have to converted to Fraction (mathematics)
Barycentric coordinates (mathematics)
Used in raytracing
Polygon mesh
A polygon mesh is a collection of vertices, edges and
faces that defines the shape of a polyhedral object in
3D computer graphics and solid modeling. The faces
usually consist of triangles, quadrilaterals or other
simple convex polygons, since this simplifies
rendering, but may also be composed of more general
concave polygons, or polygons with holes.
The study of polygon meshes is a large sub-field of
computer graphics and geometric modeling. Different
representations of polygon meshes are used for
Example of a triangle mesh representing a dolphin.
different applications and goals. The variety of
operations performed on meshes may include Boolean
logic, smoothing, simplification, and many others. Network representations, "streaming" and "progressive" meshes,
are used to transmit polygon meshes over a network. Volumetric meshes are distinct from polygon meshes in that
they explicitly represent both the surface and volume of a structure, while polygon meshes only explicitly represent
the surface (the volume is implicit). As polygonal meshes are extensively used in computer graphics, algorithms also
exist for ray tracing, collision detection, and rigid-body dynamics of polygon meshes.
161
Polygon mesh
Elements of mesh modeling
Objects created with polygon meshes must store different types of elements. These include vertices, edges, faces,
polygons and surfaces. In many applications, only vertices, edges and either faces or polygons are stored. A renderer
may support only 3-sided faces, so polygons must be constructed of many of these, as shown in Figure 1. However,
many renderers either support quads and higher-sided polygons, or are able to convert polygons to triangles on the
fly, making it unnecessary to store a mesh in a triangulated form. Also, in certain applications like head modeling, it
is desirable to be able to create both 3- and 4-sided polygons.
A vertex is a position along with other information such as color, normal vector and texture coordinates. An edge is
a connection between two vertices. A face is a closed set of edges, in which a triangle face has three edges, and a
quad face has four edges. A polygon is a coplanar set of faces. In systems that support multi-sided faces, polygons
and faces are equivalent. However, most rendering hardware supports only 3- or 4-sided faces, so polygons are
represented as multiple faces. Mathematically a polygonal mesh may be considered an unstructured grid, or
undirected graph, with additional properties of geometry, shape and topology.
Surfaces, more often called smoothing groups, are useful, but not required to group smooth regions. Consider a
cylinder with caps, such as a soda can. For smooth shading of the sides, all surface normals must point horizontally
away from the center, while the normals of the caps must point straight up and down. Rendered as a single,
Phong-shaded surface, the crease vertices would have incorrect normals. Thus, some way of determining where to
cease smoothing is needed to group smooth parts of a mesh, just as polygons group 3-sided faces. As an alternative
to providing surfaces/smoothing groups, a mesh may contain other data for calculating the same data, such as a
splitting angle (polygons with normals above this threshold are either automatically treated as separate smoothing
groups or some technique such as splitting or chamfering is automatically applied to the edge between them).
Additionally, very high resolution meshes are less subject to issues that would require smoothing groups, as their
polygons are so small as to make the need irrelevant. Further, another alternative exists in the possibility of simply
detaching the surfaces themselves from the rest of the mesh. Renderers do not attempt to smooth edges across
noncontiguous polygons.
Mesh format may or may not define other useful data. Groups may be defined which define separate elements of the
mesh and are useful for determining separate sub-objects for skeletal animation or separate actors for non-skeletal
animation. Generally materials will be defined, allowing different portions of the mesh to use different shaders
when rendered. Most mesh formats also suppose some form of UV coordinates which are a separate 2d
representation of the mesh "unfolded" to show what portion of a 2-dimensional texture map to apply to different
polygons of the mesh.
162
Polygon mesh
Representations
Polygon meshes may be represented in a variety of ways, using different methods to store the vertex, edge and face
data. These include:
Face-vertex meshes: A simple list of vertices, and a set of polygons that point to the vertices it uses.
Winged-edge meshes, in which each edge points to two vertices, two faces, and the four (clockwise and
counterclockwise) edges that touch it. Winged-edge meshes allow constant time traversal of the surface, but with
higher storage requirements.
Half-edge meshes: Similar to winged-edge meshes except that only half the edge traversal information is used.
(see OpenMesh [1])
Quad-edge meshes, which store edges, half-edges, and vertices without any reference to polygons. The polygons
are implicit in the representation, and may be found by traversing the structure. Memory requirements are similar
to half-edge meshes.
Corner-tables, which store vertices in a predefined table, such that traversing the table implicitly defines
polygons. This is in essence the triangle fan used in hardware graphics rendering. The representation is more
compact, and more efficient to retrieve polygons, but operations to change polygons are slow. Furthermore,
corner-tables do not represent meshes completely. Multiple corner-tables (triangle fans) are needed to represent
most meshes.
Vertex-vertex meshes: A "VV" mesh represents only vertices, which point to other vertices. Both the edge and
face information is implicit in the representation. However, the simplicity of the representation does not allow for
many efficient operations to be performed on meshes.
Each of the representations above have particular advantages and drawbacks, further discussed in Smith (2006).[2]
The choice of the data structure is governed by the application, the performance required, size of the data, and the
operations to be performed. For example, it is easier to deal with triangles than general polygons, especially in
computational geometry. For certain operations it is necessary to have a fast access to topological information such
as edges or neighboring faces; this requires more complex structures such as the winged-edge representation. For
hardware rendering, compact, simple structures are needed; thus the corner-table (triangle fan) is commonly
incorporated into low-level rendering APIs such as DirectX and OpenGL.
163
Polygon mesh
Vertex-vertex meshes
Vertex-vertex meshes represent an object as a set of vertices connected to other vertices. This is the simplest
representation, but not widely used since the face and edge information is implicit. Thus, it is necessary to traverse
the data in order to generate a list of faces for rendering. In addition, operations on edges and faces are not easily
accomplished.
However, VV meshes benefit from small storage space and efficient morphing of shape. Figure 2 shows the
four-sided cylinder example represented using VV meshes. Each vertex indexes its neighboring vertices. Notice that
the last two vertices, 8 and 9 at the top and bottom center of the "box-cylinder", have four connected vertices rather
than five. A general system must be able to handle an arbitrary number of vertices connected to any given vertex.
For a complete description of VV meshes see Smith (2006).
164
Polygon mesh
Face-vertex meshes
Face-vertex meshes represent an object as a set of faces and a set of vertices. This is the most widely used mesh
representation, being the input typically accepted by modern graphics hardware.
Face-vertex meshes improve on VV-mesh for modeling in that they allow explicit lookup of the vertices of a face,
and the faces surrounding a vertex. Figure 3 shows the "box-cylinder" example as an FV mesh. Vertex v5 is
highlighted to show the faces that surround it. Notice that, in this example, every face is required to have exactly 3
vertices. However, this does not mean every vertex has the same number of surrounding faces.
For rendering, the face list is usually transmitted to the GPU as a set of indices to vertices, and the vertices are sent
as position/color/normal structures (in the figure, only position is given). This has the benefit that changes in shape,
but not geometry, can be dynamically updated by simply resending the vertex data without updating the face
connectivity.
Modeling requires easy traversal of all structures. With face-vertex meshes it is easy to find the vertices of a face.
Also, the vertex list contains a list of faces connected to each vertex. Unlike VV meshes, both faces and vertices are
explicit, so locating neighboring faces and vertices is constant time. However, the edges are implicit, so a search is
still needed to find all the faces surrounding a given face. Other dynamic operations, such as splitting or merging a
face, are also difficult with face-vertex meshes.
165
Polygon mesh
Winged-edge meshes
Introduced by Baumgart 1975, winged-edge meshes explicitly represent the vertices, faces, and edges of a mesh.
This representation is widely used in modeling programs to provide the greatest flexibility in dynamically changing
the mesh geometry, because split and merge operations can be done quickly. Their primary drawback is large storage
requirements and increased complexity due to maintaining many indices. A good discussion of implementation
issues of Winged-edge meshes may be found in the book Graphics Gems II.
Winged-edge meshes address the issue of traversing from edge to edge, and providing an ordered set of faces around
an edge. For any given edge, the number of outgoing edges may be arbitrary. To simplify this, winged-edge meshes
provide only four, the nearest clockwise and counter-clockwise edges at each end. The other edges may be traversed
incrementally. The information for each edge therefore resembles a butterfly, hence "winged-edge" meshes. Figure 4
shows the "box-cylinder" as a winged-edge mesh. The total data for an edge consists of 2 vertices (endpoints), 2
faces (on each side), and 4 edges (winged-edge).
Rendering of winged-edge meshes for graphics hardware requires generating a Face index list. This is usually done
only when the geometry changes. Winged-edge meshes are ideally suited for dynamic geometry, such as subdivision
surfaces and interactive modeling, since changes to the mesh can occur locally. Traversal across the mesh, as might
be needed for collision detection, can be accomplished efficiently.
See Baumgart (1975) for more details.[3]
166
Polygon mesh
167
Render dynamic meshes

Winged-edge meshes are not the only representation which allows for dynamic changes to geometry. A new
representation which combines winged-edge meshes and face-vertex meshes is the render dynamic mesh, which
explicitly stores the vertices of a face (like FV meshes), the faces of a vertex (like FV meshes), and the faces and
vertices of an edge (like winged-edge).
Render dynamic meshes require slightly less storage space than standard winged-edge meshes, and can be directly
rendered by graphics hardware since the face list contains an index of vertices. In addition, traversal from vertex to
face is explicit (constant time), as is from face to vertex. RD meshes do not require the four outgoing edges since
these can be found by traversing from edge to face, then face to neighboring edge.
RD meshes benefit from the features of winged-edge meshes by allowing for geometry to be dynamically updated.
See Tobler & Maierhofer (WSCG 2006) for more details.[4]
Summary of mesh representation

Operation
Vertex-vertex
Face-vertex
Winged-edge
Render dynamic
V-V
All vertices around

vertex
Explicit
V f1, f2, f3, ... v1,

v2, v3, ...
V e1, e2, e3, ... v1,

v2, v3, ...
V e1, e2, e3, ... v1,

v2, v3, ...
E-F
All edges of a face
F(a,b,c) {a,b}, {b,c},

{a,c}
F {a,b}, {b,c}, {a,c}
Explicit
Explicit
V-F
All vertices of a face
F(a,b,c) {a,b,c}
Explicit
F e1, e2, e3 a, b, c
Explicit
F-V
All faces around a

vertex
Pair search
Explicit
V e1, e2, e3 f1, f2, f3,

...
Explicit
E-V
All edges around a

vertex
V {v,v1}, {v,v2},
{v,v3}, ...
V f1, f2, f3, ... v1,

v2, v3, ...
Explicit
Explicit
F-E
Both faces of an edge
List compare
List compare
Explicit
Explicit
V-E
Both vertices of an
edge
E(a,b) {a,b}
E(a,b) {a,b}
Explicit
Explicit
Flook
Find face with given

vertices
F(a,b,c) {a,b,c}
Set intersection of v1,v2,v3
3F + V*avg(F,V)
3F + 8E + V*avg(E,V)
6F + 4E + V*avg(E,V)
3*16 + 8*24 + 10*5 = 290
6*16 + 4*24 + 10*5 = 242
Storage size
V*avg(V,V)
Example with 10 vertices, 16 faces, 24 edges:

10 * 5 = 50
3*16 + 10*5 = 98
Figure6: summary of mesh representation operations
In the above table, explicit indicates that the operation can be performed in constant time, as the data is directly
stored; list compare indicates that a list comparison between two lists must be performed to accomplish the
operation; and pair search indicates a search must be done on two indices. The notation avg(V,V) means the average
number of vertices connected to a given vertex; avg(E,V) means the average number of edges connected to a given
vertex, and avg(F,V) is the average number of faces connected to a given vertex.
The notation "V f1, f2, f3, ... v1, v2, v3, ..." describes that a traversal across multiple elements is required to
perform the operation. For example, to get "all vertices around a given vertex V" using the face-vertex mesh, it is
necessary to first find the faces around the given vertex V using the vertex list. Then, from those faces, use the face
list to find the vertices around them. Notice that winged-edge meshes explicitly store nearly all information, and
other operations always traverse to the edge first to get additional info. Vertex-vertex meshes are the only
representation that explicitly stores the neighboring vertices of a given vertex.
Polygon mesh
168
As the mesh representations become more complex (from left to right in the summary), the amount of information
explicitly stored increases. This gives more direct, constant time, access to traversal and topology of various
elements but at the cost of increased overhead and space in maintaining indices properly.
Figure 7 shows the connectivity information for each of the four technique described in this article. Other
representations also exist, such as half-edge and corner tables. These are all variants of how vertices, faces and edges
index one another.
As a general rule, face-vertex meshes are used whenever an object must be rendered on graphics hardware that does
not change geometry (connectivity), but may deform or morph shape (vertex positions) such as real-time rendering
of static or morphing objects. Winged-edge or render dynamic meshes are used when the geometry changes, such as
in interactive modeling packages or for computing subdivison surfaces. Vertex-vertex meshes are ideal for efficient,
complex changes in geometry or topology so long as hardware rendering is not of concern.
Other representations
Streaming meshes store faces in an ordered, yet independent, way so that the mesh can be transmitted in pieces. The
order of faces may be spatial, spectral, or based on other properties of the mesh. Streaming meshes allow a very large
mesh to be rendered even while it is still being loaded.
Progressive meshes transmit the vertex and face data with increasing levels of detail. Unlike streaming meshes,
progressive meshes give the overall shape of the entire object, but at a low level of detail. Additional data, new edges
and faces, progressively increase the detail of the mesh.
Normal meshes transmit progressive changes to a mesh as a set of normal displacements from a base mesh. With this
technique, a series of textures represent the desired incremental modifications. Normal meshes are compact, since
only a single scalar value is needed to express displacement. However, the technique requires a complex series of
transformations to create the displacement textures.
File formats
There exist many different file formats for storing polygon mesh data. Each format is most effective when used for
the purpose intended by its creator. Some of these formats are presented below:
File suffix
Format name
Organization(s)
Program(s)
Description
.raw
Raw mesh
Unknown
Various
Open, ASCII-only format. Each line contains 3 vertices,

separated by spaces, to form a triangle, like so: X1 Y1 Z1 X2 Y2
Z2 X3 Y3 Z3
.blend
Blender File Format
Blender Foundation
Blender 3D
Open source, binary-only format
.fbx
Autodesk FBX Format Autodesk
Various
Proprietary. Binary and ASCII specifications exist.
.3ds
3ds Max File
Autodesk
3ds Max
.dae
Digital Asset
Exchange
(COLLADA)
Sony Computer
N/A
Entertainment, Khronos
Group
.dgn
MicroStation File
Bentley Systems
MicroStation
.3dm
Rhino File
Robert McNeel &

Associates
Rhinoceros 3D
.dxf
Drawing Exchange
Format
Autodesk
AutoCAD
.obj
Wavefront OBJ
Wavefront
Technologies
Various
Stands for "COLLAborative Design Activity". A universal

format designed to prevent incompatibility.
ASCII format describing 3D geometry alone. All faces' vertices

are ordered counter-clockwise, thus removing the need to specify
normals.
Polygon mesh
169
.ply
Polygon File Format
Stanford University
Unknown
Binary and ASCII
.pmd
Polygon Movie Maker Yu Higuchi

data
MikuMikuDance Proprietary binary file format for storing humanoid model

geometry with rigging, material, and physics information.
.stl
Stereolithography
Format
3D Systems
N/A
Binary and ASCII format originally designed to aid in "3D

printing".
.amf
Additive
Manufacturing File
Format
ASTM International
N/A
Like the STL format, but with added native color, material, and
constellation support.
.wrl
Virtual Reality
Modeling Language
Web3D Consortium
Web Browsers
ISO Standard 14772-1:1997
.wrz
VRML Compressed
Web3D Consortium
Web Browsers
.x3d,
.x3db,
.x3dv
Extensible 3D
Web3D Consortium
Web Browsers
.x3dz,
.x3dbz,
.x3dvz
X3D Compressed
Binary
Web3D Consortium
Web Browsers
.c4d
Cinema 4D File
MAXON
CINEMA 4D
.lwo
LightWave 3D object
File
NewTek
LightWave 3D
.msh
Gmsh Mesh
GMsh Developers
GMsh Project
Open source, providing an ASCII mesh description for linear and

polynomially interpolated elements in 1 to 3 dimensions.
.mesh
OGRE XML
OGRE Development
Team
OGRE,
purebasic
Open Source. Binary (.mesh) and ASCII (.mesh.xml) format

available. Includes data for vertex animation and Morph target
animation (blendshape). Skeletal animation data in separate file
(.skeleton).
.z3d
Z3d
Oleg Melashenko
Zanoza Modeler
.vtk
VTK mesh
VTK, Kitware
VTK, Paraview
Open, ASCII or binary format that contains many different data

fields, including point data, cell data, and field data.
ISO Standard 19775/19776/19777
References
[1] http:/ / www. openmesh. org/
[2] Colin Smith, On Vertex-Vertex Meshes and Their Use in Geometric and Biological Modeling, http:/ / algorithmicbotany. org/ papers/
smithco. dis2006. pdf
[3] Bruce Baumgart, Winged-Edge Polyhedron Representation for Computer Vision. National Computer Conference, May 1975. http:/ / www.
baumgart. org/ winged-edge/ winged-edge. html
[4] Tobler & Maierhofer, A Mesh Data Structure for Rendering and Subdivision. 2006. (http:/ / wscg. zcu. cz/ wscg2006/ Papers_2006/ Short/
E17-full. pdf)
Polygon mesh
External links
Weisstein, Eric W., " Simplicial complex (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/SimplicialComplex.html)",
MathWorld.
Weisstein, Eric W., " Triangulation (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Triangulation.html)", MathWorld.
OpenMesh (http://www.openmesh.org/) open source half-edge mesh representation.
Polygon soup
A Polygon soup is a group of unorganized triangles, with generally no relationship whatsoever. Polygon soups are a
geometry storage format in a 3D modeling package, such as Maya, Houdini, or Blender. Polygon soup can help save
memory, load/write time, and disk space for large polygon meshes compared to the equivalent polygon mesh. The
larger the polygon soup the larger the savings, for instance, fluid simulations, particle simulations, rigid body
simulations, environments, and character models can reach into the millions of polygon for feature films causing
large disk space and read/write overhead. As soon as any kind of hierarchical sorting or clustering scheme is applied,
then it becomes something else (one example being an octree, a subdivided cube). Any kind of polygonal geometry
that hasn't been grouped in any way can be considered polygon soup. Optimized meshes may contain grouped items
to make drawing faster.
References
Polygonal modeling
In 3D computer graphics, polygonal modeling is an approach for modeling objects by representing or
approximating their surfaces using polygons. Polygonal modeling is well suited to scanline rendering and is
therefore the method of choice for real-time computer graphics. Alternate methods of representing 3D objects
include NURBS surfaces, subdivision surfaces, and equation-based representations used in ray tracers. See polygon
mesh for a description of how polygonal models are represented and stored.
Geometric theory and polygons

The basic object used in mesh modeling is a vertex, a point in three dimensional space. Two vertices connected by a
straight line become an edge. Three vertices, connected to each other by three edges, define a triangle, which is the
simplest polygon in Euclidean space. More complex polygons can be created out of multiple triangles, or as a single
object with more than 3 vertices. Four sided polygons (generally referred to as quads) and triangles are the most
common shapes used in polygonal modeling. A group of polygons, connected to each other by shared vertices, is
generally referred to as an element. Each of the polygons making up an element is called a face.
In Euclidean geometry, any three non-collinear points determine a plane. For this reason, triangles always inhabit a
single plane. This is not necessarily true of more complex polygons, however. The flat nature of triangles makes it
simple to determine their surface normal, a three-dimensional vector perpendicular to the triangle's surface. Surface
normals are useful for determining light transport in ray tracing, and are a key component of the popular Phong
shading model. Some rendering systems use vertex normals instead of face normals to create a better-looking
lighting system at the cost of more processing. Note that every triangle has two face normals, which point to opposite
directions from each other. In many systems only one of these normals is considered valid the other side of the
polygon is referred to as a backface, and can be made visible or invisible depending on the programmers desires.
170
Polygonal modeling
Many modeling programs do not strictly enforce geometric theory; for example, it is possible for two vertices to
have two distinct edges connecting them, occupying exactly the same spatial location. It is also possible for two
vertices to exist at the same spatial coordinates, or two faces to exist at the same location. Situations such as these are
usually not desired and many packages support an auto-cleanup function. If auto-cleanup is not present, however,
they must be deleted manually.
A group of polygons which are connected by shared vertices is referred to as a mesh. In order for a mesh to appear
attractive when rendered, it is desirable that it be non-self-intersecting, meaning that no edge passes through a
polygon. Another way of looking at this is that the mesh cannot pierce itself. It is also desirable that the mesh not
contain any errors such as doubled vertices, edges, or faces. For some purposes it is important that the mesh be a
manifold that is, that it does not contain holes or singularities (locations where two distinct sections of the mesh
are connected by a single vertex).
Construction of polygonal meshes

Although it is possible to construct a mesh by manually specifying vertices and faces, it is much more common to
build meshes using a variety of tools. A wide variety of 3d graphics software packages are available for use in
constructing polygon meshes.
One of the more popular methods of constructing meshes is box modeling, which uses two simple tools:
The subdivide tool splits faces and edges into smaller pieces by adding new vertices. For example, a square
would be subdivided by adding one vertex in the center and one on each edge, creating four smaller squares.
The extrude tool is applied to a face or a group of faces. It creates a new face of the same size and shape which is
connected to each of the existing edges by a face. Thus, performing the extrude operation on a square face would
create a cube connected to the surface at the location of the face.
A second common modeling method is sometimes referred to as inflation modeling or extrusion modeling. In this
method, the user creates a 2d shape which traces the outline of an object from a photograph or a drawing. The user
then uses a second image of the subject from a different angle and extrudes the 2d shape into 3d, again following the
shapes outline. This method is especially common for creating faces and heads. In general, the artist will model half
of the head and then duplicate the vertices, invert their location relative to some plane, and connect the two pieces
together. This ensures that the model will be symmetrical.
Another common method of creating a polygonal mesh is by connecting together various primitives, which are
predefined polygonal meshes created by the modeling environment. Common primitives include:
Cubes
Pyramids
Cylinders
2D primitives, such as squares, triangles, and disks
Specialized or esoteric primitives, such as the Utah Teapot or Suzanne, Blender's monkey mascot.
Spheres - Spheres are commonly represented in one of two ways:
Icospheres are icosahedrons which possess a sufficient number of triangles to resemble a sphere.
UV Spheres are composed of quads, and resemble the grid seen on some globes - quads are larger near the
"equator" of the sphere and smaller near the "poles," eventually terminating in a single vertex.
Finally, some specialized methods of constructing high or low detail meshes exist. Sketch based modeling is a
user-friendly interface for constructing low-detail models quickly, while 3d scanners can be used to create high detail
meshes based on existing real-world objects in almost automatic way. These devices are very expensive, and are
generally only used by researchers and industry professionals but can generate high accuracy sub-millimetric digital
representations.
171
Polygonal modeling
Operations
There are a very large number of operations which may be performed on polygonal meshes. Some of these roughly
correspond to real-world manipulations of 3D objects, while others do not.
Polygonal mesh operations:
Creations - Create new geometry from some other mathematical object
Loft - generate a mesh by sweeping a shape along a path
Extrude - same as loft, except the path is always a line
Revolve - generate a mesh by revolving (rotating) a shape around an axis
Marching cubes - algorithm to construct a mesh from an implicit function
Binary Creations - Create a new mesh from a binary operation of two other meshes
Add - boolean addition of two meshes
Subtract - boolean subtraction of two meshes
Intersect - boolean intersection
Union - boolean union of two meshes
Attach - attach one mesh to another (removing the interior surfaces)
Chamfer - create a beveled surface which smoothly connected two surfaces
Deformations - Move only the vertices of a mesh
Deform - systematically move vertices (according to certain functions or rules)
Weighted Deform - move vertices based on localized weights per vertex
Morph - move vertices smoothly between a source and target mesh
Bend - move vertices to "bend" the object
Twist - move vertices to "twist" the object
Manipulations - Modify the geometry of the mesh, but not necessarily topology
Displace - introduce additional geometry based on a "displacement map" from the surface
Simplify - systematically remove and average vertices
Subdivide - smooth a course mesh by subdividing the mesh (Catmull-Clark, etc.)
Convex Hull - generate another mesh which minimally encloses a given mesh (think shrink-wrap)
Cut - create a hole in a mesh surface
Stitch - close a hole in a mesh surface
Measurements - Compute some value of the mesh
Volume - compute the 3D volume of a mesh (discrete volumetric integral)
Surface Area - compute the surface area of a mesh (discrete surface integral)
Collision Detection - determine if two complex meshes in motion have collided
Fitting - construct a parametric surface (NURBS, bicubic spline) by fitting it to a given mesh
Point-Surface Distance - compute distance from a point to the mesh
Line-Surface Distance - compute distance from a line to the mesh
Line-Surface Intersection - compute intersection of line and the mesh
Cross Section - compute the curves created by a cross-section of a plane through a mesh
Centroid - compute the centroid, geometric center, of the mesh
Center-of-Mass - compute the center of mass, balance point, of the mesh
Circumcenter - compute the center of a circle or sphere enclosing an element of the mesh
Incenter - compute the center of a circle or sphere enclosed by an element of the mesh
172
Polygonal modeling
Extensions
Once a polygonal mesh has been constructed, further steps must be taken before it is useful for games, animation,
etc. The model must be texture mapped to add colors and texture to the surface and it must be given a skeleton for
animation. Meshes can also be assigned weights and centers of gravity for use in physical simulation.
To display a model on a computer screen outside of the modeling environment, it is necessary to store that model in
one of the file formats listed below, and then use or write a program capable of loading from that format. The two
main methods of displaying 3d polygon models are OpenGL and Direct3D. Both of these methods can be used with
or without a 3d accelerated graphics card.
Advantages and disadvantages

There are many disadvantages to representing an object using polygons. Polygons are incapable of accurately
representing curved surfaces, so a large number of them must be used to approximate curves in a visually appealing
manner. The use of complex models has a cost in lowered speed. In scanline conversion, each polygon must be
converted and displayed, regardless of size, and there are frequently a large number of models on the screen at any
given time. Often, programmers must use multiple models at varying levels of detail to represent the same object in
order to cut down on the number of polygons being rendered.
The main advantage of polygons is that they are faster than other representations. While a modern graphics card can
show a highly detailed scene at a frame rate of 60 frames per second or higher, raytracers, the main way of
displaying non-polygonal models, are incapable of achieving an interactive frame rate (10 frame/s or higher) with a
similar amount of detail.
File formats
A variety of formats are available for storing 3d polygon data. The most popular are:
.3ds, .max, which is associated with 3D Studio Max

.blend, which is associated with Blender
.c4d associated with Cinema 4D
.dae (COLLADA)
.dxf, .dwg, .dwf, associated with AutoCAD
.fbx (Autodesk former. Kaydara Filmbox)
.jt originally developed by Siemens PLM Software; now an ISO standard.
.lwo, which is associated with Lightwave
.lxo, which is associated with modo (software)
.mb and .ma, which are associated with Maya
.md2, .md3, associated with the Quake series of games
.mdl used with Valve Software's Source Engine
.nif (NetImmerse/gamebryo)
.obj (Wavefront's "The Advanced Visualizer")
.ply used to store data from 3D scanners
.rwx (Renderware)
.stl used in rapid prototyping
.u3d (Universal 3D)
.wrl (VRML 2.0)
173
Polygonal modeling
References
1. OpenGL SuperBible (3rd ed.), by Richard S Wright and Benjamin Lipchak ISBN 0-672-32601-9
2. OpenGL Programming Guide: The Official Guide to Learning OpenGL, Version 1.4, Fourth Edition by OpenGL
Architecture Review Board ISBN 0-321-17348-1
3. OpenGL(R) Reference Manual : The Official Reference Document to OpenGL, Version 1.4 (4th Edition) by
OpenGL Architecture Review Board ISBN 0-321-17383-X
4. Blender documentation: http://www.blender.org/cms/Documentation.628.0.html
5. Maya documentation: packaged with Alias Maya, http://www.alias.com/eng/index.shtml
Pre-rendering
Pre-rendering is the process in which video footage is not rendered in real-time by the hardware that is outputing or
playing back the video. Instead, the video is a recording of a footage that was previously rendered on a different
equipment (typically one that is more powerful than the hardware used for playback). Pre-rendered assets (typically
movies) may also be outsourced by the developer to an outside production company. Such assets usually have a level
of complexity that is too great for the target platform to render in real-time.
The term pre-rendered describes anything that is not rendered in real-time. This includes content that could have
been run in real-time with more effort on the part of the developer (e.g. video that covers a large number of a game's
environments without pausing to load, or video of a game in an early state of development that is rendered in
slow-motion and then played back at regular speed). The term is generally not used to describe video captures of
real-time rendered graphics despite the fact that video is technically pre-rendered by its nature. The term is also not
used to describe hand drawn assets or photographed assets (these assets not being computer rendered in the first
place).
Advantage and disadvantage

The advantage of pre-rendering is the ability to use graphic models that are more complex and computationally
intensive than those that can be rendered in real-time, due to the possibility of using multiple computers over
extended periods of time to render the end results. For instance, a comparison could be drawn between rail-shooters
Maximum Force (which used pre-rendered 3D levels but 2D sprites for enemies) and Virtua Cop (using 3D
polygons); Maximum Force was more realistic looking due to the limitations of Virtua Cop's 3D engine, but Virtua
Cop has actual depth (able to portray enemies close and far away, along with body-specific hits and multiple hits)
compared to the limits of the 2D sprite enemies in Maximum Force.
The disadvantage of pre-rendering, in the case of video game graphics, is a generally lower level of interactivity, if
any, with the player. Another negative side of pre-rendered assets is that changes cannot be made during gameplay.
A game with pre-rendered backgrounds is forced to use fixed camera angles, and a game with pre-rendered video
generally cannot reflect any changes the game's characters might have undergone during gameplay (such as wounds
or customized clothing) without having an alternate version of the video stored. This is generally not feasible due to
the large amount of space required to store pre-rendered assets of high quality. However, in some advanced
implementations, such as in Final Fantasy VIII, real-time assets were composited with pre-rendered video, allowing
dynamic backgrounds and changing camera angles. Another problem is that a game with pre-rendered lighting
cannot easily change the state of the lighting in a convincing manner.
As the technology continued to advance in the mid-2000s, video game graphics were able to achieve the
photorealism that was previously limited to pre-rendering, as seen in the growth of Machinima.
174
Pre-rendering
Usage
Pre-rendered graphics are used primarily as cut scenes in modern video games, where they are also known as full
motion video. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, when most 3D game engines had pre-calculated/fixed Lightmaps
and texture mapping, developers often turned to pre-rendered graphics which had a much higher level of realism.
However this has lost favor since the mid-2000s, as advances in consumer PC and video game graphics have enabled
the use of the game's own engine to render these cinematics. For instance, the id Tech 4 engine used in Doom 3
allowed bump mapping and dynamic per-pixel lighting, previously only found in pre-rendered videos.
One of the first games to use pre-rendering was the Sharp X68000 enhanced remake of Ys I: Ancient Ys Vanished
released in 1991. It used 3D pre-rendered graphics for the boss sprites, though this ended up creating what is
considered "a bizarre contrast" with the game's mostly 2D graphics.[1] One of the first games to extensively use
pre-rendered graphics along with full motion video was The 7th Guest. Released in 1992 as one of the first PC games
exclusively on CD-ROM, the game was hugely popular, although reviews from critics were mixed. The game
featured pre-rendered video sequences that were at a resolution of 640x320 at 15 frames per second, a feat
previously thought impossible on personal computers. Shortly after, the release of Myst in 1993 made the use of
pre-rendered graphics and CD-ROMs even more popular; interestingly most of the rendered work of Myst would
later be the basis for the re-make realMyst: Interactive 3D Edition with its free-roaming real-time 3D graphics. The
most graphically advanced use of entirely pre-rendered graphics in games is often claimed to be Myst IV: Revelation,
released in 2004.
The use of pre-rendered backgrounds and movies also was made popular by the Resident Evil and Final Fantasy
franchises on the original PlayStation, both of which use pre-rendered backgrounds and movies extensively to
provide a visual presentation that is far greater than the console can provide with real-time 3D. These games include
real-time elements (characters, items, etc.) in addition to pre-rendered backgrounds to provide interactivity. Often a
game using pre-rendered backgrounds can devote additional processing power to the remaining interactive elements
resulting in a level of detail greater than the norm for the host platform. In some cases the visual quality of the
interactive elements is still far behind the pre-rendered backgrounds.
Games such as Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos have used both types of cutscenes; pre-rendered for the beginning and
end of a campaign, and the in-game engine for level briefings and character dialogue during a mission.
Some games also use 16-bit pre-rendered skybox, like Half-Life (only GoldSrc version), Re-Volt, Quake II, and
others.
CG movies such as Toy Story, Shrek and Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within are entirely pre-rendered.
Other methods
Another increasingly common pre-rendering method is the generation of texture sets for 3D games, which are often
used with complex real-time algorithms to simulate extraordinarily high levels of detail. While making Doom 3, id
Software used pre-rendered models as the basis for generating normal, specular and diffuse lighting maps that
simulate the detail of the original model in real-time.
Pre-rendered lighting is a technique that is losing popularity. Processor-intensive ray tracing algorithms can be used
during a game's production to generate light textures, which are simply applied on top of the usual hand drawn
textures.
175
Pre-rendering
References
[1] (cf. )
Precomputed Radiance Transfer

