ARABIC MODERN STANDARD Grammar Reference Book May 1970 DEFENSE LANGUAGE INSTITUTE FOREIGN LANGUAGE CENTER‘PREFACE This handbook is designed to serve as a reference and a guide to the basic grammar of Modern Standard Arabic. Its contents include all basic features as well as some additional items which go beyond the scope of the Basic Course. They are grouped in five parts: CHAPTER ONE PRONUNCIATION AND ORTHOGRAPHY. CHAPTER TWO MORPHOLOGY OF NOUNS AND REIATED ITEMS. CHAPTER THREE © MORPHOLOGY OF VERBS AND DERIVED FORMS. CHAPTER FOUR PARTICLES. CHAPTER FIVE SYNTAX. ‘A comprehensive index has been added to enable the student to locate information on any particular problem he may have. This is not a teaching text. Accordingly it does not follow the dictates of the tenets of a particular teaching approach in its arrango- ment. Rather, the logic inherent in the language system itself determines the outliae. In format, descriptions and rules are followed by illustrative examples of speech. A special effort was made to avoid a terminology that is antiquated or unfamiliar to the student. At the samo time, new terms are explained and exhibited in speech samples. aiiAdj. Ace. F. Pl. FAS. M. PL. MS. Nom. Per. Pl. ABBREVIATIONS iv Adjective Accusative Feninine Feninine Plural Feminine Singular Genitive Imperfect Masculine Masculine Plural Masculine Singular Nominative Noun Perfect Plural,IL. TI. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE - PRONUNCIATION AND ORTHOGRAPHY SOUND SYSTEM A. Consonants 1. Similar to English 2. No English Equivalent B. Vowels 1. Short 2. Long C. Diphthongs SUPRASEGMENTALS A. Stress B. Intonation C. Assimilation ORTHOGRAPHY A. Vowels 1. Short 2. Long > 3. Sukwun 5S. B. Definite Article ¢C. Nunnation 5 D. Helping Vowel E. Types of aa /?alif/ F. Types of hamaa ip be DOAN ee & we Cwm @ wo a BOSIr. mi. CHAPTER TWO - MORPHOLOGY - NOUN NOUN A. Gender B. Number C. Collective Noun ADJECTIVE. A. Comparative B. Supertative C. Relative Adjective ui cases : AL Nominative B. Accusative C. Genitive D. Feminine Plural and Cases E. The Five Nouns PRONOUN A. Independent B. Pronoun Suffix C. Interrogative D. Demonstrative vi 12 12 B MW 1 wv aT) 20 al au 22 23 23 2h 25 25 25 28 30 32 33CHAPTER THREE - MORPHOLOGY - VERB I. TRILITERAL A. Transitive and Intransitive B. Perfect 1. Sound Verb 2. Weak Verb a. Middle b. Final 3. inal Double Verbs l. Perfect With Pronoun Suffix fect Ir. BRR FSSSES BSERRREE & 8 ST 6 62 6h 65 66 67IIT, VERBAL DERIVATIVES 70 A. Noun of Subject 0 Noun of Object Th C. Noun of Action 8 D. Noun of Place or Time 83 Noun of Instrument 85 F. Noun of Excess 87 CHAPTER FOUR - PARTICLES I. PREPOSITIONS 88 A. Prefixed 88 B. Separated 90 C. Nouns acting as Prepositions oh TI. — CONJUNCTIONS % A. Prefixed 96 B. Separate 9% III. SUBJUNCTIVE 98 IV. JUSSIVE 98 V. VOCATIVE 8 VI. ANSWER 98 VII. NEGATIVE 99 VIII. INTERROGATIVE 99 IX. PARTICLES AFFECTING THE MEANING OF AN EXPRESSION 99 X. PARTICLES OF CONDITION 101 vidiPage CHAPTER FIVE - SYNTAX I. NOUN-IN-CONSTRUCTION 103 A. Structure 103 Purpose 103 II. SENTENCES 106 A. Types 106 1. Bquational 106 2. Verbal 107 B. Particles and Verbs Affecting Bquational 108 Sentences . Particles and Verbs Affecting Verbal nz Sentences III. MOODS 3 A. Indicative 13 B. Subjunctive ak C. Jussive 6 IV. DEMONSTRATIVE PHRASE 12h V. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE 125 VI. NUMBERS 129 A. Cardinals 1g B. Ordinals 135 VIZ. BXCEPTIONS 7 VIII. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 9 IX. COMMENCEMENT OF ACTION Uhx. xq. XIII. xv. VERBS OF SURPRISE OR ADMIRATION THE ADVERBIAL ACCUSATIVE SYNTACTIC CLASSIFICATIONS A. Variable vs Invariable B. Declinable vs Indeclinable DEFINITENESS ‘THE VOCATIVE COMMON STRUCTURES INDEX OF GRAMMATICAL TERNS 159 162 163 165 imCHAPTER ONE PRONUNCIATION AND ORTHOGRAPHY I. SOUND SYSTEM ‘The sound system of a language consists of consonants and vowels: A. Consonants: The Arabic consonants (28) are grouped here for convenience into two groups, i.e., those similar to English and those for which there are no English equivalents. Most Arabic sounds are similar to English sounds. 1. Similar to English Plog a /a/ 2 Infos /t/ J /s/ o /a/ * st] © (Se als wef a ie 2 alo Iy/ og th /8/ 3 as in then or these th /@/e as in thin or thick sh /$/ as in ship or shell 2. No English equivalent: a. Trill /r/, : Although the pronunciation of /r/ , is sometimes, mistakingly, considered as similar to the English pronunciation, there is a marked distinction between the two. The English /r/ is pro- duced with one flap of the tongue (or none at all), whereas the Arabic /r/ is a distinct trill of the tongue. To practice the production of thissound, listen carefully to your instructor's pronunciation or te recorded exercises and try to imitate them as closely as possible. b. /9/— + This sound is produced by constriction (narrowing) of the throat and expulsion of the breath with the vocal cords vibrating. Example: The pronunciation of "Arab" by a native. The recorded exercises in Lesson One of the Basic Course provide intensive practice for discrimi- nation and production of this sound. c. /2/* : This sound is a glottal stop produced by completely closing the vocal cords and then by suddenly separating them. It is a sound frequently heard in English at the beginning of a word with an initial ‘It is called /hamza/ in vowel, as in “oh! oh!, essential, absolutely. Arabic. a. /a/g : This sound is a gutteral /k/e pronounced from the back of the mouth. To produce this sound, the very back part of the tongue mist be raised to touch the uvular region with the middle and front part of the tongue held tightly on the bottom of the mouth. To practice the production of this sound, imitate the sound of the crow. e. /a/s+ This sound represents an emphatic, velarized cor- relative of "d". To make this sound, place the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth stiffen the tongue and tighten the muscles of the throat. In trying to produce this sound, listen to your instructor's pronunciation, and imitate him closely. f£. /t/ + The production of this sound is like the production of the "t" with the back of the tongue raised toward the soft palate andthe whole tongue slightly retracted. The recorded exercises in Lesson Four of the Basic Course should help to achieve the correct pronunciation of this sound. g. /b/ ¢ + This sound is produced in the pharynx by constricting the pharyngeal walls while the vocal cords are not vibrating. It is like an emphatic "h" produced with a strong and sustained explosion of the breath with no rasping. A good imitation of this sound is the heavy breathing of a person after a running out of breath. The recorded exercises in Lesson Five of the Basic Course should help to achieve the correct pronunciation of this sound. h. /s/# This sound is produced with the teeth slightly apart, pressing the tip of the tongue against the lower teeth and raising the back of the tongue to press against the velum, and allowing the strean of air to pass between the tongue and the alveolar ridge. The recorded exercises in Lesson Seven of the Basic Course will help achieve an accept- able pronunciation of this sound. /é/ % + To produce this sound, raise the back of the tongue towards the roof of the mouth, but not close enough to touch it. The front of the tongue is kept tight and low while the stream of air is blown out, with the vocal cords vibrating. The recorded exercises in Lesson Eight of the Basic Course should help achieve an acceptable pronunciation of this sound. 3. /8/: This sound is the emphatic counterpart of /S/ i . In trying to produce this sound, listen to your instructor's pronunciation, and imitate him closely.k./x/ ¢ + This sound is produced by raising the back of the tongue towards the roof of the mouth and very close to the velum but not ‘touching it. The front of the tongue is kept low and the vocal cords are not vibrated, while the strean of air is blow out. The recorded exercises in Lesson Nine of the Basic Course should help to achieve an acceptable pronunciation of this sound. Vowels: There are two sets of vowels in Arabic: short vowels and Jong vowels. It requires about twice as much time to produce a long vowel as to produce a short one. Unlike English which tends to obscure vowels in unstressed syllables, Arabic attaches equal significance to all similar vowels. The Arabic vowels, in general, are pronounced more crisply and clearly than the English vowels. 1. Short Vowels Short Vowels are roughly similar to English. This similarity is intended only as a general guide to pronunciation. They may differ in quality and they may behave differently under certain condi- ‘tions. ‘The Short Vowels for Modern Standard Arabic a a. /a/ as in /kataba/ “he wrote". b. /i/ as in /binti/ "my daughter". ce. /y/ as in /euntu/ "I was". 2. Long Vowels: The Modern Standard Arabic long vowels are: a. /aa/ as the English a in "bat b. /34/ as the English ea in "beat" or "meat". /xa/ as the English 90 in "boot".‘Tengthening a vowel can change the meaning of a word. For example: /xataba/ “he wrote" and /kaataba/ "he corresponded" The difference between these two words is only in the first syllable - /ka/ and /kaa/. ‘In Arabic there is a practical useful connection between ?alif (!) and fatha(t), between yaa? (y) and kasra(t), and between waaw (5) and damma(t). It is only when the vocalizing is followed by the other member of the pair that a long vowel is indicated: aa, or m. Yaa? (¢), and waaw (49) are also regular consonants which can either precede or follow a vowel sound: yi, wu are possible syllables in Arabic. A final written (iy) is pronounced and romanized ii and a final written (uw) is uu. Such com- Dinations as - iyya, - uma are frequent. (ay) and (aw) are encountered in the literary and the spoken language, although in the latter the pronuncia- tion is apt to range from an English "long i" (as in bite) or an ou (as in house) to the "long a" (in bait) or the "long o” (in boat). C. Diphthongs: There are two diphthongs in Arabi 1. /ay/§ 2: When /a/ 7 occurs before /y/y (in the same syllable) it is to be pronounced as ay in "layman" or "late" or the Arabic word /bayt/ “2; house". 