Psychology G544

Revision Notes

Psychology G544 Section A Revision Notes

Hypothesis
Experimental hypothesis predicts the effect of the IV on the DV.
Operationalised hypothesis shows how variables are going to be tested, by describing them.
Null hypothesis states that there will be no effect of the IV on the DV.
One tailed hypothesis predicts the direction in which results are expected to occur (directional) ie, revision
improves exam performance.
Two tailed hypothesis states there is some kind of difference between two events (non-directional) ie,
revision will affect exam performance.

Experiments
Independent variable the variable that you manipulate (cause)
Dependent variable the variable that you measure (effect)
Experimental design
Design
Repeated measures
Explanation Performance of participants in
one condition compared with
performance of the same
participants in another
condition

Independent measures
Performance of participants in
one condition compared with
performance of different
participants in another
condition

Strengths

Avoids participant
variables/individual
differences, as the same
participants are used

No order effects, as different

participants used in each
condition

Weaknesses

There could be order effects

person may gain practice,
become bored or tired

Problem of participant
variables/individual
differences because different
participants are being used
and everyones different, so
there could be differences in
performance of participants.

Type of experiment
Experiment
Laboratory
Explanation Conducted in highly controlled
conditions and usually in
laboratory settings
Strengths
There are high levels of
control (objective), so
extraneous variables are
avoided, and the IV can be
isolated to measure the effect
on the DV, and therefore we
can infer cause and effect

Field
Conducted in the participants
own environment
High in ecological validity,
because it is conducted in the
participants natural
environment, so therefore
they will act normally, and the
results will be representative
of everyday life and can be
generalised to other settings.

Matched pairs
Participants in each condition
matched to eac other on
variables, such as age, sex, IQ,
etc (so its like they are the
same person in different
conditions)
Overcomes problems of
individual differences and, as
they are matched on traits and
also overcomes problem of
order effects, because
different participants are
used
Can be costly and timeconsuming because there
needs to be some technique of
matching the participants.

Quasi (natural)
The independent variable is
naturally-occurring, and
therefore not manipulated
The IV is not manipulated, so
there is less control, making
the situation more ecologically
valid, so it is more
generalisable to other
situations/people.

Highly reliable because of the

high levels of control and
these high levels of control
produce a standardised
procedure, making it easy to
repeat to look for consistent
or similar findings.

Weaknesses

Low in ecological validity

because laboratory
experiments do not relate to
everyday life, as the situation
is full of control. Therefore, it
may be hard to generalise
results to other situations,
which are not as controlled, as
the participant could behave
differently in a controlled
situation.
High levels of control could
produce an artificial situation,
and therefore the participants
could show demand
characteristics or respond to
social-desirability bias if they
guess the aim from the
controls.
Task could be low in mundane
realism, and not
representative of a task
completed in everyday life.

The participants may not know

they are being studied, so will
be less likely to respond to
demand characteristics, which
makes the study more valid
(because youre measuring
what youre supposed to
measure).
The researcher cannot isolate
the IV to measure the effect
on the DV as they cannot fully
control the situation.
Therefore, we cannot really
infer cause and effect as we
cannot be sure that the IV is
effecting the DV and that it is
not another variable, such as
an extraneous variable.

The researcher has to wait for

the conditions to happen
naturally, because they are not
allowed to manipulate the IV.
Therefore, they could be
waiting a long time or they may
not have that many
participants, so the sample
isnt representative of the
target population.

Not very reliable, because

there is not a lot of control
and no complete standardised
procedure. Therefore, it is
harder to replicate in exactly
the same way, so it will be
hard to find the same findings
again.
There could be ethical issues
to do with consent and
withdrawal, because the
participant often does not
know they are being studied,
and it would lower the validity
if they did know they were
being studied.

Self-Report
Self-report
method
Explanation

Strengths

Questionnaire

Interview

Psychometric test

Questions where the

participant gives a written
response or responds on the
computer
Data can be collected from a
large number of people quickly
and cheaply.

Questions asked face-to-face

or over the phone

Questionnaire that measures

a psychological variable ie,
what type of person someone
is or how they learn best
Provides lots of quantitative
data, which is easy to analyse
and compare with other
participants.

People may be more willing to

give away personal information
on paper than they would face-

Structured interviews can

easily be repeated as there is
a pre-determined set of
questions, and therefore it is
reliable and standardised.
Detailed information can be

Data can be collected from a

large number of people quickly

to-face, especially if the

questionnaire is anonymous.

Weaknesses

Questionnaires are reliable, as

the same questionnaire can be
given out again (standardised).
People may just tick any box,
without reading the question
properly, because they cannot
be bothered.
Sample filling in questionnaires
could be biased because only
literate people with time would
fill them in.

gained if it is unstructured
because the researcher can
dig deeper.

and cheaply because it is easy

to give out.

There could be interviewerbias or social-desirability bias

because the participant may
respond in a way they think
the interviewer wants them to,
and therefore the data is not
completely accurate.

Designer bias because the

designer interprets the data
and they could interpret it
differently to another person.
Labelling somebody as a
particular person could
encourage them to behave in
that way and cause harm
(ethics).

Rating/likert scale;
On a scale of 1-5 (1 being very happy and 5 being very sad), how happy are you with your life?
1
2
3
4
5
+ Quantitative numerical data collected, which is easy to analyse and easy to compare with other results as no
interpretation of the researcher is needed
- Participants choices limited, so no in-depth information gathered, so researchers do not know why the
participants rated themselves at a particular level
Fixed choice response; (closed question)
Are you male or female? (Please circle)
Male
Female
+ - Same strengths and weaknesses as above
Open ended question;
What do you think of the current issues facing England today?
+ In-depth qualitative data can be gathered as the participants can give reasons for their answer and explain
themselves. This gives the participant freedom to write what they want and to gain their opinion
- Researchers may interpret a participants answer in the wrong way or differently from how another
researcher may interpret it. It is also harder to compare responses from open-ended questions because it is
not quantitative data
Interviews;
You can have different types of interviews, including structured, where you pre-plan the questions you will ask,
and only ask those questions to obtain responses, unstructured, where you do not plan the interview at all and
let it flow freely or semi-structured, where you partially plan the questions but then let it flow naturally.
These different types of interview all have their advantages and disadvantages. With structured interviews,
you only obtain the information you have set out to obtain, but with unstructured, you can get lots of
information which may not be completely relevant to what you are trying to find out.