Precomputed Radiance Transfer (PRT) is a computer graphics technique used to render a scene in real time with
complex light interactions being precomputed to save time. Radiosity methods can be used to determine the diffuse
lighting of the scene, however PRT offers a method to dynamically change the lighting environment.
In essence, PRT computes the illumination of a point as a linear combination of incident irradiance. An efficient
method must be used to encode this data, such as spherical harmonics.
When spherical harmonics is used to approximate the light transport function, only low frequency effect can be
handled with a reasonable number of parameters. Ren Ng extended this work to handle higher frequency shadows by
replacing spherical harmonics with non-linear wavelets.
Teemu Mki-Patola gives a clear introduction to the topic based on the work of Peter-Pike Sloan et al. At
SIGGRAPH 2005, a detailed course on PRT was given.
References
Peter-Pike Sloan, Jan Kautz, and John Snyder. "Precomputed Radiance Transfer for Real-time rendering in
Dynamic, Low-Frequency Lighting Environments". ACM Transactions on Graphics, Proceedings of the 29th
Annual Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques (SIGGRAPH), pp. 527-536. New York,
NY: ACM Press, 2002. (http://www.mpi-inf.mpg.de/~jnkautz/projects/prt/prtSIG02.pdf)
NG, R., RAMAMOORTHI, R., AND HANRAHAN, P. 2003. All-Frequency Shadows Using Non-Linear
Wavelet Lighting Approximation. ACM Transactions on Graphics 22, 3, 376381. (http://graphics.stanford.
edu/papers/allfreq/allfreq.press.pdf)
176
Procedural modeling
Procedural modeling
Procedural modeling is an umbrella term for a number of techniques in computer graphics to create 3D models and
textures from sets of rules. L-Systems, fractals, and generative modeling are procedural modeling techniques since
they apply algorithms for producing scenes. The set of rules may either be embedded into the algorithm,
configurable by parameters, or the set of rules is separate from the evaluation engine. The output is called procedural
content, which can be used in computer games, films, be uploaded to the internet, or the user may edit the content
manually. Procedural models often exhibit database amplification, meaning that large scenes can be generated from a
much smaller amount of rules. If the employed algorithm produces the same output every time, the output need not
be stored. Often, it suffices to start the algorithm with the same random seed to achieve this. Although all modeling
techniques on a computer require algorithms to manage and store data at some point, procedural modeling focuses
on creating a model from a rule set, rather than editing the model via user input. Procedural modeling is often
applied when it would be too cumbersome to create a 3D model using generic 3D modelers, or when more
specialized tools are required. This is often the case for plants, architecture or landscapes.
Procedural modeling suites
Acropora [1]
BRL-CAD
Bryce
CityEngine
Derivative Touch Designer [2]
Generative Modelling Language
Grome
Houdini
HyperFun
Softimage
Terragen
3ds Max
External links
"Texturing and Modeling: A Procedural Approach" [3], Ebert, D., Musgrave, K., Peachey, P., Perlin, K., and
Worley, S
Procedural Inc. [4]
CityEngine [5]
"Procedural Modeling of Cities" [6], Yoav I H Parish, Pascal Mller
"Procedural Modeling of Buildings" [7], Pascal Mller, Peter Wonka, Simon Haegler, Andreas Ulmer and Luc
Van Gool
"King Kong The Building of 1933 New York City" [8], Chris White, Weta Digital. Siggraph 2006.
Tree Editors Compared:
List at Vterrain.org [9]
List at TreeGenerator [10]
177
Procedural modeling
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
http:/ / www. voxelogic. com

http:/ / www. derivative. ca/
http:/ / www. cs. umbc. edu/ ~ebert/ book/ book. html
http:/ / www. procedural. com
http:/ / www. procedural. com/
http:/ / www. vision. ee. ethz. ch/ ~pmueller/ documents/ procedural_modeling_of_cities__siggraph2001. pdf
http:/ / www. vision. ee. ethz. ch/ ~pmueller/ documents/ mueller. procedural_modeling_of_buildings. SG2006. web-version. pdf
http:/ / delivery. acm. org/ 10. 1145/ 1180000/ 1179969/ p96-white. pdf?key1=1179969& key2=7979228711& coll=& dl=&
CFID=15151515& CFTOKEN=6184618
[9] http:/ / www. vterrain. org/ Plants/ plantsw. html
[10] http:/ / www. treegenerator. com/ compare. htm
Procedural texture
A procedural texture is a computer-generated image
created using an algorithm intended to create a realistic
representation of natural elements such as wood, marble,
granite, metal, stone, and others.
Usually, the natural look of the rendered result is achieved by
the usage of fractal noise and turbulence functions. These
functions are used as a numerical representation of the
randomness found in nature.
Solid texturing
Solid texturing is a process where the texture generating
function is evaluated over
at each visible surface point of
the model. Traditionally these functions use Perlin noise as
A procedural floor grate texture generated with the texture
their basis function, but some simple functions may use more
[1]
editor Genetica .
trivial methods such as the sum of sinusoidal functions for
instance. Solid textures are an alternative to the traditional
2D texture images which are applied to the surfaces of a model. It is a difficult and tedious task to get multiple 2D
textures to form a consistent visual appearance on a model without it looking obviously tiled. Solid textures were
created to specifically solve this problem.
Instead of editing images to fit a model, a function is used to evaluate the colour of the point being textured. Points
are evaluated based on their 3D position, not their 2D surface position. Consequently, solid textures are unaffected
by distortions of the surface parameter space, such as you might see near the poles of a sphere. Also, continuity
between the surface parameterization of adjacent patches isnt a concern either. Solid textures will remain consistent
and have features of constant size regardless of distortions in the surface coordinate systems. [2]
Cellular texturing
Cellular texturing differs from the majority of other procedural texture generating techniques as it does not depend
on noise functions as its basis, although it is often used to complement the technique. Cellular textures are based on
feature points which are scattered over a three dimensional space. These points are then used to split up the space
into small, randomly tiled regions called cells. These cells often look like lizard scales, pebbles, or flagstones.
Even though these regions are discrete, the cellular basis function itself is continuous and can be evaluated anywhere
178
Procedural texture
179
in space. [3]
Genetic textures
Genetic texture generation is highly experimental approach for generating textures. It is a highly automated process
that uses a human to completely moderate the eventual outcome. The flow of control usually has a computer
generate a set of texture candidates. From these, a user picks a selection. The computer then generates another set of
textures by mutating and crossing over elements of the user selected textures.[4] For more information on exactly
how this mutation and cross over generation method is achieved, see Genetic algorithm. The process continues until
a suitable texture for the user is generated. This isn't a commonly used method of generating textures as its very
difficult to control and direct the eventual outcome. Because of this, it is typically used for experimentation or
abstract textures only.
Self-organizing textures
Starting from a simple white noise, self-organization processes lead to structured patterns - still with a part of
randomness. Reaction-diffusion systems are a good example to generate such kind of textures.
Example of a procedural marble texture

(Taken from The Renderman Companion Book, by Steve Upstill)
/* Copyrighted Pixar 1988 */
/* From the RenderMan Companion p.355 */
/* Listing 16.19 Blue marble surface shader*/
/*
* blue_marble(): a marble stone texture in shades of blue
* surface
*/
blue_marble(
float
color
Ks
= .4,
Kd
= .6,
Ka
= .1,
roughness = .1,
txtscale = 1;
specularcolor = 1)
{
point
float
point
point
float
PP;
/*
csp;
/*
Nf;
/*
V;
/*
pixelsize, twice,
scaled point in shader space */

color spline parameter */
forward-facing normal */
for specular() */
scale, weight, turbulence;
/* Obtain a forward-facing normal for lighting calculations. */

Nf = faceforward( normalize(N), I);
V = normalize(-I);
Procedural texture
/*
* Compute "turbulence" a la [PERLIN85]. Turbulence is a sum of
* "noise" components with a "fractal" 1/f power spectrum. It gives the
* visual impression of turbulent fluid flow (for example, as in the
* formation of blue_marble from molten color splines!). Use the
* surface element area in texture space to control the number of
* noise components so that the frequency content is appropriate
* to the scale. This prevents aliasing of the texture.
*/
PP = transform("shader", P) * txtscale;
pixelsize = sqrt(area(PP));
twice = 2 * pixelsize;
turbulence = 0;
for (scale = 1; scale > twice; scale /= 2)
turbulence += scale * noise(PP/scale);
/* Gradual fade out of highest-frequency component near limit */
if (scale > pixelsize) {
weight = (scale / pixelsize) - 1;
weight = clamp(weight, 0, 1);
turbulence += weight * scale * noise(PP/scale);
}
/*
* Magnify the upper part of the turbulence range 0.75:1
* to fill the range 0:1 and use it as the parameter of
* a color spline through various shades of blue.
*/
csp = clamp(4 * turbulence - 3, 0, 1);
Ci = color spline(csp,
color (0.25, 0.25, 0.35),
/* pale blue
*/
color (0.25, 0.25, 0.35), /* pale blue
*/
color (0.20, 0.20, 0.30), /* medium blue
*/
*/
*/
color (0.25, 0.25, 0.35), /* pale blue
*/
color (0.25, 0.25, 0.35), /* pale blue
*/
color (0.15, 0.15, 0.26), /* medium dark blue */
color (0.15, 0.15, 0.26), /* medium dark blue */
color (0.10, 0.10, 0.20), /* dark blue
*/
color (0.10, 0.10, 0.20), /* dark blue
*/
color (0.25, 0.25, 0.35), /* pale blue
*/
color (0.10, 0.10, 0.20)
/* dark blue
*/
);
/* Multiply this color by the diffusely reflected light. */
Ci *= Ka*ambient() + Kd*diffuse(Nf);
180
Procedural texture
/* Adjust for opacity. */

Oi = Os;
Ci = Ci * Oi;
/* Add in specular highlights. */
Ci += specularcolor * Ks * specular(Nf,V,roughness);
}
This article was taken from The Photoshop Roadmap [5] with written authorization
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
http:/ / www. spiralgraphics. biz/ gallery. htm

Ebert et al: Texturing and Modeling A Procedural Approach, page 10. Morgan Kaufmann, 2003.
http:/ / www. photoshoproadmap. com
Some programs for creating textures using procedural texturing
Allegorithmic Substance Designer

Filter Forge
Genetica (program) (http://www.spiralgraphics.biz/genetica.htm)
DarkTree (http://www.darksim.com/html/dt25_description.html)
Context Free Art (http://www.contextfreeart.org/index.html)
TexRD (http://www.texrd.com) (based on reaction-diffusion: self-organizing textures)
Texture Garden (http://texturegarden.com)
Enhance Textures (http://www.shaders.co.uk)
181
Progressive meshes
Progressive meshes
Progressive meshes is one of the techniques of dynamic level of detail (LOD). This technique was introduced by
Hugues Hoppe in 1996. This method uses saving a model to the structure - the progressive mesh, which allows a
smooth choice of detail levels depending on the current view. Practically, this means that it is possible to display
whole model with the lowest level of detail at once and then it gradually shows even more details. Among the
disadvantages belongs considerable memory consumption. The advantage is that it can work in real time.
Progressive meshes could be used also in other areas of computer technology such as a gradual transfer of data
through the Internet or compression. [1]
Basic principle
Progressive meshes is a data structure which is created as the original model of the best quality simplifies a suitable
decimation algorithm, which removes step by step some of the edges in the model (edge-collapse operation). It is
necessary to undertake as many simplifications as needed to achieve the minimal model. The resultant model, in a
full quality, is then represented by the minimal model and by the sequence of inverse operations to simplistic (vertex
split operation). This forms a hierarchical structure which helps to create a model in the chosen level of detail.
Edge collapse
This simplistic operation - ecol takes two connected vertices and replaces them with a single vertex. Two triangles
{vs, vt, vl} and {vt, vs, vr} which were connected by the edge are also removed during this operation.
Vertex split
Vertex split (vsplit) is the inverse operation to the edge collapse that divides the vertex into two new vertexes.
Therefore a new edge {vt, vs} and two new triangles {vs, vt, vl} and {vt, vs, vr} arise.
References
[1] D. Luebke, M. Reddy, J. D. Cohen, A. Varshney, B. Watson, R. Huebner: Level of Detail for 3D Graphics, Morgan Kaufmann, 2002, ISBN
0-321-19496-9
182
3D projection
183
3D projection
Part of a series on
Graphical
projection
v
t
e [1]
3D projection is any method of mapping three-dimensional points to a two-dimensional plane. As most current
methods for displaying graphical data are based on planar two-dimensional media, the use of this type of projection
is widespread, especially in computer graphics, engineering and drafting.
Orthographic projection
When the human eye looks at a scene, objects in the distance appear smaller than objects close by. Orthographic
projection ignores this effect to allow the creation of to-scale drawings for construction and engineering.
Orthographic projections are a small set of transforms often used to show profile, detail or precise measurements of a
three dimensional object. Common names for orthographic projections include plane, cross-section, bird's-eye, and
elevation.
If the normal of the viewing plane (the camera direction) is parallel to one of the primary axes (which is the x, y, or z
axis), the mathematical transformation is as follows; To project the 3D point
,
,
onto the 2D point
,
using an orthographic projection parallel to the y axis (profile view), the following equations can be used:
where the vector s is an arbitrary scale factor, and c is an arbitrary offset. These constants are optional, and can be
used to properly align the viewport. Using matrix multiplication, the equations become:
.
While orthographically projected images represent the three dimensional nature of the object projected, they do not
represent the object as it would be recorded photographically or perceived by a viewer observing it directly. In
particular, parallel lengths at all points in an orthographically projected image are of the same scale regardless of
whether they are far away or near to the virtual viewer. As a result, lengths near to the viewer are not foreshortened
as they would be in a perspective projection.
3D projection
184
Weak perspective projection

A "weak" perspective projection uses the same principles of an orthographic projection, but requires the scaling
factor to be specified, thus ensuring that closer objects appear bigger in the projection, and vice-versa. It can be seen
as a hybrid between an orthographic and a perspective projection, and described either as a perspective projection
with individual point depths
replaced by an average constant depth
, or simply as an orthographic
projection plus a scaling.
The weak-perspective model thus approximates perspective projection while using a simpler model, similar to the
pure (unscaled) orthographic perspective. It is a reasonable approximation when the depth of the object along the
line of sight is small compared to the distance from the camera, and the field of view is small. With these conditions,
it can be assumed that all points on a 3D object are at the same distance
from the camera without significant
errors in the projection (compared to the full perspective model).
Perspective projection
When the human eye views a scene, objects in the distance appear smaller than objects close by - this is known as
perspective. While orthographic projection ignores this effect to allow accurate measurements, perspective definition
shows distant objects as smaller to provide additional realism.
The perspective projection requires a more involved definition as compared to orthographic projections. A
conceptual aid to understanding the mechanics of this projection is to imagine the 2D projection as though the
object(s) are being viewed through a camera viewfinder. The camera's position, orientation, and field of view control
the behavior of the projection transformation. The following variables are defined to describe this transformation:
- the 3D position of a point A that is to be projected.

- the 3D position of a point C representing the camera.
- The orientation of the camera (represented, for instance, by TaitBryan angles).

- the viewer's position relative to the display surface.
Which results in:
- the 2D projection of
When
Otherwise, to compute
and
the 3D vector
we first define a vector

from
as the position of point A with respect to a coordinate
system defined by the camera, with origin in C and rotated by

achieved by subtracting
is projected to the 2D vector
with respect to the initial coordinate system. This is
and then applying a rotation by
to the result. This transformation is often
called a camera transform, and can be expressed as follows, expressing the rotation in terms of rotations about the
x, y, and z axes (these calculations assume that the axes are ordered as a left-handed system of axes):
This representation corresponds to rotating by three Euler angles (more properly, TaitBryan angles), using the xyz
convention, which can be interpreted either as "rotate about the extrinsic axes (axes of the scene) in the order z, y, x
(reading right-to-left)" or "rotate about the intrinsic axes (axes of the camera) in the order x, y, z (reading
left-to-right)". Note that if the camera is not rotated (
), then the matrices drop out (as
identities), and this reduces to simply a shift:
Alternatively, without using matrices (let's replace (ax-cx) with x and so on, and abbreviate cos to c and sin to s):
3D projection
185
This transformed point can then be projected onto the 2D plane using the formula (here, x/y is used as the projection
plane; literature also may use x/z):
Or, in matrix form using homogeneous coordinates, the system
in conjunction with an argument using similar triangles, leads to division by the homogeneous coordinate, giving
The distance of the viewer from the display surface,

, directly relates to the field of view, where
is the viewed angle. (Note: This assumes that you map the points (-1,-1) and (1,1) to the
corners of your viewing surface)
The above equations can also be rewritten as:
In which
is the display size,
is the recording surface size (CCD or film),
recording surface to the entrance pupil (camera center), and
is the distance from the
is the distance, from the 3D point being projected, to
the entrance pupil.

Subsequent clipping and scaling operations may be necessary to map the 2D plane onto any particular display media.
Diagram
To determine which screen x-coordinate corresponds to a point at
multiply the point coordinates by:
3D projection
186
where
is the screen x coordinate
is the model x coordinate
is the focal lengththe axial distance from the camera center to the image plane
is the subject distance.
Because the camera is in 3D, the same works for the screen y-coordinate, substituting y for x in the above diagram
and equation.
References
External links
A case study in camera projection (http://nccasymposium.bmth.ac.uk/2007/muhittin_bilginer/index.html)
Creating 3D Environments from Digital Photographs (http://nccasymposium.bmth.ac.uk/2009/
McLaughlin_Chris/McLaughlin_C_WebBasedNotes.pdf)
Further reading
Kenneth C. Finney (2004). 3D Game Programming All in One (http://books.google.com/
?id=cknGqaHwPFkC&pg=PA93&dq="3D+projection"). Thomson Course. p.93. ISBN978-1-59200-136-1.
Koehler; Dr. Ralph. 2D/3D Graphics and Splines with Source Code. ISBN0759611874.

Projective texture mapping is a method of texture mapping that allows a textured image to be projected onto a
scene as if by a slide projector. Projective texture mapping is useful in a variety of lighting techniques and it is the
starting point for shadow mapping.
Projective texture mapping is essentially a special matrix transformation which is performed per-vertex and then
linearly interpolated as standard texture mapping.
Fixed function pipeline approach

Historically[1], using projective texture mapping involved considering a special form of eye linear texture coordinate
generation[2] transform (tcGen for short). This transform was then multiplied by another matrix representing the
projector's properties which was stored in texture coordinate transform matrix[3]. The resulting concatenated matrix
was basically a function of both projector properties and vertex eye positions.
The key points of this approach are that eye linear tcGen is a function of vertex eye coordinates, which is a result of
both eye properties and object space vertex coordinates (more specifically, the object space vertex position is
transformed by the model-view-projection matrix). Because of that, the corresponding texture matrix can be used to
"shift" the eye properties so the concatenated result is the same as using an eye linear tcGen from a point of view
which can be different from the observer.
Programmable pipeline approach

A less involved method to compute this approach became possible with vertex shaders. Readers are encouraged to
check this method is essentially the same as before. For readers not familiar with this newer graphics technology,
this feature allows to override the default vertex and pixel processing allowing a user defined program to be used.
The previous algorithm can then be reformulated by simply considering two model-view-projection matrices: one
from the eye point of view and the other from the projector point of view.
In this case, the projector model-view-projection matrix is essentially the aforementioned concatenation of eye-linear
tcGen with the intended projector shift function. By using those two matrices, a few instructions are sufficient to
output the transformed eye space vertex position and a projective texture coordinate. This coordinate is simply
obtained by considering the projector's model-view-projection matrix: in other words, this is the eye-space vertex
position if the considered projector would have been an observer.
Caveats
In both the proposed approaches there are two little problems which can be trivially solved and comes from the
different conventions used by eye space and texture space.
Defining properties of those spaces is beyond the scope of this article but it's well known that textures should usually
be addressed in the range [0..1] while eye space coordinates are addressed in the range [-1..1]. According to the used
texture wrap mode various artifacts may occur but it's obvious a shift and scale operation is definitely necessary to
get the expected result.
The other problem is actually a mathematical issue. It is well known the matrix math used produces a back
projection. This artifact has historically been avoided by using a special black and white texture to cut away
unnecessary projecting contributions. Using pixel shaders a different approach can be used: a coordinate check is
sufficient to discriminate between forward (correct) contributions and backward (wrong, to be avoided) ones.
References
1. ^ The original paper [4] from the nVIDIA developer web site [5] includes all the needed documentation on this
issue. The same site also contains additional hints [6].
2. ^ Texture coordinate generation is covered in section 2.11.4 "Generating Texture Coordinates" from the OpenGL
2.0 specification [7]. Eye linear texture coordinate generation is a special case.
3. ^ Texture matrix is introduced in section 2.11.2 "Matrices" of the OpenGL 2.0 specification [7].
External links
http://www.3dkingdoms.com/weekly/weekly.php?a=20 A tutorial showing how to implement projective
texturing using the programmable pipeline approach in OpenGL.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Projective_texture_mapping#endnote_nvsdk_ptm

http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Projective_texture_mapping#endnote_glEyeLinear
http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Projective_texture_mapping#endnote_glTCXform
http:/ / developer. nvidia. com/ object/ Projective_Texture_Mapping. html
http:/ / developer. nvidia. com
http:/ / developer. nvidia. com/ object/ projective_textures. html
http:/ / www. opengl. org/ documentation/ specs/
187
Pyramid of vision
188
Pyramid of vision
Pyramid of vision is a 3D computer graphics term: the infinite
pyramid into the real world, with an apex at the observer's eye and
faces passing through the edges of the viewport ("window").
Pyramid of vision
Quantitative Invisibility
In CAD/CAM, quantitative invisibility (QI) is the number of solid bodies that obscure a point in space as projected
onto a plane. Often, CAD engineers project a model into a plane (a 2D drawing) in order to denote edges that are
visible with a solid line, and those that are hidden with dashed or dimmed lines.
Algorithm
Tracking the number of obscuring bodies gave rise to an algorithm that propagates the quantitative invisibility
throughout the model. This technique uses edge coherence to speed calculations in the algorithm. However, QI really
only works well when bodies are larger solids, non-interpenetrating, and not transparent.
A technique like this falls apart when applied to soft organic tissue as found in the human body, because there is not
always a clear delineation of structures. Also, when images become too cluttered and intertwined, the contribution of
this algorithm is marginal. Arthur Appel of the graphics group at IBM Watson Research coined the term quantitative
invisibility and used it in several of his papers.
External links
Vector Hidden Line Removal and Fractional Quantitative Invisibility [1]
References
Appel, A., "The Notion of Quantitative Invisibility and the Machine Rendering of Solids," Proceedings ACM
National Conference, Thompson Books, Washington, DC, 1967, pp.387393, pp.214220.
References
[1] http:/ / wheger. tripod. com/ vhl/ vhl. htm
189

Unit quaternions, also known as versors, provide a convenient mathematical notation for representing orientations
and rotations of objects in three dimensions. Compared to Euler angles they are simpler to compose and avoid the
problem of gimbal lock. Compared to rotation matrices they are more numerically stable and may be more efficient.
Quaternions have found their way into applications in computer graphics, computer vision, robotics, navigation,
molecular dynamics, flight dynamics,[1] and orbital mechanics of satellites.[2]
When used to represent rotation, unit quaternions are also called rotation quaternions. When used to represent an
orientation (rotation relative to a reference position), they are called orientation quaternions or attitude
quaternions.
Using quaternion rotations

According to Euler's rotation theorem, any rotation or sequence of rotations of a rigid body or Coordinate system
about a fixed point is equivalent to a single rotation by a given angle about a fixed axis (called Euler axis) that runs
through the fixed point. The Euler axis is typically represented by a unit vectoru. Therefore, any rotation in three
dimensions can be represented as a combination of a vectoru and a scalar . Quaternions give a simple way to
encode this axisangle representation in four numbers, and to apply the corresponding rotation to a position vector
representing a point relative to the origin in R3.
A Euclidean vector such as (2, 3, 4) or (ax, ay, az) can be rewritten as 2 i + 3 j + 4 k or ax i + ay j + az k, where i, j, k
are unit vectors representing the three Cartesian axes. A rotation through an angle of around the axis defined by a
unit vector
is represented by a quaternion using an extension of Euler's formula:
The rotation is clockwise if our line of sight points in the same direction as u.
It can be shown that this rotation can be applied to an ordinary vector
in
3-dimensional space, considered as a quaternion with a real coordinate equal to zero, by evaluating the conjugation
ofp byq:
using the Hamilton product, where p = (px, py, pz) is the new position vector of the point after the rotation.
In this instance, q is a unit quaternion and
It follows that conjugation by the product of two quaternions is the composition of conjugations by these
quaternions. If p and q are unit quaternions, then rotation (conjugation) bypq is
,
which is the same as rotating (conjugating) byq and then byp. The scalar component of the result is necessarily
zero.
The quaternion inverse of a rotation is the opposite rotation, since
. The square of a
n
quaternion rotation is a rotation by twice the angle around the same axis. More generally q is a rotation byn times
the angle around the same axis as q. This can be extended to arbitrary real n, allowing for smooth interpolation
between spatial orientations; see Slerp.
Two rotation quaternions can be combined into one equivalent quaternion by the relation:
190
in which q corresponds to the rotation q1 followed by the rotation q2. (Note that quaternion multiplication is not
commutative.) Thus, an arbitrary number of rotations can be composed together and then applied as a single rotation.
Example
The conjugation operation
Conjugating p by q refers to the operation p q p
q1.
Consider the rotation f around the axis
, with a rotation angle of 120, or 2/3radians.
A rotation of 120 around the first diagonal permutes i, j, and k

cyclically.
The length of v is 3, the half angle is /3 (60) with cosine 1/2, (cos
60 = 0.5) and sine 3/2, (sin 60 0.866). We are therefore dealing
with a conjugation by the unit quaternion
p q p for q = 1 + i + j + k/2 on the unit

3-sphere. Note this one-sided (namely, left)
multiplication yields a 60 rotation of quaternions

If f is the rotation function,
It can be proved that the inverse of a unit quaternion is obtained simply by changing the sign of its imaginary
components. As a consequence,
and
This can be simplified, using the ordinary rules for quaternion arithmetic, to
As expected, the rotation corresponds to keeping a cube held fixed at one point, and rotating it 120 about the long
diagonal through the fixed point (observe how the three axes are permuted cyclically).
Quaternion arithmetic in practice
Let's show how we reached the previous result. Let's develop the expression of f (in two stages), and apply the rules
It gives us:
which is the expected result. As we can see, such computations are relatively long and tedious if done manually;
however, in a computer program, this amounts to calling the quaternion multiplication routine twice.
191
192
Quaternion-derived rotation matrix

A quaternion rotation can be algebraically manipulated into a quaternion-derived rotation matrix. By simplifying the
quaternion multiplications q p q*, they can be rewritten as a rotation matrix given an axisangle representation:
where s and c are shorthand for sin and cos , respectively. Although care should be taken (due to degeneracy as
the quaternion approaches the identity quaternion(1) or the sine of the angle approaches zero) the axis and angle can
be extracted via:
Note that the equality holds only when the square root of the sum of the squared imaginary terms takes the same
sign as qr.
As with other schemes to apply rotations, the centre of rotation must be translated to the origin before the rotation is
applied and translated back to its original position afterwards.
Explanation
Quaternions briefly
The complex numbers can be defined by introducing an abstract symbol i which satisfies the usual rules of algebra
and additionally the rule i2 = 1. This is sufficient to reproduce all of the rules of complex number arithmetic: for
example:
.
In the same way the quaternions can be defined by introducing abstract symbols i, j, k which satisfy the rules i2 = j2
= k2 = i j k = 1 and the usual algebraic rules except the commutative law of multiplication (a familiar example of
such a noncommutative multiplication is matrix multiplication). From this all of the rules of quaternion arithmetic
follow: for example, one can show that:
.
The imaginary part
of a quaternion behaves like a vector
in three dimension vector
space, and the real part a behaves like a scalar in R. When quaternions are used in geometry, it is more convenient to
define them as a scalar plus a vector:
.
Those who have studied vectors at school might find it strange to add a number to a vector, as they are objects of
very different natures, or to multiply two vectors together, as this operation is usually undefined. However, if one
remembers that it is a mere notation for the real and imaginary parts of a quaternion, it becomes more legitimate. In
other words, the correct reasoning is the addition of two quaternions, one with zero vector/imaginary part, and
another one with zero scalar/real part:
.
We can express quaternion multiplication in the modern language of vector cross and dot products (which were
actually inspired by the quaternions in the first place [citation needed]). In place of the rules i2 = j2 = k2 = ijk = 1 we
193
have the quaternion multiplication rule:
where:
is the resulting quaternion,

is vector cross product (a vector),
is vector scalar product (a scalar).
Quaternion multiplication is noncommutative (because of the cross product, which anti-commutes), while
scalarscalar and scalarvector multiplications commute. From these rules it follows immediately that (see details):
.
The (left and right) multiplicative inverse or reciprocal of a nonzero quaternion is given by the conjugate-to-norm
ratio (see details):
,
as can be verified by direct calculation.
Proof of the quaternion rotation identity

Let
be a unit vector (the rotation axis) and let
yields the vector
where
and
rotated by an angle
around the axis
. Our goal is to show that
. Expanding out, we have
are the components of v perpendicular and parallel to u respectively. This is the formula of a
rotation by around the uaxis.
Quaternion rotation operations

A very formal explanation of the properties used in this section is given by Altman.[3]
The hypersphere of rotations

Visualizing the space of rotations
Unit quaternions represent the group of Euclidean rotations in three dimensions in a very straightforward way. The
correspondence between rotations and quaternions can be understood by first visualizing the space of rotations itself.
In order to visualize the space of rotations, it helps to
consider a simpler case. Any rotation in three
dimensions can be described by a rotation by some
angle about some axis; for our purposes, we will use an
axis vector to establish handedness for our angle.
Consider the special case in which the axis of rotation
lies in the xyplane. We can then specify the axis of one
of these rotations by a point on a circle through which
the vector crosses, and we can select the radius of the
circle to denote the angle of rotation. Similarly, a
rotation whose axis of rotation lies in the xyplane can
be described as a point on a sphere of fixed radius in
three dimensions. Beginning at the north pole of a
sphere in three dimensional space, we specify the point
at the north pole to be the identity rotation (a zero angle
Two rotations by different angles and different axes in the space of
rotation). Just as in the case of the identity rotation, no
rotations. The length of the vector is related to the magnitude of the
axis of rotation is defined, and the angle of rotation
rotation.
(zero) is irrelevant. A rotation having a very small
rotation angle can be specified by a slice through the
sphere parallel to the xyplane and very near the north pole. The circle defined by this slice will be very small,
corresponding to the small angle of the rotation. As the rotation angles become larger, the slice moves in the negative
zdirection, and the circles become larger until the equator of the sphere is reached, which will correspond to a
rotation angle of 180degrees. Continuing southward, the radii of the circles now become smaller (corresponding to
the absolute value of the angle of the rotation considered as a negative number). Finally, as the south pole is reached,
the circles shrink once more to the identity rotation, which is also specified as the point at the south pole.
Notice that a number of characteristics of such rotations and their representations can be seen by this visualization.
The space of rotations is continuous, each rotation has a neighborhood of rotations which are nearly the same, and
this neighborhood becomes flat as the neighborhood shrinks. Also, each rotation is actually represented by two
antipodal points on the sphere, which are at opposite ends of a line through the center of the sphere. This reflects the
fact that each rotation can be represented as a rotation about some axis, or, equivalently, as a negative rotation about
an axis pointing in the opposite direction (a so-called double cover). The "latitude" of a circle representing a
particular rotation angle will be half of the angle represented by that rotation, since as the point is moved from the
north to south pole, the latitude ranges from zero to 180degrees, while the angle of rotation ranges from 0 to
360degrees. (the "longitude" of a point then represents a particular axis of rotation.) Note however that this set of
rotations is not closed under composition. Two successive rotations with axes in the xyplane will not necessarily
give a rotation whose axis lies in the xyplane, and thus cannot be represented as a point on the sphere. This will not
be the case with a general rotation in 3-space, in which rotations do form a closed set under composition.
194
This visualization can be extended to a general rotation

in 3-dimensional space. The identity rotation is a point,
and a small angle of rotation about some axis can be
represented as a point on a sphere with a small radius.
As the angle of rotation grows, the sphere grows, until
the angle of rotation reaches 180 degrees, at which
point the sphere begins to shrink, becoming a point as
the angle approaches 360 degrees (or zero degrees from
the negative direction). This set of expanding and
contracting spheres represents a hypersphere in four
dimensional space (a 3-sphere). Just as in the simpler
example above, each rotation represented as a point on
the hypersphere is matched by its antipodal point on
that hypersphere. The "latitude" on the hypersphere
will be half of the corresponding angle of rotation, and
the neighborhood of any point will become "flatter"
(i.e. be represented by a 3-D Euclidean space of points)
as the neighborhood shrinks. This behavior is matched
The sphere of rotations for the rotations that have a "horizontal" axis
by the set of unit quaternions: A general quaternion
(in the xyplane).
represents a point in a four dimensional space, but
constraining it to have unit magnitude yields a three dimensional space equivalent to the surface of a hypersphere.
The magnitude of the unit quaternion will be unity, corresponding to a hypersphere of unit radius. The vector part of
a unit quaternion represents the radius of the 2-sphere corresponding to the axis of rotation, and its magnitude is the
cosine of half the angle of rotation. Each rotation is represented by two unit quaternions of opposite sign, and, as in
the space of rotations in three dimensions, the quaternion product of two unit quaternions will yield a unit
quaternion. Also, the space of unit quaternions is "flat" in any infinitesimal neighborhood of a given unit quaternion.
Parameterizing the space of rotations

We can parameterize the surface of a sphere with two coordinates, such as latitude and longitude. But latitude and
longitude are ill-behaved (degenerate) at the north and south poles, though the poles are not intrinsically different
from any other points on the sphere. At the poles (latitudes +90 and 90), the longitude becomes meaningless.
It can be shown that no two-parameter coordinate system can avoid such degeneracy. We can avoid such problems
by embedding the sphere in three-dimensional space and parameterizing it with three Cartesian coordinates (w, x, y),
placing the north pole at (w, x, y) = (1, 0, 0), the south pole at (w, x, y) = (1, 0, 0), and the equator at w = 0, x2 + y2 =
1. Points on the sphere satisfy the constraint w2 + x2 + y2 = 1, so we still have just two degrees of freedom though
there are three coordinates. A point (w, x, y) on the sphere represents a rotation in the ordinary space around the
horizontal axis directed by the vector (x, y, 0) by an angle
.
In the same way the hyperspherical space of 3D rotations can be parameterized by three angles (Euler angles), but
any such parameterization is degenerate at some points on the hypersphere, leading to the problem of gimbal lock.
We can avoid this by using four Euclidean coordinates w, x, y, z, with w2 + x2 + y2 + z2 = 1. The point(w, x, y, z)
represents a rotation around the axis directed by the vector(x, y, z) by an angle
195
Explaining quaternions' properties with rotations