2. /aw/s 7: When /a/ 7 precedes /w/ » (in the same syllable), it is to be pronounced as ou in "house" or the Arabic word /yawm/ ;3~ “day'II. SUPRASEGMENTALS 7 A. Stress: Certain syllables are pronounced with greater force. Giving prominence to a syllable is called stress. In the following examples we shall indicate stress by an accent mark ( “ ) over the prominent syllable. Stress in Arabic follows definite patterns. A syllable is stressed if it contains a long vowel or a short vowel which is followed by ‘two consonants. Examples: /risSa/ 14k (this M.3.) Mitéab/ GS (book) /edttar/ 555 (notebook) /#injéan/ 9 nis (cup) B. Intonation: Intonation is the raising or lowering of the level of voice (pitch) in speech. The following description represents two types of intonation, 1. Statement ‘The voice begins on a mid pitch, rises slightly on the last stressed syllable, and drops to a low pitch at the end. Example: naada J” dar] tar. (This is a notebook). If the stress falls on the last syllable, the voice will remain high. Example: haada__ki [Taab \ (This is a book)2. Question containing a special interrogative word: ‘The voice is high on the stressed syllable of the interrogative word and falls quickly to mid pitch for the rest of the sentence. Example: High: Mid: maa hada? (What is this?) Low: — An accurate control of stress, and intonation is just as important in speech as is an accurate control of the vowels and consonants. Most speakers of a second language fail to master these features and this failure is one of the principle reasons for what is called a "foreign accent". It is very important, therefore, to listen carefully and imitate, as closely as possible, your native instructor's speech. C. Assimilation: To an Arab, the sound /I / of the article /2a1/ Jf is difficult to pronounce with certain consonants and still maintain the normal speed, while with other consonanvs it is distinctly pronomced. Due to this fact, Arabic consonants are traditionally divided into two groups: 1. Lunar Consonants: Those sounds with which the /! / of the article /?al/ is distinctly pronounced. 2. Solar Consonants: Those sounds with which the /! / of the article /?al/ is difficult to pronounce and still maintain the normal speed. Assimilation occurs when the article /?al/ is affixed to a noun (or an adjective) which begins with one of the solar sounds, i.e., the solar sound is doubled in pronunciation, Example:/tal + suug/ > /Passuua/ the market ur /?al + daftar/ S /?addaftar/ the notebook f fears taimisdy > /rattaimisd/ — the student Generally, sounds produced with the front part of the tongue (except /3/) are solar. All other sounds are lunar. Besides intensive discrimination and production exercises, the best suggestion to recognize which consonant is considered by an Arab to be hard or easy to pronounce with /1/, is to listen to a native speaker. IIT. ORTHOGRAPHY A. Vowels: 1. Short Vowels: In writing, they are represented by "signs" instead of letters as in English, e.g., /a/ 7, /u/ 9 placed over the script and /i/ __ placed under the script. Examples: if cattea /tatha/: /kataba/ > C55 he wroten Arf calied /danma/ : feuntu/ > ZS my wast “Af called /easra/ : /vintihi/ > 22, "his daughter" FR Long Vowels: ‘In script, they are represented by letters as follows: /aa/ is represented by the letter "I" /?alif/” UJI" /4/ is represented by the letter "Wg" /yaa?/ "4 U" /wu/ is represented by the letter "4" /waaw/ "4! 4’3. Sukwun /2/: Whenever a consonant is without a vowel, it receives the sign "2" shove it, called guluun (meaning silence). The con sonant which has a oukwun will join the preceding consonant with its short vowel to form one syllable. Bxamples: Pewntn/ SLs] SZhS ot was (/ointihi/ ree Dect, "eis daughter" B. Definite Article {tal fo : The Arabic noun, in its natural form, is always indefinite. There is no indefinite article in Arabic equivalent to the Mnglish "a" or "an", When the article /7a1/ “if as affixed at the beginning of the noun, the noun becomes definite. Examples: /tai/ + [eitaad/ > /Palkitasd/ USI F the book [ad + [tsnjaan/ > /Radtinjaan/ gy WlaS? the ovp C. WNunnation or /tamwiin/: The case endings of the indefinite nouns are called /tanwiin/ in Arabic. These endings are the same as those of the definite nouns except that a final /n/ is added after the short vowel ++s/on/, /in/, and /an/. These endings, however, are not written with a /n/ " » “ but are indicated by doubling the vowel of the definite case ending. Tanwiin does not apply to definite nouns. Examples: definite nom: — /raliitaady/ SIP tne book" indefinite noun: /kitaabun/ ZS "a book" D. Helping Vowel: It is a weak vowel glide that serves to interrupt a sequence of consonants across word bounderies. This vowel is indicated by one of the short vowels /i/ —_, /v/ 2, or /a/ —. Tt is also known as a "transition vowel."‘The presence or absence of the transition vowel is almost con pletely predictable in terms of the consonant clusters involved. Examples: /nal + Yalwalad huna ?/ > /hali_lwalad buna ?/ Is the boy here? /nin + ?almadrasa/ > /wing Imadrasa/ From the school. /Salayicun + 2assalaan/ > /9alaykuma_ssalaan/ Upon you peace (for greetings) The transition vowel differs from other vowels in four significant 1. It is never stressed. 2. It is never tense, even before a double consonant. 3. Tts occurance and position are almost entirely automatic, and Tt does not count as a vowel in determining the position of the main word stress. EB. ‘Types of "aa" /?alit/: In writing, the long vowel /aa/ coming at the end of the word may be written with the regular /?alif/ ( ! ) or with /?alif maqsuura/ "shortened ?alif", the letter ( 4 ) without the two dots. Since the /aa/ sound is a developed one and is not listed as a letter in the Arabic alphabet, this choice of writing the /aa/ sound will serve as an indication to the origin from which this /aa/ has been developed. The long vowel /aa/ is written with /?alif/ (! ) when the origin of that aa is waaw (9). It is written with /?alif maqsuura/ («) when the origin of that aa is yaa? (). This differentiation is important 10especially when that aa will cease to be at the end of the word and going back to its origin is required. Examples: to invite us fon, upon ol greece ere I invited hin 555 ‘upon you Oise F. Types of Hamza ne 1. MManzaty_lgat9/ (the hamaa of cutting or separating This hamza can occur anywhere in a word and is always pronounced according to its vowel. It is a pure glottal stop with full consonantal value. 2. /Hanzatu_lwasl/ (the hanza of connecting or Joining): This hhamza occurs only at the beginning of certain words. Its purpose is to prevent a word from beginning with a consonant cluster, i.e. with two con- sonants together having no intervening vowel. /Hamzatulwas1/ loses the sign for hamza and its vowel when the word preceding it has a final vowel. If the word preceding /hanzatylwasl/ ends with a vowelless consonant a vowel is inserted to facilitate the liaison. In most cases this inserted vowel is /kasra/ (), ex8. JX (interrogstive particle), wa eee is the boy here? Long vowels followed by /hanzatu_lwas1/ must be pronounced short, although they may renain written long, e.g. 51. /Yabuv/ father, SST .A jravwawalaa/ the father of the boy, gd /18i/ in W5LOT (/#i Amadrasa(t)/ in the school. nCHAPTER TWO MORPHOLOGY - NOUN I. NOUN A. Gender: Every noun in Arabic mst be either masculine or feminine. There is no neuter. There are, however, a few nouns which may be considered either masculine or feminine. + Masculine Form: All nouns are considered masculine unless they have a feminine ending. There are very few nouns which are feminine, but do not have a feminine ending. vee et 2. Feminine Form: The most common feminine form is the” (tied or attached "t") form, which is the usual feminine ending. The iby 52 « L" is added to masculine nouns and adjectives to make them feminine. ‘The less common feminine forms are " si ypais itl esl ol 3548 GI". However in determining the gender of a word of such and forms, it is advisable to consult the dictionary because of the frequency of exceptions. There are certain words which are considered feminine by convention. Such words, generally, fall in the following categories: a. Geographical names, that is towns, villages, countries, etc. b. Parts of the human body that occur in pairs such as " hand" and" gos eye". ¢. Certain nouns for no apparent reason such as " +t sun", o- of " Git soul, self", " Gy! earth", "jG fire", and "j!2 house". 12In this category, there are a few words which may be either feminine or masculine such as" Gis road", " gsi. knife", or" Gou market". Number 1, Singular: The singular noun is the form listed in the dictionaries. It has no special morphological characteristics. 