Observation
Type of
observation
Explanation

Naturalistic

Controlled

Participant

Participants behaviour
recorded in their own

Participants behaviour
recorded in a situation created

Researcher pretends to be a
participant to observe them

Strengths

Weaknesses

environment
High ecological validity,
because they are in their own
natural environment, and so
wont respond to demand
characteristics or socialdesirability bias due to high
levels of control (as it isnt
highly controlled)

by the researcher
Levels of control quite high, as
the situation is manually
created by the researcher, so
therefore extraneous
variables are controlled, so
the observation is reliable, and
can be repeated again in the
same way (standardised
procedure)

If participants realise they

are being watched, they may
respond to demand
characteristics, making it less
valid.

Participant is likely to know

they are being observed
because the situation is
controlled, which could create
demand characteristics or
social-desirability bias,
lowering the validity.

As it is in the participants own

environment, the environment
is not controlled, and
therefore will be harder to
replicate.
No manipulation of the IV (as
it is not an experiment), so we
cannot infer cause and effect.

Adds to richness of data,

especially if they become a
trusted member of the
group, and is therefore high
in validity.
There could be access to
data which is unobtainable by
other methods, so more indepth information is
discovered.
The researcher could alter
the group in some way when
they join, lowering the
validity.
Observer-bias, because the
observer is only recording
what they want to see, or
they could become
emotionally involved with the
group, and report
observations in a subjective
way.

As well as participant observation, there is non-participant observation, which is where the researcher is
not part of the group, and observes them from outside of the group.
There are two more different types of observation, which include;
Covert observation where the researcher doesnt inform the participants that they are being observed and
doesnt gain permission to study them.
Overt observation where the researcher informs the participants that they are being observed and gains
permission to study them.
Event sampling recording behaviours every time a particular behaviour occurs.
+ No behaviour is missed, so a full set of data is gathered
- Difficult to record behaviour if many behaviours are displayed at once
Time sampling recording behaviours at particular time intervals ie, every minute.
+ Less intensive as there arent many behaviours displayed at one time
- Behaviour that occurs outside of the time intervals cannot be recorded and are therefore missed

Correlation
Correlation Hypothesis
Alternate hypothesis (two-tailed [non-directional]) There will be a significant correlation between the
Null There will be no significant correlation between the
One-tailed (directional) There will be a significant positive/negative correlation between the
REMEMBER correlations are NOT experiments, therefore you cannot say there will be a significant
difference between You cannot infer cause and effect, as one variable does not cause the other, and you do

not isolate the IV to measure the effect of the DV. In effect, you have two variables which you measure,
which may or may not have some sort of relationship.

Positive Correlation

Negative Correlation

No Correlation

Sampling
Type of
sampling method
Explanation

Strengths

Weaknesses

Volunteer

Opportunity

Random

Made up of people who

have volunteered to take
part. Researcher
publicises the study and
waits for people to put
their name forward.
No problems with ethics
because the participants
have put themselves
forward

Made up of participants who

happen to be in the right place
at the right time. Researcher
approaches the people and
asks them to take part.

Made up of a random group

of participants, usually by
picking names out of a hat

Very easy to obtain, as it is

quick and efficient to ask
people

Unlikely to be
representative of the
target population because
they have volunteered and
could be motivated in
some way (ie, money)

Not very representative

because you simply take the
first participants you see.
Therefore, some people could
miss out on the opportunity or
you may only select people who
are similar in some way (ie,
psychology students that were
out of their lesson early)

Very representative because

it is a random sample and is
likely to cover the target
population, as it includes lots
of different people
Difficult to obtain this type
of sample because of the
large population of people.

In the b) question of Section A (13+6 marker), remember to include the following;

1. Sampling method you are going to use
o How many participants?
o Where will you find them?
o How will you approach them?
o What age range, what sex? Will you have equal numbers of each sex? Why? (more generalisable)
o Why are you using the particular sampling method you are using?
2. What will you do when you have your participants?
o Will you brief them and ask for consent or will this affect the results?
o Will you ask them to meet you somewhere at a particular time or will you ask them to come with
you now?
o Will you take them to a room? What will the room be like? Or will you test them in the place you
are currently at?
o Will you test them separately or in a group?
o Will you split them into groups or if it is an experiment, will you test the same participants in
different conditions (repeated measures) or will you test different participants in different
conditions (independent measures OR matched pairs)?
o Will you carry out a pilot test?

3. How are you going to test the participants?

o Self-report method of questionnaire/interview (make sure you tell the examiner some
questions)
o If it is an experiment, what is the IV and what is the DV?
o What controls will you use to avoid extraneous variables? Will you use any controls? Why?
o If it is a self-report, how will you give the questions to them? In what order and why?
o If it is an observation, what behaviour will you record?
o Will you split the behaviours up into categories and tally them?
4. How will you collect the data?
5. Will you debrief the participants or tell them the full aim at the end? [ETHICS]
Remember to think WHAT? WHEN? HOW? WHY?
Make sure you MINI-EVALUATE and explain your reasons for why you have chosen to do what you are
doing.