Non-commutativity
The multiplication of quaternions is non-commutative. This fact explains how the p q p q1 formula can work at
all, having q q1 = 1 by definition. Since the multiplication of unit quaternions corresponds to the composition of
three dimensional rotations, this property can be made intuitive by showing that three dimensional rotations are not
commutative in general.
Set two books next to each other. Rotate one of them 90degrees clockwise around the z axis, then flip it 180degrees
around the x axis. Take the other book, flip it 180 around x axis first, and 90 clockwise around z later. The two
books do not end up parallel. This shows that, in general, the composition of two different rotations around two
distinct spatial axes will not commute.
Orientation
The vector cross product, used to define the axisangle representation, does confer an orientation ("handedness") to
space: in a three-dimensional vector space, the three vectors in the equation a b = c will always form a
right-handed set (or a left-handed set, depending on how the cross product is defined), thus fixing an orientation in
the vector space. Alternatively, the dependence on orientation is expressed in referring to such u that specifies a
rotation as to axial vectors. In quaternionic formalism the choice of an orientation of the space corresponds to order
of multiplication: ij = k but ji = k. If one reverses the orientation, then the formula above becomes p q1 p q,
i.e. a unit q is replaced with the conjugate quaternion the same behaviour as of axial vectors.
Comparison with other representations of rotations

Advantages of quaternions
The representation of a rotation as a quaternion (4numbers) is more compact than the representation as an
orthogonal matrix (9numbers). Furthermore, for a given axis and angle, one can easily construct the corresponding
quaternion, and conversely, for a given quaternion one can easily read off the axis and the angle. Both of these are
much harder with matrices or Euler angles.
In video games and other applications, one is often interested in smooth rotations, meaning that the scene should
slowly rotate and not in a single step. This can be accomplished by choosing a curve such as the spherical linear
interpolation in the quaternions, with one endpoint being the identity transformation 1 (or some other initial rotation)
and the other being the intended final rotation. This is more problematic with other representations of rotations.
When composing several rotations on a computer, rounding errors necessarily accumulate. A quaternion thats
slightly off still represents a rotation after being normalised: a matrix thats slightly off may not be orthogonal
anymore and is harder to convert back to a proper orthogonal matrix.
Quaternions also avoid a phenomenon called gimbal lock which can result when, for example in pitch/yaw/roll
rotational systems, the pitch is rotated 90 up or down, so that yaw and roll then correspond to the same motion, and
a degree of freedom of rotation is lost. In a gimbal-based aerospace inertial navigation system, for instance, this
could have disastrous results if the aircraft is in a steep dive or ascent.
196
197
Conversion to and from the matrix representation

From a quaternion to an orthogonal matrix
The orthogonal matrix corresponding to a rotation by the unit quaternion z = a + b i + c j + d k (with | z | = 1) when
post-multiplying with a column vector is given by
From an orthogonal matrix to a quaternion

One must be careful when converting a rotation matrix to a quaternion, as several straightforward methods tend to be
unstable when the trace (sum of the diagonal elements) of the rotation matrix is zero or very small. For a stable
method of converting an orthogonal matrix to a quaternion, see Rotation matrix #Quaternion.
Fitting quaternions
The above section described how to recover a quaternionq from a 33 rotation matrix Q. Suppose, however, that we
have some matrix Q that is not a pure rotationdue to round-off errors, for exampleand we wish to find the
quaternionq that most accurately represents Q. In that case we construct a symmetric 44 matrix
and find the eigenvector (x, y, z, w) corresponding to the largest eigenvalue (that value will be 1 if and only if Q is a
pure rotation). The quaternion so obtained will correspond to the rotation closest to the original matrix Q
Wikipedia:Disputed statement
Performance comparisons
This section discusses the performance implications of using quaternions versus other methods (axis/angle or
rotation matrices) to perform rotations in 3D.
Results
Storage requirements
Method
Storage
Rotation matrix 9
Quaternion
Angle/axis
3*
* Note: angle/axis can be stored as 3 elements by multiplying the unit rotation axis by half of the rotation angle,
forming the logarithm of the quaternion, at the cost of additional calculations.
198
Performance comparison of rotation chaining operations

Method
# multiplies # add/subtracts total operations
Rotation matrices 27
18
45
Quaternions
12
28
16
Performance comparison of vector rotating operations

Method
# multiplies # add/subtracts # sin/cos total operations
Rotation matrix 9
15
Quaternions
15
15
30
Angle/axis
23
16
41
Used methods
There are three basic approaches to rotating a vectorv:
1. Compute the matrix product of a 3 3 rotation matrixR and the original 3 1 column matrix representing v.
This requires 3 (3multiplications+ 2additions)= 9multiplications and 6additions, the most efficient method
for rotating a vector.
2. A rotation can be represented by a unit-length quaternion q = (w, r) with scalar (real) partw and vector
(imaginary) partr. The rotation can be applied to a 3D vector v via the formula
. This requires only 15 multiplications and 15 additions to evaluate (or 18
muls and 12 adds if the factor of 2 is done via multiplication.) This yields the same result as the less efficient but
more compact formula
.
3. Use the angle/axis formula to convert an angle/axis to a rotation matrixR then multiplying with a vector.
Converting the angle/axis to R using common subexpression elimination costs 14multiplies, 2function calls (sin,
cos), and 10add/subtracts; from item1, rotating using R adds an additional 9 multiplications and 6 additions for a
total of 23multiplies, 16add/subtracts, and 2 function calls (sin, cos).
Pairs of unit quaternions as rotations in 4D space

A pair of unit quaternions zl and zr can represent any rotation in 4D space. Given a four dimensional vector v, and
pretending that it is a quaternion, we can rotate the vector v like this:
It is straightforward to check that for each matrix: M MT= I, that is, that each matrix (and hence both matrices
together) represents a rotation. Note that since
, the two matrices must commute. Therefore,
there are two commuting subgroups of the set of four dimensional rotations. Arbitrary four dimensional rotations
have 6degrees of freedom, each matrix represents 3 of those 6degrees of freedom.
Since an infinitesimal four-dimensional rotation can be represented by a pair of quaternions (as follows), all
(non-infinitesimal) four-dimensional rotations can also be represented.
References
[1] Amnon Katz (1996) Computational Rigid Vehicle Dynamics, Krieger Publishing Co. ISBN 978-1575240169
[2] J. B. Kuipers (1999) Quaternions and rotation Sequences: a Primer with Applications to Orbits, Aerospace, and Virtual Reality, Princeton
University Press ISBN 978-0-691-10298-6
[3] Simon L. Altman (1986) Rotations, Quaternions, and Double Groups, Dover Publications (see especially Ch. 12).
E. P. Battey-Pratt & T. J. Racey (1980) Geometric Model for Fundamental Particles International Journal of
Theoretical Physics. Vol 19, No. 6
External links and resources

Shoemake, Ken. Quaternions (http://www.cs.caltech.edu/courses/cs171/quatut.pdf)
Simple Quaternion type and operations in over thirty computer languages (http://rosettacode.org/wiki/
Simple_Quaternion_type_and_operations) on Rosetta Code
Hart, Francis, Kauffman. Quaternion demo (http://graphics.stanford.edu/courses/cs348c-95-fall/software/
quatdemo/)
Dam, Koch, Lillholm. Quaternions, Interpolation and Animation (http://www.diku.dk/publikationer/tekniske.
rapporter/1998/98-5.ps.gz)
Vicci, Leandra. Quaternions and Rotations in 3-Space: The Algebra and its Geometric Interpretation (http://
www.cs.unc.edu/techreports/01-014.pdf)
Howell, Thomas and Lafon, Jean-Claude. The Complexity of the Quaternion Product, TR75-245, Cornell
University, 1975 (http://world.std.com/~sweetser/quaternions/ps/cornellcstr75-245.pdf)
Berthold K.P. Horn. Some Notes on Unit Quaternions and Rotation (http://people.csail.mit.edu/bkph/articles/
Quaternions.pdf).
199
Andreas Raab
200
Andreas Raab
Dr. Andreas Raab
Born
November 24, 1968

Rostock, East Germany
Died
January 14, 2013

Berlin, Germany
Citizenship
German
Fields
Computer science
Institutions
Walt Disney Imagineering

Viewpoints Research Institute
HP Labs
3D ICC
SAP Innovation Center
Alma mater University of Magdeburg

Knownfor
Squeak
Croquet Project
OpenQwaq
Tweak programming environment
Etoys
Spouse
Kathleen Raab
Children
Theodor Andreas Raab, born August 7, 2013
Andreas Raab (November 24, 1968 January 14, 2013) was a German computer scientist who developed new
concepts and applications in 3D graphics. Raab was a key contributor to the Squeak platform and the Croquet virtual
world project. He was an early and longstanding member of the Squeak Central team headed by Alan Kay, and later
an elected member of the Squeak Oversight Board. He authored the initial Windows port of the Squeak virtual
machine, and created the Tweak programming environment used in virtual world applications.
Andreas Raab
Background and education

Raab attended the University of Magdeburg (Germany) where he graduated in 1994, receiving a
Diplom-Informatiker degree (equivalent to MSc in Computer Science) and in 1998 a degree as PhD in Computer
Science.[1][2]
Accomplishments
Andreas Raab was a key contributor and participant in the Squeak community. He was the largest contributor to the
code base. Colleagues consider him to have been a brilliant and artistic coder known for his solid design and lack of
bugs.
He ported the Squeak virtual machine to Windows while he was a Ph.D. student at Magdeburg University in 1997.
The Squeak Central team at Walt Disney Imagineering, led by Alan Kay, was very much impressed with his talent.
When Raab graduated, Kay hired him and brought him to California. It didn't take long for him he became a
productive member of the core team.
In 2001, it became clear that the Etoys architecture in Squeak had reached limits in the capabilities of its Morphic
interface infrastructure. Andreas Raab proposed defining a "script process" and providing a default scheduling
mechanism that avoids several more general problems. The result was a new user interface, proposed to replace the
Squeak Morphic user interface in the future. Tweak provides mechanisms of islands, asynchronous messaging,
players and costumes, language extensions, projects, and tile scripting.[3] Its underlying object system is class-based,
but to users (during programming) it acts like it is prototype-based. Tweak objects are created and run in Tweak
project windows. Tweak was used extensively in version 1.0 of the Sophie project under the direction of Robert
Stein.
At Alan Kay's Viewpoints Research Institute, Kay and Raab worked with David P. Reed, and David A. Smith,
implementing the concepts of David Reed's Ph.D. thesis by creating the first working model of Croquet.
In 2007, Smith and Raab started Qwaq, an immersive collaboration company, which further developed the Croquet
prototype for business applications, such as simulations for the United States Department of Defense. Qwaq was
later renamed to Teleplace and then became 3D Immersive Collaboration Consulting.
In 2009, Raab proposed and implemented a special event-driven version of Squeak VM which does not contain an
event loop, but instead acts as a handler for an externally-provided queue of events, and returns to the caller once all
the events have been processed. Such modification of the VM makes it very convenient for embedding with any
other (e. g. another language) runtime. Squeak on Android is just an example of such embedding with Java/Dalvik
VM.
Articles
"Coherent Zooming of Illustrations with 3D-Graphics and Text" - Proceedings of the conference on Graphics
interface '97 [4]
"User-centred design in the development of a navigational aid for blind travellers" - '97 Proceedings of the IFIP
TC13 Interantional Conference on Human-Computer Interaction Pages 220-227 [5]
TinLizzieWysiWiki andWikiPhone: Alternative approaches to asynchronous and synchronous collaboration on
the Web [6]
Croquet: a menagerie of new user interfaces [7]
Filters and tasks in Croquet [8]
Wouldn't you like to have your own studio in Croquet? [9]
The media messenger [10] About a new messaging system which sends media (video, presentations, animations,
audio, interactive games, 3D spaces) to other users on the Internet.
Scalability of Collaborative Environments [11]
201
Andreas Raab
202
External links
Andreas' Blog Squeaking Along [12]
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
Press release about his dissertation (german): http:/ / idw-online. de/ de/ news6763
(archived at Squeak Wiki)
Tweak: Whitepapers (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070323064400/ http:/ / tweakproject. org/ TECHNOLOGY/ Whitepapers/ )
http:/ / www. vismd. de/ lib/ exe/ fetch. php?media=files:hci:preim_1997_gi. pdf
http:/ / dl. acm. org/ citation. cfm?id=647403. 723524& coll=DL& dl=GUIDE& CFID=256678779& CFTOKEN=38905774
http:/ / ieeexplore. ieee. org/ xpl/ login. jsp?tp=& arnumber=4144932& url=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore. ieee. org%2Fstamp%2Fstamp.
jsp%3Ftp%3D%26arnumber%3D4144932
[7] http:/ / ieeexplore. ieee. org/ xpl/ mostRecentIssue. jsp?punumber=9189
[8] http:/ / ieeexplore. ieee. org/ xpl/ mostRecentIssue. jsp?punumber=9721
[9] http:/ / ieeexplore. ieee. org/ xpl/ articleDetails. jsp?tp=& arnumber=4019389& contentType=Conference+ Publications&
searchWithin%3Dp_Authors%3A. QT. Raab%2C+ A. . QT.
[10] http:/ / ieeexplore. ieee. org/ xpl/ login. jsp?tp=& arnumber=1419794& url=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore. ieee. org%2Fstamp%2Fstamp.
jsp%3Ftp%3D%26arnumber%3D1419794
[11] http:/ / ieeexplore. ieee. org/ xpl/ articleDetails. jsp?tp=& arnumber=4019391& contentType=Conference+ Publications&
searchWithin%3Dp_Authors%3A. QT. Raab%2C+ A. . QT.
[12] http:/ / squeakingalong. wordpress. com/
RealityEngine
RealityEngine refers to a 3D graphics hardware architecture and a
family of graphics systems that implemented the aforementioned
hardware architecture that was developed and manufactured by Silicon
Graphics during the early to mid 1990s. The RealityEngine was
positioned as Silicon Graphics' high-end visualization hardware for
their MIPS/IRIX platform and was used exclusively in their Crimson
and Onyx family of visualization systems, which are sometimes
referred to as "graphics supercomputers" or "visualization
supercomputers". The RealityEngine was marketed to and used by
large organizations such as companies and universities that are
involved in computer simulation, digital content creation, engineering
and research.
It was succeeded by the InfiniteReality in early 1996, but coexisted
with it for a time as an entry-level option for older systems.
Geometry Engine board.
RealityEngine
The RealityEngine was a board set comprising a Geometry Engine board, one to four Raster Memory board(s), and a
DG2 Display Generator board. These boards plugged into a midplane on the host system.
The Geometry Engine was based around the 50 MHz Intel i860XP.
RealityEngine
203
VTX
The VTX was a cost-reduced RealityEngine and as a consequence, its
features and performance was below that of the RealityEngine. It
should not be mistaken as the VGX or VGXT board set.
RealityEngine2
The RealityEngine2, branded RealityEngine2, is an upgraded
RealityEngine with twelve instead of eight Geometry Engines
introduced towards the end of the RealityEngine's life. It was
succeeded by the InfiniteReality in early 1996.
Raster Memory board.
It uses the GE10 Geometry Engine board, RM4 Raster Memory board and DG2 Display Generator board.
References
Akeley, Kurt. "RealityEngine Graphics" [1]. Proceedings of SIGGRAPH '93, pp. 109-116.
References
[1] http:/ / www1. cs. columbia. edu/ ~ravir/ 6160/ papers/ p109-akeley. pdf
204

Reflection in computer graphics is used to emulate reflective objects
like mirrors and shiny surfaces.
Reflection is accomplished in a ray trace renderer by following a ray
from the eye to the mirror and then calculating where it bounces from,
and continuing the process until no surface is found, or a non-reflective
surface is found. Reflection on a shiny surface like wood or tile can
add to the photorealistic effects of a 3D rendering.
Polished - A Polished Reflection is an undisturbed reflection, like a
mirror or chrome.
Blurry - A Blurry Reflection means that tiny random bumps on the
surface of the material cause the reflection to be blurry.
Metallic - A reflection is Metallic if the highlights and reflections
retain the color of the reflective object.
Glossy - This term can be misused. Sometimes it is a setting which
Ray traced model demonstrating specular
reflection.
is the opposite of Blurry. (When "Glossiness" has a low value, the
reflection is blurry.) However, some people use the term "Glossy
Reflection" as a synonym for "Blurred Reflection." Glossy used in this context means that the reflection is
actually blurred.
Examples
Polished or Mirror reflection
Mirrors are usually almost 100% reflective.
Mirror on wall rendered with 100% reflection.
205
Metallic Reflection
Normal, (nonmetallic), objects reflect
light and colors in the original color of
the object being reflected.
Metallic objects reflect lights and
colors altered by the color of the
metallic object itself.
The large sphere on the left is blue with its reflection marked as metallic. The large sphere
on the right is the same color but does not have the metallic property selected.
Blurry Reflection
Many
materials
are
imperfect
reflectors, where the reflections are
blurred to various degrees due to
surface roughness that scatters the rays
of the reflections.
The large sphere on the left has sharpness set to 100%. The sphere on the right has
sharpness set to 50% which creates a blurry reflection.
206
Glossy Reflection
Fully
glossy
reflection,
shows
highlights from light sources, but does
not show a clear reflection from
objects.
The sphere on the left has normal, metallic reflection. The sphere on the right has the
same parameters, except that the reflection is marked as "glossy".
Relief mapping (computer graphics)

In computer graphics, relief mapping is a texture mapping technique used to render the surface details of three
dimensional objects accurately and efficiently. It can produce accurate depictions of self-occlusion, self-shadowing,
and parallax. It is a form of short-distance raytrace done on a pixel shader.[citation needed] Relief mapping is highly
comparable in both function and approach to another displacement texture mapping technique, Parallax occlusion
mapping, considering that they both rely on raytraces, though the two are not to be confused with each other, as
parallax occlusion mapping uses reverse heightmap tracing.
References
External links
Manuel's Relief texture mapping (http://www.inf.ufrgs.br/~oliveira/RTM.html)
Retained mode
Retained mode
In computing, retained mode rendering is a style for application programming interfaces of graphics libraries, in
which the libraries retain a complete model of the objects to be rendered.[1]
Overview
By using a "retained mode" approach, client calls do not directly cause actual rendering, but instead update an
internal model (typically a list of objects) which is maintained within the library's data space. This allows the library
to optimize when actual rendering takes place along with the processing of related objects.
Some techniques to optimize rendering include:[citation needed]
managing double buffering
performing occlusion culling
only transferring data that has changed from one frame to the next from the application to the library
Immediate mode is an alternative approach; the two styles can coexist in the same library and are not necessarily
exclusionary in practice. For example, OpenGL has immediate mode functions that can use previously defined server
side objects (textures, vertex and index buffers, shaders, etc.) without resending unchanged data.[citation needed]
References
[1] Retained Mode Versus Immediate Mode (http:/ / msdn. microsoft. com/ en-us/ library/ windows/ desktop/ ff684178(v=vs. 85). aspx)

A scene description language refers to any description language used to describe a scene to be rendered by a 3D
renderer such as a ray tracer. The scene is written in a text editor (which may include syntax highlighting) as
opposed to be modeled in a graphical way.
Some scene description language may include variables, constants, conditional statements, while loops and for loops.
3DMLW and X3D are XML-based scene description languages. The Tao Presentations application uses XL as a
dynamic document description language.
Example
POV-Ray
#declare the_angle = 0;
#while (the_angle < 360)
box {
<-0.5, -0.5, -0.5>
<0.5, 0.5, 0.5>
texture { pigment { color Red }
finish { specular 0.6 }
normal { agate 0.25 scale 1/2 } }
rotate the_angle }
#declare the_angle = the_angle + 45;
#end
207
208
3DMLW
<?xml version="1.0" standalone="no"?>
<document>
<content2d>
<area width="200" height="100" color="#C0C0C0FF" texture="flower.png" />
</content2d>
<content3d id="content" camera="{#cam}">
<camera id="cam" class="cam_rotation" y="10" z="40" viewy="10"/>
<box name="ground" width="100" height="2" depth="100" color="green" class="ground" />
<box name="dynamic" y="20" width="10" height="10" depth="10" color="blue" />
</content3d>
</document>
X3D
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE X3D PUBLIC "ISO//Web3D//DTD X3D 3.2//EN" "http://www.web3d.org/specifications/x3d-3.2.dtd">
<X3D profile="Interchange" version="3.2" xmlns:xsd="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsd:noNamespaceSchemaLocation=" http://www.web3d.org/specifications/x3d-3.2.xsd ">
<Scene>
<Shape>
<IndexedFaceSet coordIndex="0 1 2">
<Coordinate point="0 0 0 1 0 0 0.5 1 0"/>
</IndexedFaceSet>
</Shape>
</Scene>
</X3D>
Tao Presentations
Tao Presentations real-time 3D rendering of a

scene described using its document description
language
clear_color 0, 0, 0, 1
light 0
light_position 1000, 1000, 1000
rotatey 0.05 * mouse_x
text_box 0, 0, 800, 600,
extrude_depth 25
extrude_radius 5
align_center
209
vertical_align_center
font "Arial", 300
color "white"
text "3D"
line_break
font_size 80
text zero hours & ":" & zero minutes & ":" & zero seconds
draw_sphere N ->
locally
color_hsv 20 * N, 0.3, 1
translate 300*cos(N*0.1+time), 300*sin(N*0.17+time),
500*sin(N*0.23+time)
sphere 50
zero N -> if N < 10 then "0" & text N else text N
Schlick's approximation
In 3D computer graphics, Schlick's approximation is a formula for approximating the contribution of the Fresnel
term in the specular reflection of light from a non-conducting interface (surface) between two media.
According to Schlick's model, the specular reflection coefficient R can be approximated by:
where
is the angle between the viewing direction and the half-angle direction, which is halfway between the
incident light direction and the viewing direction, hence
. And
are the indices of
refraction of the two medias at the interface and
is the reflection coefficient for light incoming parallel to the
normal (i.e., the value of the Fresnel term when
or minimal reflection). In computer graphics, one of the
interfaces is usually air, meaning that
very well can be approximated as 1.
References
Schlick, C. (1994). "An Inexpensive BRDF Model for Physically-based Rendering". Computer Graphics Forum
13 (3): 233. doi:10.1111/1467-8659.1330233 [1].
References
[1] http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1111%2F1467-8659. 1330233
Sculpted prim
210
Sculpted prim
A sculpted prim(itive) (or sculpty, sculptie, or just sculpt) is a
Second Life 3D parametric object whose 3D shape is determined by a
texture. These textures are UV maps that form the rendered 3D
sculpted prim. Sculpted prims can be used to create more complex,
organic shapes that are not possible with Second Life's primitive
system.
Technical details
Sculpted fruit created for Second Life
A sculpty is a standard RGB texture where the R (red), G (green) and

B (blue) channels are mapped onto X, Y, and Z space. Sculpt textures are similar to normal maps, but instead of
encoding surface normals they encode surface positions. They are also similar to displacement maps, but instead of a
single scalar distance, there are three values one each for the X, Y, and Z coordinates. Sculpt textures are also
very similar to parametric (e.g. NURBS) surfaces. See Sculpted Prims: Under the Hood [1] article for details.
Minimum recognized size is 8 x 8. Maximum recognized size is 128 x 128. larger can be uploaded but will be treated
as an image and compressed.
The UV map is embedded into the sculpty on creation. When uploaded into the Second Life asset server, and rezzed
(rendered), it will form the shape imposed on it. However, the actual texturing must be done in a separate file, the
map of which will be based on the conceived shape. For example, a liquor bottle would have its label on its forward
face. However, there is only one face on a sculpty as it is either a sphere, torus, cone, or cylinder (cube also exists
but the texture covers all the perceived faces so the rule applies). For the liquor label it would be located on a
specific section of the lower left quadrant.
External links
Free sculpted prim creation software
Blender with the Domino Designs scripts [2]

Wings 3D [3] with the sculptie plugin [4]
InWorld Sculptor Tool Kit [5] - not available anymore. Is now sold as Sculpt Studio for 4999 L$!
Sculpted Prims: 3D Software Guide [6]
Commercial sculpted prim creation software
Aartform Curvy 3D [7]

Autodesk Maya [8]
Autodesk Media and Entertainment's 3ds Max [9]
Hexagon by Daz3d [10]
Inivis AC3D [11]
Moment of Inspiration (MoI) [13] (save as a 3dm (opennurbs) file and use 3dm2sculpt [12] to convert to a sculpty)
NewTek LightWave 3D [13]
Pixel Lab SculptyPaint [14]
Pixologic zBrush [15]
ROKURO(lathe) - Sculpted Prim Maker [16] - A simple NURB curve maker and revolver (a "lathed" object is one
that is perfectly symmetrical around the center axis)
Sculptie-O-matic [17] transform inworld linksets into sculpties directly
Sculpted prim
Strata 3D [18]
TheBlack Box - Sculpt Studio [19]
TATARA - Sculpted Prim Previewer and Editor [20] - Kanae Project top of the line; Sculpted Prims can be edited
in the five modes: ROKURO/TOKOROTEN/MAGE/WAPPA/TSUCHI (contains ROKURO tool(above) and
TOKOROTEN tool (below) ) ~L$5000
TOKOROTEN(extruder) [21] - Makes sculpted prim texture TGA file of the pushed-out/extruded objects (makes
cookie-cutter style shapes). As of mid-2008 the maker of Rokuro ceased making either available for free; it is
now L$2500 (~$8 USD).
External links
Second Life Wiki: Sculpted Prims [22]

Second Life Wiki: Sculpted Prims: FAQ [23]
Second Life Wiki: Talk:Sculpted Prims [24]
How to Make Sculpted Prims with Blender [25]
Video tutorials about sculpted prims with blender [26]
Blender and Second Life [27]
How to Make Sculpted Prims from Existing 3D Models with AC3D [28]
References
[1] http:/ / wiki. secondlife. com/ wiki/ Sculpted_Prim_Explanation
[2] http:/ / dominodesigns. info/ second_life/ blender_scripts. html
[3] http:/ / www. wings3d. com/
[4] http:/ / pkpounceworks. sljoint. com/ index. php?option=com_remository& Itemid=28& func=fileinfo& id=119
[5] http:/ / www. slexchange. com/ modules. php?name=Marketplace& file=item& ItemID=266428
[6] http:/ / wiki. secondlife. com/ wiki/ Sculpted_Prims:_3d_Software_Guide
[7] http:/ / www. curvy3d. com/
[8] http:/ / www. alias. com/
[9] http:/ / www. autodesk. com/ 3dsmax
[10] http:/ / artzone. daz3d. com/ wiki/ doku. php/ pub/ software/ hexagon/ start/
[11] http:/ / www. inivis. com/
[12] http:/ / wiki. secondlife. com/ wiki/ 3dm2sculpt
[13] http:/ / www. newtek. com/ lightwave/
[14] http:/ / www. xs4all. nl/ ~elout/ sculptpaint/
[15] http:/ / www. pixologic. com/
[16] http:/ / www. kanae. net/ secondlife/
[17] http:/ / slurl. com/ secondlife/ Sri%20Syadasti/ 21/ 85/ 37
[18] http:/ / www. strata. com/
[19] http:/ / www. slexchange. com/ modules. php?name=Marketplace& file=item& ItemID=278458
[20] http:/ / kanae. net/ secondlife/ tatara. html
[21] http:/ / kanae. net/ secondlife/ tokoroten. html
[22] http:/ / wiki. secondlife. com/ wiki/ Sculpted_Prims
[23] http:/ / wiki. secondlife. com/ wiki/ Sculpted_Prims:_FAQ
[24] http:/ / wiki. secondlife. com/ wiki/ Talk:Sculpted_Prims
[25] http:/ / amandalevitsky. googlepages. com/ sculptedprims
[26] http:/ / blog. machinimatrix. org/ video-tutorials
[27] http:/ / www. blendernation. com/ 2007/ 05/ 21/ blender-and-second-life/
[28] http:/ / independentdeveloper. com/ archive/ 2007/ 09/ 27/ sculpted_prims_from_existing_3
211
Silhouette edge
Silhouette edge
In computer graphics, a silhouette edge on a 3D body projected onto a 2D plane (display plane) is the collection of
points whose outwards surface normal is perpendicular to the view vector. Due to discontinuities in the surface
normal, a silhouette edge is also an edge which separates a front facing face from a back facing face. Without loss of
generality, this edge is usually chosen to be the closest one on a face, so that in parallel view this edge corresponds to
the same one in a perspective view. Hence, if there is an edge between a front facing face and a side facing face, and
another edge between a side facing face and back facing face, the closer one is chosen. The easy example is looking
at a cube in the direction where the face normal is collinear with the view vector.
The first type of silhouette edge is sometimes troublesome to handle because it does not necessarily correspond to a
physical edge in the CAD model. The reason that this can be an issue is that a programmer might corrupt the original
model by introducing the new silhouette edge into the problem. Also, given that the edge strongly depends upon the
orientation of the model and view vector, this can introduce numerical instabilities into the algorithm (such as when
a trick like dilution of precision is considered).
Computation
To determine the silhouette edge of an object, we first have to know the plane equation of all faces. Then, by
examining the sign of the point-plane distance from the light-source to each face
Using this result, we can determine if the face is front- or back facing.
The silhouette edge(s) consist of all edges separating a front facing face from a back facing face.
Similar Technique
A convenient and practical implementation of front/back facing detection is to use the unit normal of the plane
(which is commonly precomputed for lighting effects anyway), then simply applying the dot product of the light
position to the plane's unit normal and adding the D component of the plane equation (a scalar value):
Where plane_D is easily calculated as a point on the plane dot product with the unit normal of the plane:
Note: The homogeneous coordinates, L_w and d, are not always needed for this computation.
After doing this calculation, you may notice indicator is actually the signed distance from the plane to the light
position. This distance indicator will be negative if it is behind the face, and positive if it is in front of the face.
This is also the technique used in the 2002 SIGGRAPH paper, "Practical and Robust Stenciled Shadow Volumes for
Hardware-Accelerated Rendering"
212
Silhouette edge
213
External links
http://wheger.tripod.com/vhl/vhl.htm
Skeletal animation
Skeletal animation is a technique in computer animation in which a
character is represented in two parts: a surface representation used to
draw the character (called skin or mesh) and a hierarchical set of
interconnected bones (called the skeleton or rig) used to animate (pose
and keyframe) the mesh. While this technique is often used to animate
humans or more generally for organic modeling, it only serves to make
the animation process more intuitive and the same technique can be
used to control the deformation of any object a door, a spoon, a
building, or a galaxy.
This technique is used in virtually all animation systems where
simplified user interfaces allows animators to control often complex
algorithms and a huge amount of geometry; most notably through
inverse kinematics and other "goal-oriented" techniques. In principle,
however, the intention of the technique is never to imitate real anatomy
or physical processes, but only to control the deformation of the mesh data.
'Bones' (in green) used to pose a hand. In

practice, the 'bones' themselves are often hidden
and replaced by more user-friendly objects. In
this example from the open source project Sintel,
these 'handles' (in blue) have been scaled down to
bend the fingers. The bones are still controlling
the deformation, but the animator only sees the
'handles'.
Technique
"Rigging is making our characters able to move. The process of rigging is we take that digital sculpture, and we start building the
skeleton, the muscles, and we attach the skin to the character, and we also create a set of animation controls, which our animators use
to push and pull the body around."
Frank Hanner, character CG supervisor of the Walt Disney Animation Studios, provided a basic understanding on the technique
of character rigging.
This technique is used by constructing a series of 'bones,' sometimes referred to as rigging. Each bone has a three
dimensional transformation (which includes its position, scale and orientation), and an optional parent bone. The
bones therefore form a hierarchy. The full transform of a child node is the product of its parent transform and its own
transform. So moving a thigh-bone will move the lower leg too. As the character is animated, the bones change their
transformation over time, under the influence of some animation controller. A rig is generally composed of both
forward kinematics and inverse kinematics parts that may interact with each other. Skeletal animation is referring to
the forward kinematics part of the rig, where a complete set of bones configurations identifies a unique pose.
Each bone in the skeleton is associated with some portion of the character's visual representation. Skinning is the
process of creating this association. In the most common case of a polygonal mesh character, the bone is associated
with a group of vertices; for example, in a model of a human being, the 'thigh' bone would be associated with the
vertices making up the polygons in the model's thigh. Portions of the character's skin can normally be associated
with multiple bones, each one having a scaling factors called vertex weights, or blend weights. The movement of
skin near the joints of two bones, can therefore be influenced by both bones. In most state-of-the-art graphical
engines, the skinning process is done on the GPU thanks to a shader program.
For a polygonal mesh, each vertex can have a blend weight for each bone. To calculate the final position of the
vertex, each bone transformation is applied to the vertex position, scaled by its corresponding weight. This algorithm
is called matrix palette skinning, because the set of bone transformations (stored as transform matrices) form a
Skeletal animation
palette for the skin vertex to choose from.
Benefits and drawbacks

Strengths
Bone represent set of vertices (or some other objects, which represent for example a leg).
Animator controls fewer characteristics of the model
Animator can focus on the large scale motion.
Bones are independently movable.
An animation can be defined by simple movements of the bones, instead of vertex by vertex (in the case of a
polygonal mesh).
Weaknesses
Bone represents set of vertices (or some other object).
Does not provide realistic muscle movement and skin motion
Possible solutions to this problem:
Special muscle controllers attached to the bones
Consultation with physiology experts (increase accuracy of musculoskeletal realism with more thorough
virtual anatomy simulations)
Applications
Skeletal animation is the standard way to animate characters or mechanical objects for a prolonged period of time
(usually over 100 frames). It is commonly used by video game artists and in the movie industry, and can also be
applied to mechanical objects and any other object made up of rigid elements and joints.
Performance capture (or motion capture) can speed up development time of skeletal animation, as well as increasing
the level of realism.
For motion that is too dangerous for performance capture, there are computer simulations that automatically
calculate physics of motion and resistance with skeletal frames. Virtual anatomy properties such as weight of limbs,
muscle reaction, bone strength and joint constraints may be added for realistic bouncing, buckling, fracture and
tumbling effects known as virtual stunts. Virtual stunts are controversial[citation needed] due to their potential to
replace stunt performers. However, there are other applications of virtual anatomy simulations such as military and
emergency response. Virtual soldiers, rescue workers, patients, passengers and pedestrians can be used for training,
virtual engineering and virtual testing of equipment. Virtual anatomy technology may be combined with artificial
intelligence for further enhancement of animation and simulation technology.
References
214
Sketch-based modeling is a method of creating 3D models for use in 3D computer graphics applications.
Sketch-based modeling is differentiated from other types of 3D modeling by its interface - instead of creating a 3D
model by directly editing polygons, the user draws a 2D shape which is converted to 3D automatically by the
application.
Purpose
Many computer users think that traditional 3D modeling programs such as Blender or Maya have a high learning
curve. Novice users often have difficulty creating models in traditional modeling programs without first completing
a lengthy series of tutorials. Sketch-based modeling tools aim to solve this problem by creating a User interface
which is similar to drawing, which most users are familiar with.
Uses
Sketch-based modeling is primarily designed for use by persons with artistic ability, but no experience with 3D
modeling programs. Curvy3D and Teddy, below, have largely been designed for this purpose. However,
sketch-based modeling is also used for other applications. One popular application is rapid modeling of low-detail
objects for use in prototyping and design work.
Operation
There are two main types of sketch-based modeling. In the first, the user draws a shape in the workspace using a
mouse or a tablet. The system then interprets this shape as a 3D object. Users can then alter the object by cutting off
or adding sections. The process of adding sections to a model is generally referred to as overdrawing. The user is
never required to interact directly with the vertices or Nurbs control points.
In the second type of sketch-based modeling, the user draws one or more images on paper, then scans in the images.
The system then automatically converts the sketches to a 3D model.
Examples
Aartform Curvy 3D - http://www.curvy3d.com
Alias Studio Tools
Teddy - http://www-ui.is.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~takeo/teddy/teddy.htm
Paint3D - http://www.paint3d.net
ShapeShop - http://www.shapeshop3d.com
215
Research
A great deal of research is currently being done on sketch-based modeling. A number of papers on this topic are
presented each year at the ACM Siggraph conference. The European graphics conference Eurographics has held four
special conferences on sketch-based modeling:
2007 [1]
2006 [2]
2005 [3]
2004 [4]
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
http:/ / www. eg. org/ sbm/ 2007