2. Dual: In Arabic, the dual is indicated by two endings: " gi __" for nominative case, or for both the accusative and genitive cases. These endings are used to indicate the dual only among nouns (including adjectives). When attaching either of these two endings to a noun, the last consonant of that noun will always take the " inS5" vowel. The" g "of the ending "u "is always unvoweled - indicated in script by " yx Oo" ‘Thus a dipthong is developed in pronouncing this ending with the last con- sonant. Examples: ous & two books er as aus The " #>>-,+ * © " of the feminine nouns is pronounced with the " 2x25" vowel when joined with either of the two dual endings. Examples: < pl GE two rooms ee < lott UY The use of the definite article with a noun in the dual number does not affect the endings. Examples: 13the two books < < the two rooms < 3. Plural: The Arabic plural forms are usually treated under two large headings with a number of irregularities under each, i.e., "sound" (or external) plurals and "broken" (or internal) plurals. In the somd plural, the basic word remains intact, but an ending is added. In the broken plural the changes are primarily internal. The triliteral root (as Ged ing LS ) remains unchanged, but the vocalizing in the plural may follow any one of thirty or more patterns ( aS books), of which about ten are very frequent. In English we might borrow the Arabic terminology and call boy/boys, a sound or external plural, and man/men, mouse/mice, goose/geese, a broken plural. Child/children would be quite irregular by any standard since there is internal change from "long" to short "i" and an absolutely unique "ren" as external ending. a. Sound Masculine Plural: This plural is used only when referring to rational male beings. Hence these nouns and adjectives may be called "rational masculine J3 UITFSi25i. te is not necessary, however, ‘that alll nouns or adjectives referring to rational male beings take this sound or external masculine plural. ‘The sound masculine plural is formed by prefixing "G5 " to the singular in the nominative case, or "G. " when the singular nounis in the accusative or genitive case. Examples: Ca ing ae este bo Se teachers a es on? oe AS ere — i525" if the noun is definite. It is also expressed by: The long vowel " yg " for the nouns in the regular masculine plural form and for any of the five nouns" S207 UN fn non they are 2 in the construct state " «sla. or united to the annexed pronouns and " o% " for the nouns in the dual form. D. Feminine Plural and Cases: The feminine plural, discussed in Part Two, will take a iis ? to indicate the nominative case, anda 505 to indicate both, the accusative and the genitive cases. Examples: The students (F) went to. IAT yt S285 Liat school. 23‘The teacher (F) left the elias 5 UT students (F) in school. Vga My sister lived with the weld esis o 7 students (F). Sl det coe EB. The Five Nouns " There are five nouns which differ in their declensions by having the case vowel lengthened whenever the noun occurs in the construct state " 3A" or united to the ‘annexed pronouns, except the first person singular. ‘The Five Nouns are: _l father". " d brother" 3.0" (£ father-in-law" ke" 93 ( (5) mouth 53. " 494 possessor of...." ‘Two of these five nouns are most familiar, e.g. "~! "and" ¢l " Examples: a. with annexed pronoun. Examples: His father came. Non. I saw his father. hoo, I passed by his father. Gen. b. construct state "Glas". Examples: This is the student's father. Nom. i,alid I saw the student's father. Aec. ipa liut Twont with the student's father. ini gl Gees 2hIV. PRONOUN A. Independent: In Arabic, the independent pronouns are not used so much as are the corresponding forms in English. They are used mainly as subjects of sentences without verbs, (Discussed in Part Five - Syntax), to prevent possible ambiguity, and to add emphasis. ‘The complete set of the Arabic independent pronouns is as follows: 3rd Person “2 she o he 3 they (two) Us they (two) Us they as they oe 2nd Person you you ot you (two) you (two) USF you (PL) you (PL) 351 B. Suffix: There is only one set of pronoun suffixes which could be attached to nouns, prepositions, or verbs. These suffixes or endings when attached at the end of a noun, will be considered as possessive pronouns. When attached at the end of a verb (Discussion Part III - Verb) or a pre- position, they are considered as pronoun objects. ‘The following is the 25complete set of pronoun suffixes: 3rd Person ae : 2 hor be his, him 7. their, then Ls their, them UR _ (two) (two) their, them Sa — their, them fa — (PL) (eu!) if and Person your, you oe your, you gL your, yu = LS _ your, you = US (two) (two, your, you your, you = 4S (Pl.) 1.) ° ist Person msm gp or,u GH 1. In attaching these suffixes to verbs, there are two positions where an extra letter (in writing) is added to verbs before attaching the pronoun suffixes, namely: a. The letter " 5 "4s added to the Perfect verbs in the second person plural masculine and then the required pronoun suffix is attached. Examples: You (Wf. PL) left. pase You (M. PL) left him 735572 44 355! 26b. The letter " y " is added to verbs in any tense before attaching the 1st person singular pronoun suffix. Example: He left me eS = stot de He leaves me POE wget e WY don Part 2. The independent pronoun in the accusative (Discu: Five - Syntax) is formed by adding the pronoun suffixes to "CG! ". Plural Dual Singular 3rd Me atl ae oe ety tie 3rd Bey = BEL and M, , auy ust ee and F, 2 et) Ast eGy These forms are mainly used: a. When there are two pronouns as the direct object of the verb. Example: He gave it to me ] (He gave me it) ae b. When the pronoun is used as the object after a verbal My giving him it oOy gi tasl c. When the pronoun object is emphasized. Exanple: You I mean est Sty, Thee we worship yw JUL, IY and Thee we ask * for help. (A verse from the Quran). 27C. Interrogative: The interrogative pronouns are referred to in ere Nee antees ee tave enna beset emer oretane declinable i.e., they retain one case ending regardless of their position in the sentence (Discussion on Cases is in Part Five, Syntax). ‘The principal interrogatives are: 1. Snow mich, how many?: The noun following this interrogative is accusative and singular. Examples: een tee er How many days are there Sef gp Ly in the week? ° How much is the price of PsFLl 52 ‘the car? - 2. G&S how?: It is used to inquire about the state or the condition of a person or an object. Examples: oF rer How are you? fel as How was the weather yesterday? $a, UJi abs) GW GSS 7 eee How is the condition of the Sad) UGS patient? 3. wi when?: It is used to inquire about the time of the action. ‘Examples: When did you come? cet ot When do you go? stair 2 u. EF wmeret: Te is used to inquire about the place. Examples: Where is your brother? : ane rea Where were you? 5 See St Where do you learn the eur ar Pinata ‘Arabic language? = 28‘Through this noun a specification or determination is asked. It is a declinable noun and, therefore, its case ending is determined according to its position in the sentence. The word following this noun is always in the genitive case, Examples: Which city is this? Which book do you read? From which country did you come? 6. “o“who? whose? whom?: It refers to human being. Examples: Who is this man? 8 RST tie BT Whose book is this? 8 iis i2us Whom did you see yesterday? s se, Uesi5 ys Sometimes 15 of the demonstrative is added to for the sake of emphasis. Examples: Who is it that went out now? sl Bi gil ts Who is it that was with you? f rela US) Scat 7. oor |i what?: Basically it refers to objects. It may be used, however, to inquire about the make, kind, or characteristic of a thing whether it is an object or a human being. Examples: What is this? oak What did you buy? SAG isu oor & What do you write? $2455 15 or U What is the work? or what can Maru you do? (expression) 29on What is (the) Lion? avie What is (the) human being? ova The use of Ls has the following limitations: a. U 4s used to preceed a noun. Example: What ie your nane? satiu b. 15. (compound of the interrogative \. and the demon- strative | J ) is used to preceed a verb, as a subject or object of that verb. Examples: What was with him? ¢ Wigs What did you buy? 8 CS3GT au co and \ function also as indefinite pronouns to imply "whoever" and "whatever" respectively. g-< refers to one or more human beings, and gives the equivalent of the English ‘he who', ‘those who', ‘anyone who' or ‘whoever! where as Ls is translated by ‘that which’, ‘the thing that’, ‘what! or 'whatever'. They typically introduce subordi- nate clauses. Examples: He who came is their friend. + pause Te gt ‘Those whom (the one) T Se? 2553 of visited are teachers. D. Demonstrative: Demonstrative pronouns are called in Arabic - te an " 45 UYI2 Ut the Pointing Nouns." They are classified in three groups according to the distance of pointing, i.e., near, intermediate, or far. ‘Thus: 30Near ie this ida jo Uls — ddal nominative ei ol dual, accusative aa ° or genitive - ARS Goo ys Intermediate that dual nominative dual, accusative or genitive those Far ai, that “ays “kt dval nominative “ayia ws dual, accusative ass a or genitive a AF tnose lt ‘The demonstrative pronouns for the "intermediate distance" as well as the dual forms of the "ar distance" are seldom used. 312,202 The plural forms " s¥%a, eliJ,f are used in reference to people only. The feminine singular forms " sia . ells" are used in reference to any inanimate plural noun. Examples: These boys are students 6553051 in this school. These girls are students jis el debe LOT eyha in the girls school. ‘Those men are teachers. ‘Those women are teachers. These schools are new. Those cars are old. sibel CST al E. Relative "sil wil": This relative pronoun is known in Arabic as" Jyo5iJl 451, the connected noun." It is equivalent to all English relative pronouns: who, which, that, whom, and whose. Unlike English, it always stands for a definite noun. Examples: I bought from the apples which are in the basket. ‘The apples which are in this basket are expensive. The man who was with me yesterday went to Egypt. ‘The girl who was with me yesterday went to Egypt. ‘The tomatoes which are in this basket are cheap (inexpensive). ‘The dual and the plural forms of id! and J? and their in- flections according to cases are: 32Dual: M. Nominative case. Accusative or genitive case. P. Nominative case. Accusative or genitive case. Plural: M. All cases (indeclinable). F, All cases (indeclinable). The relative pronoun in the plural form 4.0.5" G/i5f or ysl pL" are used only for rational nouns. When an ‘trrations plural noun needs a a .Lr™rT—™—"C“=EETrr Eel Examples: We saw the students who. La