Statistical Tests (Non-parametric tests)

Nominal data involves data being in categories or frequencies (for example, frequency of how many said yes)
Ordinal data involves numbers that can be put in order but do not have any mathematical properties, like
rating scales. It is like a ranking order (individual scores and not necessarily equal units)
Interval data involves using a scale that has equal intervals between the units (for example, minutes or
seconds)

Independent Measures
Design
Chi-squared

Repeated Measures Design

Correlation

Nominal Data
Sign test
N/A
(categories)
Ordinal Data
Mann Whitney
Wilcoxon
Spearmans Rho
(numbers)
Usually, in the paper, you will get a question asking you what statistical test you would use for the practical
project you have designed and why. Make sure you tell the examiner the exact statistical test you would use,
and tell them you would use it because your project uses either nominal or ordinal data and because it is either
independent measures, repeated measures or a correlation study. This is all that you can say, and you do not
need to tell them how you use the test!
NICK IS COOL
NOMINAL INDEPENDENT MEASURES CHI-SQUARED
NICK RIDES SCOOTER
NOMINAL REPEATED MEASURES SIGN TEST
OLLIE IS MAD
ORDINAL REPEATED MEASURES MANN WHITNEY
OLLIE RUNS WILD
ORDINAL REPEATED MEASURES WILCOXON
OLLIE CAN SWIM
ORDINAL COLLERATION SPEARMANS RHO

Psychology G544 Section B Revision Notes

In this section of the paper, you will have to answer one question out of the two, and it is either focused
on an approach/perspective, issue or debate. Usually, you will get at least one approach/perspective
question, but be prepared to get any type of question. The exam papers are set out in a structured way,
with the a) question asking you to describe the approach/issue/debate or to give the assumptions (if it is
an approach/perspective). The b) question usually asks you to mention and describe two synoptic examples
of the approach/issue/debate, which you should contextualise to the question. Make sure you show the
examiner that you have knowledge of studies from both the AS and A2 parts of Psychology, as it will
increase your mark. The best way to do this is to choose one study from AS illustrating the topic and
then one from A2. The c) question will usually ask you for strengths and weaknesses of the issue. Dont
forget to give synoptic examples to back up your points. D) asks you to compare the
approach/issue/debate with another approach/issue/debate in psychology. Sometimes they give you the
topic to compare it with, but sometimes they dont. Ensure that you choose a topic you are confident
talking about if you have the choice, and also make sure you again use synoptic examples. The last
question e) is very open, and could ask you how the topic helps everyday life or how it influences
something. You will need to look at exam papers to get the gist of these questions, as they can be tricky
to tackle at first.

Approaches
Physiological/Biological Approach
Assumptions;
1. All behaviour has a genetic basis, and is therefore influenced by our DNA, genes and biological
molecules.
Strengths
Very scientific and objective, and often uses
laboratory experiments, with high levels of control.
The independent variable is isolated and manipulated
to measure the effect on the dependent variable, so
cause and effect can be inferred.

Weaknesses
Very reductionist, as the approach simplifies complex
human behaviour down to one simple factor. It ignores
the interaction of elements, such as the environment,
causing human behaviour, and simply explains behaviour
as a result of our biology.

As it uses laboratory experiments and high levels of

control, there is often a standardised procedure with
highly scientific equipment, so the approach is very

Very deterministic, as it is scientific and therefore

says that everyone is determined by their biology, and
that no other factor can play a part in their behaviour.

For example, Brunners study into a family in the

Netherlands who had slight mental retardation and who
showed violent behaviour, simply looked at a urine sample and
found they had a deficit of an enzyme which caused a rare
disorder, but they ignore other factors, such as the
environment and how their upbringing could have affected
their behaviour.

reliable, as we can check for consistency by repeating

it.
For example, Maguires study into the effect of the number
of years of knowing the knowledge on the size of the
hippocampi of the brain. The study used highly scientific
equipment of MRI scanners which looked at the structure of
the brain, so they were able to come to this conclusion.

Supports the nature side of the nature/nurture

debate, and provides good strong evidence for
psychology is a science, as scientific methods are
used.

Research tends to be low in ecological validity, as the

situation and task is too controlled (low mundane
realism) and therefore does not reflect everyday life,
so it is difficult to generalise the findings. There
could also be demand characteristics or socialdesirability bias because of the high levels of control,
making it less valid.
For example, the study conducted by Sperry, who looks at
the brains of split-brain patients. He makes the patients
look at things with one eye covered, so information is only
going to one hemisphere of the brain. This is not
representative of everyday life, as we use both eyes so
information goes to both sides of the brain. However, he
wanted to be simplistic to find out more information on the
roles of each hemisphere and what a person can do in
different situations (ie, being able to pick out an object)

Cognitive Approach
Assumptions;
1. The human brain is like a computer; it receives, interprets and responds to information.
2. Peoples problems often arise due to faulty or irrational thinking, which can be traced and often
remedied using cognitive therapy.
Strengths
Tends to use laboratory experiments, which are highly
controlled and objective, so the independent variable
can be isolated and manipulated to measure the effect
on the dependent variable, as there are no extraneous
variables, which means cause and effect can be
established.

Weaknesses
As laboratory experiments are often used, research is
low in ecological validity, because the situation is too
controlled, and therefore doesnt relate to everyday
life, so we need to be careful when generalising the
results.

Great application to real-life, and research has had a

big influence on everyday life in the real world.

Can be low in validity, because participants may guess

the aim and respond to demand characteristics or
social-desirability bias, because of the levels of
control, and therefore we cannot be sure we are
measuring what we are supposed to be measuring, if
the participants are not showing their true unbiased
behaviour in the situation.

For example, Loftus experiment into weapon focus uses a

laboratory experiment with a standardised procedure, and
an experimental group (gun) and control group (cheque) are
the IV and the DV is measured by a questionnaire and by eye
fixation data, so cause and effect can be inferred.

For example, Fishers cognitive interview showed that the

cognitive interview elicits much more information than
normal interview techniques.

For example, Dement and Kleitmans research into REM sleep

and brain activity on dream content, where the participants
had to sleep in a laboratory, and were continuously woken up
by a doorbell throughout the night, and had electrodes
attached to their scalp and eye lids. This is not
representative of how a person normally sleeps, so we cannot
be sure they got a normal nights sleep and that they dreamt
how they would usually. It is not normal for a person to be
woken up at regular intervals either and may have been hard
for them to sleep with electrodes attached to them.