Smoothing group
In 3D computer graphics, a smoothing group is a group of polygons in a polygon mesh which should appear to form
a smooth surface. Smoothing groups are useful for describing shapes where some polygons are connected smoothly
to their neighbors, and some are not. For example, in a mesh representing a cylinder, all of the polygons are
smoothly connected except along the edges of the end caps. One could make a smoothing group containing all of the
polygons in one end cap, another containing the polygons in the other end cap, and a last group containing the
polygons in the tube shape between the end caps.
By identifying the polygons in a mesh that should appear to be smoothly connected, smoothing groups allow 3D
modeling software to estimate the surface normal at any point on the mesh, by averaging the surface normals or
vertex normals in the mesh data that describes the mesh. The software can use this data to determine how light
interacts with the model. If each polygon lies in a plane, the software could calculate a polygon's surface normal by
calculating the normal of the polygon's plane, meaning this data would not have to be stored in the mesh. Thus, early
3D modeling software like 3D Studio Max DOS used smoothing groups as a way to avoid having to store accurate
vertex normals for each vertex of the mesh, as a strategy for computer representation of surfaces.
References
216
Soft body dynamics
Soft body dynamics

Soft body dynamics is a field of computer graphics that focuses on visually realistic physical simulations of the
motion and properties of deformable objects (or soft bodies). The applications are mostly in video games and film.
Unlike in simulation of rigid bodies, the shape of soft bodies can change, meaning that the relative distance of two
points on the object is not fixed. While the relative distances of points are not fixed, the body is expected to retain its
shape to some degree (unlike a fluid). The scope of soft body dynamics is quite broad, including simulation of soft
organic materials such as muscle, fat, hair and vegetation, as well as other deformable materials such as clothing and
fabric. Generally, these methods only provide visually plausible emulations rather than accurate
scientific/engineering simulations, though there is some crossover with scientific methods, particularly in the case of
finite element simulations. Several physics engines currently provide software for soft-body simulation.
Deformable solids
The simulation of volumetric solid soft bodies can be realised by using a variety of approaches.
Spring/mass models
In this approach, the body is modeled as a set of point masses (nodes)
connected by ideal weightless elastic springs obeying some variant of
Hooke's law. The nodes may either derive from the edges of a
two-dimensional polygonal mesh representation of the surface of the
Two nodes as mass points connected by a parallel
object, or from a three-dimensional network of nodes and edges
circuit of a spring and a damper.
modeling the internal structure of the object (or even a
one-dimensional system of links, if for example a rope or hair strand is being simulated). Additional springs between
nodes can be added, or the force law of the springs modified, to achieve desired effects. Applying Newton's second
law to the point masses including the forces applied by the springs and any external forces (due to contact, gravity,
air resistance, wind, and so on) gives a system of differential equations for the motion of the nodes, which is solved
by standard numerical schemes for solving ODEs. Rendering of a three-dimensional mass-spring lattice is often done
using free-form deformation, in which the rendered mesh is embedded in the lattice and distorted to conform to the
shape of the lattice as it evolves. Assuming all point masses equal to zero one can obtain the Stretched grid method
aimed at several engineering problems solution relative to the elastic grid behavior.
Finite element simulation

This is a more physically accurate approach, which uses the widely used finite element method to solve the partial
differential equations which govern the dynamics of an elastic material. The body is modeled as a three-dimensional
elastic continuum by breaking it into a large number of solid elements which fit together, and solving for the stresses
and strains in each element using a model of the material. The elements are typically tetrahedral, the nodes being the
vertices of the tetrahedra (relatively simple methods exist to tetrahedralize a three dimensional region bounded by a
polygon mesh into tetrahedra, similarly to how a two-dimensional polygon may be triangulated into triangles). The
strain (which measures the local deformation of the points of the material from their rest state) is quantified by the
strain tensor . The stress (which measures the local forces per-unit area in all directions acting on the material) is
quantified by the Cauchy stress tensor . Given the current local strain, the local stress can be computed via the
generalized form of Hooke's law:
where
is the "elasticity tensor" which encodes the material
properties (parametrized in linear elasticity for an isotropic material by the Poisson ratio and Young's modulus).
The equation of motion of the element nodes is obtained by integrating the stress field over each element and relating
this, via Newton's second law, to the node accelerations.
217
Soft body dynamics

Pixelux (developers of the Digital Molecular Matter system) use a finite-element-based approach for their soft
bodies, using a tetrahedral mesh and converting the stress tensor directly into node forces. Rendering is done via a
form of free-form deformation.
Energy minimization methods

This approach is motivated by variational principles and the physics of surfaces, which dictate that a constrained
surface will assume the shape which minimizes the total energy of deformation (analogous to a soap bubble).
Expressing the energy of a surface in terms of its local deformation (the energy is due to a combination of stretching
and bending), the local force on the surface is given by differentiating the energy with respect to position, yielding an
equation of motion which can be solved in the standard ways.
Shape matching
In this scheme, penalty forces or constraints are applied to the model to drive it towards its original shape (i.e. the
material behaves as if it has shape memory). To conserve momentum the rotation of the body must be estimated
properly, for example via polar decomposition. To approximate finite element simulation, shape matching can be
applied to three dimensional lattices and multiple shape matching constraints blended.
Rigid-body based deformation

Deformation can also be handled by a traditional rigid-body physics engine, modeling the soft-body motion using a
network of multiple rigid bodies connected by constraints, and using (for example) matrix-palette skinning to
generate a surface mesh for rendering. This is the approach used for deformable objects in Havok Destruction.
Cloth simulation
In the context of computer graphics, cloth simulation refers to the simulation of soft bodies in the form of two
dimensional continuum elastic membranes, that is, for this purpose, the actual structure of real cloth on the yarn level
can be ignored (though modeling cloth on the yarn level has been tried). Via rendering effects, this can produce a
visually plausible emulation of textiles and clothing, used in a variety of contexts in video games, animation, and
film. It can also be used to simulate two dimensional sheets of materials other than textiles, such as deformable metal
panels or vegetation. In video games it is often used to enhance the realism of clothed characters, which otherwise
would be entirely animated.
Cloth simulators are generally based on mass-spring models, but a distinction must be made between force-based
and position-based solvers.
Force-based cloth
The mass-spring model (obtained from a polygonal mesh representation of the cloth) determines the internal spring
forces acting on the nodes at each timestep (in combination with gravity and applied forces). Newton's second law
gives equations of motion which can be solved via standard ODE solvers. To create high resolution cloth with a
realistic stiffness is not possible however with simple explicit solvers (such as forward Euler integration), unless the
timestep is made too small for interactive applications (since as is well known, explicit integrators are numerically
unstable for sufficiently stiff systems). Therefore implicit solvers must be used, requiring solution of a large sparse
matrix system (via e.g. the conjugate gradient method), which itself may also be difficult to achieve at interactive
frame rates. An alternative is to use an explicit method with low stiffness, with ad hoc methods to avoid instability
and excessive stretching (e.g. strain limiting corrections).
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Soft body dynamics
Position-based dynamics
To avoid needing to do an expensive implicit solution of a system of ODEs, many real-time cloth simulators (notably
PhysX, Havok Cloth, and Maya nCloth) use position based dynamics (PBD), an approach based on constraint
relaxation. The mass-spring model is converted into a system of constraints, which demands that the distance
between the connected nodes be equal to the initial distance. This system is solved sequentially and iteratively, by
directly moving nodes to satisfy each constraint, until sufficiently stiff cloth is obtained. This is similar to a
Gauss-Seidel solution of the implicit matrix system for the mass-spring model. Care must be taken though to solve
the constraints in the same sequence each timestep, to avoid spurious oscillations, and to make sure that the
constraints do not violate linear and angular momentum conservation. Additional position constraints can be applied,
for example to keep the nodes within desired regions of space (sufficiently close to an animated model for example),
or to maintain the body's overall shape via shape matching.
Collision detection for deformable objects

Realistic interaction of simulated soft objects with their environment may be important for obtaining visually
realistic results. Cloth self-intersection is important in some applications for acceptably realistic simulated garments.
This is challenging to achieve at interactive frame rates, particularly in the case of detecting and resolving self
collisions and mutual collisions between two or more deformable objects.
Collision detection may be discrete/a posteriori (meaning objects are advanced in time through a pre-determined
interval, and then any penetrations detected and resolved), or continuous/a priori (objects are advanced only until a
collision occurs, and the collision is handled before proceeding). The former is easier to implement and faster, but
leads to failure to detect collisions (or detection of spurious collisions) if objects move fast enough. Real-time
systems generally have to use discrete collision detection, with other ad hoc ways to avoid failing to detect
collisions.
Detection of collisions between cloth and environmental objects with a well defined "inside" is straightforward since
the system can detect unambiguously whether the cloth mesh vertices and faces are intersecting the body and resolve
them accordingly. If a well defined "inside" does not exist (e.g. in the case of collision with a mesh which does not
form a closed boundary), an "inside" may be constructed via extrusion. Mutual- or self-collisions of soft bodies
defined by tetrahedra is straightforward, since it reduces to detection of collisions between solid tetrahedra.
However, detection of collisions between two polygonal cloths (or collision of a cloth with itself) via discrete
collision detection is much more difficult, since there is no unambiguous way to locally detect after a timestep
whether a cloth node which has penetrated is on the "wrong" side or not. Solutions involve either using the history of
the cloth motion to determine if an intersection event has occurred, or doing a global analysis of the cloth state to
detect and resolve self-intersections. Pixar has presented a method which uses a global topological analysis of mesh
intersections in configuration space to detect and resolve self-interpenetration of cloth. Currently, this is generally
too computationally expensive for real-time cloth systems.
To do collision detection efficiently, primitives which are certainly not colliding must be identified as soon as
possible and discarded from consideration to avoid wasting time. To do this, some form of spatial subdivision
scheme is essential, to avoid a brute force test of
primitive collisions. Approaches used include:
Bounding volume hierarchies (AABB trees, OBB trees, sphere trees)
Grids, either uniform (using hashing for memory efficiency) or hierarchical (e.g. Octree, kd-tree)
Coherence-exploiting schemes, such as sweep and prune with insertion sort, or tree-tree collisions with front
tracking.
Hybrid methods involving a combination of various of these schemes, e.g. a coarse AABB tree plus
sweep-and-prune with coherence between colliding leaves.
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Soft body dynamics
Other applications
Other effects which may be simulated via the methods of soft-body dynamics are:
Destructible materials: fracture of brittle solids, cutting of soft bodies, and tearing of cloth. The finite element
method is especially suited to modelling fracture as it includes a realistic model of the distribution of internal
stresses in the material, which physically is what determines when fracture occurs, according to fracture
mechanics.
Plasticity (permanent deformation) and melting
Simulated hair, fur, and feathers
Simulated organs for biomedical applications
Simulating fluids in the context of computer graphics would not normally be considered soft-body dynamics, which
is usually restricted to mean simulation of materials which have a tendency to retain their shape and form. In
contrast, a fluid assumes the shape of whatever vessel contains it, as the particles are bound together by relatively
weak forces.
Engines supporting soft body physics

Bullet 2.69
Carbon, by Numerion Software

CryEngine 3 (http://mycryengine.com)
Digital Molecular Matter
Havok Cloth
Maya nCloth
OpenTissue - (http://www.opentissue.org)
OpenCloth - (http://code.google.com/p/opencloth) - A collection of source codes implementing cloth
simulation algorithms as well as soft body dynamics in OpenGL.
Physics Abstraction Layer (PAL) - Uniform API, supports multiple physics engines.
PhysX
Phyz (Dax Phyz)
Rigs of Rods - (http://www.rigsofrods.com [1]) - Predecessor of BeamNG.
SOFA (Simulation Open Framework Architecture)
Step
Syflex (Cloth simulator)
Unreal Engine 3
BeamNG - (http://beamng.com)
References
[1] http:/ / www. rigsofrods. com/
External links
"The Animation of Natural Phenomena", CMU course on physically based animation, including deformable
bodies (http://graphics.cs.cmu.edu/courses/15-869/)
Soft body dynamics video example (http://youtube.com/watch?v=gbXCGpuJI7w)
Introductory article (http://vizproto.prism.asu.edu/classes/sp03/wyman_g/Soft Body Dynamics.
htm)Wikipedia:Link rot
Article by Thomas Jakobsen which explains the basics of the PBD method (http://www.teknikus.dk/tj/
gdc2001.htm)
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Solid modeling
Solid modeling
Solid modeling (or modelling) is a consistent set of principles for
mathematical and computer modeling of three-dimensional solids.
Solid modeling is distinguished from related areas of geometric
modeling and computer graphics by its emphasis on physical fidelity.
Together, the principles of geometric and solid modeling form the
foundation of computer-aided design and in general support the
creation, exchange, visualization, animation, interrogation, and
annotation of digital models of physical objects.
Overview
The use of solid modeling techniques allows for the automation of
several difficult engineering calculations that are carried out as a part
of the design process. Simulation, planning, and verification of
processes such as machining and assembly were one of the main
catalysts for the development of solid modeling. More recently, the
range of supported manufacturing applications has been greatly
The geometry in solid modeling is fully described
expanded to include sheet metal manufacturing, injection molding,
in 3D space; objects can be viewed from any
welding, pipe routing etc. Beyond traditional manufacturing, solid
angle.
modeling techniques serve as the foundation for rapid prototyping,
digital data archival and reverse engineering by reconstructing solids
from sampled points on physical objects, mechanical analysis using finite elements, motion planning and NC path
verification, kinematic and dynamic analysis of mechanisms, and so on. A central problem in all these applications is
the ability to effectively represent and manipulate three-dimensional geometry in a fashion that is consistent with the
physical behavior of real artifacts. Solid modeling research and development has effectively addressed many of these
issues, and continues to be a central focus of computer-aided engineering.
Mathematical foundations
The notion of solid modeling as practiced today relies on the specific need for informational completeness in
mechanical geometric modeling systems, in the sense that any computer model should support all geometric queries
that may be asked of its corresponding physical object. The requirement implicitly recognizes the possibility of
several computer representations of the same physical object as long as any two such representations are consistent.
It is impossible to computationally verify informational completeness of a representation unless the notion of a
physical object is defined in terms of computable mathematical properties and independent of any particular
representation. Such reasoning led to the development of the modeling paradigm that has shaped the field of solid
modeling as we know it today.
All manufactured components have finite size and well behaved boundaries, so initially the focus was on
mathematically modeling rigid parts made of homogeneous isotropic material that could be added or removed. These
postulated properties can be translated into properties of subsets of three-dimensional Euclidean space. The two
common approaches to define solidity rely on point-set topology and algebraic topology respectively. Both models
specify how solids can be built from simple pieces or cells.
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Solid modeling
According to the continuum point-set

model of solidity, all the points of any
X 3 can be classified according to
their neighborhoods with respect to X
as interior, exterior, or boundary
points. Assuming 3 is endowed with
the typical Euclidean metric, a
Regularization of a 2-d set by taking the closure of its interior
neighborhood of a point p X takes the
form of an open ball. For X to be
considered solid, every neighborhood of any p X must be consistently three dimensional; points with lower
dimensional neighborhoods indicate a lack of solidity. Dimensional homogeneity of neighborhoods is guaranteed for
the class of closed regular sets, defined as sets equal to the closure of their interior. Any X 3 can be turned into a
closed regular set or regularized by taking the closure of its interior, and thus the modeling space of solids is
mathematically defined to be the space of closed regular subsets of 3 (by the Heine-Borel theorem it is implied that
all solids are compact sets). In addition, solids are required to be closed under the Boolean operations of set union,
intersection, and difference (to guarantee solidity after material addition and removal). Applying the standard
Boolean operations to closed regular sets may not produce a closed regular set, but this problem can be solved by
regularizing the result of applying the standard Boolean operations. The regularized set operations are denoted ,
, and .
The combinatorial characterization of a set X 3 as a solid involves representing X as an orientable cell complex so
that the cells provide finite spatial addresses for points in an otherwise innumerable continuum. The class of
semi-analytic bounded subsets of Euclidean space is closed under Boolean operations (standard and regularized) and
exhibits the additional property that every semi-analytic set can be stratified into a collection of disjoint cells of
dimensions 0,1,2,3. A triangulation of a semi-analytic set into a collection of points, line segments, triangular faces,
and tetrahedral elements is an example of a stratification that is commonly used. The combinatorial model of solidity
is then summarized by saying that in addition to being semi-analytic bounded subsets, solids are three-dimensional
topological polyhedra, specifically three-dimensional orientable manifolds with boundary. In particular this implies
the Euler characteristic of the combinatorial boundary of the polyhedron is 2. The combinatorial manifold model of
solidity also guarantees the boundary of a solid separates space into exactly two components as a consequence of the
Jordan-Brouwer theorem, thus eliminating sets with non-manifold neighborhoods that are deemed impossible to
manufacture.
The point-set and combinatorial models of solids are entirely consistent with each other, can be used
interchangeably, relying on continuum or combinatorial properties as needed, and can be extended to n dimensions.
The key property that facilitates this consistency is that the class of closed regular subsets of n coincides precisely
with homogeneously n-dimensional topological polyhedra. Therefore every n-dimensional solid may be
unambiguously represented by its boundary and the boundary has the combinatorial structure of an n1-dimensional
polyhedron having homogeneously n1-dimensional neighborhoods.
Solid representation schemes

Based on assumed mathematical properties, any scheme of representing solids is a method for capturing information
about the class of semi-analytic subsets of Euclidean space. This means all representations are different ways of
organizing the same geometric and topological data in the form of a data structure. All representation schemes are
organized in terms of a finite number of operations on a set of primitives. Therefore the modeling space of any
particular representation is finite, and any single representation scheme may not completely suffice to represent all
types of solids. For example, solids defined via combinations of regularized boolean operations cannot necessarily be
represented as the sweep of a primitive moving according to a space trajectory, except in very simple cases. This
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Solid modeling
forces modern geometric modeling systems to maintain several representation schemes of solids and also facilitate
efficient conversion between representation schemes.
Below is a list of common techniques used to create or represent solid models. Modern modeling software may use a
combination of these schemes to represent a solid.
Parameterized primitive instancing

This scheme is based on the notion of families of objects, each member of a family distinguishable from the other by
a few parameters. Each object family is called a generic primitive, and individual objects within a family are called
primitive instances. For example a family of bolts is a generic primitive, and a single bolt specified by a particular
set of parameters is a primitive instance. The distinguishing characteristic of pure parameterized instancing schemes
is the lack of means for combining instances to create new structures which represent new and more complex
objects. The other main drawback of this scheme is the difficulty of writing algorithms for computing properties of
represented solids. A considerable amount of family-specific information must be built into the algorithms and
therefore each generic primitive must be treated as a special case, allowing no uniform overall treatment.
Spatial occupancy enumeration

This scheme is essentially a list of spatial cells occupied by the solid. The cells, also called voxels are cubes of a
fixed size and are arranged in a fixed spatial grid (other polyhedral arrangements are also possible but cubes are the
simplest). Each cell may be represented by the coordinates of a single point, such as the cell's centroid. Usually a
specific scanning order is imposed and the corresponding ordered set of coordinates is called a spatial array. Spatial
arrays are unambiguous and unique solid representations but are too verbose for use as 'master' or definitional
representations. They can, however, represent coarse approximations of parts and can be used to improve the
performance of geometric algorithms, especially when used in conjunction with other representations such as
constructive solid geometry.
Cell decomposition
This scheme follows from the combinatoric (algebraic topological) descriptions of solids detailed above. A solid can
be represented by its decomposition into several cells. Spatial occupancy enumeration schemes are a particular case
of cell decompositions where all the cells are cubical and lie in a regular grid. Cell decompositions provide
convenient ways for computing certain topological properties of solids such as its connectedness (number of pieces)
and genus (number of holes). Cell decompositions in the form of triangulations are the representations used in 3d
finite elements for the numerical solution of partial differential equations. Other cell decompositions such as a
Whitney regular stratification or Morse decompositions may be used for applications in robot motion planning.
Boundary representation
In this scheme a solid is represented by the cellular decomposition of its boundary. Since the boundaries of solids
have the distinguishing property that they separate space into regions defined by the interior of the solid and the
complementary exterior according to the Jordan-Brouwer theorem discussed above, every point in space can
unambiguously be tested against the solid by testing the point against the boundary of the solid. Recall that ability to
test every point in the solid provides a guarantee of solidity. Using ray casting it is possible to count the number of
intersections of a cast ray against the boundary of the solid. Even number of intersections correspond to exterior
points, and odd number of intersections correspond to interior points. The assumption of boundaries as manifold cell
complexes forces any boundary representation to obey disjointedness of distinct primitives, i.e. there are no
self-intersections that cause non-manifold points. In particular, the manifoldness condition implies all pairs of
vertices are disjoint, pairs of edges are either disjoint or intersect at one vertex, and pairs of faces are disjoint or
intersect at a common edge. Several data structures that are combinatorial maps have been developed to store
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Solid modeling
224
boundary representations of solids. In addition to planar faces, modern systems provide the ability to store quadrics
and NURBS surfaces as a part of the boundary representation. Boundary representations have evolved into a
ubiquitous representation scheme of solids in most commercial geometric modelers because of their flexibility in
representing solids exhibiting a high level of geometric complexity.

Constructive solid geometry (CSG) connotes a family of schemes for representing rigid solids as Boolean
constructions or combinations of primitives via the regularized set operations discussed above. CSG and boundary
representations are currently the most important representation schemes for solids. CSG representations take the
form of ordered binary trees where non-terminal nodes represent either rigid transformations (orientation preserving
isometries) or regularized set operations. Terminal nodes are primitive leaves that represent closed regular sets. The
semantics of CSG representations is clear. Each subtree represents a set resulting from applying the indicated
transformations/regularized set operations on the set represented by the primitive leaves of the subtree. CSG
representations are particularly useful for capturing design intent in the form of features corresponding to material
addition or removal (bosses, holes, pockets etc.). The attractive properties of CSG include conciseness, guaranteed
validity of solids, computationally convenient Boolean algebraic properties, and natural control of a solid's shape in
terms of high level parameters defining the solid's primitives and their positions and orientations. The relatively
simple data structure and elegant recursive algorithms have further contributed to the popularity of CSG.
Sweeping
The basic notion embodied in sweeping schemes is simple. A set moving through space may trace or sweep out
volume (a solid) that may be represented by the moving set and its trajectory. Such a representation is important in
the context of applications such as detecting the material removed from a cutter as it moves along a specified
trajectory, computing dynamic interference of two solids undergoing relative motion, motion planning, and even in
computer graphics applications such as tracing the motions of a brush moved on a canvas. Most commercial CAD
systems provide (limited) functionality for constructing swept solids mostly in the form of a two dimensional cross
section moving on a space trajectory transversal to the section. However, current research has shown several
approximations of three dimensional shapes moving across one parameter, and even multi-parameter motions.
Implicit representation
A very general method of defining a set of points X is to specify a predicate that can be evaluated at any point in
space. In other words, X is defined implicitly to consist of all the points that satisfy the condition specified by the
predicate. The simplest form of a predicate is the condition on the sign of a real valued function resulting in the
familiar representation of sets by equalities and inequalities. For example if
the
conditions
, and
represent respectively a plane and two open linear halfspaces.
More complex functional primitives may be defined by boolean combinations of simpler predicates. Furthermore,
the theory of R-functions allow conversions of such representations into a single function inequality for any closed
semi analytic set. Such a representation can be converted to a boundary representation using polygonization
algorithms, for example, the marching cubes algorithm.
Parametric and feature-based modeling

Features are defined to be parametric shapes associated with attributes such as intrinsic geometric parameters
(length, width, depth etc.), position and orientation, geometric tolerances, material properties, and references to other
features. Features also provide access to related production processes and resource models. Thus, features have a
semantically higher level than primitive closed regular sets. Features are generally expected to form a basis for
linking CAD with downstream manufacturing applications, and also for organizing databases for design data reuse.
Solid modeling
History of solid modelers

The historical development of solid modelers has to be seen in context of the whole history of CAD, the key
milestones being the development of the research system BUILD followed by its commercial spin-off Romulus
which went on to influence the development of Parasolid, ACIS and Solid Modeling Solutions. Other contributions
came from Mntyl, with his GWB and from the GPM project which contributed, among other things, hybrid
modeling techniques at the beginning of the 1980s. This is also when the Programming Language of Solid Modeling
PLaSM was conceived at the University of Rome.
Computer-aided design
The modeling of solids is only the minimum requirement of a CAD systems capabilities. Solid modelers have
become commonplace in engineering departments in the last ten yearsWikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and
numbers#Chronological items due to faster computers and competitive software pricing. Solid modeling software
creates a virtual 3D representation of components for machine design and analysis. A typical graphical user interface
includes programmable macros, keyboard shortcuts and dynamic model manipulation. The ability to dynamically
re-orient the model, in real-time shaded 3-D, is emphasized and helps the designer maintain a mental 3-D image.
A solid part model generally consists of a group of features, added one at a time, until the model is complete.
Engineering solid models are built mostly with sketcher-based features; 2-D sketches that are swept along a path to
become 3-D. These may be cuts, or extrusions for example. Design work on components is usually done within the
context of the whole product using assembly modeling methods. An assembly model incorporates references to
individual part models that comprise the product.
Another type of modeling technique is 'surfacing' (Freeform surface modeling). Here, surfaces are defined, trimmed
and merged, and filled to make solid. The surfaces are usually defined with datum curves in space and a variety of
complex commands. Surfacing is more difficult, but better applicable to some manufacturing techniques, like
injection molding. Solid models for injection molded parts usually have both surfacing and sketcher based features.
Engineering drawings can be created semi-automatically and reference the solid models.
Parametric modeling
Parametric modeling uses parameters to define a model (dimensions, for example). Examples of parameters are:
dimensions used to create model features, material density, formulas to describe swept features, imported data (that
describe a reference surface, for example). The parameter may be modified later, and the model will update to reflect
the modification. Typically, there is a relationship between parts, assemblies, and drawings. A part consists of
multiple features, and an assembly consists of multiple parts. Drawings can be made from either parts or assemblies.
Example: A shaft is created by extruding a circle 100mm. A hub is assembled to the end of the shaft. Later, the shaft
is modified to be 200mm long (click on the shaft, select the length dimension, modify to 200). When the model is
updated the shaft will be 200mm long, the hub will relocate to the end of the shaft to which it was assembled, and
the engineering drawings and mass properties will reflect all changes automatically.
Related to parameters, but slightly different are constraints. Constraints are relationships between entities that make
up a particular shape. For a window, the sides might be defined as being parallel, and of the same length. Parametric
modeling is obvious and intuitive. But for the first three decades of CAD this was not the case. Modification meant
re-draw, or add a new cut or protrusion on top of old ones. Dimensions on engineering drawings were created,
instead of shown. Parametric modeling is very powerful, but requires more skill in model creation. A complicated
model for an injection molded part may have a thousand features, and modifying an early feature may cause later
features to fail. Skillfully created parametric models are easier to maintain and modify. Parametric modeling also
lends itself to data re-use. A whole family of capscrews can be contained in one model, for example.
225
Solid modeling
226
Medical solid modeling

Modern computed axial tomography and magnetic resonance imaging scanners can be used to create solid models of
internal body features, so-called volume rendering. Optical 3D scanners can be used to create point clouds or
polygon mesh models of external body features.
Uses of medical solid modeling;
Visualization
Visualization of specific body tissues (just blood vessels and tumor, for example)
Designing prosthetics, orthotics, and other medical and dental devices (this is sometimes called mass
customization)
Creating polygon mesh models for rapid prototyping (to aid surgeons preparing for difficult surgeries, for
example)
Combining polygon mesh models with CAD solid modeling (design of hip replacement parts, for example)
Computational analysis of complex biological processes, e.g. air flow, blood flow
Computational simulation of new medical devices and implants in vivo
If the use goes beyond visualization of the scan data, processes like image segmentation and image-based meshing
will be necessary to generate an accurate and realistic geometrical description of the scan data.
Engineering
Because CAD programs running on
computers understand the true
geometry comprising complex shapes,
many attributes of/for a 3D solid, such
as its center of gravity, volume, and
mass, can be quickly calculated. For
instance, the cube shown at the top of
this article measures 8.4mm from flat
to flat. Despite its many radii and the
shallow pyramid on each of its six
faces, its properties are readily
calculated for the designer, as shown in
the screenshot at right.
Mass properties window of a model in Cobalt
References
External links
sgCore C++/C# library (http://www.geometros.com)
The Solid Modeling Association (http://solidmodeling.org/)
Sparse voxel octree
227
Sparse voxel octree

A sparse voxel octree (SVO) is a 3D computer graphics rendering technique using a raycasting or sometimes a ray
tracing approach into an octree data representation.
The technique varies somewhat, but generally relies on generating and processing the hull of points (sparse voxels)
which are visible or may be visible, given the resolution and size of the screen. The main points of the technique are:
First, only pixels to be actually displayed need to be computed, with the actual screen resolution limiting the level of
voxel detail required, and second, interior voxels voxels fully enclosed by other voxels which are fully opaque
are unnecessary and thus need not be included in the 3D data set. The first point limits the computational cost during
rendering, and the second point limits the amount of 3D voxel data (and thus storage space) required for realistic,
high-resolution digital models and/or environments.
Because it needs only a small subset of the full voxel data a system does not need to process a massive amount of
voxel data at any one time; it can extract data from extremely large data sources of voxels as and when needed. The
basic advantage of octrees is that as a hierarchical data structure they need not be fully explored to their full depth,
and this allows the system to run on current generation computer hardware. In addition, the octree datastructure
permits smoothing of the underlying data, to help with antialiasing.
It is, however, a generally less well developed technique than standard polygon-based rasterisation schemes.
References
Specularity
Specularity is the visual appearance of specular reflections. In
computer graphics, it means the quantity used in three-dimensional
(3D) rendering which represents the amount of specular reflectivity a
surface has. It is a key component in determining the brightness of
specular highlights, along with shininess to determine the size of the
highlights.
It is frequently used in real-time computer graphics where the
mirror-like specular reflection of light from other surfaces is often
ignored (due to the more intensive computations required to calculate
it), and the specular reflection of light directly from point light sources
is modelled as specular highlights.
Specular highlights on a pair of spheres
References
Static mesh
Static mesh
Static meshes are polygon meshes which constitute a major part of map architecture in many game engines,
including Unreal Engine, Source, and Unity. The word "static" refers only to the fact that static meshes can't be
vertex animated, as they can be moved, scaled, or reskinned in realtime.
Static Meshes can create more complex shapes than CSG (the other major part of map architecture) and are faster to
render per triangle.
Characteristics
A Static Mesh contains information about its shape (vertices, edges and sides), a reference to the textures to be used,
and optionally a collision model (see the simple collision section below).
Collision
There are three ways for a Static Mesh to collide:
No collision: a static mesh can be set not to block anything. This is often used for small decoration like grass.
Per-polygon collision (default): individual polygons collide with actors. Each material (i.e. each part of the Static
Mesh using a separate texture) can be set to collide or not independently from the rest. The advantage of this
method is that one part of the Static Mesh can collide while another doesn't (a common example: a tree's trunk
collides, but its leaves don't). The disadvantage is that for complex meshes this can take a lot of processing power.
Simple collision: the static mesh doesn't collide itself, but has built-in blocking volumes that collide instead.
Usually, the blocking volumes will have a simpler shape than the Static Mesh, resulting in faster collision
calculation.
Texturing
Although Static Meshes have built-in information on what textures to use, this can be overridden by adding a new
skin in the Static Mesh's properties. Alternatively, the Static Mesh itself can be modified to use different textures by
default.
Usage
In maps, Static Meshes are very common, as they are used for anything more complex than basic architecture (in
which case CSG is used) or terrain.
Additionally, Static Meshes sometimes represent other objects, including weapon projectiles and destroyed vehicles.
Often after rendered cutscenes in which, for instance, a tank is destroyed, the tank's hull would be added as a static
mesh to the real-game world.
External links
UnrealWiki: Static Mesh [1]
References
[1] http:/ / wiki. beyondunreal. com/ wiki/ Static_Mesh
228
Stereoscopic acuity
Stereoscopic acuity
Stereoscopic acuity, also stereoacuity, is the smallest detectable depth difference that can be seen in binocular
vision.
Specification and measurement