Gyv)it satis ete study here. We met the maids whom Sf eb uit ets ny friend sent. + gis ‘The books which we took Se UGT | fron the Library were a ee = oe new. Leis Cksr V. COLORS Adjectives denoting color belong to a special class. The masculine singular form " Jas! " and the feminine singular "+45 " are indeclinable ( Sra Gs ¢5554). The plural form" Jas " is declinable and of common gender. Thus: 33Plural Singular Singular (Common ) (Feminine) (Masculine) ys ue nest) red lee Pai white oe) etl black > ant blue "355 ost green we wat yellow eae set brown ones ial The dual endings are added to the singular forms regularly, except that the ("e”i;se ) of the feminine singular form changes into (‘ssl 5 ) before the dual ending is added. Thus: Masculine dual ol pel oll el ut Feminine dual ol gt 2S pee os ur Occasionally, the regular feminine plural is used for » Xs form to indicate a few of the feminine humans i.e., from three to ten in number. Examples: a few (brown) dark (F, persons) elle otto a few (white) fair (R persons) elsu .u Here again, the"*” i js of the feminine singular form is changed into” ,” 4! as in the dual form. 3hOther colors are derived from nouns by the relative adjective suffix 62h. examples: (coffee like) dark a brown ? orange (color) gay rosy; pink goes milky eo siy-biue gy Ll or ylic sea-greon ed 35 flowers 355 pistachioCHAPTER THREE MORPHOLOGY - VERB I, TRILITERAL Most Arabic verbs are composed of three radicals (consonants with short vowels). Such roots are described as "triliteral Lf". there are but a few verbs with four-radical roots. Such veros are called nquadriliteral ys Lu ", there are verbs on the other hand, with more than three or four radicals, in which additions to the triliteral or the quadriliteral roots give different shades of meaning. Such verbs are called nderivea a, ;clin, The pattern for any triliteral verb is "Jas to do". For this reason the first radical of the triliteral verb is called the G radical, the second the ¢ radical, and the third the J radical. A. Transi ive and Intransitive: The Arabic verb may be either transitive or intransitive. In Arabic, the transitive verb is always tran- sitive regardless where or how it is used, that is, it can not be used in one sentence as transitive and in another sentence as intransitive, as is common in sone of the verbs in the English language. B. Perfect: The Arabic verb has two main tenses which, however, are not related to the sane tenses in their English sense. These two main tenses are know as Perfect and Inperfect. ‘The Perfect denotes a completed action referring to the past. The Imperfect denotes an incompleted action referring to the present or future. 36,‘The Perfect verb is also known as the "suffix verb" in reference to the subject marker found at the end of the verb form. This marker indicates the subject or the "doer" of the action of the verb. The first and the third radicals (when no suffix is attached) of the triliteral verbs are vocalized with /fatha/ (35; where as the second radical may be vocalized with /fatha/ ins , /kasra/ » or /damma/ This (vocalizing of the second radical) can be ascertained by the dictionary or by hearing. ‘The triliteral verb in the Perfect form, therefore, may appear in any one of the following three patterns: Woam OS he wrote es as in t he drank LE ain “AS 1. Sound Verb: The triliteral is of two types: he grew or became big. ‘sound" and "weak". The verb is said to be "sound" or "strong" ;JL. when the three radicals are consonants. The following is a complete perfect: conjugation of the sound triliteral verb: 2nd Masculine you (MS) wrote or eyles you (MS) have written you (two M) wrote or Lolas you (two M) have written you (MB) wrote or You (NE) have written 37 3rd Masculine eee, he wrote or wets he has written they (two M) wrote or (uss ‘they (two M) have written a they (M) wrote or ty 3s they (M) have written2nd Feminine 3rd Feminine you (FS) wrote or oo she wrote or elas you (FS) have written she has written you (two F) wrote or they (two R) wrote or G35 you (two F) have written they (two F) have written you (FR) wrote or they (F) wrote or oles you (FP) have written ‘they () have written Ast Person I wrote or 2ss aie | we wrote or uks we have written a. The dual pronoun suffix for the second person serves both genders. b. An ?alif is written but not pronounced after the waaw ending of the third person plural masculine form, e.g. | is. c. This conjugation may be taken as a pattern for any sound three letters verb. 4, The vowel of the middle radical in the three-letter verbs nay be any of the three short vowels. However, the conjugation is the same. e. Since the subject is always included in the conjugation, it is not necessary, therefore, to use the independent pronoun with every verb as it is in English. The use of the independent pronoun with the verb is mainly for emphasis. 2. The Weak Verb: ‘Two "letters" of the alphabet, » and y , which are the root for the developed long vowel " |" are considered weak. There- 38fore, whenever one or more of the radicals of a root is , or 4s the verb is said to be "weak" Jit, as opposed to all other roots, which are "strong" or "sound". a. Middle Weak Verb: ‘The following is the conjugation of one type of weak verb - the middle radical is weak. The conjugation of verbs of this type in the perfect tense follows one set pattern. The following conjugation of 4! j"to visit" is given as a pattern. Any verb of this type is conjugated according to this pattern as regards the elimination of the weak "letter", 3rd F. 3rd Me she visited 2515 he visited Sl3 they (2) visited G5l5 they (2) visited et they visited oun they visited tyalg 2nd 2nd you visited you visited you (2) visited you (2) visited ey you (PL) visited you (Pl) visited peas) ist I visited we visited Conjugation of the initial weak verb in the Perfect tense 4s similar to that of the sound. 39b. Final Weak Vert ‘The Perfect conjugation of this type of verb also, like the middle weak radical verb, follows one set pattern. The following is the conjugation of (49 "to spend time" given as a pattern. Any verb of this type is conjugated according to this pattern: 3rd 3rd she spent he spent 5 they (2) spent they (2) spent Ua they spent — iar 2nd 2nd you spent you spent anes you (2) spent you (2) spent Ls you (PL) spent you (PL) spent “as Ast I spent 35 we spent us 3. Final Double Verbs: When the last two consonants (radicals) of the verb are similar, the verb is said to be "final double" Wha.. ‘The conjugation of such verbs is according to the following set pattern. 3rd F 3rd M. she passed ee he passed they (2) passed ue they (2) passed ne ‘they passed anes they passed iene 402nd F 2nd M. you passed Sie you passed Bes you (2) passed you (2) passed ete you (P1) passed you (P1) passed ie ast. penn co we passed es lu. Perfect with Pronoun Suffix: The pronoun suffixes or endings which are attached to verbs are the same pronoun endings attached to nouns. ‘These pronoun suffixes are called "Pronoun Object" when attached to verbs or prepositions. They are called "Possessive Pronouns" when attached to nouns. ‘The following is a complete list of all the pronoun suffixes as may appear attached to any transitive verb. The following list also shows every person in the perfect forms with these pronoun suffixes: she left cases he left a hin a\E55 hin 4S her & her & then HM. 3 then M. 2 ‘them F. & ae. B you MS. a you MS. g you FS, J you FS. ve unshe left you MPL. you FPL, they F. left a5 hin 34555 ‘them M. 5 them F, you MS. you FS. you M.PL you F,Pl, us & you M,S,left him, her ete. -. you F,S.left him, her etc. -. you M.Pl.left him, her etc. you F.Pl.left him, her etc. I left him, her etc. we left him, her etc. - 42 you M.P1. * you FPL. 35 = y us Lb him a her & then M. 3 then F, oa you MS. a you FS. 2 you MPL. °3 you F,Pl. 3s me 2 us & ee ie ys 6 SS owt Wes. ToS ccgeneccsesThere are only two positions in the written conjugation where an extra letter is added at the end of the verb before attaching the pronoun suffixes, namely: a. The letter " 5 " is added at the end of the perfect verb in the second person plural masculine ( ,i5,+ - you M. Pl. left) and then the required pronoun suffix is attached. Example: you left her WS 2 bas BSS b. The letter " 4 "is added at the end of the verb in any tense before attaching the lst person singular pronoun suffix. Example: he left me Ss «Imperfect: 1. Formation: The imperfect is formed fron the perfect by adding personal prefixes and, in some cases, suffixes to the stem. The vowel distribution of the triliteral stem is as follows: The first radical has sukuun (_°_), the second radical takes one of the three short vowels (can be ascertained only from the dictionary), and the third radical either has damma (?_), or is followed by a suffix - see the following conjugation: ‘The personal prefixes are: 3rd person M.S. M.Pl. & F.PL. a 2nd person M.S. F.S. M.Pl. FPL. & a 3rd F.S. = Ist person Pl. Ss Ist person S. i 43Vocalization: The vocalizing of the middle radical, like the perfect, is unpredictable. However, it should follow one of the following possibilities: a. If the perfect of the verb is of the category “Jas the middle radical ( ¢ ) will be vocalized in the imperfect with i. > , 5 or LSS. Bamples: “ Inperfect Perfect he writes eur O35 he descends a) yar we he goes au ws ne bd. If the perfect of the verb is of the category “Jas , the middle radical ( ¢ ) will be vocalized in the imperfect with either ws or __ + Examples: Imperfect Perfect he rides ashe oy, if he assumes come oes c. If the perfect of the verb is of the category Jas , the middle radical ( ¢ ) will be vocalized only with iis * . Examples: Inperfect Perfect he grows (up) 2 5 In most cases however, this variation of vocalizing the middle radical is insignificant, i.e., it does not change the meaning. And after being exposed to the right pronunciation through exercises and use, this will not constitute a problem.