For example, in Loftus and Palmers experiment, the

participants could have guessed the aim and changed their

speed estimate to suit the independent variable of the verb.

Very effective as a therapy, supporting the

assumption that peoples problems are due to faulty or
irrational thinking that can be remedied.
For example, Meichenbaums stress inoculation therapy uses
cognitive therapy to change the persons thinking patterns
to overcome their stress, and to tackle the situation.

Reductionist and deterministic. The approach

simplifies complex human behaviour to a persons
thoughts, ignoring other factors such as a persons
social situation (friends) and their biology. It also
assumes that a persons problems can be solved by
changing the way a person thinks, when in fact the
problem could be much deeper and involve an
interaction of factors to overcome it.

Developmental Approach
Assumptions;
1. All behaviour in adulthood is affected by experiences in childhood.
2. Changes occur over a persons lifetime as a result of inherited factors or lifetime experiences (both
nature and nurture).
Strengths
Often studies behaviour over a long period
of time, and therefore uses a longitudinal
study. The development of a person or a
group of people can be studied, without the
issue of individual differences, because the
same person is being followed. This provides
in-depth rich qualitative data of one person
over a period of time.

Weaknesses
It is difficult to replicate longitudinal studies, as it is expensive
and extremely time-consuming. Therefore, they are not reliable,
because they cannot be repeated in the same way to check for
consistent results.
It would be hard to replicate Farringtons study because he looks at
people for 40 years of their life, so it would be very time consuming and
also very unreliable, because there is absolutely no way it could be
repeated in the same way as the original study.

For example, Farrington looks at offending

behaviour of boys from the age of 8 to 48 and
comes to conclusions about offending, such as
the chances of a person reconvicting if they
start offending at a younger age than someone
else.

Research in this area provides us with an

understanding of how humans develop and
change over the whole of their lifetime, and
can influence everyday life, such as
education.
For example, Samuel and Bryants study into the
age at which children can conserve has changed
education in terms of how teachers teach
children and what methods they use to teach
them.

In order to make valid comparisons, people need to be studied

for a long period of time. However, this is not always possible
because there are high attrition rates, as people may drop out or
die.
For example, Yochelson and Samenow looked at the criminal thinking
patterns of criminals, and of the 255 criminals, only 30 completed the
programme. This shows how longitudinal studies can be a problem
because of these high attrition rates.

Some studies under the developmental approach have very

limited samples, from which researchers want to generalise
results from. The approach looks for general patterns of
development based on non-representative samples.
For example, Freud tries to generalise the findings from the case study
of Little Hans and he assumes that all children go through the
psychosexual stages.

They can also be ethnocentric, as they only look at children from

one area/culture, and try to generalise the findings to other
cultures, when the traditions and values are different in other
place. For example, some children work instead of getting an

education at a young age.

For example, Samuel and Bryant generalise their findings to other

cultures about conservation, when the research was only based on
children from one town in the UK and therefore ignores cultural
differences in regards to how children may learn differently in
different parts of the World.

Very deterministic, as it assumes that all children go through the

same stages.
For example, Freud with psychosexual stages.
Samuel and Bryant with stages of conservation.
Piaget assumed younger children do not have the ability to think in the
same way as older children.

Social Approach
Assumptions;
1. Behaviour is influenced by the people around us and the society they have created (the situation).
2. All behaviour occurs in a social context, even when nobody else is present.
Strengths
The approach often uses real life situations to study
the social context of situations. Therefore, the social
approach is often high in ecological validity, as the
results relate to everyday life, and can be generalised
to other situations.
For example, Piliavins study was a field experiment, which
had high ecological validity as it was set in the participants
natural environment on the New York subway. Therefore,
the participants wouldnt have known they were being
studied, and couldnt have responded to demand
characteristics or social-desirability bias in terms of helping
behaviour.

Weaknesses
There is a huge problem with ethics in these types of
studies, as the participants usually do not know they
are being studied, so they cannot give their consent.
They also are not given the right to withdraw because
they do not know they are being studied in the first
place. In some social approach studies, the
participants are subjected to psychological harm and
physiological harm

For example, in Milgrams experiment, the participants are

told they have the right to withdraw but the experimenter
technically doesnt allow them to. The participant could
experience harm in some way, because some of them
shocked people at a rate that would kill a person many times
and may not have thought they would be able to do this.

This approach tends to look at very relevant and

useful situations, and look at how a persons behaviour
can be influenced. This has helped to improve many
issues.

As field experiments are often used, the participant is

in their own environment, but there is a lack of control
in the study, so extraneous variables cannot be
controlled. Therefore, the studies are not that
reliable because they cannot be repeated in exactly
the same way. There is no completely controlled
standardised procedure.

It uses a wide range of methods, from field

experiments to laboratory experiments to look at the
effects of social situations on behaviour. Field
experiments are good because they are high in
ecological validity, and hence people can be studied in
their natural environment without demand
characteristics and social-desirability bias so the
results are applicable to real life situations.

Very reductionist and deterministic. It simplifies

complex human behaviour by only looking at situational
factors such as the environment. It ignores factors
such as the physiological side of things, and also
ignores cognitive factors, because someone could have
a cognitive problem or physiological problem (ie,
downsyndrome) which causes them to act differently
in social situations. It is deterministic because it
assumes that people will act in accordance to the
situation, and change their behaviour.

For example, Waxler-Morrisons study on social networks

influencing breast cancer survival shows how important
social networks are in enhancing a womans life and enabling
them to cope better.

For example, Piliavin uses a field experiment.

However, Milgram uses a laboratory experiment to look at
the effect of authoritive figures on a person.

Individual Differences Approach

Assumptions;
1. Behaviour which deviates from the norm is seen to be abnormal.
2. To understand the complexity of human behaviour, it is necessary to study the differences between
people, from looking at the unique characteristics of the individual, rather than by looking at the
similarities between people.
Strengths
Many useful applications to real life and allows us to
understand human behaviour as we can find causes for
some disorders.
For example, Rosenhans study led to the improvement of
peoples lives who had mental health disorders, as they
changed the way that they diagnosed and treated them, as
they found out that labelling could have serious effects
with their health, as the label stayed with them forever,
even if they didnt relapse.