Stereoacuity [1] is most simply explained by considering one of its earliest test: The observer is shown a black peg at
a distance of 6m (=20 feet). A second peg, below it, can be moved back and forth until it is just detectably nearer
than the fixed one. Stereoacuity is this difference in the two positions, converted into an angle of binocular disparity,
i.e., the difference in their binocular parallax.
Conversion to the angle of disparity d is performed by inserting the position difference dz in the formula
d = c a dz/z2
where a is the interocular separation of the observer and z the distance of the fixed peg from the eye. To transfer d
into the usual unit of minutes of arc, a multiplicative constant c is inserted whose value is 3437.75 (1 radian in
arcminutes). In the calculation a, dz and z must be in the same units, say, feet, inches, cm or meters. For the average
interocular distance of 6.5cm, a target distance of 6m and a typical stereoacuity of 0.5 minute of arc, the just
detectable depth interval is 8cm. As targets come closer, this interval gets smaller by the inverse square of the
distance, so that an equivalent detectable depth interval at meter is 0.01cm or the depth of impression of the head
on a coin. These vary small values of normal stereoacuity, expressed in differences of either object distances, or
angle of disparity, makes it a hyperacuity.
Tests of stereoacuity
229
Stereoscopic acuity
Since the two-peg device, named Howard-Dolman after its inventors,[2]
is cumbersome, stereoacuity is usually measured using a stereogram in
which separate panels are shown to each eye by superimposing them in
a stereoscope using prisms or goggles with color or polarizing filters or
alternating occlusion (for a review see [3]). A good procedure is a
chart, analogous to the familiar Snellen visual acuity chart, in which
one letter in each row differs in depth (front or behind) sequentially
Example of a Snellen-like depth test
increasing in difficulty. For children the fly test is ideal: the image of a
fly is transilluminated by polarized light; wearing polarizing glasses the wing appears at a different depth and allows
stereopsis to be demonstrated by trying to pull on it.
Expected performance
There is no equivalent in stereoacuity of the normal 20/20 visual acuity standard. In every case, the numerical score,
even if expressed in disparity angle, depends to some extent on the test being used. Superior observers under ideal
conditions can achieve 0.1 arc min or even better.
The distinction between screening for the presence of stereopsis and a measurement of stereoacuity is valuable. To
ascertain that depth can be seen in a binocular views, a test must be easily administered and not subject to deception.
The random-dot stereogram is used widely for this purpose and has the advantage that for the uninitiated the object
shape is unknown. It is made of random small pattern elements; depth can be created only in multiples of elements
and therefore may not reach the small threshold disparity which is the purpose of stereoacuity measurements.
A population study revealed a surprisingly high incidence of good stereoacuity:.[4] Out of 188 biology students,
97.3% could perform at 2.3 minutes of arc or better.
Factors influencing stereoacuity

Optimum stereoacuity requires that the following mitigating factors be avoided:
Low contrast [5]

Short duration exposures (less than 500 milliseconds) [5]
Fuzzy or closely spaced pattern elements.[6]
Uncorrected or unequally corrected refractive errors (monovision)
Perceptual training in stereopsis

More than other such visual capabilities, the limits of stereopsis depend on the observer's familiarity with the
situation. Stereo thresholds almost always improve, often several-fold, with training [7] and involve perceptual
factors, differing in their particulars for each test.[8] This is most vividly evident in the time it takes to "solve" a
random-dot stereogram rapidly decreases between the first exposure and subsequent views [9]
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Howard IP, Rogers BJ (2002) Seeing in Depth. Vol. 1I. Chapter 19 Porteous, Toronto
Howard HJ (1919) A test for the judgment of distance. Amer. J. Ophthalmol., 2, 656-675
http:/ / rspb. royalsocietypublishing. org/ content/ early/ 2011/ 04/ 09/ rspb. 2010. 2777. long
Coutant BE(1993) Population distribution of stereoscopic ability. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt, 13, 3-7.
Westheimer G, Pettet MW (1990) Contrast and duration of exposure differentially affect vernier and stereoscopic acuity. Proc R Soc Lond B
Biol Sci, 241, 42-6
[6] The Ferrier Lecture (1994) Seeing depth with two eyes: stereopsis. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, 257, 205-14
[7] Fendick M, Westheimer G. (1983) Effects of practice and the separation of test targets on foveal and peripheral stereoacuity. Vision Research,
23, 145-50
230
Stereoscopic acuity
231
[8] McKee SP, Taylor DG (2010) The precision of binocular and monocular depth judgments in natural settings. J. Vision, 10, 5
[9] Harwerth RS, Rawlings SC (1977) Viewing time and stereoscopic threshold with random-dot stereograms. Am J Optom Physiol Opt, 54,
452-457.
External links
Review of 3D displays and stereo vision (http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/278/1716/2241.
long)
Subdivision surface
A subdivision surface, in the field of 3D computer graphics, is a method of representing a smooth surface via the
specification of a coarser piecewise linear polygon mesh. The smooth surface can be calculated from the coarse mesh
as the limit of a recursive process of subdividing each polygonal face into smaller faces that better approximate the
smooth surface.
Overview
Subdivision surfaces are defined recursively. The process starts with a
given polygonal mesh. A refinement scheme is then applied to this
mesh. This process takes that mesh and subdivides it, creating new
vertices and new faces. The positions of the new vertices in the mesh
are computed based on the positions of nearby old vertices. In some
refinement schemes, the positions of old vertices might also be altered
(possibly based on the positions of new vertices).
This process produces a denser mesh than the original one, containing
more polygonal faces. This resulting mesh can be passed through the
same refinement scheme again and so on.
The limit subdivision surface is the surface produced from this process
being iteratively applied infinitely many times. In practical use
however, this algorithm is only applied a limited number of times. The
limit surface can also be calculated directly for most subdivision
surfaces using the technique of Jos Stam, which eliminates the need for
recursive refinement. Subdivision surfaces and T-Splines are
competing technologies. Mathematically, subdivision surfaces are
spline surfaces with singularities.
First three steps of CatmullClark subdivision of

a cube with subdivision surface below
Refinement schemes
Subdivision surface refinement schemes can be broadly classified into two categories: interpolating and
approximating. Interpolating schemes are required to match the original position of vertices in the original mesh.
Approximating schemes are not; they can and will adjust these positions as needed. In general, approximating
schemes have greater smoothness, but editing applications that allow users to set exact surface constraints require an
optimization step. This is analogous to spline surfaces and curves, where Bzier splines are required to interpolate
certain control points (namely the two end-points), while B-splines are not.
There is another division in subdivision surface schemes as well, the type of polygon that they operate on. Some
function for quadrilaterals (quads), while others operate on triangles.
Subdivision surface
Approximating schemes
Approximating means that the limit surfaces approximate the initial meshes and that after subdivision, the newly
generated control points are not in the limit surfaces. Examples of approximating subdivision schemes are:
CatmullClark (1978) generalized bi-cubic uniform B-spline to produce their subdivision scheme. For arbitrary
initial meshes, this scheme generates limit surfaces that are C2 continuous everywhere except at extraordinary
vertices where they are C1 continuous (Peters and Reif 1998).
DooSabin - The second subdivision scheme was developed by Doo and Sabin (1978) who successfully extended
Chaikin's corner-cutting method for curves to surfaces. They used the analytical expression of bi-quadratic
uniform B-spline surface to generate their subdivision procedure to produce C1 limit surfaces with arbitrary
topology for arbitrary initial meshes.
Loop, Triangles - Loop (1987) proposed his subdivision scheme based on a quartic box-spline of six direction
vectors to provide a rule to generate C2 continuous limit surfaces everywhere except at extraordinary vertices
where they are C1 continuous.
Mid-Edge subdivision scheme - The mid-edge subdivision scheme was proposed independently by PetersReif
(1997) and HabibWarren (1999). The former used the midpoint of each edge to build the new mesh. The latter
used a four-directional box spline to build the scheme. This scheme generates C1 continuous limit surfaces on
initial meshes with arbitrary topology.
3 subdivision scheme - This scheme has been developed by Kobbelt (2000): it handles arbitrary triangular
meshes, it is C2 continuous everywhere except at extraordinary vertices where it is C1 continuous and it offers a
natural adaptive refinement when required. It exhibits at least two specificities: it is a Dual scheme for triangle
meshes and it has a slower refinement rate than primal ones.
Interpolating schemes
After subdivision, the control points of the original mesh and the new generated control points are interpolated on the
limit surface. The earliest work was the butterfly scheme by Dyn, Levin and Gregory (1990), who extended the
four-point interpolatory subdivision scheme for curves to a subdivision scheme for surface. Zorin, Schrder and
Sweldens (1996) noticed that the butterfly scheme cannot generate smooth surfaces for irregular triangle meshes and
thus modified this scheme. Kobbelt (1996) further generalized the four-point interpolatory subdivision scheme for
curves to the tensor product subdivision scheme for surfaces.
Butterfly, Triangles - named after the scheme's shape
Midedge, Quads
Kobbelt, Quads - a variational subdivision method that tries to overcome uniform subdivision drawbacks
Editing a subdivision surface

Subdivision surfaces can be naturally edited at different levels of subdivision. Starting with basic shapes you can use
binary operators to create the correct topology. Then edit the coarse mesh to create the basic shape, then edit the
offsets for the next subdivision step, then repeat this at finer and finer levels. You can always see how your edits
affect the limit surface via GPU evaluation of the surface.
A surface designer may also start with a scanned in object or one created from a NURBS surface. The same basic
optimization algorithms are used to create a coarse base mesh with the correct topology and then add details at each
level so that the object may be edited at different levels. These types of surfaces may be difficult to work with
because the base mesh does not have control points in the locations that a human designer would place them. With a
scanned object this surface is easier to work with than a raw triangle mesh, but a NURBS object probably had well
laid out control points which behave less intuitively after the conversion than before.
232
Subdivision surface
Key developments
1978: Subdivision surfaces were discovered simultaneously by Edwin Catmull and Jim Clark (see CatmullClark
subdivision surface). In the same year, Daniel Doo and Malcom Sabin published a paper building on this work
(see DooSabin subdivision surface.)
1995: Ulrich Reif characterized subdivision surfaces near extraordinary vertices by treating them as splines with
singularities.
1998: Jos Stam contributed a method for exact evaluation for CatmullClark and Loop subdivision surfaces under
arbitrary parameter values.[3]
References
Peters, J.; Reif, U. (October 1997). "The simplest subdivision scheme for smoothing polyhedra". ACM
Transactions on Graphics 16 (4): 420431. doi: 10.1145/263834.263851 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/263834.
263851).
Habib, A.; Warren, J. (May 1999). "Edge and vertex insertion for a class C1 of subdivision surfaces". Computer
Aided Geometric Design 16 (4): 223247. doi: 10.1016/S0167-8396(98)00045-4 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
S0167-8396(98)00045-4).
Kobbelt, L. (2000). "3-subdivision". Proceedings of the 27th annual conference on Computer graphics and
interactive techniques - SIGGRAPH '00. pp.103112. doi: 10.1145/344779.344835 (http://dx.doi.org/10.
1145/344779.344835). ISBN1-58113-208-5.
External links
Resources about Subdvisions (http://www.subdivision.org)
Geri's Game (http://www.pixar.com/shorts/gg/theater/index.html) : Oscar winning animation by Pixar
completed in 1997 that introduced subdivision surfaces (along with cloth simulation)
Subdivision for Modeling and Animation (http://www.multires.caltech.edu/pubs/sig99notes.pdf) tutorial,
SIGGRAPH 1999 course notes
Subdivision for Modeling and Animation (http://www.mrl.nyu.edu/dzorin/sig00course/) tutorial,
SIGGRAPH 2000 course notes
Subdivision of Surface and Volumetric Meshes (http://www.hakenberg.de/subdivision/ultimate_consumer.
htm), software to perform subdivision using the most popular schemes
Surface Subdivision Methods in CGAL, the Computational Geometry Algorithms Library (http://www.cgal.
org/Pkg/SurfaceSubdivisionMethods3)
Surface and Volumetric Subdivision Meshes, hierarchical/multiresolution data structures in CGoGN (http://
cgogn.unistra.fr)
Modified Butterfly method implementation in C++ (https://bitbucket.org/rukletsov/b)
233
Supinfocom
234
Supinfocom
Supinfocom
Established 1988
Location
Website
Valenciennes, Arles
Official website
Pune
[1]
Supinfocom (cole SUPrieure d'INFOrmatique de COMmunication, roughly University of Communication

Science) is a computer graphics university with campuses in Valenciennes, Arles (France) and Pune (India).
Founded in 1988 in Valenciennes, the school offers a five-year course leading to a diploma of digital direction
(certified Level I). A second campus in Arles opened in 2000, while a third one opened in 2008 in Pune, India.
In November 2007, the school was ranked #1 worldwide by the American magazine "3D World" with criteria such
as the distribution of student films and prizes in festivals around the world.
Curriculum
The curriculum includes:
Two years of preparatory courses (design and applied art, perspective, film analysis, video, color, 2D animation,
art history, sculpture, communication, English);
Three years of specialization in computer graphics (3D software, screenplay, storyboards, animation,
compositing, 3D production, sound, editing).
The final year of study is devoted to the team-based production of a short film in CG.
Until the class of 2007 entered, there were only two years of specialization courses; there are now three.
External links
Official site of Supinfocom Valenciennes [2]
Official site of DSK Supinfocom Pune [3]
References
[1] http:/ / www. supinfocom. fr
[2] http:/ / supinfocom. rubika-edu. com
[3] http:/ / www. dsksic. com/ animation/
Surface caching
Surface caching
Surface caching is a computer graphics technique pioneered by John Carmack, first used in the computer game
Quake, to apply lightmaps to level geometry. Carmack's technique was to combine lighting information with surface
textures in texture-space when primitives became visible (at the appropriate mipmap level), exploiting temporal
coherence for those calculations. As hardware capable of blended multi-texture rendering (and later pixel shaders)
became more commonplace, the technique became less common, being replaced with screenspace combination of
lightmaps in rendering hardware.
Surface caching contributed greatly to the visual quality of Quake's software rasterized 3D engine on Pentium
microprocessors, which lacked dedicated graphics instructions. [citation needed].
Surface caching could be considered a precursor to the more recent MegaTexture technique in which lighting and
surface decals and other procedural texture effects are combined for rich visuals devoid of unnatural repeating
artifacts.
External links
Quake's Lighting Model: Surface Caching [1] - an in-depth explanation by Michael Abrash
References
[1] http:/ / www. bluesnews. com/ abrash/ chap68. shtml
Surfel
Surfel is an abbreviation of "surface element". In 3D computer graphics, the use of surfels is an alternative to
polygonal modeling. An object is represented by a dense set of points or viewer-facing discs holding lighting
information. Surfels are well suited to modeling dynamic geometry, because there is no need to compute topology
information such as adjacency lists. Common applications are medical scanner data representation, real time
rendering of particle systems, and more generally, rendering surfaces of volumetric data by first extracting the
isosurface.[1]
Notes
[1] H. Pfister, M. Zwicker, J. van Baar, M.Gross, Surfels: Surface Elements as Rendering Primitives, SIGGRAPH 2000. Available from http:/ /
graphics. ethz. ch/ research/ past_projects/ surfels/ surfels/ index. html.
235
Suzanne Award
Suzanne Award
The Suzanne Award is awarded to animators using Blender annually ever since the second Blender conference held
in Amsterdam of 2003. The categories of the Suzanne Awards have changed repeatedly. In the following lists, the
people and works printed in bold were the winners of their particular category for that particular year; the remaining
entries were nominated.
2003 Suzanne Awards

Best Animation
Andreas Goralczyk
2004 Suzanne Awards

Best Artwork
Andreas Goralczyk (@ndy)
Denis Castaneda (nastacc)

Grzegory Rakoczy
Jan Kurka
Robert J. Tiess
Best Animation
Chicken Chair by Bassam Kurdali
Colin Levy
X-Warrior & Nayman
Best Python Script
MakeHuman Team
Alan Dennis (RipSting)
Jean-Michel Soler (jms)
Anthony D'Agostino (Scorpius)
Stefano Selleri (S68)
Best Coding Contribution
Kester Maddock
Alfredo de Greef
Brecht van Lommel/Jens Ole Wund
Matt Ebb
Nathan Letwory
236
Suzanne Award
Special Achievement Blender Foundation Award

Bart Veldhuizen
2005 Suzanne Awards

Best Animation, Original Idea or Story
New Penguoen 2.38 by Enrico Valenza
Plumiferos by Studio Manos Digitales
Beagle by Jacob Kafka
Best Animation Artwork
Esign by Chris Larkee

Jake Rocks! by Thorsten Schlueter
The Goat, the Boy and the Sun by Martin White
treefrog.nature by Jason Pierce
Best Character Animation
Cycles by Peter Haehnlein

Laws of Motion by Robert J. Tiess
Learning to Fly Grzegorz Rakoczy
Alchemy Trailer by Jason Pierce
2006 Suzanne Awards

Best Online Art Gallery
enricoceric (Enrico Cerica)

Ecks (Jean-Sbastien Guillemette)
Backiz (Eric Wessels)
dannybear (Daniel Svavarsson)
olaf (Olaf Arnold)
Man in Man by Sago (Sacha Goedegebure)

Home Sweet Home by pine (Mats Holmberg)
DrCox by BenDansie (Ben Dansie)
Private Bob Episode 1 by LGM (Nathan Dunlap)
Animacao Sapo by Virgilio (Virgilio Vasconcelos)
237
Suzanne Award
Best Animation, Original Idea or Story
Infinitum by rocketman (Sam Brubaker)

Asylum by MadMesh
Nocturnes by OTO
Mental Flesh by Klepoth (Peter Hertzberg)
The Ogre, the Wolf, the Little Girl, and the Cake by Tagyn (Laurent)
2007 Suzanne Awards

Best Designed Short Film
Stop by Eoin Duffy

Snakes Can Fly by Daniel Lima (Prenudos)
Jungle Legend Series by Virgilio Vasconcelos (Virgilio)
The Cathedral by Sebastian Koenig (Stullidpb)
8 by Krzysiek laziski (Mallow)
The Dance of the Bashfull Dwarf by Juan Pablo Bouza (Jpbouza)

Soccer Exersize Nathan Dunlap (LGM)
To Be or Not To Be by Pildanovak
Pelados by Jorge Rausch (Bataraze)
Prueba by Octavio Augusto Mndez Snchez (Octavio)
Best Short Film
Night of the Living Dead Pixels byJussi Saarelma, Jere Virta & Peter Schulman
Blood by Yu Yonghai (Harrisyu)
Out of the Box by Andy Dolphin (AndyD)
Alchemy by Jason Pierce (Sketchy)
Giants by Thomas Kristov (Thomislav86)
2008 Suzanne Awards

Gameland by Yohann Mepa

Glimpse of Light by Alex Glawion
Trofu da Casa byDaniel Pinheiro Lima & Danilo Dias Soares
Tape--l'oeil by Jean-Sebastien Guillemette
2008 Ann Arbor Film Festival, DVD Menu Compilation (A2f2) byPeter Traylor
238
Suzanne Award
Interviews From the Future by Spark Digital Entertainment

A Sad Sad Song by Beorn Leonard
The Long Road to Animation by Francesco Calabrese
Richie the Gecko by Jonathan Lax
Orion Tear by Rogrio Perdiz
Best Short Film
Hanger No. 5 by Nathan Matsuda

Pitch by Daniel Houghton
Kala et le mystre de la banane magique by Georges Mignot
Pisces by Juan Carlos Camardella
The Beast by Roland Hess
2009 Suzanne Awards

Evolution by Alex Glawion

The Ballad of the M4 Carbine by Andrew Price
Bello Paese (a beautiful country) by Claudio Castelli
Protein Expressions by Monica Zopp
Button by Reynante M. Martinez
Us and Them by Svio Pedro
Dragosaurio by Claudio Andaur (malefico)

The Dummy by Leon Beutl
Mancandy Announces Durian by David Bolton
Bounce to Space by Pablo Vazquez (venomgfx)
Tiku the Clock by Sagar Funde
Untitled Animation by Tyler Termini
Best Short Film
Memory by Ryusuke Furuya, Junichi Yamamoto

The Death Grind by Barath Endre
CommandANT Trailer by Ben Resnick
Your Planet, Brighter by Daniel Houghton
A Polish Winter by Dwarfed Films
Barrel by Philip Aigner
239
Suzanne Award
2010 Suzanne Awards

John el Esquizofrenico by Juan Carlos Montes

Zotac Trailer by Kai Kostack
Bluff by Stephan Mayr
Midstraeti reel by Hjalti Hjalmarsson
Materia by Samuli Jomppanen
Best Animation
(Untitled) by Jarred De Beerr

(Untitled) by Savio Pedro
Hebring III by Andi Martin
(Untitled) by Ivam Pretti
Curse by Leon Beutl
Best Short Film
Lista by Pawel Lyczkowski

The Cup by Students of Pepe-School-Land
A very little warrior by Endre Barath
Taste Lab by Chris Burton
Juan Del Monte by Juan Carlos Camardella
2011 Suzanne Awards

Assembly: Life in Macrospace by Jonathan Lax and Ben Simonds from Gecko Animation Ltd.
Dikta-Goodbye by Hjalti Hjalmarsson and Bjorn Daniel Svavarson
Vacui Spacii- par IX: Infra by Martin Eschoyez
Concrete Babylon- Pilot by Peter Hertzberg
Rooms by Jakub Szczesniak
Iceland Express Ad Campaign by Studio Midstraeti

Heaven is a half pipe by Everton Schneider
Les Recettes Animees d'Apollo by Sarah Laufer and Daniel Salazar
Retweet to Sender by Hjalti Hjalmarsson
The Light At The End by Chris Burton
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Suzanne Award
Best Short Film
Babioles by Mathieu Auvray

Happy Hour by Team Highfive
Here comes the mobster by Fab Design
Box by Juan Carlos Camardella
Si Nini by Johan Tri Handoyo
2012 Suzanne Awards

Quando arriva la banda by Fernando Luceri

REVERSION by Giancarlo Ng
Haunted by Christopher Taylor
Dancing Ideologies by Konstantin Svechtarov
Morphogenesis by Frederic Kettelhoit
Park by Daniel Martinez Lara from Pepeland School

Parkour by Juan Carlos
The Duel by Nathan Dunlap
Venom's Lab! 2 Trailer by Pablo Vazquez
The True Master by Pedro Rodrigues
Chocolove by Nikhil Salvi
Best Short Film
X.Gift by Simone Lannuzzi

Low Poly Rocks by Sampo Rask
Our New World by Niklas Holmberg
Mars Effect by Jassu Llama
Got Milk?- Bedtime by Antoine Quairiat
Madam Darmi's Suken Chip
2013 Suzanne Awards

Black Cat by Flaky Pixel

Le Castle Vania by Prophication
Joni Darko Teaser by Norman Ardy
Lo de Ribera by Juan Carlos Camardella
Sofia Svio Pedro
241
Suzanne Award
242
HBC-00011: Blot by Manu Jrvinen

Parkour by Juan Carlos Sevillano Vinueza
The Forbidden Apple by Lucian Muoz
Amin Bumper 01 by ABI Animation
Testszene 1: Repto-Animation by AgenZasBrothers
Best Short Film
En Passant by Chris Burton

Caminandes: Llama Drama by Pablo Vazquez
Supeur Dupeur by Sampo Rask
Scale by Anna Celarek
Yellow Ribbon by FAB Design
The Official Blender Conference is held annually in October, in

Amsterdam and is the highpoint of Blender activity each year. The
Suzanne Awards were initiated to inspire, encourage and show off
works that are created using Blender and to highlight the power of the
software.
Llama Drama by Pablo Vazquez
References
External links
2005 Suzanne Awards (http://archive.blender.org/community/blender-conference/blender-conference-2005/
animation-festival-2005/)
festival-2006/)
festival/)
festival/)
festival/)
suzanne-nominations/)
suzanne-nominations/)
2012 Suzanne Awards (http://suzanne.myblender.org/results/)
2013 Suzanne Awards (http://www.blender.org/conference/2013/suzanne-awards/)
Time-varying mesh
Time-varying mesh
Time-Varying Mesh (TVM) is composed of a sequence of polygonal mesh models reproducing dynamic 3D scenes.
TVM can be generated from synchronized videos captured by multiple cameras in a studio.
In each mesh model (or frame), there are three types of information including vertex positions in Cartesian
coordinate systems, vertex connection in triangle edges, and the color attached to its corresponding vertex. However,
no structure information or explicit corresponding information is available in mesh models. Namely, both the
number of vertices and the topology change frame by frame in TVM.
TVM can provide free viewpoint, thus has a potential of many applications such as education, CAD, heritage
documentation, broadcasting, and gaming.
Timewarps
A timewarp is a tool for manipulating the temporal dimension in a hierarchically described 3D computer animation
system. The term was coined by Jeff Smith and Karen Drewery in 1991.[1] Continuous curves that are normally
applied to parametric modeling and rendering attributes are instead applied to the local clock value, which
effectively remaps the flow of global time within the context of the subsection of the model to which the curves are
applied. The tool was first developed to assist animators in making minor adjustments to subsections of animated
scenes that might employ dozens of related interpolation curves. Rather than adjust the timing of every curve within
the subsection, a timewarp curve can be applied to the model section in question, adjusting the flow of time itself for
that element, with respect to the timing of the other, unaffected elements.
Originally, the tool was used to achieve minor adjustments, moving a motion forward or back in time, or to alter the
speed of a movement. Subsequent experiments with the technique moved beyond these simpler timing adjustment
and began to employ the timing curves to create more complex effects, such as continuous animation cycles and
simulating more natural movements of large collections of models, such as flocks or crowds, by creating numerous
identical copies of a single animated model and then applying small random perturbation timewarps to each of the
copies, giving the impression of a less robotic precision to the group's movements.
The tool has since become common in both 3D animation and video editing software systems.
References
[1] "Timewarps: A Temporal Reparameterization Paradigm for Parametric Animation" Jeff Smith, Karen Drewery (http:/ / www. citeulike. org/
user/ Jefficus/ article/ 4350388)
243
Triangle mesh
Triangle mesh
A triangle mesh is a type of polygon mesh in computer
graphics. It comprises a set of triangles (typically in
three dimensions) that are connected by their common
edges or corners.
Many graphics software packages and hardware
devices can operate more efficiently on triangles that
are grouped into meshes than on a similar number of
triangles that are presented individually. This is
typically because computer graphics do operations on
the vertices at the corners of triangles. With individual
Example of a triangle mesh representing a dolphin.
triangles, the system has to operate on three vertices for
every triangle. In a large mesh, there could be eight or
more triangles meeting at a single vertex - by processing those vertices just once, it is possible to do a fraction of the
work and achieve an identical effect.
Representation
Various methods of storing and working with a mesh in computer memory are possible. With the OpenGL and
DirectX APIs there are two primary ways of passing a triangle mesh to the graphics hardware, triangle strips and
index arrays.
Triangle strip
One way of sharing vertex data between triangles is the triangle strip. With strips of triangles each triangle shares
one complete edge with one neighbour and another with the next. Another way is the triangle fan which is a set of
connected triangles sharing one central vertex. With these methods vertices are dealt with efficiently resulting in the
need to only process N+2 vertices in order to draw N triangles.
Triangle strips are efficient, however the drawback is that it may not be obvious how or convenient to translate an
arbitrary triangle mesh into strips.
Index array
See also: Face-vertex meshes
With index arrays, a mesh is represented by two separate arrays, one array holding the vertices, and another holding
sets of three indices into that array which define a triangle. The graphics system processes the vertices first and
renders the triangles afterwards, using the index sets working on the transformed data. In OpenGL, this is supported
by the glDrawElements() primitive when using Vertex Buffer Object (VBO).
With this method, any arbitrary set of triangles sharing any arbitrary number of vertices can be stored, manipulated,
and passed to the graphics API, without any intermediary processing.
244
Vector slime
245
Vector slime
Demoscene
Concepts
Demo
Intro
Demoparty
Effects
Demogroup
Compo
Music disk
Diskmag
Module file
Tracker
Alternative demo platforms
Amiga
Apple IIGS
Atari ST
Commodore 64
Vic-20
Text mode
ZX Spectrum
Current parties
Alternative Party
Assembly
Buenzli
Evoke
The Gathering
Revision
Sundown
X
Past parties
Breakpoint
The Party
Websites
Scene.org
Mod Archive
Software
Vector slime
246
ProTracker
Scream Tracker
Fast Tracker
Impulse Tracker
ModPlug
Renoise
Tracker musicians
Demosceners
v
t
e [1]
In the demoscene (demo (computer programming)), vector slime refers to a class of visual effects achieved by
procedural deformation of geometric shapes.
Synopsis
A geometric object exposed to vector slime is usually defined by vertices and faces in two or three dimensions. In
the process of deformation, each vertex in the original shape undergoes one or more linear transformations (usually
rotation or translation), defined as a function of the vertex' position in space (usually a function of the magnitude of
the vector) and time. The desired result is an animated geometric object behaving in a harmonic way, creating some
degree of illusion of physical realism.
Older vector slime implementations kept old copies of the rendering result from simple vector objects in RAM, and
selected scan-lines from the different buffers in order to make a time-displacement illusion over the y-axis.
Appearance
Depending on variances in implementation, vector slime can approximate an array of physical properties. A
traditional approach is to let the linear transformation vary as a smooth function of time minus the magnitude of the
vector in question. This creates the illusion that there is a force applied to the origin of the object space (where the
object is usually centered), and the rest of the object's body reacts as a soft body, as each vertex reacts to a change in
the force delayed by the distance to the origin. Applied to a spikeball (a sphere with extracted arms), the object could
resemble the behaviour of a soft squid-like animal. Applied to a cube, the object would appear as a cubic piece of
jelly propelled by a gyro[1] force from the inside.
Areas of Application
Although the classical vector slime algorithms are far from an attempt of correct physical modelling, the result can,
under certain conditions, trick the viewer into believing that there is some sophisticated physical simulation
involved. The effect has therefore grown quite popular in the demoscene to create impressive visual effects at
relatively low computational cost. Interactive vector slime implementations can also eventually be found in computer
games as a substitute for a more correct physical simulation algorithm.
Vector slime
247
Demos featuring vector slime
Crystal Dream 2 by Triton [2]

Lethal Exit by Digital [3] (possibly the first demo to use this term)
Yuri Nation by Non Alien Nature-V [4] (possibly the first hardware vector slime)
Shapeshifter by Excess [5]
References
[1] http:/ / toolserver. org/ %7Edispenser/ cgi-bin/ dab_solver. py?page=Vector_slime& editintro=Template:Disambiguation_needed/ editintro&
client=Template:Dn
[2] http:/ / www. pouet. net/ prod. php?which=462
Vertex (geometry)
In geometry, a vertex (plural vertices) is a special kind of point that describes the corners or intersections of
geometric shapes.
Definitions
Of an angle
The vertex of an angle is the point where two rays begin or meet,
where two line segments join or meet, where two lines intersect
(cross), or any appropriate combination of rays, segments and lines that
result in two straight "sides" meeting at one place.
Of a polytope
A vertex is a corner point of a polygon, polyhedron, or other higher
dimensional polytope, formed by the intersection of edges, faces or
facets of the object.
A vertex of an angle is the endpoint where two

line segments or lines come together.
In a polygon, a vertex is called "convex" if the internal angle of the

polygon, that is, the angle formed by the two edges at the vertex, with
the polygon inside the angle, is less than radians; otherwise, it is called "concave" or "reflex". More generally, a
vertex of a polyhedron or polytope is convex if the intersection of the polyhedron or polytope with a sufficiently
small sphere centered at the vertex is convex, and concave otherwise.
Polytope vertices are related to vertices of graphs, in that the 1-skeleton of a polytope is a graph, the vertices of
which correspond to the vertices of the polytope, and in that a graph can be viewed as a 1-dimensional simplicial
complex the vertices of which are the graph's vertices. However, in graph theory, vertices may have fewer than two
incident edges, which is usually not allowed for geometric vertices. There is also a connection between geometric
vertices and the vertices of a curve, its points of extreme curvature: in some sense the vertices of a polygon are
points of infinite curvature, and if a polygon is approximated by a smooth curve there will be a point of extreme
curvature near each polygon vertex. However, a smooth curve approximation to a polygon will also have additional
vertices, at the points where its curvature is minimal.
Vertex (geometry)
248
Of a plane tiling
A vertex of a plane tiling or tessellation is a point where three or more tiles meet; generally, but not always, the tiles
of a tessellation are polygons and the vertices of the tessellation are also vertices of its tiles. More generally, a
tessellation can be viewed as a kind of topological cell complex, as can the faces of a polyhedron or polytope; the
vertices of other kinds of complexes such as simplicial complexes are its zero-dimensional faces.
Principal vertex
A polygon vertex xi of a simple polygon P is a principal polygon vertex
if the diagonal [x(i1),x(i+1)] intersects the boundary of P only at x(i1)
and x(i+1). There are two types of principal vertices: ears and mouths.
Ears
A principal vertex xi of a simple polygon P is called an ear if the
diagonal [x(i1),x(i+1)] that bridges xi lies entirely in P. (see also convex
polygon)
Mouths
A principal vertex xi of a simple polygon P is called a mouth if the
diagonal [x(i1),x(i+1)] lies outside the boundary of P.
Vertex B is an ear, because the straight line

between C and D is entirely inside the polygon.
Vertex C is a mouth, because the straight line
between A and B is entirely outside the polygon.
Vertices in computer graphics

In computer graphics, objects are often represented as triangulated polyhedra in which the object vertices are
associated not only with three spatial coordinates but also with other graphical information necessary to render the
object correctly, such as colors, reflectance properties, textures, and surface normals; these properties are used in
rendering by a vertex shader, part of the vertex pipeline.
External links
Weisstein, Eric W., "Polygon Vertex [1]", MathWorld.
Weisstein, Eric W., "Polyhedron Vertex [2]", MathWorld.
Weisstein, Eric W., "Principal Vertex [3]", MathWorld.
References
[1] http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ PolygonVertex. html
[2] http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ PolyhedronVertex. html
[3] http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ PrincipalVertex. html

A Vertex Buffer Object (VBO) is an OpenGL feature that provides methods for uploading vertex data (position,
normal vector, color, etc.) to the video device for non-immediate-mode rendering. VBOs offer substantial
performance gains over immediate mode rendering primarily because the data resides in the video device memory
rather than the system memory and so it can be rendered directly by the video device.
The Vertex Buffer Object specification has been standardized by the OpenGL Architecture Review Board [1] as of
OpenGL Version 1.5 (in 2003). Similar functionality was available before the standardization of VBOs via the
Nvidia-created extension "Vertex Array Range" or ATI's "Vertex Array Object" extension.
Basic VBO functions

The following functions form the core of VBO access and manipulation:
In OpenGL 2.1:
GenBuffersARB(sizei n, uint *buffers)
Generates a new VBO and returns its ID number as an unsigned integer. Id 0 is reserved.
BindBufferARB(enum target, uint buffer)
Use a previously created buffer as the active VBO.
BufferDataARB(enum target, sizeiptrARB size, const void *data, enum usage)
Upload data to the active VBO.
DeleteBuffersARB(sizei n, const uint *buffers)
Deletes the specified number of VBOs from the supplied array or VBO id.
In OpenGL 3.x and OpenGL 4.x:
GenBuffers(sizei n, uint *buffers)
Generates a new VBO and returns its ID number as an unsigned integer. Id 0 is reserved.
BindBuffer(enum target, uint buffer)
Use a previously created buffer as the active VBO.
BufferData(enum target, sizeiptrARB size, const void *data, enum usage)
Upload data to the active VBO.
DeleteBuffers(sizei n, const uint *buffers)
Deletes the specified number of VBOs from the supplied array or VBO id.
Example usage in C Using OpenGL 2.1

//Initialise VBO - do only once, at start of program
//Create a variable to hold the VBO identifier
GLuint triangleVBO;
//Vertices of a triangle (counter-clockwise winding)
float data[] = {1.0, 0.0, 1.0, 0.0, 0.0, -1.0, -1.0, 0.0, 1.0};
//Create a new VBO and use the variable id to store the VBO id
glGenBuffers(1, &triangleVBO);
249