‘Typest a. Sound: The following table shows the conjugation of the imperfect with the personal prefixes and suffixes. taken as a pattern for all triliteral sound verbs: 3rd Masculine Singular —2 Ge Dual wis pa Plural ts Sey 3rd Feminine Singular —s Dual lass Plural, e-s 2nd Masculine Singular —s uy Deal wl 5 yas Plural Cs ot 2nd Feminine Singular en) 3 i Dual pol 5 pik Plural e—s Sue Ast Singular 1 Us Plural —5 ty ‘This conjugation may be he writes they write they write she writes they write they write you write you write you write you write you write you write I write we writeThe triliteral verbs which have the sound"? * hamza(t)" as their initial radical will follow the same pattern explained above. Examples: Imperfect Perfect he eats as ast he takes BU at d. : The conjugation of the imperfect of verbs like " Gen, 0 J " etc., does not differ in essence from the conjugation of any three consonant verbs. However, the gemination (doubled consonant) would be separated only with two persons, i.e., the 3rd and 2nd feminine plural. While maintaining this demination with the other persons, the first radical of the stem, unlike the regular triliteral verb, would be vocalized. Examples: he writes char he likes they write they Like they F.write . they F. ike you F.write hs you F, like c. Weake (1) Initial: In forming the imperfect of the initial weak verb, the long vowel is dropped before attaching the imperfect prefix. This, however, does not change the pattern of vowelling the middle radical of such verbs in the imperfect. ‘The following conjugation of " Q3y " should be taken as a pattern for all verbs of this type. 16Conjugation of "455 " "to happen, to fall" 3rd Person Singular Dual Plural 2nd Person Singular ce Dual old: Plural ae Ast Person Singular asf Plural ae (2) Middle: You should note that certain triliteral vers in the perfect tense have the long vowel " | GJf " as their middle radical " ¢ "In forming the imperfect of these verbs, the " GJf" will either remain " wat "or change intoa"» 3!s"ora"gel, There is no rule to govern this aspect. Familiarity with the Arabic derivatives and the use of the Arabic dictionary will sclve this problem. However, these verbs are not considered irregular, because their inflection can be predicted, and determined by whether the origin of the " GUI" is" sly "ortal * through the dictionary. uqAfter determining whether " GUT " 4s going to remain, change into" 4/5", or change into "+ L,", its conjugation in the imperfect would be like any other imperfect you have studied in most aspects. The following conjugation of " 75;2" should be taken as a pattern for all verbs of this type. Conjugation of "5554" to visit 3rd Person Singular Dual Plural 2nd Person foyte) Singular ola Dual wor Plural lst Person Singular Zest Plural Aa (3) Final: Generally, the long vowel " Lil? " of this type of verbs is written in the perfect tense as an" ij,ai.Jf." How- ever, there are verbs of the same type where this long vowel is written waitn | isha on 46The " i5yais iif " found in the perfect tense of these verbs should be changed into " "in the imperfect as" Gis— oti to walk", and" aj aii to spend." The following conjugation of ity should be taken as a pattern for any verb of this type: Conjugation of " to walk 3rd Person Plural Ist Person Singular gat Plural we ‘There are some verbs of this type whose long vowel is" %"4in the perfect. This long vowel " y " is changed, in the im- Spats Gt" as is the case with the verb " Git to stay", perfect into " thus oi4. Pronoun Suffixes: The pronoun suffixes which were attached to the Perfect may be attached to the Imperfect in the same way. Bxanples: he writes it ESS go 04 LEST she loves them we find her they visit you 9 LP + FI you invite us Gigi < bs Byek 5. Future Tense - ¢% and G32: There is no future tense in Arabic as such. The imperfect would render the meaning of the present, present continuous, and future according to the context. Nevertheless, the imperfect may be prefixed by " 5%" for near future or preceded by "G5o " for the far future to emphasize the future tense. No change whatsoever is required in the imperfect for this purpose. Examples: . I go to the coffee shop. okt or est of eee I will (prety soon or right away). pti QI CAST go to the coffee shop. 2 Ciavatcs teptre octeee sees SU Rais | (ater). ie D. Complete Conjugation of Imperfect: As you have noticed the Triliteral Verb, perfect or imperfect, is the basis for all other types of verbs so far as conjugation is concerned. If you observe the triliteral perfect tense in its various forms in conjugation, you would find out that changes take place only at the end, and so it is, in general, with any other form in the perfect tense. On theother hand, the changes which occur on the imperfect conjugation of the triliteral are in the beginning as well as in the end of the verb (prefixes and suffixes). Here again, all types of verbs should match the imperfect of triliteral ones in conjugation. The following sets of conjugations are listed as reinforcement to what has been explained about the triliteral verb. Each set should be taken as a pattern for conjugating any similar new verb: 1. soma = 225," C55 to write: Imperfect Perfect a 3rd Masculine 3rd Feminine 2nd Masculine 2nd Feminine 51Imperfect 22st Ast eee te 2. Double {2, — ". to pass Imperfect me 3rd Masculine wl Oo 3rd Feminine 2nd Masculine Rae 2nd Feminine oe a 227 0 82 S3 roe bi3. Weak: a. Initial gi, (5, to fel ‘Imperfect Perfect aie 3rd Masculine oe oll wis Soak Leis ate 3rd Feminine aay ts ta ois ae re 2nd Masculine aa; oon aus eae 2nd Feminine ls woh LAGS ee e257 Gi det 53b. Medial 4,57 %I5 to visit imperfect, Perfect Paes 3rd Masculine Ns (olson oe yo53 3rd Feminine S55 last U5 Oe 05 ba ee ie) aoe 353 oau33 255 See ame 25 (ole ussy OE o53 jas a 255 2955 us ‘The imperfect conjugation is basically the same with verbs which their middle radical " ! is retained, or changed into " yg" such as "U2" he sleeps, and " e+ "he sales. Suce Final ie, — G+ to walk Imperfect, ‘IT. DERIVED VERBS ‘The form of the verb which has thus far been studied may be called the basic stem of triliteral. The three basic radicals can be fitted into 3rd Masculine 3rd Feminine 2nd Masculine 2nd Feminine Ast 5S Perfectfifteen different patterns or measures. Every verbal root is theoretically capable of being put into all fifteen of the patterns, each of which modifies the basic idea of the roots or produces some other shades of meaning, in most cases, related to the root. However only nine of the patterns are in common use. ‘The acquisition of an understanding of verb patterns is of prime importance in learning Arabic. It is important therefore that you should acquire a good familiarity with these nine derived forms. And when their peculiarities are grasped, and it is realized that each derived form is associated with certain meanings, they become a great help to the speedy acquisition of vocabulary. In order to accomplish this, it is necessary to have a thorough Imowledge of the rules for the formation of the patterns or measures, and the meaning or purpose of each pattern. A. _JA4 Measure: 1. Formation: This pattern is formed by geminating (doubling) the middle radical of the triliteral verb. If the middle radical of the root isan"! whe that "1 agin is changed to its origin - either " yl, " or" " and then the gemination is applied. 2. Meaning and Purpose: This pattern has various meanings, but we are concerned only with those which are basic and common: It makes the intransitive triliteral verbs, transitive, and the transitive triliteral verbs causative or intensive. Examples: 56to bring (something) Jos to descend es down to make (someone or “yet mow cB sonething) known, oe a to introduce to teach C5. to study aa to return something ES to retum ai to break into pieces 5 to break ns to put someone to to sleep ae sleep to set in motion Fe to move le) b. It is used to bring out the meaning of verbs not used in their triliteral forms. Example: to smoke a os c. Tt ds used to make a verb out of a noun. Examples: to change Fe other pes to alter to direct (toward Sy face Oa something) B. “asl Measure: 1. Formation: This pattern is formed by prefixing " f while the first radical loses its vowel. 2, Meaning and Purpose: a. Tt has the same meaning as the Jas measure, i.e., it modifies the meaning of the root form by rendering it causative. Examples: to make someone dwell, %<.f to dwell pcan to lodge someone 5Tto cause to enter ES to enter ye to return something stuf to return, gu to cone back It is used to bring out the meaning of verbs not used in their triliteral forms. Examples: to want “uf ay to send fast 4 c. Tt 4s used to make a verb out of a noun. Examples: sone i “tt womine 13 to rain Salt vain i 4. The vowel of the first radical of the weak triliteral, which has a long vowel as its middle radical will be retained. Examples: to return something 21 to return, Su ‘to come back to want a a 5, rrr ———C— §T the same meaning and purpose, consequently there are quite a few verbs which are capable of being put into both of these patterns to get the same modified meaning of the root. However, due to social limitation in usage and the developed shade of meaning, a difference in meaning is acquired. Examples: cause to know, “e ‘to teach ne ote to know to inform ef 58f. The JAJ measure is more frequently used in daily con- versation than Jai! pattern. 3. Conjugation of Jas and Jast Measures: The conjugation of ‘these two measures in the perfect does not differ from any perfect that you kmow. The conjugation of these two pattems, in the imperfect, however differs from the conjugation of the triliteral verb conjugation as follows: a. The imperfect of Jas measure: The imperfect prefix would take a" ? 