Weaknesses
As case studies are used, there are very few
participants, and therefore we cannot really generalise
the findings to other people/groups, especially as it is
to do with individual differences people experience
different symptoms, etc. Therefore, we can question
if it is useful to real life, because the symptoms are so
wide-ranging.
For example, Freuds case study on Little Hans is individual,
and his problems reflect his experiences. His phobia of a
horse which reflected his phobia of his dad is unique, and it
is unlikely someone else would have this exact problem
because they would have different experiences and a
different upbringing, so we cant generalise the results to
other people.

A much more holistic approach than any other

approach that we study (ignoring the humanistic
approach), as it is not reductionist in any way. It looks
at factors as a whole, and uses a variety of methods
to come to a conclusion, as well as using qualitative and
quantitative data. It does not simplify any complex
disorder down to its phenomenon.

Tend to use case study method to gain a more holistic

approach, which sticks to looking at one person at a
time. However, the researchers in the case study can
become too emotionally attached with the individual,
which could bias the findings and cause other
problems, to do with the ethics of the study.

There is use of both quantitative and qualitative data.

Quantitative data is obtained from psychometric
tests, where differences between personalities and
other traits can be found between people. This
provides data which is easy to analyse and compare,
and is objective.

The approach tends to rely on dispositional

explanations rather than situational ones. It explains
individual differences as resulting from a persons own
characteristics and ignores the situation a person is in.

For example, in Thigpen and Cleckleys study, they are not

reductionist in any way, and look at her experiences from
the past, her cognitive side (from the interviews), and her
mental side, and do not assume anything [not deterministic].

For example, was Eves case of MPD real or was she just a
good actor??

For example, the behaviour of the pseudopatients in

Rosenhans study was misinterpreted as being part of the
illness (constant writing, and trying to get out hospital) when
in fact it was a result of the hospital environment and the
fact that they werent real patients. This shows that they
assume people experience similar symptoms and that it is
down to the illness, and not the environment.

Perspectives
Behaviourist Perspective
Assumptions;
1. All behaviour is the result of learning (conditioning) from the environment.
2. Conditioning involves associative learning association between stimuli and responses which did not exist
before learning took place.
3. Psychologists should only study directly observable and measurable behaviour.

OPERANT CONDITIONING uses reinforcement and punishment to strengthen or weaken behaviours

(SKINNER)
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING uses association to learn behaviours (PAVLOV)
Strengths
The approach studies behaviour in a very scientific
way, as it usually uses laboratory experiments in very
controlled conditions, so extraneous variables are
avoided, so the IV can be isolated to measure the
effect on the DV, and therefore cause and effect can
be inferred.

Weaknesses
As laboratory experiments tend to be used, the
studies are very low in ecological validity, so we have
to be careful when applying the findings to everyday
life. This issue could cause demand characteristics or
social-desirability bias.

Huge practical application to real-life, because there

is support for classical and operant conditioning, which
is a mechanism for learning in the classroom. Provides
support for teachers when bringing in teaching
methods, and also helps parents to shape their child.
It is a strong and highly influential perspective in
psychology as it thoroughly explains behaviour.

Huge problem with ethics, because children or animals

are generally used, who cannot really give their full
consent.

Many therapies have come out of it, such as

behavioural therapies, which has helped to get rid of
some behaviours.

It only focuses on observable behaviour, and is

therefore reductionist. It doesnt look at other
explanations for why behaviour may be there.

For example, there is a direct link between aggressive and

non-aggressive/no role models on a childs behaviour, as
shown by Bandura.

For example, Skinners study shows how rats can press a

lever (reinforcement) and they will get food.
Banduras experiment shows how role models are highly
influential on young children, which can help parents with
their children in terms of video games, DVDs, having a good
role model in the family, etc.
Farrington, support that upbringing (environment) can cause
a person to turn to crime if the role model of a person is a
criminal, etc.

For example, Little Albert was only a baby, so he could not

give his consent and the experiment could have caused him
psychological harm because he was taught by associative
learning (CLASSICAL CONDITIONING) to not like objects
which were once his favourite.

For example, with schizophrenia, it is often not observable

because it occurs in the persons mind. Therefore, this is a
weakness of the approach because it is reductionist, which
could cause them to miss out very important factors.

Very deterministic, as it assumes behaviour will be

learnt by classical or operant conditioning. It assumes
that everyone will learn in this way, and that behaviour
cannot take place in any other format.

Psychodynamic Perspective
Assumptions;
1. The mind is split into 3 the preconscious, unconscious and conscious. The unconscious forms a large
part of our mental life, and can influence our thinking and physical well-being.
2. Childhood experiences have an effect on our behaviour in later life, as they are very important in
shaping our adult personality.
Strengths
Often uses the case study method, with one
participant, and studies them over a long period of
time, so in-depth rich qualitative data can be gathered
into the experiences of one person.

Weaknesses
As case studies are used, the samples are extremely
small and so the results or information obtained
cannot be generalised to other samples, because it is
not representative. Case studies are also very

For example, Freud looked at the case of Little Hans who

had a phobia of horses and consequently of his father. He
explained this in terms of the Oedipus complex.

individual and cannot be replicated on other people,

because of individual differences, and hence are not
very reliable.

For example, Thigpen and Cleckleys study on Eve is not

generalisable to other people because it is an individual case,
and also it cannot be repeated because it is longitudinal and
is therefore not very representative of the target
population, as people have different experiences in their
childhood.