//Make the new VBO active
glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, triangleVBO);
//Upload vertex data to the video device
glBufferData(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, sizeof(data), data, GL_STATIC_DRAW);
//Make the new VBO active. Repeat here incase changed since
initialisation
//Draw Triangle from VBO - do each time window, view point or data
changes
//Establish its 3 coordinates per vertex with zero stride in this
array; necessary here
glVertexPointer(3, GL_FLOAT, 0, NULL);
//Establish array contains vertices (not normals, colours, texture
coords etc)
glEnableClientState(GL_VERTEX_ARRAY);
//Actually draw the triangle, giving the number of vertices provided
glDrawArrays(GL_TRIANGLES, 0, sizeof(data) / sizeof(float) / 3);
//Force display to be drawn now
glFlush();
Example usage in C Using OpenGL 3.x and OpenGL 4.x

Vertex Shader:
/*----------------- "exampleVertexShader.vert" -----------------*/
#version 150 // Specify which version of GLSL we are using.
// in_Position was bound to attribute index 0("shaderAttribute")
in vec3 in_Position;
void main()
{
gl_Position = vec4(in_Position.x, in_Position.y, in_Position.z,
1.0);
return 0;
}
/*--------------------------------------------------------------*/
Fragment Shader:
/*---------------- "exampleFragmentShader.frag" ----------------*/
250
251
#version 150 // Specify which version of GLSL we are using.

precision highp float; // Video card drivers require this line to
function properly
out vec4 fragColor;
void main()
{
fragColor = vec4(1.0,1.0,1.0,1.0); //Set colour of each fragment to
WHITE
return 0;
}
/*--------------------------------------------------------------*/
Main OpenGL Program:
/*--------------------- Main OpenGL Program ---------------------*/
/* Create a variable to hold the VBO identifier */

GLuint triangleVBO;
/* This is a handle to the shader program */

GLuint shaderProgram;
/* These pointers will receive the contents of our shader source code
files */
GLchar *vertexSource, *fragmentSource;
/* These are handles used to reference the shaders */

GLuint vertexShader, fragmentShader;
const unsigned int shaderAttribute = 0;
const float NUM_OF_VERTICES_IN_DATA=3;
/* Vertices of a triangle (counter-clockwise winding) */

float data[3][3] = {
{
0.0, 1.0, 0.0
},
{ -1.0, -1.0, 0.0
},
1.0, -1.0, 0.0
};
/*---------------------- Initialise VBO - (Note: do only once, at start

of program) ---------------------*/
/* Create a new VBO and use the variable "triangleVBO" to store the VBO
id */
glGenBuffers(1, &triangleVBO);
/* Make the new VBO active */

/* Upload vertex data to the video device */

glBufferData(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, NUM_OF_VERTICES_IN_DATA * 3 *
sizeof(float), data, GL_STATIC_DRAW);
/* Specify that our coordinate data is going into attribute index

0(shaderAttribute), and contains three floats per vertex */
glVertexAttribPointer(shaderAttribute, 3, GL_FLOAT, GL_FALSE, 0, 0);
/* Enable attribute index 0(shaderAttribute) as being used */

glEnableVertexAttribArray(shaderAttribute);
/* Make the new VBO active. */

/*-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------*/
/*--------------------- Load Vertex and Fragment shaders from files and

compile them --------------------*/
/* Read our shaders into the appropriate buffers */
vertexSource = filetobuf("exampleVertexShader.vert");
fragmentSource = filetobuf("exampleFragmentShader.frag");
/* Assign our handles a "name" to new shader objects */

vertexShader = glCreateShader(GL_VERTEX_SHADER);
fragmentShader = glCreateShader(GL_FRAGMENT_SHADER);
/* Associate the source code buffers with each handle */

glShaderSource(vertexShader, 1, (const GLchar**)&vertexSource, 0);
glShaderSource(fragmentShader, 1, (const GLchar**)&fragmentSource, 0);
/* Free the temporary allocated memory */

free(vertexSource);
free(fragmentSource);
/* Compile our shader objects */

glCompileShader(vertexShader);
glCompileShader(fragmentShader);
/*-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------*/
/*-------------------- Create shader program, attach shaders to it and

then link it ---------------------*/
/* Assign our program handle a "name" */
shaderProgram = glCreateProgram();
252

/* Attach our shaders to our program */
glAttachShader(shaderProgram, vertexShader);
glAttachShader(shaderProgram, fragmentShader);
/* Bind attribute index 0 (shaderAttribute) to in_Position*/

/* "in_Position" will represent "data" array's contents in the vertex
shader */
glBindAttribLocation(shaderProgram, shaderAttribute, "in_Position");
/* Link shader program*/

glLinkProgram(shaderProgram);
/*-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* Set shader program as being actively used */

glUseProgram(shaderProgram);
/* Set background colour to BLACK */

glClearColor(0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0);
/* Clear background with BLACK colour */

glClear(GL_COLOR_BUFFER_BIT);
/* Actually draw the triangle, giving the number of vertices provided

by invoke glDrawArrays
while telling that our data is a triangle and we want to draw 0-3
vertexes
*/
glDrawArrays(GL_TRIANGLES, 0, 3);
/*---------------------------------------------------------------*/
References
[1] http:/ / www. opengl. org/ about/ arb/
External links
Vertex Buffer Object Whitepaper (http://www.opengl.org/registry/specs/ARB/vertex_buffer_object.txt)
253
254

A vertex (plural vertices) in computer graphics is a data structure that describes a point in 2D or 3D space. Display
objects are composed of arrays of flat surfaces (typically triangles) and vertices define the location and other
attributes of the corners of the surfaces.
Application to object models

In computer graphics, objects are most-often represented as triangulated polyhedra. Non triangular surfaces can be
converted to an array of triangles through tessellation. The vertices of triangles are associated not only with position
but also with other graphical attributes used to render the object correctly. Such attributes can include color at the
vertex point, reflectance of the surface at the vertex, textures of the surface at the vertex, and the normal of an
approximated curved surface at the location of the vertex. These properties are used in rendering by a vertex shader
or vertex pipeline.
The normal can be used to determine a surface's orientation toward a light source for flat shading using Lambert's
cosine law, or the orientation of each of the vertices to mimic a curved surface with Phong shading.
Vertex attributes
Most attributes of a vertex represent vectors in the space to be rendered. Vectors can be 1 (x), 2 (x, y), or 3 (x, y, z)
dimensional and can include a fourth homogeneous coordinate (w).
The following is a table of built in attributes of vertices in the OpenGL standard.
OpenGL vertex attributes

GL attribute name
attribute defined (data value size)
gl_Vertex
Position (vec4)
gl_Normal
Normal (vec4)
gl_Color
Primary color of vertex (vec4)
gl_MultiTexCoord0 Texture coordinate of texture unit 0 (vec4)

gl_FogCoord
References
Fog Coord (float)
Vertex pipeline
Vertex pipeline
The function of the vertex pipeline in any GPU is to take geometry data (usually supplied as vector points), work
with it if needed with either fixed function processes (earlier DirectX), or a vertex shader program (later DirectX),
and create all of the 3D data points in a scene to a 2D plane for display on a computer monitor.
It is possible to eliminate unneeded data from going through the rendering pipeline to cut out extraneous work
(called view volume clipping and backface culling). After the vertex engine is done working with the geometry, all
the 2D calculated data is sent to the pixel engine for further processing such as texturing and fragment shading.
As of DirectX 9c, the vertex processor is able to do the following by programming the vertex processing under the
Direct X API:
Tessellation
Displacement mapping
Geometry blending
Higher-order primitives
Point sprites
Matrix stacks
External links
Anandtech Article [1]
References
[1] http:/ / www. anandtech. com/ video/ showdoc. aspx?i=2044& p=3
255
Viewing frustum
256
Viewing frustum
In 3D computer graphics, the viewing frustum or view frustum is the
region of space in the modeled world that may appear on the screen; it
is the field of view of the notional camera.[1]
The exact shape of this region varies depending on what kind of
camera lens is being simulated, but typically it is a frustum of a
rectangular pyramid (hence the name). The planes that cut the frustum
perpendicular to the viewing direction are called the near plane and the
far plane. Objects closer to the camera than the near plane or beyond
the far plane are not drawn. Sometimes, the far plane is placed
infinitely far away from the camera so all objects within the frustum
are drawn regardless of their distance from the camera.
A view frustum.
Viewing frustum culling or view frustum culling is the process of removing objects that lie completely outside the
viewing frustum from the rendering process. Rendering these objects would be a waste of time since they are not
directly visible. To make culling fast, it is usually done using bounding volumes surrounding the objects rather than
the objects themselves.
Definitions
VPN
the view-plane normal a normal to the view plane.
VUV
the view-up vector the vector on the view plane that indicates the upward direction.
VRP
the viewing reference point a point located on the view plane, and the origin of the VRC.
PRP
the projection reference point the point where the image is projected from, for parallel projection, the PRP is
at infinity.
VRC
the viewing-reference coordinate system.
The geometry is defined by a field of view angle (in the 'y' direction), as well as an aspect ratio. Further, a set of
z-planes define the near and far bounds of the frustum.
References
[1] http:/ / msdn. microsoft. com/ en-us/ library/ ff634570. aspx Microsoft What Is a View Frustum?
Viewport
Viewport
A viewport is a polygon viewing region in computer graphics, or a term used for optical components. It has several
definitions in different contexts:
Computing
In 3D computer graphics it refers to the 2D rectangle used to project the 3D scene to the position of a virtual camera.
A viewport is a region of the screen used to display a portion of the total image to be shown.[1]
In virtual desktops, the viewport is the visible portion of a 2D area which is larger than the visualization device. In
web browsers, the viewport is the visible portion of the canvas element.
Optical components
In Manufacturing it refers to hermetically sealed optical components which are typically used for visual or broad
band energy transmission into and out of vacuum systems. Single and multi-layer coatings can be added to viewports
to optimize transmission performance. They describe where the selected object portion resides inside a window.
References
[1] http:/ / msdn. microsoft. com/ en-us/ library/ ff634571. aspx Microsoft - What Is a Viewport?
External links
List of viewport sizes for mobile and tablet devices (http:/ / i-skool. co. uk/ mobile-development/
web-design-for-mobiles-and-tablets-viewport-sizes/)
257
Virtual actor
Virtual actor
A virtual human or digital clone is the creation or re-creation of a human being in image and voice using
computer-generated imagery and sound, that is often indistinguishable from the real actor. This idea was first
portrayed in the 1981 film Looker, wherein models had their bodies scanned digitally to create 3D computer
generated images of the models, and then animating said images for use in TV commercials. Two 1992 books used
this concept: "Fools" by Pat Cadigan, and Et Tu, Babe by Mark Leyner.
In general, virtual humans employed in movies are known as synthespians, virtual actors, vactors, cyberstars, or
"silicentric" actors. There are several legal ramifications for the digital cloning of human actors, relating to
copyright and personality rights. People who have already been digitally cloned as simulations include Bill Clinton,
Marilyn Monroe, Fred Astaire, Ed Sullivan, Elvis Presley, Bruce Lee, Audrey Hepburn, Anna Marie Goddard, and
George Burns. Ironically, data sets of Arnold Schwarzenegger for the creation of a virtual Arnold (head, at least)
have already been made.
The name Schwarzeneggerization comes from the 1992 book Et Tu, Babe by Mark Leyner. In one scene, on pages
5051, a character asks the shop assistant at a video store to have Arnold Schwarzenegger digitally substituted for
existing actors into various works, including (amongst others) Rain Man (to replace both Tom Cruise and Dustin
Hoffman), My Fair Lady (to replace Rex Harrison), Amadeus (to replace F. Murray Abraham), The Diary of Anne
Frank (as Anne Frank), Gandhi (to replace Ben Kingsley), and It's a Wonderful Life (to replace James Stewart).
Schwarzeneggerization is the name that Leyner gives to this process. Only 10 years later, Schwarzeneggerization
was close to being reality.
By 2002, Schwarzenegger, Jim Carrey, Kate Mulgrew, Michelle Pfeiffer, Denzel Washington, Gillian Anderson, and
David Duchovny had all had their heads laser scanned to create digital computer models thereof.
Early history
Early computer-generated animated faces include the 1985 film Tony de Peltrie and the music video for Mick
Jagger's song "Hard Woman" (from She's the Boss). The first actual human beings to be digitally duplicated were
Marilyn Monroe and Humphrey Bogart in a March 1987 filmWikipedia:Please clarify created by Nadia Magnenat
Thalmann and Daniel Thalmann for the 100th anniversary of the Engineering Society of Canada. The film was
created by six people over a year, and had Monroe and Bogart meeting in a caf in Montreal. The characters were
rendered in three dimensions, and were capable of speaking, showing emotion, and shaking hands.
In 1987, the Kleizer-Walczak Construction Company begain its Synthespian ("synthetic thespian") Project, with the
aim of creating "life-like figures based on the digital animation of clay models".
In 1988, Tin Toy was the first entirely computer-generated movie to win an Academy Award (Best Animated Short
Film). In the same year, Mike the Talking Head, an animated head whose facial expression and head posture were
controlled in real time by a puppeteer using a custom-built controller, was developed by Silicon Graphics, and
performed live at SIGGRAPH. In 1989, The Abyss, directed by James Cameron included a computer-generated face
placed onto a watery pseudopod.
In 1991, Terminator 2, also directed by Cameron, confident in the abilities of computer-generated effects from his
experience with The Abyss, included a mixture of synthetic actors with live animation, including computer models of
Robert Patrick's face. The Abyss contained just one scene with photo-realistic computer graphics. Terminator 2
contained over forty shots throughout the film.
In 1997, Industrial Light and Magic worked on creating a virtual actor that was a composite of the bodily parts of
several real actors.
By the 21st century, virtual actors had become a reality. The face of Brandon Lee, who had died partway through the
shooting of The Crow in 1994, had been digitally superimposed over the top of a body-double in order to complete
258
Virtual actor
those parts of the movie that had yet to be filmed. By 2001, three-dimensional computer-generated realistic humans
had been used in Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within, and by 2004, a synthetic Laurence Olivier co-starred in Sky
Captain and the World of Tomorrow.
Legal issues
Critics such as Stuart Klawans in the New York Times expressed worry about the loss of "the very thing that art was
supposedly preserving: our point of contact with the irreplaceable, finite person". And even more problematic are the
issues of copyright and personality rights. Actors have little legal control over a digital clone of themselves. In the
United States, for instance, they must resort to database protection laws in order to exercise what control they have
(The proposed Database and Collections of Information Misappropriation Act would strengthen such laws). An actor
does not own the copyright on his digital clones, unless they were created by him. Robert Patrick, for example,
would not have any legal control over the liquid metal digital clone of himself that was created for Terminator 2.
The use of digital clones in movie industry, to replicate the acting performances of a cloned person, represents a
controversial aspect of these implications, as it may cause real actors to land in fewer roles, and put them in
disadvantage at contract negotiations, since a clone could always be used by the producers at potentially lower costs.
It is also a career difficulty, since a clone could be used in roles that a real actor would never accept for various
reasons. Bad identifications of an actor's image with a certain type of roles could harm his career, and real actors,
conscious of this, pick and choose what roles they play (Bela Lugosi and Margaret Hamilton became typecast with
their roles as Count Dracula and the Wicked Witch of the West, whereas Anthony Hopkins and Dustin Hoffman
have played a diverse range of parts). A digital clone could be used to play the parts of (for examples) an axe
murderer or a prostitute, which would affect the actor's public image, and in turn affect what future casting
opportunities were given to that actor. Both Tom Waits and Bette Midler have won actions for damages against
people who employed their images in advertisements that they had refused to take part in themselves.
In the USA, the use of a digital clone in advertisements is requireed to be accurate and truthful (section 43(a) of the
Lanham Act and which makes deliberate confusion unlawful). The use of a celebrity's image would be an implied
endorsement. The New York District Court held that an advertisement employing a Woody Allen impersonator
would violate the Act unless it contained a disclaimer stating that Allen did not endorse the product.
Other concerns include posthumous use of digital clones. Barbara Creed states that "Arnold's famous threat, 'I'll be
back', may take on a new meaning". Even before Brandon Lee was digitally reanimated, the California Senate drew
up the Astaire Bill, in response to lobbying from Fred Astaire's widow and the Screen Actors Guild, who were
seeking to restrict the use of digital clones of Astaire. Movie studios opposed the legislation, and as of 2002 it had
yet to be finalized and enacted. Several companies, including Virtual Celebrity Productions, have purchased the
rights to create and use digital clones of various dead celebrities, such as Marlene Dietrich[1] and Vincent Price.
In fiction
S1m0ne, a 2002 science fiction drama film written, produced and directed by Andrew Niccol, starring Al Pacino.
In business
A Virtual Actor can also be a person who performs a role in real-time when logged into a Virtual World or
Collaborative On-Line Environment. One who represents, via an avatar, a character in a simulation or training event.
One who behaves as if acting a part through the use of an avatar.
Vactor Studio LLC is a New York-based company, but its "Vactors" (virtual actors) are located all across the US and
Canada. The Vactors log into virtual world applications from their homes or offices to participate in exercises
covering an extensive range of markets including: Medical, Military, First Responder, Corporate, Government,
Entertainment, and Retail. Through their own computers, they become doctors, soldiers, EMTs, customer service
259
Virtual actor
reps, victims for Mass Casualty Response training, or whatever the demonstration requires. Since 2005, Vactor
Studios role-players have delivered thousands of hours of professional virtual world demonstrations, training
exercises, and event management services.
References
[1] Los Angeles Times / Digital Elite Inc. (http:/ / articles. latimes. com/ 1999/ aug/ 09/ business/ fi-64043)
Further reading
Michael D. Scott and James N. Talbott (1997). "Titles and Characters". Scott on Multimedia Law. Aspen
Publishers Online. ISBN1-56706-333-0. a detailed discussion of the law, as it stood in 1997, relating to virtual
humans and the rights held over them by real humans
Richard Raysman (2002). "Trademark Law". Emerging Technologies and the Law: Forms and Analysis. Law
Journal Press. pp.615. ISBN1-58852-107-9. how trademark law affects digital clones of celebrities who
have trademarked their person
External links
Vactor Studio (http://www.vactorstudio.com/)

Virtual environment software refers to any software, program or system that implements, manages and controls
multiple virtual environment instances. The software is installed within an organization's existing IT infrastructure
and controlled from within the organization itself. From a central interface the software creates an interactive and
immersive experience for administrators and users.
Uses
Virtual environment software can be purposed for any use. From advanced military training in a virtual environment
simulator to virtual classrooms. Many Virtual Environments are being purposed as branding channels for products
and services by enterprise corporations and non-profit groups.
Currently, virtual event and virtual tradeshow have been the early accepted uses of virtual event services. More
recently, virtual environment software platforms have offered choice to enterprises with the ability to connect
people across the Internet. Virtual Environment Software enables organizations to extend their market and industry
reach while reducing (all travel-related) costs and time.
Background
Providers of virtual environments have tended to focus on the early marketplace adoption of virtual events. These
providers are typically software as a service (SaaS)-based. Most have evolved from the streaming media/gaming
arena and social networking applications.
This early virtual event marketplace is now moving towards 3D persistent environments, where enterprises combine
e-commerce, social media as core operating systems, and is evolving into virtual environments for branding,
customer acquisition, and service centers. A Persistent Environment enables users, visitors and administrators to
re-visit a part or parts of the event or session. Information gathered by attendees and end users is typically stored in a
virtual briefcase typically including contact information and marketing materials.
260
Potential advantages
Virtual environment software has the potential to maximize the benefits of both online and on-premises
environments. A flexible platform would allow companies to deploy the software in both environments while having
the ability to run reports on data in both locations from a centralized interface. The advent of persistent
environments lends itself to a rich integration with enterprise technology assets which can be solved efficiently
through the implementation of software.
Virtual environment software can be applied to virtual learning environments (also called Learning Management
Systems or LMS). In the US, Universities, Colleges and similar higher education institutions have adopted virtual
learning environments to economize time, resources and course effectiveness.
Future
Virtual events, trade shows and environments are not projected to replace physical events and interactions. Instead
they are seen as extensions and enhancements to these physical events and environments by increasing lead
generation and reaching a wider audience while decreasing expenses. The virtual environments industry has been
projected to reach a market size in the billions of dollars.
Market availability
Virtual environment software is an alternative to bundled services. Companies known to provide virtual environment
software are UBIVENT [1], Unisfair [2] or vcopious [3].
References
[1] http:/ / www. ubivent. com/
[2] http:/ / www. unisfair. com/
[3] http:/ / vcopious. com/
261
Virtual replay
262
Virtual replay
Virtual Replay is a technology which allows people to see 3D animations of sporting events. The technology was
widely used during the 2006 FIFA World Cup. During this event, bbcnews.com posted highlights of the event on
their websites soon after matches concluded and users could view the 3D renderings from multiple points of view.
External links
A page on bbcnews.com using virtual replay technology [1]
References
[1] http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ sport2/ hi/ football/ world_cup_2006/ 5148780. stm?goalid=500251
Volume mesh
Volumetric meshes are a polygonal representation of the interior volume of an object. Unlike polygon meshes,
which represent only the surface as polygons, volumetric meshes also discretize the interior structure of the object.
One application of volumetric meshes is in finite element analysis, which may use regular or irregular volumetric
meshes to compute internal stresses and forces in an object throughout the entire volume of the object.
Voxel
A voxel (volume element), represents a value on a regular grid in three
dimensional space. Voxel is a combination of "volume" and "pixel"
where pixel is a combination of "picture" and "element".[1] This is
analogous to a texel, which represents 2D image data in a bitmap
(which is sometimes referred to as a pixmap). As with pixels in a
bitmap, voxels themselves do not typically have their position (their
coordinates) explicitly encoded along with their values. Instead, the
position of a voxel is inferred based upon its position relative to other
voxels (i.e., its position in the data structure that makes up a single
volumetric image). In contrast to pixels and voxels, points and
polygons are often explicitly represented by the coordinates of their
vertices. A direct consequence of this difference is that polygons are
able to efficiently represent simple 3D structures with lots of empty or
homogeneously filled space, while voxels are good at representing
regularly sampled spaces that are non-homogeneously filled.
A series of voxels in a stack with a single voxel

shaded
Voxels are frequently used in the visualization and analysis of medical and scientific data. Some volumetric displays
use voxels to describe their resolution. For example, a display might be able to show 512512512 voxels.
Voxel
263
Rasterization
Another technique for voxels involves Raster graphics where you simply raytrace every pixel of the display into the
scene. A typical implementation will raytrace each pixel of the display starting at the bottom of the screen using
what is known as a y-buffer. When a voxel is reached that has a higher y value on the display it is added to the
y-buffer overriding the previous value and connected with the previous y-value on the screen interpolating the color
values.
Outcast and other 1990's video games employed this graphics technique for effects such as reflection and
bump-mapping and usually for terrain rendering. Outcast's graphics engine was mainly a combination of a ray
casting (heightmap) engine, used to render the landscape, and a texture mapping polygon engine used to render
objects. The "Engine Programming" section of the games credits in the manual has several subsections related to
graphics, among them: "Landscape Engine", "Polygon Engine", "Water & Shadows Engine" and "Special effects
Engine". Although Outcast is often cited as a forerunner of voxel technology, this is somewhat misleading. The
game does not actually model three-dimensional volumes of voxels. Instead, it models the ground as a surface,
which may be seen as being made up of voxels. The ground is decorated with objects that are modeled using
texture-mapped polygons. When Outcast was developed, the term "voxel engine", when applied to computer games,
commonly referred to a ray casting engine (for example the VoxelSpace engine). On the engine technology page of
the game's website, the landscape engine is also referred to as the "Voxels engine".[2] The engine is purely
software-based; it does not rely on hardware-acceleration via a 3D graphics card.[3]
John Carmack also experimented with Voxels for the Quake III engine.[4] One such problem cited by Carmack is the
lack of graphics cards designed specifically for such rendering requiring them to be software rendered, which still
remains an issue with the technology to this day.
Comanche was also the first commercial flight simulation based on voxel technology. NovaLogic used the
proprietary Voxel Space engine developed for the company by Kyle Freeman [5](written entirely in Assembly
language) to create open landscapes.[6] This rendering technique allowed for much more detailed and realistic terrain
compared to simulations based on vector graphics at that time.
Voxel data
A voxel represents a single sample, or data point, on a regularly
spaced, three-dimensional grid. This data point can consist of a single
piece of data, such as an opacity, or multiple pieces of data, such as a
color in addition to opacity. A voxel represents only a single point on
this grid, not a volume; the space between each voxel is not
represented in a voxel-based dataset. Depending on the type of data
and the intended use for the dataset, this missing information may be
reconstructed and/or approximated, e.g. via interpolation.
The value of a voxel may represent various properties. In CT scans, the
values are Hounsfield units, giving the opacity of material to
X-rays.[7]:29 Different types of value are acquired from MRI or
ultrasound.
A (smoothed) rendering of a data set of voxels for

a macromolecule
Voxels can contain multiple scalar values, essentially vector (tensor)

data; in the case of ultrasound scans with B-mode and Doppler data,
density, and volumetric flow rate are captured as separate channels of
data relating to the same voxel positions.
Voxel
While voxels provide the benefit of precision and depth of reality, they are typically large data sets and are unwieldy
to manage given the bandwidth of common computers. However, through efficient compression and manipulation of
large data files, interactive visualization can be enabled on consumer market computers.
Other values may be useful for immediate 3D rendering, such as a surface normal vector and color.
Uses
Common uses of voxels include volumetric imaging in medicine and representation of terrain in games and
simulations. Voxel terrain is used instead of a heightmap because of its ability to represent overhangs, caves, arches,
and other 3D terrain features. These concave features cannot be represented in a heightmap due to only the top 'layer'
of data being represented, leaving everything below it filled (the volume that would otherwise be the inside of the
caves, or the underside of arches or overhangs).
Visualization
A volume containing voxels can be visualized either by direct volume rendering or by the extraction of polygon
isosurfaces that follow the contours of given threshold values. The marching cubes algorithm is often used for
isosurface extraction, however other methods exist as well.
Computer gaming
Planet Explorers is a 3D building game that uses voxels for rendering equipment, buildings, and terrain. Using a
voxel editor, players can actually create their own models for weapons and buildings, and terrain can be modified
similar to other building games.
C4 Engine is a game engine that uses voxels for in game terrain and has a voxel editor for its built-in level editor.
Miner Wars 2081 uses its own Voxel Rage engine to let the user deform the terrain of asteroids allowing tunnels
to be formed.
Many NovaLogic games have used voxel-based rendering technology, including the Delta Force, Armored Fist
and Comanche series.
Westwood Studios' Command & Conquer: Tiberian Sun and Command & Conquer: Red Alert 2 use voxels to
render most vehicles.
Westwood Studios' Blade Runner video game used voxels to render characters and artifacts.
Outcast, a game made by Belgian developer Appeal, sports outdoor landscapes that are rendered by a voxel
engine.
Comanche series, a game made by NovaLogic used voxel rasterization for terrain rendering.[8]
The videogame Amok for the Sega Saturn makes use of voxels in its scenarios.
The computer game Vangers uses voxels for its two-level terrain system.
Master of Orion III uses voxel graphics to render space battles and solar systems. Battles displaying 1000 ships at
a time were rendered slowly on computers without hardware graphic acceleration.
Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri uses voxel models to render units.
Shattered Steel featured deforming landscapes using voxel technology.
Build engine first-person shooter games Shadow Warrior and Blood use voxels instead of sprites as an option for
many of the items pickups and scenery. Duke Nukem 3D has an fan-created pack in a similar style.
Crysis, as well as the Cryengine 2 and 3, use a combination of heightmaps and voxels for its terrain system.
Worms 4: Mayhem uses a voxel-based engine to simulate land deformation similar to the older 2D Worms games.
The multi-player role playing game Hexplore uses a voxel engine allowing the player to rotate the isometric
rendered playfield.
The computer game Voxatron, produced by Lexaloffle, is composed and generated fully using voxels.
Ace of Spades used Ken Silverman's Voxlap engine before being rewritten in a bespoke OpenGL engine.
264
Voxel
3D Dot Game Heroes uses voxels to present retro-looking graphics.
Vox, an upcoming voxel based exploration/RPG game focusing on player generated content.
ScrumbleShip, a block-building MMO space simulator game in development, renders each in-game component
and damage to those components using dozens to thousands of voxels.
Castle Story, a castle building Real Time Strategy game in development, has terrain consisting of smoothed
voxels
Block Ops, a voxel based First Person Shooter game.
Cube World, an Indie voxel based game with RPG elements based on games like, Terraria, Diablo (video game),
The Legend of Zelda, Monster Hunter, World of Warcraft, Secret of Mana, and many others.
EverQuest Next and EverQuest Next: Landmark, upcoming MMORPGs by Sony Online Entertainment, make
extensive use of voxels for world creation as well as player generated content
7 Days to Die, Voxel based open world survival horror game developed by The Fun Pimps Entertainment.
Brutal Nature, Voxel based Survival FPS that uses surface net relaxation to render voxels as a smooth mesh.
Voxel editors
While scientific volume visualization doesn't require modifying the actual voxel data, voxel editors can be used to
create art (especially 3D pixel art) and models for voxel based games. Some editors are focused on a single approach
to voxel editing while others mix various approaches. Some common approaches are:
Slice based: The volume is sliced in one or more axes and the user can edit each image individually using 2D
raster editor tools. These generally store color information in voxels.
Sculpture: Similar to the vector counterpart but with no topology constraints. These usually store density
information in voxels and lack color information.
Building blocks: The user can add and remove blocks just like a construction set toy.
Voxel editors for games

Many game developers use in-house editors that are not released to the public, but a few games have publicly
available editors, some of them created by players.
Slice based fan-made Voxel Section Editor III for Command & Conquer: Tiberian Sun and Command &
Conquer: Red Alert 2.
SLAB6 and VoxEd are sculpture based voxel editors used by Voxlap engine games, including Voxelstein 3D and
Ace of Spades.
The official Sandbox 2 editor for CryEngine 2 games (including Crysis) has support for sculpting voxel based
terrain.
The C4 Engine and editor support multiple detail level (LOD) voxel terrain by implementing the patent-free
Transvoxel algorithm.
General purpose voxel editors

There are a few voxel editors available that are not tied to specific games or engines. They can be used as
alternatives or complements to traditional 3D vector modeling.
Extensions
A generalization of a voxel is the doxel, or dynamic voxel. This is used in the case of a 4D dataset, for example, an
image sequence that represents 3D space together with another dimension such as time. In this way, an image could
contain 100100100100 doxels, which could be seen as a series of 100 frames of a 100100100 volume image
(the equivalent for a 3D image would be showing a 2D cross section of the image in each frame). Although storage
265
Voxel
266
and manipulation of such data requires large amounts of memory, it allows the representation and analysis of
spacetime systems.
References
[1] http:/ / www. tomshardware. com/ reviews/ voxel-ray-casting,2423-3. html
[2] Engine Technology (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060507235618/ http:/ / www. outcast-thegame. com/ tech/ paradise. htm)
[3] " Voxel terrain engine (http:/ / www. codermind. com/ articles/ Voxel-terrain-engine-building-the-terrain. html)", introduction. In a coder's
mind, 2005.
[4] http:/ / www. tomshardware. com/ reviews/ voxel-ray-casting,2423-2. html
[5] http:/ / patents. justia. com/ inventor/ kyle-g-freeman
[6] http:/ / www. flightsim. com/ vbfs/ content. php?2994-NovaLogic-Awarded-Patent-For-Voxel-Space-Graphics-Engine
[7] Novelline, Robert. Squire's Fundamentals of Radiology. Harvard University Press. 5th edition. 1997. ISBN 0-674-83339-2.
[8] http:/ / projectorgames. net/ blog/ ?p=168
External links
Games with voxel graphics (http://www.mobygames.com/game-group/visual-technique-style-voxel-graphics)
at MobyGames
Fundamentals of voxelization (http://labs.cs.sunysb.edu/labs/projects/volume/Papers/Voxel/)
Web3D
Web3D was initially the idea to fully display and navigate Web sites using 3D. By extension, the term now refers to
all interactive 3D content which are embedded into web pages html, and that we can see through a web browser.
Web3D Technologies usually require to install a Web 3D viewer (plugin) to see this kind of content.
Nowadays many formats and tools are available:
3DMLW
Adobe Shockwave
Altadyn
Burster (Web plugin to play Blender content)
Cult3D
FancyEngine
Java 3D
JOGL
LWJGL
O3D
Oak3D
ShiVa
TurnTool
Unity
Virtools
VRML
Viewpoint
Web3D Consortium
WebGL
WireFusion
X3D (extension of VRML)
Web3D
267
AMF - Additive Manufacturing File Format

They are mainly distinguished by five criteria:
Simplicity (Automatic Installation, rates facilities already high)

Compatibility (Windows, Mac, Unix ..)
Quality (Performances, see Frames per second, and indirectly display quality)
Interactivity (Depending on the solutions, their programming opportunities, the creators of content have more or
less freedom in the creation of interactivity.)
Standardization (none, "market position", by a standards organization, etc.)
External links
Lateral Visions [1] Lateral Visions Software Company : 3D Web specialist and platform developers.
TDT3D [2] European 3D Community : specialized in computer graphics and real-time 3D rendering (updated
regularly).
Web3D and Web3D Framework : Web3D Software Company and Web3D Developers [3]
Walkthrough Web3D Online Galleries, Web3D Online Museums, Web3D Online Fairs [4]
Paul Festa (2002-02-26). "Bringing 3D to the Web" [5]. CNET News.
Canvas3D [6]
Altadyn [7] 3D Online Collaborative Platforms
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
http:/ / lateralvisions. com

http:/ / www. tdt3d. eu/
http:/ / graphtwerk. com
http:/ / 3dstellwerk. com
http:/ / www. news. com/ 2100-1023-844985. html
http:/ / blog. vlad1. com/ canvas-3d/
http:/ / altadyn. com