3 "as ite vowel; the first radical of the stem would take a" < i350 as ite vowel (instead of being vowelless in the triliteral verb); and the radical before the last one would take a" i5.5" in all forms of the imperfect thus: 59b. The imperfect of Jas! measure: The " 1 incs ipsa" ie eliminated from the imperfect conjugation; the imperfect prefix would take a" 2 2.5" as its vowel; the first radical of the stem would be vowel- less like the triliteral verb, unless it is followed by a long vowel " 9! or ", and the radical before the last one would take "—— i525", rf the radical before the last one is a long vowel, that long vowel is changed into " y " regardless of its origin, and consequently, the first radical would take a "—— #5 " as its vowel. Thus: 2nd M, 3rd M. pa AD Le oa pol tae ole bot Sot bra F. ome lags out In the 3rd and 2nd feminine plural forms, the long vowel " g " 4s eliminated as is the case in the conjugation of the triliteral verb of the same root, i.e., Geos and Oey 60C. The Sais Measure: 1. Formation: This measure is formed by prefixing. "5 iis 6" to Jas measure. 2. Meaning and Purpose: This measure may show the consequence of Jas pattern or it may give the intransitive or the reflexive meaning of theJ~4 measure, It may also be used to make a verb from a noun. Examples: to teach one's self “EES to cause someone to mow “45 to learn to teach ie to advance, to be “{Ais to cause someone or s advanced sonsthing to be ahead, to advance sonething, to offer to be honored Ui22 to honor someone ee to be introduced TET to cause to know, ee to introduce, to define In order to clarify this complexity of "consequence or reflexive" meaning, let us take one triliteral verb and illustrate each step that passes through the process of derivation: The triliteral verb ¢4+ means to know, to have the knowledge of. If you geminate the middle radical of this verb accord- ing to we pattern, thus a it will mean "to cause somebody to know or comprehend", in other words "to teach." Now if you add the prefix " S" to the form " ae " according to Jaispattern, thus pie » it will render the meaning of "teaching one's own self" i.e., "to learn" or to put it in other words, if you teach somebody, what is the effect or the result? The effect is that he will learn. Thus through the process of derivation, two new 6verbs have been developed, i.e., "ple to teach" and " ne to learn." Conjugation of "Janis Measure: a. Perfect: The conjugation of this form in the perfect is similar to that of the triliteral verb. b. Imperfect: In this conjugation the Jai: pattern unlike the triliteral, would retain the " 7 ints " vowel of its first radical. ‘Thus: 3rd Fe 3a M to advance p. dU Measure: 1. Formation: This measure is formed by adding an"! Gif after the first radical of the triliteral verb and affixing the middle radical vowelling with " “i253 ." Thus: 62Meaning and Purpose: This measure, generally, is transitive. ‘The main purpose of this pattern is to show the relation of the action to a person. It expresses the reciprocal action between the subject and the object of the verb. Examples: to visit each other S315 to visit ie) to correspond LS to write cas ‘The man visited his friend. Pee oe ener The man exchanged visits with his 2h 5515 BE friend. (visited each other) The man wrote to his friend. nd lf SS our The nan corresponded with his friend. abot St It may also be used to bring out the meaning of an unused triliteral form, such as: to travel Boe ee to participate Bu (dy) Conjugation: a. Perfect: The conjugation of this measure in the perfect is similar to that of the triliteral verb. b. Imperfect: The imperfect conjugation of this measure is similar to that of J+é and Js! measures, i.e., the vowelling of the imperfect willbe" 7 i ". The vowel of its first radical is retained; anda" y-S " vowelling is affixed before the last radical. Examples: he participates % “We au he travels gL Gu he exchanges visits Biol eal, 63B. de i Measure: i .u8 1. Formation: This measure is formed by prefixing " to (Ie U measure. 2. Meaning and Purpose: This measure is always intransitive in function. The main purpose of this pattern is to express the consequences of the Jé G measure, or give the reflexive meaning of the Js U pattern. Examples: to correspond with TSG to correspond Sw one another to enter into partner- “WG li: to participate Bu ship with someone the man exchanged visits Cepek oes israt with his friend. Pe we ne BO le ( Lo UST 331 The meaning of the above two sentences is the same. However, the structure is different. In the first sentence, "the manJrsJ/# de stil the doer (subject) of the verb, and "his friend %i.25m 4s sti21 the receiver (object), of the verb, While in the second sentence both "the man and his friend" 24,15, Je>Ji" are doers (subjects) of the same verb and there is no object. This measure expresses sometimes the repetition of the action of the triliteral: Examples: to fall in succession hols to fall Li to retreat EIA to retun eS 64It may also express feigning. Examples: ‘to feign work ELS work Jas to feign sickness, GIUS siciness oe to pretend sick Conjugation: a. Perfect: The conjugation of this measure in the perfect is similar to that of the triliteral verb. b. Imperfect: The imperfect conjugation of this is also similar to that of the triliteral with one exception; the vowelling of the first radical of this measure is retained. Examples: 31 3518 wut afur "ElAL es 1. Formation: This measure is formed by adding "} GpS ijn as a prefix and "5 icts »& © as an infix after the first radical of the triliteral verb, while the first radical will be vowelless. Thus: Be 2. Meaning and Purpose: The main purpose of this measure is to express the reflexiveness fron the transitive triliteral verb. Examples: to acknowledge, G1 to know oy ‘to confess 2 to gather, to meet CSI to aaa, to Ge 2 bring together to believe “kel to the, to intend = A 653. Conjugation: a. Perfect: The conjugation of this measure in the perfect is similar to that of the triliteral verb. b. Imperfect: This measure is conjugated in the imperfect as the Jas? pattern with vowelling of the imperfect prefix" “ ic3 " instead of " 2 S54, thus: a oe See det ne S21 ee ween Ca oy es ory G. At! Measure: Gl" to the 1. Formation: This measure is formed by prefixing " 4! triliteral verb. Thus: fat ig Gay, BS oo, oe 2. Meaning and Purpose: This measure serves the same purpose of J+iil . However they differ in other dimensions which are considered of lesser importance. 3. Conjugation: This measure is conjugated as the Jai! measure in both the perfect and the imperfect tenses.de Gaal ana Us o- 2 or by or ose ch on Cy os von Basically, the Noun of Object is formed from transitive verbs. However, it is possible to form the Noun of Object from intransitive verbs provided that it is followed by an adequate preposition. Examples: sorry for (him) poise a} eae ed sadden upon a enbarrassed from gacey ens noe ashamed of (it or him) =~ sat in (it) fd le believed in a Oy needed (to) ol (at C. Noun of Action 1. Description: The two derived nouns, Noun of Subject and Noun of Object, explained in the previous sections, deal with the persons and the action of the verb. The Noun of Action expresses mere action, state, or being of the verb, and is unlimited by subject, object, or time. This noun is also mown as Werbal Noun". It is called in Arabic "Aa. Jf the source" or "origin". 82. Construction: a. Triliteral Verb: The Noun of Action is formed from both transitive and intransitive verbs. Fron triliteral verbs, it is irregular in its formation. It is determined, therefore, by the dictionary. Examples: writing ous cas sitting ott oe rearing Se going ei GS showing we oe A verb may have more than one Noun of Action especially if it has different shades of meaning. Examples: study or course = LI 44 lesson oe oe passing _ passing; 4 a 7 traffic a 7 occurrence od effects impact 5 ve b. More than Three Consonants: The Noun of Action formed from the quadriliteral or the derived verb has the same function as that of the triliteral, i.e., expressing the verbal meaning in the noun form. How- ever, unlike the triliteral, the formation of the Noun of Action from a quadriliteral or any derived verb is according to specific measures or forms. ‘The following are measures used to form the Noun of Action for all the derived verbs which have been covered in this text: (2) JAS Pattern: The Noun of Action "jieJT" for this pattern will be according to: 9(a) JesK5 for all verbs except those which end with a long vowel ora" ijas ", example: teaching re photography 35° = gic exercise care arrangement oon introducing, aos definition (>) 21,45 , generally for the verb which ends with a long vowel or a" ja ", Example: naming 2 to name ou education, to bring up aa bringing up apportioning to apportion ie (2) has Pattern: The Noun of Action #Sk5f » cor this pattern is formed by changing the vowel of the geminated consonant into "thus: Gis > JES, Examples: learning pls le speaking pales gates honoring Sys Ss @) EL Pattern: The Noun of Action " goeatt" for this: pattern will be either on "iL LZ form or " JLAS" form, It is not necessary that the verb in this pattern should have both forms of Noun of Action ",222]f», mere are, however, a few verbs which accept both of these 80forms as their Noun of Action. In such a case, there is a shade of different meaning developed, through usage, between the two forms. Examples: participation iSjL G5u book es correspondence a3it2 Ci defense eb defending wow Gis transactin ilu Yu treatment help, wu Su assistance (4) Je US Pattern: The Noun of Action ")ia0Jt # for this pattern is formed by changing the vowel of the consonant before the last into "aS 4" 9 ", Examples: retreat feigning work Patterns: ing to the following general procedure: (a) The vowelling of the initial "sj. is always 3, (b) Adding the long vowel " Uf before the last consonant. (c) The consonants between the initial " i526 " and os ny while those which are vowelled would change their vowels into " ij—5 ‘the added long vowel, which have "ys" "© " would retain that "_o". Bxamples: asending et meeting ee division pe use ges reese ey end ordi giving et buying sty When the long: vowel occurs before the last consonant of ‘the verb, then the Noun of Action form would be according to one of the following two steps (1) A” ib555 + Ln 4s added at the end of the form instead of the long vowel " Cid? ." Example: want bt att (2) The long vowel " GJ!" of the verb is changed into " 4s " and then the " Wi!" of the Noun of Action form is added. Examples: ae chsh ey regularity suse A ous 4 e. The plural of the Noun of Action from these derived verbs is generally, the regular feminine plural. 