The perspective is very subjective, and cannot be

tested objectively, as the psychologists make their
own interpretations. This makes them very bias as
well. There are no scientific findings or methods used
to back up the data, so it is not very reliable at all.
Issues
The issues that you need to know about include; ethics, ecological validity, reliability, validity,
longitudinal and snapshot, and also quantitative and qualitative data. You should be able to describe each
of these issues, give strengths and weaknesses of them, and you should also have synoptic examples to
illustrate the issues.
Ethics
Ethical issues include;
Deception;
This ethical issue means deceiving the participants in terms of not telling them the full aims of the study and
then using their results when you still havent told them the full aim.
Consent;
Informed consent should always be obtained from participants before starting the study. They should be given
information about what they will be asked to do during the study and they should confirm verbally or in writing
that they understand the study and are willing to take part.
In terms of children, parental consent should be obtained and the children should be asked for assent (to say
whether they are happy to continue)
For example, Piliavin did not obtain any consent from his participants because it was a field experiment, and if he did ask
for consent, it would have taken a long time and would also have affected the results, because the participants would have
responded to demand characteristics and social-desirability bias to make themselves seem like a better person in regards to
their helping (bystander) behaviour.

Confidentiality;
Participants should not be named or identified in the write-up of the study, or when showing the results in a
graph. The participants should also not talk about their performance with anyone. This is to respect their
privacy and the individuals should be told that their results and information will remain confidential.
Psychological/Physical Harm;
It is essential that research avoids presenting participants with tasks that might induce unpleasant emotions or
states of mind such as anxiety, fear, stress, unhappiness, etc as well as avoiding physical harm.
To avoid this type of harm, researchers could inform the participants of what they might come across in the
study that could cause them harm when they obtain consent, and in a way this offers them the right to
withdraw.

In Milgrams study, the participants could have experienced psychological harm because they were administering deathly
electric shocks to the students, which caused them to become stressed, anxious and upset, which was determined by the
observation of the participants, as they were sweating a lot.

Debriefing;
At the end of the study, the participants should be told the real aims, and they should be given the opportunity
to ask the researchers questions. The participants should be allowed to ask for the results of the study and
they should be informed that any discussion or publication of the study will ensure anonymity of the
participants.
Right to withdraw;
The researcher must tell the participants that they have the right to withdraw from the study when they give
their informed consent, and that they also have the right not to answer any question.

Strengths and weaknesses of conducting psychological

Strengths
Sometimes the issue of deception can enhance the
ecological validity and (internal) validity of the study,
because it is less likely that there will be demand
characteristics and social-desirability bias, because
the participants do not know the full aim and so cannot
react in any particular way.
Findings are more useful because participants are
being studied in their natural environment in a normal
situation and do not know they are being studied, so
they act completely normally.

research which raises ethical issues (June 2010)

Weaknesses
The participants of the study are being objected to
psychological harm and are being deceived because
they are not being told the full aim. Therefore, they
could agree to take part in a study because they have
been told a fake aim, when in fact they wouldnt have
agreed if they were told the real aim of the study.
Participants do not know they are being studied, so
information which is private could be published by the
researchers.
The issue of ethical issues could give psychological
research a bad reputation, so in future people may be
less likely to give their permission to take part or they
may be more aware that they could be being studied,
and act differently, affecting the ecological validity of
the study.

Ecological Validity
Ecological validity refers to the extent that the situation or task in the study truly reflects behaviour in real
life settings. Using an environment which is natural or normal to the participant is likely to be higher in
ecological validity, and is more likely to obtain results that represent everyday life, and in that way, are more
generalisable to the target population and to other settings. However, if a study is set up in laboratory settings
or where this is high control, it is not in the participants natural settings and does not reflect everyday life, so
the ecological validity is low. Where the task that the participant is asked to do is not reflective of a normal
task a person would do, for example, sleeping in a laboratory, it would be said to be low in mundane realism.
Strengths and limitations of conducting psychological
2010)
Strengths
Where ecological validity is low, there are likely to be
controlled conditions, where the IV is isolated and
manipulated to measure the effect on the DV, so
cause and effect can be inferred.
Loftus and Palmers experiment into the effect of changing
a verb in a question on the participants speed estimate of
how fast the car was going when it ****** another car

research where ecological validity is low (January

Weaknesses
Research is likely to be reductionist, as the situation
is very controlled, and only looks at one factor. It
simplifies complex human behaviour by isolating the
IV. It does not look at a combination of factors.

isolated the IV so they could infer cause and effect

between the verb and speed estimate.

As the situation is controlled, there is more likely to

be a standardised procedure, and in this way, it is said
to be more reliable, because the study can be
repeated in exactly the same way to look for
consistencies in results.

Bruce conducted an experiment into recognising faces, which

used a laboratory experiment with standardised images and
composite images. This was a standardised procedure as all
participants saw the images and had to match the
composites to the original. Therefore, it can be repeated in
the same way to check for reliability.

Highly scientific equipment is likely to be used where

the ecological validity is low, because scientific
equipment is not something we come across every day.
This allows objective measurements to be made, where
quantitative data can be collected, which is easy to
analyse and then compare.
For example, Dement and Kleitmans sleep laboratory used
electrodes connected to the scalp and eye lids. Not
representative of how a person normally sleeps, as you dont
sleep with equipment attached to yourself.

It is harder for us to generalise/apply the results

where there is low ecological validity, because there is
likely to be demand characteristics or socialdesirability bias, where the participants change their
behaviour to what they think the researchers want to
see.
Dement and Kleitmans experiment into eye movement and
dreaming was very low in ecological validity, because it
studied participants whilst they slept in a lab, and they were
asked not to drink any alcohol or caffeine on the day. They
had electrodes attached to their scalp and eye lids, and
were woken up continuously throughout their sleep, so they
would not have gained a normal nights sleep, which could
have affected the results, since the dream content and REM
could have been affected. Also, the participant may drink
caffeine or alcohol on a normal day, and hence this would
lower the ecological validity.

There will be a lack of qualitative data, since highly

scientific equipment only produces objective data.
Therefore, we cannot gather opinions or reasons for
the quantitative data, so there is no in-depth rich data
which gives us more of an insight into why a behaviour
is occurring.