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Hu12, Hyju, INVERTED, Ideal gas equation, Imroy, Indon, Iokseng, Isaac, Iskander HFC, JForget, Jack Phoenix, Jackaranga, Jagged 85, Jdonati, Jusdafax, Jvs, Kain Nihil, Katalaveno,
Katieh5584, Kennedy311, Kingpin13, Kinkwan, Kozuch, Krawi, Kri, Laurusnobilis, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, Liquidsnakex, Lolbill58, Loren.wilton, LpGod, Luckofbuck, M.J. Moore-McGonigal
PhD, P.Eng, MER-C, Magioladitis, Martarius, Masgatotkaca, Materialscientist, Matthew Yeager, MaxRipper, Maxis ftw, Mayafishing, Mchristen, Mdd, Mdebets, Mefio, Mendaliv, Mercury,
Michael Hardy, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mmxx, MrOllie, MyMii, NJA, Naturehead, NawlinWiki, Nigholith, Nk.sheridan, Novusspero, Obsidian Soul, Oicumayberight, Ost316, OwenX, Philip
Trueman, Pie Bird, Pinky deamon, Poss, Prashanthns, Pseudomonas, Quincy2010, R'n'B, Randomran, Read-write-services, RekishiEJ, Remag Kee, Richard Sneyd, RiyaKeralore, Robin S,
Rockruler, Ronz, Salam32, Satya 82, Scott Martin, Serioussamp, Sheikh wadood, Shell Kinney, Shereth, Siddhant, SiobhanHansa, Skhedkar, Soumyasch, SpunkyBob, Srleffler, Strangnet,
Superbeecat, Svsraju, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Tedder, The Thing That Should Not Be, The undertow, TheBendster, TheDJ, TheRealFennShysa, Titodutta, Tomas444, Tommy2010, Tot12,
Trevorgoodchild, Tsalat, TwinsMetsFan, Twsx, Useight, Weetoddid, Winchelsea, Winston365, Woohookitty, Xeolyte, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yintan, Yousaf465, Yui sama, Zidonuke, Zundark, 359
anonymous edits
3D computer graphics software Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=591198496 Contributors: -Midorihana-, 16@r, 3DAnimations.biz, 790, 99neurons, ALoopingIcon, Adrian
1001, Agentbla, Al Hart, Alanbly, AlexTheMartian, Alibaba327, Andek714, Antientropic, Aquilosion, Archizero, Arneoog, AryconVyper, Asav, Autumnalmonk, Bagatelle, BananaFiend,
BcRIPster, Beetstra, Bertmg, Bigbluefish, Blackbox77, Bobsterling1975, Book2, Bovineone, Brenont, Bsmweb3d, Bwildasi, Byronknoll, CALR, CairoTasogare, CallipygianSchoolGirl, Candyer,
Canoe1967, Carioca, Ccostis, Chowbok, Chris Borg, Chris TC01, Chris the speller, Chrisminter, Chromecat, Cjrcl, Codename Lisa, CorporateM, Cremepuff222, Cyon Steve, Cyrre, Davester78,
Dekisugi, Dgirardeau, Dicklyon, Dlee3d, Dobie80, Dodger, Dr. Woo, DriveDenali, Dryo, Dsavi, Dto, Dynaflow, EEPROM Eagle, ERobson, ESkog, Edward, Eiskis, Elf, Elfguy, Emal35,
EncMstr, Enigma100cwu, Enquire, EpsilonSquare, ErkDemon, Erp Erpington, Euchiasmus, Extremophile, Fiftyquid, Firsfron, Forderud, Frecklefoot, Fu Kung Master, GTBacchus, Gaius
Cornelius, Gal911, Genius101, Goncalopp, Greg L, GustavTheMushroom, Gvancollie, Herorev, Holdendesign, HoserHead, Hyad, Iamsouthpaw, IanManka, Im.thatoneguy, Intgr, Inthoforo,
Iphonefans2009, Iridescent, JLaTondre, Jameshfisher, Jan Tomanek, JayDez, Jdm64, Jdtyler, Jncraton, JohnCD, Joshmings, Jreynaga, Jstier, Jtanadi, Juhame, Julian Herzog, K8 fan, KDS4444,
KVDP, Kev Boy, Koffeinoverdos, Kotakotakota, Lambda, Lantrix, Laurent Canc, Lead holder, Lerdthenerd, LetterRip, Licu, Lifeweaver, Lightworkdesign, LilHelpa, Litherlandsand, Lolbill58,
Longhair, M.J. Moore-McGonigal PhD, P.Eng, Malcolmxl5, Mandarax, Marcelswiss, Markhobley, Martarius, Materialscientist, Matuhin86, Mayalld, Michael Devore, Michael b strickland, Mike
Gale, Millahnna, Mlfarrell, Mojo Hand, Mr mr ben, MrOllie, NeD80, NeoKron, Nev1, Nick Drake, Nickdi2012, Nixeagle, Nopnopzero, Nutiketaiel, Oddbodz, Oicumayberight, Optigon.wings,
Ouzari, Papercyborg, Parametric66, Parscale, Paul Stansifer, Pepelyankov, Phiso1, Plan, Quincy2010, Radagast83, Raffaele Megabyte, Ramu50, Rapasaurus, Raven in Orbit, Relux2007,
Requestion, Rich Farmbrough, Ronz, Rtc, Ryan Postlethwaite, Samtroup, SchreiberBike, Scotttsweeney, Sendai2ci, Serioussamp, ShaunMacPherson, Skhedkar, Skinnydow, SkyWalker, Skybum,
Smalljim, Snarius, Snoblomma, Sparklyindigopink, Sparkwoodand21, Speck-Made, Spg3D, Stib, Strattonbrazil, Sugarsmax, Tbsmith, Team FS3D, TheRealFennShysa, Thecrusader 440,
Three1415, Thymefromti, Tim1357, Tommato, Tritos, Truthdowser, Uncle Dick, VRsim, Vdf22, Victordiaz, VitruV07, Waldir, WallaceJackson, Wcgteach, Weetoddid, Welsh,
WereSpielChequers, Woohookitty, Wsultzbach, Xx3nvyxx, Yellowweasel, ZanQdo, Zarius, Zundark, , 430 anonymous edits
3D computer vision Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=508460158 Contributors: Antonov777, Avicennasis, Cmprince, Edward, Jamietw, Jason Quinn, Lamro, Mr Sheep
Measham, VQuakr, Welsh, 3 anonymous edits
3D data acquisition and object reconstruction Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=589766113 Contributors: Andreas Kaufmann, Auntof6, Cerebellum, Dialectric, Gaius
Cornelius, Grafen, Hippietrail, KVDP, Magioladitis, Martarius, Mooneyd, Mzajac, Nick Number, Rehno Lindeque, Toffanin, Trappist the monk, XLerate, Xerti, 17 anonymous edits
3D reconstruction Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=590153001 Contributors: Bearcat, Cerebellum, Codename Lisa, Dancostin2003, Daniel Mietchen, Ermishin, Hu12,
Iohannes Animosus, Lmatt, Malcolma, Northamerica1000, S Marshall, Sinuhet, Snek01, 5 anonymous edits
Binary space partitioning Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=569902953 Contributors: Abdull, Altenmann, Amanaplanacanalpanama, Amritchowdhury, Angela,
AquaGeneral, Ariadie, B4hand, Bomazi, Brucenaylor, Brutaldeluxe, Bryan Derksen, Cbraga, Cgbuff, Chan siuman, Charles Matthews, ChrisGualtieri, Chrisjohnson, CyberSkull, Cybercobra,
DanielPharos, David Eppstein, Dcoetzee, Dionyziz, Dysprosia, Fredrik, Frencheigh, Gbruin, GregorB, Gyunt, Headbomb, Immibis, Immonster, Jafet, Jamesontai, Jkwchui, JohnnyMrNinja, Kdau,
Kelvie, KnightRider, Kri, LOL, Leithian, LogiNevermore, M-le-mot-dit, Mdob, Michael Hardy, Mild Bill Hiccup, Miquonranger03, Noxin911, NtpNtp, NuclearFriend, Obiwhonn, Oleg
Alexandrov, Operator link, Palmin, Percivall, Prikipedia, QuasarTE, RPHv, Reedbeta, Spodi, Stephan Leeds, Svick, Tabletop, Tarquin, The Anome, TreeMan100, Twri, Wiki alf, WikiLaurent,
WiseWoman, Wmahan, Wonghang, Yar Kramer, Zetawoof, 71 anonymous edits
Bounding interval hierarchy Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=527510270 Contributors: Altenmann, Czarkoff, David Eppstein, Imbcmdth, Michael Hardy, Oleg
Alexandrov, Rehno Lindeque, Snoopy67, Srleffler, Welsh, 26 anonymous edits
Bounding volume Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=582109189 Contributors: Aboeing, Aeris-chan, Ahering@cogeco.ca, Altenmann, CardinalDan, Chris the speller,
DavidCary, Flamurai, Forderud, Frank Shearar, Gdr, Gene Nygaard, Interiot, Iridescent, Jafet, Jaredwf, Lambiam, LokiClock, M-le-mot-dit, Michael Hardy, Oleg Alexandrov, Oli Filth,
Operativem, Pmaillot, RJHall, Reedbeta, Ryk, Sixpence, Smokris, Sterrys, T-tus, Tony1212, Tosha, Werddemer, WikHead, 45 anonymous edits
Bounding volume hierarchy Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=560904104 Contributors: Asdfwtf, Chire, David Eppstein, Ddegirmenci, Gromobir, Henke37, Houjun8022,
Imbcmdth, Kri, Magioladitis, Magog the Ogre, Mecanismo, Michael Hardy, PeteBegin, Poxelcoll, Sae1962, Schreiberx, Svick, Tired time, ToSter, Twri, 5 anonymous edits
Box modeling Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=565525666 Contributors: 2112 rush, Addshore, Bluerasberry, Courcelles, David Eppstein, Derbeth, Dprust, Furrykef,
Greatpoo, Johnmperry, Jonburney, Junkyardprince, Lulzmango, Magioladitis, Melligem, Metron4, Mild Bill Hiccup, Scott5114, Smith609, Some standardized rigour, Sparkit, 11 anonymous edits
CatmullClark subdivision surface Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=590642293 Contributors: Ahelps, Aquilosion, Ati3414, Austin512, Bebestbe, Berland, Chase me
ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Chikako, Cristiprefac, Cyp, David Eppstein, Decora, Duncan.Hull, Elmindreda, Empoor, Forderud, Furrykef, Giftlite, Goatcheese3, Gorbay, Guffed, Harmsma, Ianp5a,
Irtopiste, J.delanoy, Juhame, Karmacodex, Kinkybb, Krackpipe, Kubajzz, Lomacar, Michael Hardy, Mont29, Mr mr ben, My head itches, Mysid, Mystaker1, Niceguyedc, Nicholasbishop, Oleg
Alexandrov, Pablodiazgutierrez, Rasmus Faber, Sigmundv, Skybum, Smcquay, Tomruen, Willpowered, 74 anonymous edits
Cloth modeling Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=579189625 Contributors: Alanbly, Andreas Kaufmann, Asav, Chowbok, E v popov, FusionNow, Jason Quinn, Mdd,
Oicumayberight, Ouzari, Rilak, Snoktruix, UAwiki, Updatehelper, Van helsing, Wavelength, Wolfkeeper, Xeno, Zundark, 9 anonymous edits
COLLADA Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=593344362 Contributors: 1mujin22, 3droberto, 99neurons, A03danan, ALoopingIcon, Aboeing, Altenmann, Amalas, Amckern,
Anthere, Austintate, BAxelrod, CALR, Cfrs, Chowbok, Danim, DennisRobinson, Derekleungtszhei, DiThi, Dsavi, Dstary, Ehsan2004, Elf, Erwincoumans, Expertoengrout, FordGT90Concept,
Frecklefoot, GDallimore, Gaius Cornelius, GeorgeLouis, Ghettoblaster, Gilliam, Grantor, Guy.hubert, Hans.dewitte, Hibou57, Iamsouthpaw, Jamelan, Jmath666, Jmdelrio1, Joecool79, JoeyPrink,
John Vandenberg, Jterrace, Karada, Khalid hassani, Kjmathew, Kocio, Lansd, Lawrencema, Lectonar, Locos epraix, LordYavin, Manoridius, Mboldisc, Mitch Ames, Moreati, Mr mr ben,
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MrOllie, Mugofjava, N00body, Nameless23, Nasa-verve, Nialsh, Nigosh, Now3d, OS2Warp, Pedant, Plattapuss, Pnm, Protectr, Qst, R'n'B, Racklever, Richardsan, Rksomayaji, Runtime,
Rwalker, RzR, Saforrest, Saudia-cmuetc, Seb35, Shadowfire87, Skadge, Slippy37, Somno, Springsuns, Stampsm, Swcisel, TBBle, TexasAndroid, TheCuriousGnome, Thunderbrand, Todd
Vierling, WaZim0, Waffleguy4, Who, Wilkswiki, XavierXerxes, Xeonx, 154 anonymous edits
Computed Corpuscle Sectioning Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=340006013 Contributors: Freedrat, Keesiewonder, Mdd, 15 anonymous edits
Computer representation of surfaces Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=576813380 Contributors: CapitalR, Chris the speller, Conscious, Daniel Mietchen, Davepape,
Eekerz, Freakofnurture, Freeformer, Leduart, Lindosland, Master of Puppets, Mentifisto, Michael Hardy, Oleg Alexandrov, Smurrayinchester, SoledadKabocha, StuRat, Zarex, 5 anonymous edits
Constructive solid geometry Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=593277804 Contributors: Alezk90, Altenmann, Andreas Fabri, AnonMoos, Ap, Aqua008, BenFrantzDale,
Blacklemon67, Brlcad, Bruce1ee, Bv3r, Captain Sprite, Charles Matthews, ChrisGualtieri, DanielPharos, DevastatorIIC, DrYak, Drttm, Dysprosia, E Wing, Ed g2s, Fmgazette, Fredrik, Gdr, Guy
Macon, HarisM, Iraytrace, Isilanes, J. Finkelstein, Jfmiller28, Jncraton, Karl-Henner, Kgibbs, Mate2code, MaxDZ8, Merovingian, Michael Hardy, Mikhajist, Mr mr ben, MrOllie, Mutley1989,
Nimur, Oleg Alexandrov, Onna, Operativem, PavelSolin, PhennPhawcks, Pietrow, Pjvpjv, R'n'B, RJHall, Rabbabodrool, RedWolf, Rgrof, Rsrikanth05, Segv11, Seliopou, Smjg, Sopoforic,
Sterrys, TexPaulus, Thumperward, TimBentley, Tomruen, Zonderr, 72 anonymous edits
Conversion between quaternions and Euler angles Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=590726533 Contributors: Anakin101, BlindWanderer, Charles Matthews, EdJohnston,
Eiserlohpp, Florent Lamiraux, Fmalan, Forderud, Gaius Cornelius, Guentherwagner, Hyacinth, Icairns, Icalanise, Incnis Mrsi, JWWalker, Jcuadros, Jemebius, Jgoppert, Jheald, JohnBlackburne,
JordiGH, Juansempere, Linas, Lionelbrits, Marcofantoni84, Mjb4567, Niac2, Oleg Alexandrov, PAR, Patrick, RJHall, Radagast83, Stamcose, Steve Lovelace, ThomasV, TobyNorris, Waldir,
Woohookitty, ZeroOne, 41 anonymous edits
Crowd simulation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=569053150 Contributors: Airplaneman, Aniboy2000, Axyzdesign, Cloderic, DMacks, Delmingo77, Dhatfield, Edward,
Epipelagic, Henrycwinco, Hoibywan, JAwiki83, Jazmatician, JeroenSteenbakkers, JonHarder, Kuru, LetterRip, Manocha 97, Mariapedrosa, Masaruemoto, Mikaelbarton, Mubbasir.kapadia,
Noformation, Oicumayberight, Pinethicket, Pmkpmk, R'n'B, Redress perhaps, Rodriguezmikel, Takomat, The Anome, Themat21III, UAwiki, Ushau97, Waldir, Yann.pinczondusel, Yeahy2,
Zoicon5, Zzo, 42 anonymous edits
Cutaway drawing Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=564485549 Contributors: A7N8X, Bigbluefish, Biker Biker, CommonsDelinker, DZNRKkCV, Geniac, Hmains,
Liontooth, Malcolma, Mdd, Northamerica1000, Ohnoitsjamie, Pisceesumsprecan, RainbowCrane, The Thing That Should Not Be, TomAlt, Zaheen, 11 anonymous edits
Demoparty Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=571824649 Contributors: 32X, Akilaa, Altenmann, Arjayay, Bobblewik, C3o, Croquemitaine2, Danhash, Dec1pher, Dennis714,
Froggy, G-Hell, Gargaj, Haemo, Icedog, J.delanoy, Mandarax, Mattl, Mcewan, Nialsh, Nmrd, Nunh-huh, Rhe br, Simon Strandgaard, Srleffler, Tygerdsebat, Viznut, Vossanova, 15 anonymous
edits
Depth map Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=588584137 Contributors: Albany NY, Bluefist, Dominicos, Dusti, Hyacinth, Zachlipton
Digital puppetry Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=585556669 Contributors: 4flattires, Aspects, BarrelProof, BradFraggle, Comrade Graham, Davidhorman, Dragice,
Erianna, Eric Stratton, Faolin42, Gaius Cornelius, Hektor, Histrion, JeffJonez, JordoCo, LSmok3, LtPowers, Majorly, Martarius, Mattbr, McDoobAU93, McGeddon, Metamatic, Number 57,
Rjwilmsi, SNIyer12, Smalljim, Sr7wiki, TKD, Tassedethe, Themeparkgc, Wavelength, Wine Guy, Zedpoinpoin, 76 anonymous edits
Dilution of precision (computer graphics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=583925783 Contributors: BRW, David Levy, Drbreznjev, Miracle Pen, RJHall, Wavelength,
Wheger, 6 anonymous edits
DooSabin subdivision surface Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=551288546 Contributors: Berland, Cuvette, Deodar, Forderud, Hagerman, Jitse Niesen, Michael Hardy,
Tomruen, 6 anonymous edits
Draw distance Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=584345228 Contributors: 25, Adso, Ar-wiki, Banus, Cawanpink, Deepomega, Diego Moya, Eldamorie, Exukvera,
Goncalopp, Happycoder89, Hollingdrakepaul, KLLvr283, MuZemike, Noerrorsfound, Oswax, Scottandrewhutchins, Sct72, Snesiscool, Stewartadcock, Th1rt3en, Tomtheeditor, Vreemdst, Xhin,
Y2kcrazyjoker4, ZS, 25 anonymous edits
Edge loop Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=581222944 Contributors: Albrechtphilly, Balloonguy, Costela, Fages, Fox144112, Furrykef, G9germai, George100, Grafen,
Gurch, Guy BlueSummers, J04n, Marasmusine, ProveIt, R'n'B, Scott5114, Skapur, Zundark, 13 anonymous edits
Euler operator Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=582868132 Contributors: Brad7777, BradBeattie, Dina, Elkman, Havemann, InverseHypercube, Jayprich, Jitse Niesen, Ldo,
Marylandwizard, Mecanismo, MetaNest, Michael Hardy, Mild Bill Hiccup, Tompw, 2 anonymous edits
Explicit modeling Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=584269901 Contributors: AvicAWB, Bearcat, DoctorKubla, JimVC3, LadyofShalott, Malcolma, Sanjaykumarjjjj,
Scotttsweeney
False radiosity Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=566959678 Contributors: Fratrep, Kostmo, Nainsal, Visionguru, 3 anonymous edits
Fiducial marker Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=593543061 Contributors: Ahunt, BenFrantzDale, CommonsDelinker, Edward, Electron9, Fbarw, Gilliam, Graham87,
GregorB, Ianneilmacleod, InternetMeme, Kirigiri, Kootsoop, KrakatoaKatie, Moonriddengirl, Neuronz, Nick Number, Petiatil, Primaler, Sameer9812, Shanes1007, WRJF, , 18 anonymous edits
Fluid simulation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=561134903 Contributors: Disavian, Ecstudent, EdGl, Erik9, Feline Hymnic, GSlicer, Jfmantis, Longbyte1, Macorosh,
Mijagourlay, Mootzoid, NeD80, Nehalem, Nextil, Pascal666, Premeditated Chaos, Rjwilmsi, Salih, Santiglu, Sanya3, Shinyary2, Snoktruix, Stib, Strangnet, Svick, Tommy2010, 57 anonymous
edits
Forward kinematic animation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=542508979 Contributors: Aboeing, Anetode, Bryan Derksen, Charles Matthews, Jiang, MrOllie,
Nehrams2020, Onebyone, Sabry hassouna, Sam Hocevar, TimBentley, Topbanana, Wknight94, 10 anonymous edits
Forward kinematics Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=558794311 Contributors: BigSEEN, Chaosdruid, DOSGuy, Danim, Deisysac, Frecklefoot, Hooperbloob, Jenniferskay,
Jhonqb7, Kkhauser, Michael Hardy, NeD80, Nunoplopes, O keyes, Prof McCarthy, RJFJR, Rami radwan, Roy Presley, Wknight94, 12 anonymous edits
Freeform surface modelling Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=592076018 Contributors: Bonasta, ChrisGualtieri, Crazycasta, Crvaught, DVD R W, Dancter, Danim,
Epbr123, Flutter2009, Freeformer, GadgetSteve, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Giftlite, Greg L, Gzalazar, JuniperFuse, Kingturtle, Kostmo, Leonard G., Meredyth, Michael Hardy, Minna Sora no Shita,
Mrt3366, MySchizoBuddy, NE2, Nallenscott, Nerdture, Onceler, Parametric66, RaySys, Rilak, Rjwilmsi, Safalra, SchreiberBike, Scriberius, Smashville, Sprocedato, Srice13, Tom Jenkins,
VitruV07, Vladsinger, Welsh, 57 anonymous edits
Geometry instancing Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=566269530 Contributors: Dvdjg, Genpfault, Kaathe, KrakatoaKatie, MaxDZ8, Michael Hardy, Mister fidget, NeD80,
Nousernamesleft, Richie Campbell, Sneftel, TheDeadlyShoe, Uthbrian, Wayne Hardman, Xpclient, 13 anonymous edits
Geometry pipelines Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=576563594 Contributors: Bejnar, Bumm13, Cybercobra, Eda eng, Frap, GL1zdA, Hazardous Matt, Jesse Viviano,
JoJan, Joy, Joyous!, Jpbowen, R'n'B, Rilak, Robertvan1, Shaundakulbara, Stephenb, W Nowicki, 14 anonymous edits
Geometry processing Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=560850158 Contributors: ALoopingIcon, Alanbly, Betamod, Dsajga, EpsilonSquare, Frecklefoot, Happyrabbit, JMK,
Jeff3000, JennyRad, Jeodesic, Lantonov, Michael Hardy, N2e, PJY, Poobslag, RJHall, Siddhant, Sterrys, 14 anonymous edits
Gimbal lock Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=587425348 Contributors: AzraelUK, B.d.mills, BRW, Beetstra, Bersl2, Bruyninc, Catclock, CatherineMunro, Cherkash,
Chetvorno, Cjcollier, DMahalko, Daev, Damjan1980, DarthNerdious, Davidhorman, Demomoer, Duxwing, Dysprosia, Eric Le Bigot, Fabien.chraim, Faffod, Featherwinglove, Furrykef, Gail,
Giftlite, Gmcrivello, GroverInfo, Herbee, Hooperbloob, Incnis Mrsi, JA.Davidson, JamesBWatson, Jarble, Jcloninger, Jesdisciple, JoOleaN, John, KSmrq, Karada, Katiecoh438, Kauffner,
Kevinpurcell, Khazar2, Kjinsert, Kku, Korval, Krientle, Kwan3217, Linas, Lookang, LtPowers, LucasVB, MacMog, Markioffe, MathsPoetry, Michael Hardy, Mild Bill Hiccup, Minesweeper,
MistyMorn, Mmeijeri, Mogism, N2e, Naddy, Nahum Reduta, Nbarth, NoNonsenseHumJock, PAR, PatheticCopyEditor, Patriotic dissent, PerryTachett, Pinethicket, Ppareit, R'n'B, Robinh,
SEIBasaurus, Shai-kun, Slawekb, Soler97, Sonett72, The Anome, Thumperward, Tom Duff, Toon81, Utcursch, Waldir, Wyatt915, 84 anonymous edits
Glide API Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=589319462 Contributors: Astronautics, Bbi5291, BoH, Brianski, BrownstoneKnockn, Comrade Graham, DRiLLA, DanielPharos,
Devil Master, Doug Bell, Frap, Ganimoth, Gargaj, GreatWhiteNortherner, Helpsloose, Hyperthermia, Imroy, Jtalledo, Kingadrock, Knight of BAAWA, Lavenderbunny, Lproven, MartectX,
Masterius, Maury Markowitz, Minghong, Qutezuce, RJHall, ROM SPACEKNIGHT, RekishiEJ, Rhe br, Ryanoasis, ScotXW, Swaaye, The Anome, Tim1357, Wuahn, Ysangkok, 59 anonymous
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GloriaFX Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=585910213 Contributors: BitBus, ChrisGualtieri, Kd1live, MrX
Hemicube (computer graphics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=552387990 Contributors: Favonian, Rocketmagnet, Tomruen, 3 anonymous edits
Image plane Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=543995208 Contributors: BenFrantzDale, CesarB, Michael C Price, RJHall, Reedbeta, TheParanoidOne, 1 anonymous edits
Image-based meshing Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=581479376 Contributors: Af1523, David Eppstein, Eboelen, Egallois, Gilliam, Iweber2003, Jitse Niesen, Michael
Hardy, Shervinemami, Simpleware123, Tckma, 5 anonymous edits
Inflatable icons Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=533506825 Contributors: Alex.muller, Dragentsheets, Erechtheus, Frogger3140, Hm2k, MrOllie, RainbowCrane,
Retodon8, Robofish, Trinitresque, 3 anonymous edits
Interactive Digital Centre Asia Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=384602136 Contributors: 3dcreator, Calaka, Fusnex, Tassedethe, 1 anonymous edits
Interactive skeleton-driven simulation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=582503189 Contributors: ChrisGualtieri, David Eppstein, Dineshkumar Ponnusamy, Dmr2,
EagleFan, Edward, ErkDemon, Foobarnix, Hongooi, J04n, JAF1970, JeffJonez, John of Reading, Lkinkade, Materialscientist, Neelix, Pekaje, RCX, Reyk, Rilak, Robofish, ScierGuy, Smalljim,
Woohookitty, 7 anonymous edits
Inverse kinematics Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=587912156 Contributors: Abmac, Aboeing, Acdx, Anetode, ArnoldReinhold, BAxelrod, Big dut, Chaos95, Chaosdruid,
Charles Matthews, Chojitsa, Closedmouth, DMahalko, Danim, Ddon, Decept404, Diego Moya, Dipankan001, Dratman, Drewnoakes, Dryea, Dvavasour, Ego White Tray, Frecklefoot, Furrykef,
GTubio, Hooperbloob, Hweihe, JaGa, Jac16888, Jibjibjib, Jmainpri, K.Nevelsteen, Kingpin13, MPaetkau, Maian, Maximus Rex, NeD80, Oceano2012, Openmouth, Prof McCarthy, Qwertyus,
RJHall, Radagast83, Rdiankov, Rich.hooper, Rilak, Roy Presley, Simeon, Slgrandson, Spoulakk, Sverdrup, Tide rolls, Tiptoety, Tomas e, Tuber, Ut40755, Van helsing, Vedantkumar,
Vonstroodl, Wabbit98, Waffleguy4, 70 anonymous edits
Isosurface Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=573152633 Contributors: Ariadacapo, Banus, Brad7777, CALR, Charles Matthews, Dergrosse, George100, Khalid hassani, Kku,
Kri, Michael Hardy, Onna, Ospalh, RJHall, RedWolf, Rudolf.hellmuth, Sam Hocevar, StoatBringer, Taw, The demiurge, Thurth, Tijfo098, TortoiseWrath, 8 anonymous edits
Joint constraints Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=458044863 Contributors: Banana04131, Chaosdruid, Cooperh, Dreadstar, EagleFan, ErkDemon, Icep, Mmernex,
Paolo.dL, Ravedave, Rofthorax, Salmar, 2 anonymous edits
Kinematic chain Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=560929876 Contributors: Andy Dingley, ArnoldReinhold, Bruyninc, Chaosdruid, CommonsDelinker, Danim, Dr.K.,
Gamsbart, John of Reading, Lyla1205, MattGiuca, NeD80, Prof McCarthy, Rich Farmbrough, Saimhe, Vijayant06631, crivain, 6 anonymous edits
Lambert's cosine law Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=585423819 Contributors: AvicAWB, AxelBoldt, Ben Moore, BenFrantzDale, Berean Hunter, Cellocgw, Charles
Matthews, Choster, Css, Dbenbenn, Deuar, Dufbug Deropa, Escientist, Gene Nygaard, GianniG46, Helicopter34234, Hhhippo, HiraV, Hugh Hudson, Inductiveload, Jcaruth123, Kri, Linas,
Magioladitis, Marcosaedro, Michael Hardy, Mpfiz, Oleg Alexandrov, OptoDave, Owen, PAR, Papa November, Patrick, Pflatau, Q Science, RDBury, RJHall, Radagast83, Ramjar, Robobix,
Scolobb, Seth Ilys, Srleffler, Telfordbuck, The wub, ThePI, Thorseth, Tomruen, Tpholm, 35 anonymous edits
Light stage Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=589319373 Contributors: LilHelpa, Redress perhaps, Tikuko, Tim1357
Light transport theory Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=580221468 Contributors: Beland, Chaoticbob, Chris the speller, Curious brain, Darrell Greenwood, DerHexer,
Elgordon, Favonian, Jammer6524, Laubzega, Mattfletcher, Qutezuce, Qxz, Requestion, ResidueOfDesign, Rilak, Rjwilmsi, Srleffler, Tkgd2007, 23 anonymous edits
Loop subdivision surface Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=546701115 Contributors: ChrisGualtieri, Egpetersen, Forderud, Michael Hardy, SimonFuhrmann, Tinucherian,
Tomruen, 2 anonymous edits
Low poly Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=570407408 Contributors: Aeusoes1, Avanu, Cerejota, Crahul, David Levy, Diego Moya, Edtion, GabrielOPadoan, InvisibleUp,
Josh Parris, Luky1971, Mardus, Plasmatics, Praetor alpha, RJHall, Ronz, Shell Kinney, SilkTork, Silver seren, Smalleditor, Soc8675309, Stultitiam debello, This, that and the other, Thu,
Thumperward, Vibhijain, Wbm1058, Wiz3kid, Zephyris, 13 anonymous edits
Marching cubes Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=585232143 Contributors: Abstracte, Accelerometer, Andreas Kaufmann, Anoko moonlight, Arru, Ciphers, Clemmy, David
Eppstein, Dcoetzee, Dispenser, Dormant25, Elifer, GregorB, Harro, Iweber2003, JamesBrownJr, Jimw338, Jmtrivial, Jstrater, Jtsiomb, Kri, Laserstorm, Lorensen, Mel Etitis, Michael Devore,
Mikhailfranco, Oleg Alexandrov, Ptxmac, Rudolf.hellmuth, Satchmo, Sjschen, Tijfo098, Tobo, , 42 anonymous edits
Mesh parameterization Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=481425556 Contributors: Ennetws, George100
Metaballs Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=564661788 Contributors: ABF, Abmac, Alansohn, Amberinie123, Anthony Appleyard, Asrghasrhiojadrhr, Capricorn42, Catgut,
Chester Markel, Chochopk, Cometstyles, Danukasan, Davidhorman, Deodar, Download, Eric-Wester, Faradayplank, Felsir, Forsteri, Frap, Frecklefoot, Furrykef, Gabzuka, Gurch, I do not exist,
Iron Wallaby, J.delanoy, JNW, Japanese Searobin, JeffLait, Jonnabuz, Jwz, Kibibu, Kku, NiTenIchiRyu, NormDor, ObfuscatePenguin, Piano non troppo, Quuxplusone, R'n'B, RDBury, RJHall,
RainbowCrane, Reedbeta, SharkD, Shinjin, Spinningspark, Sterrys, T-tus, The Thing That Should Not Be, Trombodave, Viznut, Vossanova, Yuckfoo, , 55 anonymous edits
Micropolygon Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=544010772 Contributors: Beland, David Eppstein, Dmaas, Flamurai, InnerJustice, Kimon, Moritz Moeller, RJHall, T-tus, 9
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Morph target animation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=546098496 Contributors: Ayavaron, CapitalR, David Eppstein, DavidConrad, Fama Clamosa, Fortdj33,
Martarius, Oicumayberight, Robofish, Smalljim, Tregoweth, 10 anonymous edits
Motion capture Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=592235574 Contributors: 007patrick, 1canuck2, 692351933two, 7, AJR, Abeld, Adamshand, Adashiel, Aeternus, Aff123a,
Alarics, Allens, Altzinn, Amhill4, Arts-ed-web, Asteuartw, Avoided, Bacinphx, Baiji, Ballerinailina, Batman tas, Befairplaynice, Bhny, Binary, BlastOButter42, Blr246, BobKerns, Bobblewik,
Bongwarrior, CanisRufus, CaptiveMotion, CarlosCoppola, Cat's Tuxedo, Cecilia-Marketing OM, Cganimation, Chenjeru, Chmod007, Chrisamichaels, Codamotion, ColorKipik, Colski,
CommonsDelinker, Cornellier, Corpsedust, Csusarah, Ctbolt, Cybernerd1999, Dadofsam, Dancter, Daniel Mietchen, Desmall, Dger, Dhatfield, Dieselbub, Dman mocap, Dragice, Dvd-junkie, E
Wing, Edward Z. Yang, Eloy, EncMstr, Eptin, Erianna, Erik, Eva gloss, Felicity4711, FenristheWolf, Fluffystar, Fortdj33, Freakofnurture, Frecklefoot, Furrykef, GM11, Game-Guru999, Geni,
Geoffspear, Gios, GirDraxa, Glen, Glenmark, Gothicfilm, HCA, Hajenso, Hajor, HalfShadow, Hipocrite, II Ross II, Ian Pitchford, Ianblair23, Ilikefood, Immblueversion, Inition, Interiot,
Itroll69420, J Di, J.delanoy, JBKramer, Janke, Janko, Janto, Jason Quinn, JasonAQuest, Jedi94, Jeff Merritt, JeffJonez, Jengelh, Jer4346, Jeremybirn, John Reid, Joriki, Jort227, Josh23french,
Kingpin13, Kintetsubuffalo, Kittins floating in the sky yay, Kku, Koza1983, Krohneew, Leaderofearth, Leladax, Limited, Lindosland, LittleSmall, Lmtanco, LorenzoB, Lumoy, Lunzueta78,
MacCool, MangaFalzy, Marasmusine, Martarius, MasterOfTheXP, Materialscientist, Maurice Carbonaro, McGeddon, Mdd4696, Melonkelon, Michael Snow, Mini mocap, Miss Manzana,
Mocapservices, Mocapstudios, Modeha, Mogism, Motioncap, Motioncapture, Mounirzok, Mr MoCap, Msgarrett, Muhammad.ashim, Murata, Myf, Mysid, Nick R, NotACow, NuclearWarfare,
ONEder Boy, Oakshade, Paranoid, Paul A, Pedant, Peeldog, Phobsn, Pikawil, Pixelface, Pjacobi, Plowboylifestyle, Porterjoh, Postdlf, Prasha.ina, Qwertyuiop71944, RJHall, Radagast83,
Rameshmerl, Redress perhaps, RenniePet, Rich Farmbrough, Richl38, Rmctodd, Robert K S, RobertM52, Rpf 81, Rumtumtum, Ryan256, Sam Hocevar, Sapporod1965, Sasuke Sarutobi,
Sbolduc, Sbowers3, Sbrockway, SchuminWeb, Sergeyy, Shinkocheng, Shmuel, SimonP, Smokizzy, Sonicsuns, Starkiller88, Stefano001, SteinAlive, Steve Pucci, T-tus, TDogg310, Tarinth,
Tbhotch, Tempshill, TenPoundHammer, Tenebrae, Th1rt3en, Thatotherperson, The Cake is a Lie, Themfromspace, Thu, Tikiwont, Tmcsheery, Tomer 070, TriMesh, VampyreDark, Vanished
User 8a9b4725f8376, VanishedUserABC, Veghead, Veinor, Verymadbob, Vinniereddy, Waldir, Wavelength, Wendywaterman, Wikitanvir, Wildroot, Xaviercarpentier, Zedmelon, 592
anonymous edits
Newell's algorithm Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=570372988 Contributors: Andreas Kaufmann, Charles Matthews, David Eppstein, Farley13, KnightRider, Komap,
RockMagnetist, TowerOfBricks, 6 anonymous edits
Non-uniform rational B-spline Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=593692846 Contributors: *drew, ALoopingIcon, Ahellwig, Alan Parmenter, Alanbly, Alansohn,
AlphaPyro, Andreas Kaufmann, Angela, Apparition11, Ati3414, BAxelrod, BMF81, Barracoon, BenFrantzDale, Berland, Buddelkiste, C0nanPayne, Cgbuff, Cgs, Commander Keane, Crahul,
DMahalko, Dallben, Developer, Dhatfield, Dmmd123, Doradus, DoriSmith, Ensign beedrill, Eric Demers, Ettrig, FF2010, Forderud, Fredrik, Freeformer, Furrykef, Gargoyle888, Gea, Graue,
Greg L, Happyrabbit, Hasanisawi, Hazir, HugoJacques1, HuyS3, Ian Pitchford, Ihope127, Iltseng, J04n, JFPresti, JJC1138, JohnBlackburne, Jusdafax, Kaldari, Karlhendrikse, Khunglongcon,
KoenDelaere, LeTrebuchet, Lou schaefer, Lzur, Maccarthaigh d, Malarame, Mardson, MarmotteNZ, Matthijs, Mauritsmaartendejong, Maury Markowitz, Meungkim, Michael Hardy, Migilik,
NPowerSoftware, Nedaim, Neostarbuck, Newbiepedian, Nichalp, Nick, Nick Pisarro, Jr., Nijun, Nintend06, Oleg Alexandrov, Orborde, Oxymoron83, Palapa, Parametric66, Pashute, Peter M
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Gerdes, Pgimeno, Puchiko, Purwar, Quinacrine, Qutezuce, Radical Mallard, Rasmus Faber, Rconan, Reelrt, Regenwolke, Rfc1394, Ronz, Roundaboutyes, Sedimin, Skrapion, SlowJEEP,
SmilingRob, Speck-Made, Spitfire19, Stefano.anzellotti, Stewartadcock, Strangnet, Sukesh pabba, Taejo, Tamfang, The Anome, Toolnut, Tsa1093, Uwe rossbacher, VitruV07, Vladsinger,
Whaa?, WulfTheSaxon, Xcoil, Xmnemonic, Yahastu, Yousou, ZeroOne, Zoodinger.Dreyfus, Zootalures, , 212 anonymous edits
Nonobtuse mesh Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=529588100 Contributors: Andreas Kaufmann, Arcenciel, Cardamon, Cobi, David Eppstein, Edward, MZMcBride, Michael
Hardy, Muichon, Rich Farmbrough, 6 anonymous edits
Normal (geometry) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=581278108 Contributors: 16@r, 4C, Aboalbiss, Abrech, Aquishix, Arcfrk, BenFrantzDale, Chris Howard,
ChrisGualtieri, D.Lazard, Daniele.tampieri, Dori, Dysprosia, Editsalot, Elembis, Epolk, Excirial, Fgnievinski, Fixentries, Frecklefoot, Furrykef, Gene Nygaard, Giftlite, Hakeem.gadi, Herbee, Ilya
Voyager, InternetMeme, JasonAD, JohnBlackburne, JonathanHudgins, Jorge Stolfi, Joseph Myers, KSmrq, Kostmo, Kushal one, LOL, Lunch, Madmath789, Michael Hardy, ObscureAuthor,
Oleg Alexandrov, Olegalexandrov, Paolo.dL, Patrick, Paulheath, Pazouzou, Pooven, Quanda, Quondum, R'n'B, RDBury, RJHall, RevenDS, Serpent's Choice, Skytopia, Smessing, Squash,
Sterrys, Subhash15, Takomat, Vkpd11, Zvika, 52 anonymous edits
Painter's algorithm Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=580518767 Contributors: 16@r, Andreas Kaufmann, BlastOButter42, Bryan Derksen, Cgbuff, EoGuy, Fabiob,
Farley13, Feezo, Finell, Finlay McWalter, Fredrik, Frietjes, Hhanke, Jaberwocky6669, Jmabel, JohnBlackburne, KnightRider, Komap, Mickoush, Norm, Ordoon, PRMerkley, Phyte, RJHall,
RadRafe, Rainwarrior, Rasmus Faber, Reedbeta, Rufous, Shai-kun, Shanes, Sreifa01, Sterrys, SteveBaker, Sverdrup, WISo, Whatsthatcomingoverthehill, Zapyon, 26 anonymous edits
Parallax barrier Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=574071397 Contributors: 123GhostMonkey, Acalamari, AxelBoldt, CanadianLinuxUser, Chris the speller, ChrisGualtieri,
Chrismiceli, Cmglee, Conquerist, Criffer, CuriousEric, Cwjakesteel, Dakovski, DanTheMormon, Edcolins, FireyFly, Fluffystar, Hghyux, Iain99, JMyrleFuller, JonathanMather, Jovianeye,
Karlhendrikse, Ksajan16, Luvcraft, Magioladitis, Mather1, Mister Mormon, Mpa5220, Mumiemonstret, NFreak007, NetRolller 3D, Penubag, Pomte, Qsaw, RW Marloe, Reywas92, Smalljim,
Some guy, Sonicdude558, Strasburger, ThomasO1989, Unicycle77, ZooFari, 46 anonymous edits
Parallel rendering Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=562172759 Contributors: Abdull, Archwyrm, Bejnar, Bovineone, Charles Matthews, Clicketyclack, Edward, Eile,
GeorgeMoney, JDG, JustinHagstrom, Khar khar, Khar khar78, M-le-mot-dit, Mandarax, Miym, RJHall, Rilak, Sandeep.chandna, SchreiberBike, ThomasHarte, Wikibarista,
Youshotwhointhewhatnow, 20 anonymous edits
Particle system Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=580492666 Contributors: Aliakakis, Ashlux, Athlord, Baron305, Bjrn, CanisRufus, Charles Matthews, Chris the speller,
Darthuggla, Deadlydog, Deodar, Eekerz, Ferdzee, Fractal3, Furrykef, Gamer3D, Gracefool, Halixi72, Jay1279, Jpbowen, Jtsiomb, Ketiltrout, Kibibu, Krizas, Lesser Cartographies, LilHelpa,
MarSch, MrOllie, Mrwojo, Onebyone, Oxfordwang, Philip Trueman, Rocketrod1960, Rror, Salvidrim!, Sameboat, Schmiteye, SchreiberBike, ScottDavis, SethTisue, Shanedidona, Sideris,
Sterrys, SteveBaker, Sun Creator, The Merciful, Thesalus, Tjmax99, Vegaswikian, Zzuuzz, 78 anonymous edits
Point cloud Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=589486212 Contributors: 3dscanguru, ALoopingIcon, AbsolutDan, Alsocal, Americanhero, Amin Hashem, Bensmith, CALR,
Ch0c0lina, CloudNine, Cretog8, Cteutsch, Dante Alighieri, Delirium, Derick1259, Dgirardeau, Equendil, Herdingcats2, Hooperbloob, Iltseng, Imroy, Ldo, LucasVB, Manop, Marianika, Michael
Hardy, Mike Stramba, Nathan nfm, NathanHagen, NeD80, Oleg Alexandrov, P.arashnia, PJ Geest, Poor Yorick, Qr189, RainbowCrane, Rbrusu, Rchoetzlein, Rmashhadi, Ron.swonger, Ryan
Roos, Sarkadiu, Sibazyun, Staszek Lem, Stoermerjp, Thumperward, Wolfkeeper, 26 anonymous edits
Polygon (computer graphics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=576263896 Contributors: Arnero, BlazeHedgehog, CALR, David Levy, Diego Moya, Forderud, Iceman444k,
J04n, Jagged 85, Mardus, Michael Hardy, Navstar, Pietaster, RJHall, Reedbeta, SimonP, 3 anonymous edits
Polygon mesh Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=593133589 Contributors: ALoopingIcon, Alcexhim, Andreas Kaufmann, Ariadacapo, ArmyRetired, BenFrantzDale, Berland,
Chadernook, Chrschn, Cobaltcigs, Cobi, Cornellier, Crahul, David Eppstein, Der Golem, EthanL, Evakuate, Fnunnari, Foobaz, Forderud, Furrykef, Giftlite, Gongshow, HannesJvV, Happyrabbit,
Hasanisawi, Havemann, Huttarl, Hymek, Jengelh, Jeodesic, Jirka Nmec, Kevin, Kku, Kri, LilHelpa, Lobsterbake, MaSt, Mackseem, Marc-Andr Abrock, Maskurii, Me Three, Michael Hardy,
Mr.stilt, Nameless23, Pnm, PraetorianFury, Quinacrine, Radical Mallard, Rchoetzlein, Reyk, Ronz, Shtamy, Siddhant, Some Old Man, SoylentGreen, Srodrig, Sterrys, Svick, Tamfang, Tetracube,
Tim1357, Tom Edwards, Tom macknight, Tomas e, Tomruen, Trollzz, Victorbabkov, Waldir, Wiz3kid, Wwlin, Wykypydya, , 121 anonymous edits
Polygon soup Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=563993794 Contributors: Elektrik Shoos, Jfmantis, LaidlawFX, LeftClicker, SimenH, 1 anonymous edits
Polygonal modeling Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=590857550 Contributors: ALoopingIcon, Alai, Aperittos, Ayavaron, BD2412, Ben pcc, Brad Halls, Burschik, Charles
Matthews, Chowbok, Daniel J. Leivick, DanielPharos, David Eppstein, Diego Moya, Dr Gangrene, Drf5n, Edtion, EpsilonSquare, Ericbeg, Eumolpo, FMax, Forderud, Furrykef, GoingBatty,
Hexicola, J.delanoy, Jbalint, Jreynaga, KenArthur, Kingoomieiii, Kostmo, Kuru, Leksanski, Lightmouse, LpGod, M-le-mot-dit, Mdd4696, Mwtoews, Nintendude, Pak21, Peter L, Peter M
Gerdes, Piotrus, Pnm, RJFJR, Rchoetzlein, Ricosenna, Sterrys, TenOfAllTrades, ZS, 47 anonymous edits
Pre-rendering Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=592968358 Contributors: Albany NY, Amalas, Bob A, CougRoyalty, CyberSkull, DanielPharos, Darkmaster01,
Darthbob100, Fsantos222, Gimboid, Glacialfox, Green451, Guiltyspark, Hellknowz, Jagged 85, Jonkerz, JubalHarshaw, KyraVixen, M-le-mot-dit, MonkeyKingBar, Moriori, MrPenbrook,
Prolifix - Zaretser, RememberCharlie, Revth, RockMFR, Shawnc, TVippy, Vendettax, 26 anonymous edits
Precomputed Radiance Transfer Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=589319599 Contributors: Abstracte, Colonies Chris, Deodar, Fanra, Imroy, Red Act, SteveBaker,
Tesi1700, Tim1357, WhiteMouseGary, 7 anonymous edits
Procedural modeling Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=531334311 Contributors: Alan Liefting, Chris TC01, Daftchunk, EikeFA, Frecklefoot, Inthoforo, Jenseevinck,
Joelholdsworth, Licu, ScaledLizard, Some standardized rigour, The-Wretched, 27 anonymous edits
Procedural texture Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=591287443 Contributors: Altenmann, Besieged, CapitalR, Cargoking, D6, Dhatfield, Eflouret, Foolscreen, Gadfium,
Geh, Gurch, IndigoMertel, Jacoplane, Joeybuddy96, Ken md, MaxDZ8, Michael Hardy, MoogleDan, Nezbie, Ntfs.hard, PaulBoxley, Petalochilus, RhinosoRoss, Spark, Thparkth, TimBentley,
Viznut, Volfy, Wikedit, Wragge, Zundark, 22 anonymous edits
Progressive meshes Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=551441516 Contributors: Jirka Nmec, Rcsprinter123, 3 anonymous edits
3D projection Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=589766195 Contributors: AManWithNoPlan, Aekquy, Akilaa, Akulo, Alfio, Allefant, Altenmann, Angela, Aniboy2000,
Baudway, BenFrantzDale, Berland, Bgwhite, Bloodshedder, Bobbygao, BrainFRZ, Bunyk, Canthusus, Charles Matthews, Cholling, Chris the speller, Ckatz, Cpl Syx, Ctachme, Cyp, Datadelay,
Davidhorman, Deom, Dhatfield, Dratman, Ego White Tray, Flamurai, Froth, Furrykef, Gamer Eek, Giftlite, Heymid, Ieay4a, Jaredwf, Jovianconflict, Kevmitch, Lincher, Luckyherb, Marco Polo,
Martarius, MathsIsFun, Mdd, Michael Hardy, Michaelbarreto, Miym, Mrwojo, Nbarth, Oleg Alexandrov, Omegatron, Paolo.dL, Patrick, Pearle, PhilKnight, Pickypickywiki, Plowboylifestyle,
PsychoAlienDog, Que, R'n'B, RJHall, Rabiee, Raven in Orbit, Remi0o, RenniePet, Rjwilmsi, RossA, Sandeman684, Sboehringer, Schneelocke, Seet82, SharkD, Sietse Snel, Skytiger2, Speshall,
Stephan Leeds, Stestagg, Tamfang, Technopat, TimBentley, Trappist the monk, Tristanreid, Twillisjr, Tyler, Unigfjkl, Van helsing, Vgergo, Waldir, Widr, Zanaq, 111 anonymous edits
Projective texture mapping Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=482361764 Contributors: CapitalR, ChaimSanders, Cmdrjameson, Garion96, Heimstern, Hurricane111, Ian
Pitchford, LeeHunter, MaxDZ8, Ms2ger, Qutezuce, Rilak, Thue, Who, 12 anonymous edits
Pyramid of vision Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=551980986 Contributors: CatherineMunro, DavidCary, Frigo, RainbowCrane, Xavax, 2 anonymous edits
Quantitative Invisibility Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=536997118 Contributors: C12H22O11, C6541, Dicklyon, Frencheigh, Gioto, Infovarius, Patrick, Sweat1nce,
Wheger, 3 anonymous edits
Quaternions and spatial rotation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=592935342 Contributors: AeronBuchanan, Albmont, Ananthsaran7, ArnoldReinhold, AxelBoldt,
BD2412, Ben pcc, BenFrantzDale, BenRG, Bgwhite, Bjones410, Bmju, Brews ohare, Bulee, CALR, Catskul, Ceyockey, Chadernook, Charles Matthews, CheesyPuffs144, Count Truthstein, Cyp,
Daniel Brockman, Daniel.villegas, Darkbane, David Eppstein, Davidjholden, Denevans, Depakote, Dionyziz, Dl2000, Download, Ebelular, Edward, Endomorphic, Enosch, Eregli bob,
Eugene-elgato, Fgnievinski, Fish-Face, Forderud, ForrestVoight, Fropuff, Fyrael, Gaius Cornelius, GangofOne, Genedial, Giftlite, Gj7, Gonz3d, Gutza, HenryHRich, Hyacinth, Ig0r, Incnis Mrsi,
J04n, Janek Kozicki, Jemebius, Jermcb, Jheald, Jitse Niesen, JohnBlackburne, JohnPritchard, JohnnyMrNinja, Josh Triplett, Joydeep.biswas, KSmrq, Kborer, Kordas, Lambiam, LeandraVicci,
Lemontea, Light current, Linas, Lkesteloot, Looxix, Lotu, Lourakis, LuisIbanez, Maksim343, ManoaChild, Markus Kuhn, MathsPoetry, Michael C Price, Michael Hardy, Mike Stramba, Mild Bill
Hiccup, Mtschoen, Nayuki, Oleg Alexandrov, Onlinetexts, PAR, Paddy3118, Paolo.dL, Patrick, Patrick Gill, Patsuloi, PiBVi, Ploncomi, Pt, Quondum, RJHall, Rainwarrior, Randallbsmith,
Reddi, Reddwarf2956, Rgdboer, Robinh, Ruffling, RzR, Samuel Huang, Sebsch, Short Circuit, Sigmundur, SlavMFM, Soler97, TLKeller, Tamfang, Terry Bollinger, Timo Honkasalo, Tkuvho,
TobyNorris, User A1, WVhybrid, Wa03, WaysToEscape, X-Fi6, Yoderj, Zhw, Zundark, 224 anonymous edits
Andreas Raab Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=568203152 Contributors: AtticusX, CodeZeilen, Eliotmiranda, Frank Shearar, Gbawden, Gbracha, Hroulf, Itsmeront,
LittleWink, Racklever, 39 anonymous edits
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RealityEngine Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=593361951 Contributors: Dreadstar, Driscoll, Giraffedata, Rilak, Shieldforyoureyes, W Nowicki, 3 anonymous edits
Reflection (computer graphics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=541710956 Contributors: Al Hart, Chris the speller, Dbolton, Dhatfield, Epbr123, Hom sepanta, Jeodesic,
Kri, M-le-mot-dit, PowerSerj, Remag Kee, Rich Farmbrough, Siddhant, Simeon, Srleffler, 5 anonymous edits
Relief mapping (computer graphics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=570483454 Contributors: ALoopingIcon, D6, Dionyziz, Editsalot, Eep, JonH, Korg, M-le-mot-dit,
PeterRander, PianoSpleen, Qwyrxian, R'n'B, Scottc1988, Searchme, Simeon, Sirus20x6, Starkiller88, Vitorpamplona, Zyichen, 17 anonymous edits
Retained mode Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=578246862 Contributors: BAxelrod, Bovineone, Chris Chittleborough, Damian Yerrick, Klassobanieras, Peter L, Simeon,
SteveBaker, Uranographer, 13 anonymous edits
Scene description language Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=574701893 Contributors: Cedar101, Descubes, Frap, Rpyle731, Sopher99
Schlick's approximation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=589477369 Contributors: Alhead, AlphaPyro, Anticipation of a New Lover's Arrival, The, AySz88,
BenFrantzDale, KlappCK, Kri, Shenfy, Svick, 10 anonymous edits
Sculpted prim Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=584897473 Contributors: AySz88, Bato Brendel, Canoe1967, Colanderman, Eekerz, Erasme Beck, EthanL,
Hussayn.dabbous, Iohannes Animosus, Kenchikuben, Kim SJ, LilHelpa, Mackseem, Master of Puppets, Michael Hardy, Mogism, Oleg Alexandrov, Piotrus, Radical Mallard, Remag Kee,
Signpostmarv, Toussaint, WRK, WikiCLT, 31 anonymous edits
Silhouette edge Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=519305799 Contributors: BenFrantzDale, David Levy, Forderud, Gaius Cornelius, Quibik, RJHall, Rjwilmsi, Wheger, 17
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Skeletal animation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=591542366 Contributors: Adjusting, AsceticRose, Avix, Batman tas, Chakmeshma, Datahaki, Davedx, David C, David
Eppstein, Dhatfield, Doc glasgow, Fama Clamosa, Freakofnurture, Gabbs1, Gerbrant, Hogdotmac, Honkerpeck, Idmillington, JeffJonez, Kukini, Lindosland, Loren.wilton, Lugia2453,
Marasmusine, MattGiuca, Merovingian, MrOllie, Mrwojo, Oicumayberight, Paril, Quenhitran, RlyehRising, Smalljim, SmoothPorcupine, Stefano001, VanishedUserABC, Vincent Simar,
Yann.pinczondusel, Zozart, 45 anonymous edits
Sketch-based modeling Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=593624299 Contributors: David Eppstein, EdGl, Frap, Furrykef, KenArthur, Pjrich, Ronz, Scope creep,
Wavelength, 10 anonymous edits
Smoothing group Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=532336380 Contributors: Captain panda, Pichpich, SolowandererY2K
Soft body dynamics Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=568081997 Contributors: Aboeing, Adrian Lange, Ae-a, AwamerT, BigrTex, Chris the speller, Dialectric,
Dineshkumar Ponnusamy, Distrikt, E v popov, Everton.hermann, J04n, Jacklee, Jerryobject, Jorge Stolfi, Kkmurray, Kotiwalo, LilHelpa, Michaelas10, Mmmovania, Numsgil, Phil Boswell,
Remag Kee, Ricvelozo, Rilak, Ryttaren, Snoktruix, Zundark, 52 anonymous edits
Solid modeling Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=589467339 Contributors: -19S.137.93.171, 3dscanguru, 3dscience, ALoopingIcon, Altenmann, BD2412, Bdiscoe, Betamod,
Bjornwireen, Brirush, Cartoro, Charles Matthews, CharlesC, Chollapete, Cyon Steve, Danhash, Dart555, Dmmd123, Dthede, Electriccatfish2, Freeformer, Greg L, Ian.stroud, Ivokabel,
Iweber2003, JFPresti, JHunterJ, Klemen Kocjancic, Kubanczyk, L.djinevski, Martarius, Michael Hardy, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mogism, MrOllie, Nddstudent, Oanjao, Ohnoitsjamie, Onna, Patstuart,
PavelSolin, Radagast83, Rilak, RosaMcVey, Salvar, Schwarrx, Shadowjams, Some standardized rigour, Subbob, Tinss, Tortillovsky, Tosaka1, Victorbabkov, VitruV07, Welsh, Zarex, 59
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Sparse voxel octree Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=545916202 Contributors: Malcolmxl5, Strafym, Tony1, Wolfkeeper, 5 anonymous edits
Specularity Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=581501673 Contributors: Barticus88, Dori, Fluffystar, Frap, Hetar, JDspeeder1, Jh559, M-le-mot-dit, Megan1967, Mild Bill
Hiccup, Nboughen, Neonstarlight, Nintend06, Oliver Lineham, Utrecht gakusei, Volfy, 5 anonymous edits
Static mesh Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=486308748 Contributors: Axem Titanium, Drehxm, Kireclebnul, Owoc, Tomer 070, WGH, 3 anonymous edits
Stereoscopic acuity Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=573497598 Contributors: Chris the speller, Eumolpo, FerrousCathode, Fluffystar, Gwestheimer, Hyacinth, Staticd, 2
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Subdivision surface Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=572260730 Contributors: Ablewisuk, Abmac, Andreas Fabri, Ati3414, Banus, Berland, BoredTerry, Boubek,
Brock256, Bubbleshooting, CapitalR, Charles Matthews, Crucificator, David Eppstein, Decora, Deodar, Feureau, Flamurai, Forderud, Furrykef, Giftlite, Husond, Khazar2, Korval, Lauciusa,
Levork, Listmeister, Lomacar, MIT Trekkie, Mark viking, Moritz Moeller, MoritzMoeller, Mysid, Nczempin, Norden83, Pifthemighty, Quinacrine, Qutezuce, RJHall, Radioflux, Rasmus Faber,
Romainbehar, Shorespirit, Smcquay, Surfgeom, Tabletop, The-Wretched, WorldRuler99, Xingd, 55 anonymous edits
Supinfocom Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=562538804 Contributors: Asteuartw, Johnpacklambert, Pjrich, Sahils1512, Sahilsardessai, 5 anonymous edits
Surface caching Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=542303130 Contributors: Amalas, AnteaterZot, AvicAWB, Brian Geppert, Forderud, Fredrik, Hephaestos, KirbyMeister,
LOL, Lockley, Markb, Mika1h, Miyagawa, Resoru, Schneelocke, Thunderbrand, Tregoweth, 16 anonymous edits
Surfel Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=546509531 Contributors: BenFrantzDale, Constructive editor, David Levy, Miaow Miaow, Sadads, 7 anonymous edits
Suzanne Award Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=589715358 Contributors: Alabandit, Aliuken, BRW, Belinrahs, D6, Dany 123, Dbolton, DeadEyeArrow, Discospinster,
DoctorKubla, ErkinBatu, Ethomson92, Feureau, Fraggle81, GDallimore, Haunt House, Improv, Julian Herzog, MichaelSchoenitzer, Not Accessible, Sn1per, Toussaint, 18 anonymous edits
Time-varying mesh Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=565403029 Contributors: Alvestrand, Dana boomer, DoctorKubla, Jianfengxu, SchuminWeb, WQUlrich
Timewarps Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=562564108 Contributors: Aeusoes1, Fortdj33, Jefficus, Mercurywoodrose, Pascal.Tesson, 1 anonymous edits
Triangle mesh Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=548309518 Contributors: Andreas Kaufmann, Cardamon, David Eppstein, Dermeister, Ericbeg, Fixentries, Iltseng,
Martabosch, Mauritsmaartendejong, Meegs, Reyk, SteveBaker, The Anome, Thumperward, Zundark, 13 anonymous edits
Vector slime Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=582900372 Contributors: DuckersOfOutracks, GoingBatty, Meredyth, Mikkel, Rjwilmsi, Vossanova, Welsh, 9 anonymous
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Vertex (geometry) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=585830807 Contributors: ABF, Aaron Kauppi, AbigailAbernathy, Aitias, Americanhero, Anyeverybody, Ataleh,
Azylber, Butterscotch, CMBJ, Coopkev2, Crisis, Cronholm144, David Eppstein, DeadEyeArrow, Discospinster, DoubleBlue, Duoduoduo, Epicgenius, Escape Orbit, Fixentries, Fly by Night,
Funandtrvl, Giftlite, Hvn0413, Icairns, J.delanoy, JForget, Jamesx12345, Knowz, Leuko, M.Virdee, Magioladitis, MarsRover, Martin von Gagern, Mecanismo, Mendaliv, Methecooldude,
Mhaitham.shammaa, Mikayla102295, Miym, NatureA16, Orange Suede Sofa, Panscient, Petrb, Pinethicket, Pumpmeup, R'n'B, Racerx11, SGBailey, SchfiftyThree, Shinli256, Shyland,
SimpleParadox, Squids and Chips, StaticGull, Steelpillow, Synchronism, TheWeakWilled, TimtheTarget, Tomruen, WaysToEscape, William Avery, WissensDrster, Wywin, , 155
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Vertex Buffer Object Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=592187403 Contributors: Acdx, Allenc28, BRW, Frecklefoot, GoingBatty, Jgottula, Joy, Korval, Ng Pey Shih 07,
Omgchead, Psychonaut, Red Act, Robertbowerman, Tarantulae, 32 anonymous edits
Vertex (computer graphics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=592768322 Contributors: Bejnar, Fabtagon, Kri, Madanor, Panscient, Santryl, Superlynx98, 4 anonymous edits
Vertex pipeline Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=558820325 Contributors: Arundhati bakshi, Barte, Dekart, Fernvale, Magioladitis, Mwmorph, RoyBoy, 5 anonymous edits
Viewing frustum Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=589795858 Contributors: Archelon, AvicAWB, Craig Pemberton, Crossmr, Cyp, DavidCary, Dbchristensen, Dpv, Eep,
Flamurai, Gdr, Hymek, Innercash, LarsPensjo, M-le-mot-dit, MithrandirMage, MusicScience, Nimur, Poccil, RJHall, Reedbeta, Robth, Shashank Shekhar, Torav, Welsh, Widefox, , 14
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Viewport Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=590748902 Contributors: BitterSTAR, Chealer, Codename Lisa, Diego Moya, KrisRandle, Mpfproducts, NeD80, Rich
Farmbrough, RobIII, SimonTrew, Singforlife, Tabor, Vsmith, Wikid77, , 9 anonymous edits
Virtual actor Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=573745819 Contributors: ASU, Aqwis, BD2412, Bensin, Chowbok, Danielthalmann, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Donfbreed,
DragonflySixtyseven, ErkDemon, FernoKlump, Fu Kung Master, Hughdbrown, Jabberwoch, Joseph A. Spadaro, Lenticel, LilHelpa, Martarius, Martijn Hoekstra, Mikola-Lysenko, NYKevin,
Neelix, Otto4711, Piski125, Retired username, Sammy1000, Tavix, Uncle G, Vassyana, Woohookitty, Xezbeth, 25 anonymous edits
Virtual environment software Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=583136101 Contributors: Frap, F, GoingBatty, KenyonHayward, Rich Farmbrough, Sudhir h, 5
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Virtual replay Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=535011126 Contributors: INVERTED, Natl1, RainbowCrane, Trivialist
Volume mesh Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=516131719 Contributors: Anders Sandberg, Brusselandfriends, David Eppstein, Fleebo, Michael Hardy, Mr9737, Qetuth,
Rchoetzlein, Rich Farmbrough, Scog, Shire Reeve
Voxel Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=593552947 Contributors: Accounting4Taste, Alansohn, Alfio, Andreba, Andrewmu, Ariesdraco, Aursani, Axl, B-a-b, BenFrantzDale,
Bendykst, Biasedeyes, Bigdavesmith, Blackberry Sorbet, BlindWanderer, Bojilov, Borek, Bornemix, Calliopejen1, Carpet, Centrx, Chris the speller, CommonsDelinker, Craig Pemberton,
Cristan, Ctachme, CyberSkull, Czar, Daeval, Damian Yerrick, Dawidl, DefenceForce, Diego Moya, Dragon1394, DreamGuy, Dubyrunning, Editorfun, Erik Zachte, Everyking, Flarn2006,
Fredrik, Frostedzeo, Fubar Obfusco, Furrykef, George100, Gordmoo, Gousst, Gracefool, GregorB, Hairy Dude, Haya shiloh, Hendricks266, Hplusplus, INCSlayer, Jaboja, Jagged 85, Jamelan,
Jarble, Jedlinlau, Jedrzej s, John Nevard, Karl-Henner, KasugaHuang, Kbdank71, Kelson, Kuroboushi, Lambiam, LeeHunter, LordCazicThule, MGlosenger, Maestrosync, Marasmusine,
Mindmatrix, Miterdale, Mlindstr, Moondoggy, MrOllie, MrScorch6200, Mwtoews, My Core Competency is Competency, Null Nihils, OllieFury, Omegatron, P M Yonge, PaterMcFly, Pearle,
Pengo, Petr Kopa, Pine, Pleasantville, Pythagoras1, RJHall, Rajatojha, Retodon8, Roidroid, Romainhk, Ronz, Roxyflute, Rwalker, Sallison, Saltvik, Satchmo, Schizobullet, SharkD, Shentino,
Simeon, Softy, Soyweiser, SpeedyGonsales, Spg3D, Stampsm, Stefanbanev, Stephen Morley, Stormwatch, SuperDuffMan, Suruena, The Anome, Thefirstfrontier, Thumperward, Thunderklaus,
Tiedoxi, Tinclon, Tncomp, Tomtheeditor, Torchiest, Touchaddict, VictorAnyakin, Victordiaz, Vossman, Voxii, Waldir, Wavelength, Wernher, WhiteHatLurker, Wlievens, Woodroar,
Wyrmmage, Xanzzibar, XavierXerxes, Xezbeth, ZeiP, ZeroOne, , 256 , anonymous edits
Web3D Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=589502342 Contributors: Barraki, Bsmweb3d, Charleshinshaw, Chrisxue815, Daniel K. Schneider, Doctor Einstein, Dtfinch, DzzD,
Evanomics, FlyingPenguins, GB fan, Hjlld, Hodlipson, Jephir, KevinLefeuvre, Logtowiki, Martarius, Mayalld, Nephersir7, NiCoX06, Nospildoh, Paul A, Ronhjones, Tirkfl, Toussaint,
Viethungtsn1, Waldir, Woohookitty, 23 anonymous edits
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3D Modeling WikiBook