82£. The Noun of Action " +! yi! buying is not as commonly used as" +12", the Noun of Action from the triliteral verb. 3. Use: It is often used with its own verb to strengthen or to reinforce the meaning of the verb. In English this use is relatively rare, but in Arabic this case is quite frequent. Examples: ‘The days passed (by us) fast. “Cats OF ue ‘The student studied a lot. Wed O55 WAG 355 Unlike the Nouns of Subject and Object, it is only used as a noun and not as an adjective. Generally, the plural of the Noun of Action " jae?" is the regular feminine plural. Examples: e Us vu elle aalies oe Ue ie 1. Description: This form of a derived noun denotes the time 4 res . im or place "y JI of an action. It is formed from both tran- no hy sitive and intransitive verbs. 2. Formation: a, Triliteral Verbs: The noun of place and time is formed from the imperfect by substituting " %" for the imperfect prefix of the third person masculine singular conjugation. 83(1) When the vowel of the middle radical of the verb is (5.5), no change in the vocalization is required, thus "eis", Exanples: ea ee place of sitting, assembly ws gsr oar Piaeater ertibition, tempo timie ope or cg ores If the first radical of the verb is weak " sor g" in the stem, the noun of place and time will be of the measure " Jats" as explained above regardless of the vocalization of its middle radical in the imperfect. Examples: time or place of appointment ay place of falling, location es place of standing, position wih ay (2) When the vowel of the middle radical of the verb is (2 BS) or (2, ES) at wi te (2 BS) tims EY tor forming the noun of place and time. Examples: place of writing, office Place of sleeping, bed place of eating, restaurant ‘There are some verbs with (_~_ in their imperfect yet their commonly used noun of place and tine is of "Jets" measure and not "Jade." Examples: 8hplace of dwelling, house ose ea place of praying, mosque ae coed as time or place of sunrise, east 3,2) 538,55 time or place of sunset, west C0 234i O5F b. Derived Verbs (Verbs of more than three radical): The Passive Participle of these verbs is used for the noun of place and time. Examples: time or place of ending, end hospital place of meeting c. A (i ibys52 +) is sometimes added to the measure dois or " Jes" to express abundance of the thing implied, and the measure will be " il,is" regardless of the middle radical vocalization. Examples: Library ey school aa butchery; massacre som ck press E. Noun of Instrument WY 4! 1. Description: Nouns of Instrument describe the instrument with which actions of verbs are performed. They may be derived or original nouns. oe 852. Construction: The derived nouns are taken from triliteral transitive verbs only and have three regular patterns, i.e., Jais sJliis and itsis, There is no way, however, to indicate which verb will yield a noun of instrument according to one of these three patterns and not the other. The plural of Jai, and iii, patterns is Je Lis, while the plural of JUG. pattern is Jclic . Examples: Plural Singular a. vel gon ol ey file oped b. deus wallet Bg spoon oer e. key measure 3. The original nouns of instrument exist independently in the language and do not follow any of the derived patterns. Examples: Plural, Singular pencil as fork knife axF. Noun of Excess: This derived noun, called in Arabic " “ine LUZ sonm of Excess", has the meaning of the Noun of Subject we ult fil, to which is added the idea of intensity of profession. It has various forms or measures which are mainly derived from the triliteral root. The most important of these forms are JUS and Jys3 . The plural of these forms is the regular masculine. Examples: 21. 9 C5 Form: es Plural che SACS. Sle washer aL barber 6 Bb GS teller. = 4 SE Ob 6 5Cb cook t 2. S903 Form: . Plural wo eos eho patient yj yue Seto 6 Sptysi? eater Jest (excess) ont iS 6 Bs aS comparable 445 87CHAPTER FOUR PARTICLES The particle in Arabic is called Uy» Pl 4s,> (which also means Metter"). Particles are of several types, and include such words Imown in English as Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjections, and sonetines Adverbs. The following grouping is based upon the function of these parti- cles: I. PREPOSITIONS Prefixed: Le = Ang by or with a. ~ in the meaning of "by" or "in", Examples: tvens to pamsous ty wy of | Gages pL lf las Beirut. = oe + eo We visited the old ruins in our way to Baghdad. In the name of God. ‘The check was in my name. b. ~ as instrumental. I wrote with the pencil. He came from Cairo by plane. c. ~ as construed with verbs. Examples: ‘The President met with the wel jel Gel oe Ministers. - 88I began (with) my work yesterday. . x ui “aS ele He declared that he does not ot Bis? y A a approve this policy. Tun d. ~ as a means to change an intransitive verb of motion into transitive or causative. Examples: ‘The Commandant inspected. Clary li pasts, oAT 46 ‘the units. a4 2 He held a dancing party. isl, aig ae He brought the book. ebSE te 2. J = for} tos because of; or it may indicate possession. a. ;J in the meaning of "to" (sometimes interchangeable with ("of Example: I went to the market in 20S stu (oy) Aas ‘the morning. D. J in the meaning of "for". Exampl This paper is for writing. gush isi ae c. 5) in indicating possession. Example: dak GET - 7) in introducing the direct object of a verb. Example: T have a new car. 5 I wrote to then a letter. 2 by pees e. pJ 4s used to denote purpose or cause. Beamplos: I heard that he is sick, so I wrote hin a letter so, therefore 89f. J it denotes the English "of" when it follows an indeter- inate noun, Examples: a book of (belonging to) Shakir. a friend of mine. The Reading Book of (i.e., written by) Al-Kaylani- The following are common expressions with - J- his right and his duty; his credit and his debit. do you want to .. I read a book by him. they set out in our support. for the first time. at first sight; right away. 3. @Y = as, like: It is prefixed to a noun to render the meaning of "as" or "like" that noun. It is synonymous with dis . Examples: He speaks like an Arab. gia AT Gy Like that; likewise. ws B. Separated: 2. JL = to, mito, into or until (generally expresses motion toward). Example: I walked ta the end of ee the street. * 2. = = up to, as far as, Example: I read in this book up to eee bO? tik pets page 105. bee LSpeer te You will find the book on the. iJ,uul Gur fecay aes table. ? E wit = It is also used to show that a duty or a burden lies on one. Examples: ‘This is a duty incumbent on rarest eth Sty ta every man. wee iF It is the duty of ....., eee ee & preference over. oe Ju The following are common expressions with yl : so far as possible; as mch egal UF Ql as possible. 2 according to ei F Ge on condition that, provided that ed very gladly, with pleasure st, Far ol at any rate, in any case, “5 Al or JEU anyhow. ¢ E especially eet it absolutely owat ol he was right eta to be informed about os re gw don't worry about ... don't mind ew. on his expense pk ‘through hin oe ok as it is said JUZU oewith according to his habit sk gle at the time of ae le I implore you by God at wt 4. GE = from, concerning. Examples: . The house is far from the lot oF apelai school. He does not imow anything concerning this subject. ‘The following are common expressions with %+ to his (or at) his or its right eet +++ feet above sea level (25, ee OF abe veg GST le by way of, via & in good faith justly for fear shortly day after day he died at the age of eighty 5. gh = tn, nto. The following are comon expressions three tines five iy i five meters by ten OS pout at Lie after lie iS, 5 gicd 5 idle tale By wv 92in the past aw a in the following, as follows i a afterward as I believe aot ues among themselves pepe Geet in case that . 6. (5 = with, besides, despite. The following are common expressions with e . although wo in spite of it, nevertheless tan in spite of all that es 7. ‘oa = from, with respect to; it indicates motion from a point, and when it is used with the comparative form, it means "than", Example ‘My notebook is smaller than his notebook. The following are common expressions with uy: among other things .... some of them went to the movie, ULZuP others went to the coffee shop, there are those who went to oni gc ‘the movie and others who went to the coffee shop. someday something or other he ate (a little, some) of the food 93nobody can a garment (made of) of silk ab the moment get out of here! by, on the part of for sonetine he entered through the gate since. The following are the common expressions for a month; a month ago oe de for the past few days; a few days ago (ci i from now on, henceforth piles since he was a child bow ik C. Nouns Acting as Prepositions: Nouns put in the adverbial accusative (discussion in CHAPTER FIVE - SYNTAX) may act as prepositions. Examples: GE = outside: outside the home ett Zu “Bo = within, inside: inside the school ASOT Yate sur = before, opposite (place): before (opposite) the station wer Au GAY = after (tine): ; after the meal svtgace oyJus = before (time): before evening GLZ = among; between: among the students, between. 