Reliability
Reliability refers to how consistent the findings are. If we were to repeat the study, would we find exactly the
same or similar findings? The only way we can accurately repeat a study is if we have high levels of control or a
standardised procedure, because we need to be able to repeat the study in exactly the same way. We need to
manipulate the independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable, and therefore the most
reliable method is the laboratory experiment. A field experiment does not infer high reliability because not all
variables are controlled, as field experiments are the participants natural setting. Therefore, we are not able
to repeat the study in exactly the same way, because the environment could have changed slightly between
studies.
Strengths and limitations of psychological research with low reliability
Strengths
Weaknesses
Low reliability means that the levels of control are not Low reliability infers that the situation is not highly
high, so the situation is more natural, and therefore it controlled, and therefore extraneous variables have
has higher ecological validity. This means the
not been avoided, so we cannot isolate the IV to
environment is representative of everyday life, so the
measure the effect on the DV, so it is harder to infer
results can be applied to everyday life and to other
cause and effect.
natural settings.
As there is less control, there is likely to be less
We can question the internal validity of this type of
chance of demand characteristics or socialpsychological research, because if there is low
desirability bias because the situation is not artificial
reliability, there are not many controls, and so we
and it is less likely that the participant will change
cannot be sure we are measuring what we are supposed
their behaviour to suit the aim.
to measure, because there may be extraneous
variables.

Validity
Validity is a wide topic area as it covers many different aspects. The term validity basically means are you
measuring what you are supposed to measure? If there are extraneous variables, then you cannot be sure youre
measuring what youre supposed to be measuring because extraneous variables could be affecting the
measurement and you cannot infer cause and effect because you have not isolated the independent variable, so
you cant be sure it is just the independent variable that is having the effect on the dependent variable. There
are many different types of validity, which include internal, external, concurrent, face, ecological, population
and content validity.
Internal
External
Concurrent

Face
Ecological
Population
Content

Does the study measure what its supposed to within the study itself?
Does the study measure what it claims to outside the study?
Comparing the measure with an already existing established measure of the same variable to
check for concurrent validity (and hence reliability because you are checking the measure works
and measures what it is supposed to [validity])
Are you measuring what you want to measure? Does it do what it says it does?
Does the study (situation and task) reflect everyday life?
The extent to which the results of a study can be generalised to the target population
Does the measure cover all the variables it is supposed to cover?

These different terms are very confusing be aware that you dont need to be able to define all of
these different types of validity. If you are going to get a question on validity, it will ask you about
ecological validity or validity itself. It is just good to know about the different types because it shows
you are more aware of the issue. Try to learn some of the terms to impress the examiners (ie,
concurrent validity is used in Baron-Cohens study into autistic/aspergers/tourettes people because he
uses the Happes Strange Stories Task to check the measure of the Eyes Task.
Strengths and limitations of psychological research that is highly valid
Strengths
Weaknesses
Research that is highly valid is often highly reliable,
because if youre measuring what youre supposed to
measure, then you are isolating the IV to measure the
effect on the DV, so there are no extraneous
variables and it can be repeated in exactly the same
way.

Longitudinal and Snapshot

Longitudinal a study carried out over a long period of time, and usually looks at the development of a person
and their behaviour (classified as longitudinal if it aims to look at the effect of variables over time)
Snapshot a study conducted on one occasion. It looks at a persons behaviour in one moment of time, and this
type of study usually looks at many different individuals, and then cross compares data to come to a conclusion
Refers to the length of time of each participants involvement, rather than how long it takes for the
researchers to collect the data.
Strengths and limitations of psychological research using longitudinal studies
Strengths
Weaknesses
Longitudinal studies are carried out over a long period
These types of studies are very expensive and timeof time, so researchers can look at the development of consuming, and also need a high level of commitment
individuals, and come to conclusions about particular
from participants. Some participants may drop out
stages everyone passes through or patterns.
because they are ill or they may not want to be part of
the study.
Lots of qualitative data can be collected, which gives
Qualitative data is subjective, and therefore down to
reasons for behaviours, and is rich and in-depth.
the interpretation of the researcher. It is hard to
analyse and also hard to compare with other data.

Strengths and limitations of psychological research using snapshot studies

Strengths
Weaknesses
Snapshot studies are quick and easy to conduct, as
Ethnocentric, as research usually only looks at one
they do not go on for a long period of time. Therefore, culture and then tries to apply it to lots of different
participants do not need to be committed, and lots of
cultures.
data can be collected on one occasion, which means
conclusions can be drawn straight away.
Tend to collect quantitative data, and test
There is a lack of detailed in-depth rich qualitative
participants objectively using scientific methods. This data, which means there are no opinions (subjective)
type of data is very easy to analyse and compare, as it data gathered, and also there are no reasons for
is numerical data, and therefore it is easy to come to
peoples choices or for the participants behaviour.
conclusions.

Quantitative and Qualitative Data

Quantitative data numerical data expressed as quantities or numbers that can be analysed statistically in
order to provide comparisons between groups of participants
Qualitative data descriptive data which is not numerical and is a rich source of information on behaviours and
attitudes on what people think or feel and gives reasons for behaviours
Strengths and limitations of psychological research using quantitative data
Strengths
Weaknesses
Numerical data, so easy to analyse and therefore very Lack of in-depth rich meaningful data, so there is no
easy to compare and draw conclusions between people. data giving opinions or reasons for choices, so does not
Hence, it is useful as good comparisons can be made.
give the opportunity for participants to explain
behaviour.
Reliable data as it is quantitative and so can be
Reductionist, because there is no qualitative data to
obtained in exactly the same way (by repeating the
back up findings. Only looks at easily quantifiable data
study as usually quantitative data is obtained in highly
and ignores other aspects, especially reasons.
controlled conditions).