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3D Modeling WikiBook

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3D Modeling

WikiBook Mike Van Voorhis 2/3/2014

3D computer graphics software

3D data acquisition and object reconstruction

Binary space partitioning

Bounding interval hierarchy

Bounding volume hierarchy

CatmullClark subdivision surface

Computed Corpuscle Sectioning

Computer representation of surfaces

Constructive solid geometry

Conversion between quaternions and Euler angles

Dilution of precision (computer graphics)

DooSabin subdivision surface

Forward kinematic animation

Freeform surface modelling

Hemicube (computer graphics)

Interactive Digital Centre Asia

Interactive skeleton-driven simulation

Lambert's cosine law

Light transport theory

Loop subdivision surface

Morph target animation

Non-uniform rational B-spline

Polygon (computer graphics)

Precomputed Radiance Transfer

Projective texture mapping

Quaternions and spatial rotation

Reflection (computer graphics)

Relief mapping (computer graphics)

Scene description language

Soft body dynamics

Sparse voxel octree

Vertex Buffer Object

Vertex (computer graphics)

Virtual environment software

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

3D models / Computer-aided design

CGI / Animation / 3D display

In 3D computer graphics, 3D modeling is the process of developing a mathematical representation of any

Today, 3D models are used in a wide variety of fields. The medical

A modern render of the iconic Utah teapot model

Flexibility, ability to change angles or animate

A fully textured and lit rendering of a 3D model.

3D models / Computer-aided design

CGI / Animation / 3D display

Layout and animation

Distinction from photorealistic 2D graphics

3D computer graphics software

3D models / Computer-aided design

3D computer graphics software

CGI / Animation / 3D display

3D computer graphics software

Faugeras, Olivier (1999). Three-dimensional computer vision : a geometric viewpoint (http://mitpress.mit.edu/

3D data acquisition and object reconstruction

3D data acquisition and object reconstruction

Acquisition from 2D images

3D data acquisition and object reconstruction

Acquisition from acquired sensor data

Acquisition from on-site sensors

3D data acquisition and object reconstruction

3D data acquisition and object reconstruction

Seismic 3D data acquisition (http:/ / www. georgedreher. com/ 3D_Seismic. html)

Ghent University, Department of Geography