Strengths and limitations of psychological research using qualitative data

Strengths
Weaknesses
In-depth rich meaningful data, which provides reasons Subjective data so it is down to the researchers
for particular behaviours and also allows the
interpretation, which could make it bias.
participants to explain their opinions.
More holistic than just using quantitative data,
Qualitative data is very hard to analyse and therefore
because it actually explains things in more detail, and
compare because of individual differences. This means
provides reasons and explanations for behaviours.
it is hard to draw meaningful conclusions from this
type of data.

Debates
There are many new debates in psychology that you have to know for this exam, and there are often two sides
to the debate. Make sure you look at both sides before coming to any conclusion. These debates include;
1. Determinism V Free will
2. Reductionism V Holism
3. Nature V Nurture
4. Ethnocentrism
5. Psychology as a Science
6. Individual V Situational explanations
7. Usefulness of psychological research
For this type of question, you need to know about the debate, and be able to describe it, you need to know the
strengths and weaknesses of each side of the debate in psychology and also be able to link in synoptic examples
that explain and support the debates.
Determinism V Free will
Determinism - the view that all behaviours are determined by factors beyond our control, and are in a way
determined before we actually do them.
o Hard determinism
o Soft determinism
Free will the view that our behaviours are the products of our own choice and will.
Strengths and limitations of psychological research that is deterministic
Strengths
Weaknesses
Deterministic views are often scientific views, and so
Reductionist, as it is heavily scientific and therefore
there are high levels ofcontrol, which avoids
only looks at one aspect of complex human behaviour
extraneous variables so the IV can be isolated to
and ignores other factors. This affects the usefulness
measure the effect on the DV and therefore cause
of research because it simplifies human behaviour.
and effect can be established.
Ethnocentric to some extent, because it assumes
findings can be applied to all cultures, when only the
Western ways have been studied. Western ways are
different from other cultures, so research cannot be
applied to other cultures.
As deterministic views are based on scientific
information, research would be low in ecological
validity, so we have to be careful when applying the

findings to everyday life because high controls can

cause participants to show demand characteristics or
social-desirability bias.

Reductionism V Holism
Reductionism the process of breaking down complex human behaviour into their constituent parts.
o It over-simplifies complex human behaviour down to simple factors
Holism an approach that takes into account a wide range of factors to explain complex human behaviour.
o It does not break it down into smaller sub-sections, and looks at behaviour as a whole

Strengths and limitations of psychological research that is reductionist

Strengths
Weaknesses
Consistent with scientific approach, and therefore
Low ecological validity, because on a daily basis
uses laboratory experiment with high levels of control variables are not isolated to measure the effect of
so it avoids extraneous variables. The IV can be
them and therefore it does not reflect everyday life.
isolated to measure the effect on the DV, and cause
Affects generalisability to target population because
and effect can be inferred.
we cant generalise the results to people living a normal
life in a normal World if the study was carried out in
an artificially controlled situation.
Usually quantitative data is collected from highly
Lack of qualitative data so there are no reasons or
scientific equipment, which are easy to analyse and
explanations to quantitative data, so it lacks in-depth
compare, and are not down to any interpretation by
descriptive data.
the researcher.

Nature V Nurture
Nature describes behaviours that are innate (born into us or genetically determined by genes and DNA)
Nurture describes behaviours that are acquired as a result of experience or because of environmental
influences
Strengths and limitations of the nurture side of the nature/nurture debate
Strengths
Weaknesses
Deterministic because it offers no scope for free will.
It assumes that behaviour is learnt from the
environment and that the environment will change our
behaviour.

Ethnocentrism
The belief that ones own ethnic group or culture is superior to another ethnic group or culture. It is the
inability to think outside ones own cultural experience and a tendency to assume that what happens in our
own culture is common to other cultures.

o
o

Sometimes psychologists draw conclusions from studies focused on one culture or group and assume it
can be generalised to other groups or cultures.
This is common when research is based on the Western way.

Psychology as a Science
Psychology is generally seen as being a Science, because if it wasnt a Science, it wouldnt be seen as a
valid or reliable subject.
Strengths and limitations of the psychology as a science debate
Strengths
Weaknesses
Highly controlled, so that the independent variable can High control means the situation will be artificial and
be isolated meaning there are no extraneous variables
therefore would not reflect a persons normal
which allows us to measure the IVs effect on the
environment, hence it would be low in ecological
dependent variable. This means it is also highly valid
validity, and we would have to be careful about
because we are measuring what we are supposed to be
applying results because there could be demand
measuring cause (IV) and effect (DV).
characteristics or social-desirability bias.
Reliable, as standardised procedures are commonly
Reductionist and deterministic as it assumes that
used, with high levels of control, which therefore
everyone will go through the same patterns, etc and
makes them more replicable.
that a particular behaviour is a cause of something
else, and also it doesnt look at things as a whole, and
simplifies complex human behaviour down to very small
factors.
Objective, as it does not take into account any
No qualitative data is collected when using scientific
subjective opinions of people, and only looks at fact.
methods and therefore we do not obtain reasons for
Produces quantitative data, which is easy to analyse
peoples behaviour or obtain opinions.
and compare with other quantitative data, providing
straight forward conclusions.

Individual and Situational Explanations

Individual looks at the characteristics of a person (ie, their personality) and assumes that the individual
characteristics of a person is consistent across situations.
Ie, Thomas et al. 10% of babies born with difficult temprements an emphasis on nature, and this characteristic is
consistent across situations.

Situational looks at the situation a person is in and assumes that the behaviour of a person depends on the
situation the person is in.

Ie, Reicher looked at the way we identify within a group, and how the guards failed to develop a strong group identity but
the prisoners were the complete opposite.

Usefulness of Psychological Research

This is part of the specification but you will be able to evaluate the usefulness of psychological research
by looking at all the other factors this booklet has looked at; how the ethics, ecological validity, type of
study (longitudinal or snapshot) and quantitative and qualitative data affect the usefulness. We have also
looked at the debates; determinism and free will, reductionism and holism, nature-nurture,
ethnocentrism, psychology as a science and individual and situational explanations, and you will be able to
bring this into whether psychological research is useful or not.