1i2,y me and him GLP = under: under the table ab, ua ons G55 = above, over, on: on the building Fa sul Sos YhE = around, about: around the city ecu jes Gas = without; below; before: : He drinks coffee without pues arerer pees | RORrOPET) milk. 2 cS a deed without precedent ak bx de Mitten services | SSH opt Gath on) before five o'clock ee “ake = withs ats conveying the meaning of to have": I sat with then. : “pike 22ir I cane at sunrise. ad 7 ¢gib Weih I have a book. eS gale GAS = towards; approximately: towards the North JOT BS There are approximately 25 students. .Jinwts yo Gu da 954155 = behind 2 ote. behind the house elt i165 II. CONJUNCTIONS GG A. Prefixed: Le 47 and en G = and; and then: Mr. Ahmad entered the room roe Lar oar ran d then Mr. Shakir. an (SE 0 Separated: bls but rather; on the contrary: I did not go to Beirut, but rather I went to Damascus. It is not separated, on the contrary it is interlocked .... 2 “Sy = whens since: 20% 5 vee eo I visited the old relics 245 5p ela GT 253 when T was in Baghdad. z on oad ak Z We do not go to our work =“) ‘tomorrow since it is (concide with) Independence Day. 3 Yio= except: “es see ee. I did not find anybody at get ost si pb the club except my friend - eek ae Ahmad. saSh Gusa oF i ke 34. Uf = as for: . Ay ote As for my brother Salem, he JI Y GG JL gl is still in college. inks < aaa’ yo 5. te ee Is this a book or a notebook? $553 SIGS aa 6. Sf. Cy = either ... oF) Ci. CL = either ... or) 4 ee Gb a ~ ither this or that oe Cael ae Lk Gi Tt =. or ° 1 teas Did you visit him or did you write to hin? 8. ULL = while: I saw him waile I was talicing with the director. 9. <3 = then, thereupon: We studied our lesson then we left for the coffee shop. 10. = ‘The student studied his lesson until nine olelock. i = when, after = until ne I arrived in the city after ny brother had left it. a7TIT. SUBJUNCTIVE Ci 213! Placing the imperfect in the subjunctive mood: A. mo ) . ) Discussion in CHAPTER FIVE - _ o 5 = never ) a ) syntax c. SL or ES = so that, in order to) W. gussive jedi eirsil Placing the imperfect in the jussive mood. AL Y= donot ) B. “i - aa not) Discussion in CHAPTER FIVE - SYNTAX c. pot let) ¥. VOCATIVE ani 5S A. \ + Indefinite Noun 0! _ man (say you) eu OF Shaki BEL Be GATM) + Definite Noun 0! teacher ac ai ete} of students = SUF oF gin ost USF VI. ANSWER A. B. c. gl = yes (after a negative statenent) ; Haven't you bought the wht ta julie sat ul tickets? Yes. ° 98D. Jel = yes, yes (after a positive statement): Did you write the letter? wal oad SUS hss h Yes, yes. vit. were = aT Gy A Y= nos generally negate the imperfect. B La = nos may negate the perfect and the imperfect. c. SJ = nos is foltowed by jussive. He has not studied. eee D. 7,5 = witt not (emphatically); is followed by subjunctive. He will not work with us. Ol toy Discussion is found in CHAPTER FIVE - SYNTAX. VEIT. INTERROGATIVE plpase¥l E131 A. ae Is this a book? SOLS 1a be B. f Dia you weite your Lesoont 9 act TX, PARTICLES AFFECTING THE MEANING OF AN EXPRESSION, by their position in the sentence: fe ee ‘The student can read. o Tat ol Geto Ja (GL = then, in that cases Tn that case, the student can Ol apete read. 99B. LSI = only, however (used at the beginning of a sentence to limit the clause at the end): a ew gree However, the student can read. .1 ji. ceestsl pee steed] c. “Lis = omy merely: The student can only read. 55 1537 $F a EIR LS = never (follows a negative imperfect! The student can not read aS PET SL QTE at all (never). e B “E+ expresses’ certainty when preceding a perfects expresses probability when preceding an imperfect. Examples: ‘The student studied his lesson. pean aco eal Peon som on F ~r ‘The student had studied his lesson. . 4255 5.55 35 LAS prer gree ere twee ‘The student probably studies 04053 Gag UL his lesson. 7 Use of " J" with " a3": When the particle "a5" comes at the beginning of a sentence, the preposition "J" is usually pre- fixed to "43", thus " Side on the function of " 43", Examples: ‘This combination, however, has no effect The man had gone to his wee St Oi Gs Bi St house. — G - The man had gone to his ee of del oad house. aa eee Ba ser ger ‘The doctor examined me PEW gos tu yesterday. ? oF Fr gi = that is: ~ SF oF Zo The party was private, that Gol gl «tsb ess Ui is only for the menbers a eo oh een of the family. LT 3 kas 100PARTICLES OF CONDITIONS b y23l Gy > A, Likely (possible) condition: 1. SL with perfect or jussive. There are four possibilities: W2Gu su Bea Wesiu Us bl If Shakir travels I shall a Pa Goof ‘travel with him. ME asc ae ob: If you wish that, (then) itis (aL) your concern (the matter is yours). If you write to him, (then) JL $2 inform him about my condi- ~ tion. he peer cert corts If you study, you will ro KEN YS Ge Ge). of succeed in the examination. 3.18 Ls Ser cre twere Ie (when) the leader we US) JS G5S GIT Gay 15) stops, all his followers“ 7 stop. B. Unlikely Conditic 1. 3 If I were President (but Iamnot, 2.5.35 bey 255 and am not likely to be) I would 2 put an end to the troubles. el eT oe ee ee eae If the Lord had wished, He wold GUS QU a7 ou 3 have made men one pecple. : (Qur'an 11, 120.). lolBe) If it were not for the advance- ol A Ay ment of science, commmica~ Se 2 tions would have renained Pveleree Meee] inadequate. g 4 Ot If only you had studied, you ca would hot have failed. ° Note: For detailed explanation of conditional sentences and their particles see CHAPTER FIVE "Conditional Sentences" in this handbook. 102CHAPTER FIVE SYNTAX In the Chapters on Morphology, descriptions were provided in terms of structure, form and type. In this Chapter on Syntax, descriptions are provided in terms of position and word order in the structure of sentences. on eo a8 T, woun-mi-construcrion ety GLI, G tdi A. Structure This structure is used to express the genitive relation between two nouns in Arabic. The noun possessed loses its " gui) nun- nation" and always innediately preceeds the noun possessing. The first is known as the "noun-in-construct 5 LiZ Ji the annexed one" and the second as ‘the "complement" of the construction " «Sit G25 the annexed to". The complenent may be definite or indefinite and is always in the genitive case. The "noun-in-construct" is always indefinite in form, and its case depends upon its role in the sentence. B. Purpose: The purpose of this construction is: Definity: When the complenent " 47jl G LAL" 4s definite, ‘the purpose of construction is for identification or introduction. Examples: The boy's book (the book of the boy). pepelerecs ‘The teacher's room (the room of the teacher). 1032. Specialisation (categorization): When the complement a |, GLAS! is indefinite, then the purpose of the construction is con- sidered to be for specialization (categorization) as: A history book (the book of history). au beus ‘A man's room (the room of a man). wes OE This construction also implies the following preposition: a. " o/": The construction has the force of an implied Be preposition " gi in", when the complement " <2) Glad!» 4s used as an adverb of tine or place for the first, "J lauJi", Example: The evening neal. 2ui (yy USI b. " GM: The construction implies the preposition " G from" when the complement " «ti! Ulaiil " denotes the material of the first, Example: A cotton shirt. es fo te c. " J: If the first part " GULF nas a property of af the complement. " <2J] GlaiJi", the construction will be in the meaning of the preposition " J for", Example: My brother's car pepe A sUr 2. ‘The servant of the President wed Be 3. The noun-in-construct UG law! is always translated into English as though it were definite. 10k,l. To express sentences such as the English "a book of the boy", Arabic does not use this construction, instead, it employs the adequate prepositional phrase, thus: A book for the boy. MVS Whenever a noun in construct "Gb LinJi" 4s modified by an adjective, that adjective must follow the complement. When the adjective used in this construction may be considered to modify either the " Lis " or the " ot GLln, it is better to break the construction by attaching an adequate preposition to the complement " peels bu25F » ana placing the adjective after the noun desired. Examples: Should be broken to read: onl eS In the big book a5 i i (related) to the boy ane or Tn the book a? sb. usit ed (related) to the big boy 5. If the noun in construct " oust "has more than one complement, the complement usually follows one another, separated only by a conjunction. Example: The teams of Iraq, Egypt, peel pened ‘and Jordan arrived (in 4 tS paaee the city). wont, wate 6. In Modern Arabic it is possible to have two nouns in construct " GUI" for one complement. Example: The pencil and the book of the boy. 105IL. SENTENCE A. Types: According to the Arabic classification, a sentence is either equational (nominal) or verbal, depending generally upon whether the noun or the verb begins the sentence. 1. Equational Sy ): The main parts of the equational (nominal) sentence are: ° a. Noun - Subject at the beginning one): Must be, generally, definite or modified in order to precede the predicate. Examples: The student is at hone. Ahmad is diligent. If the subject | ui°7 jis intended to be indefinite, then ‘the predicate will come first. Examples: I have a book. PLS pate There are students in the school. shea LSAT Gp b. Predicate ( 3 news): Can be another noun, a phrase or a verbal sentence to give complete meaning or information. Examples: The girl is beautiful. Ji tiot The girl is at hone. et polit The girl wrote her lesson. The subject and the predicate of an equational sentence are always in the nominative case unless either one is affected by a particle or other factors which will change its case. 106The tense of an equational sentence, for translation, purpose, is present tense unless it is indicated otherwise by the influence of a verb, ete. In Arabic there are no equivalents to the English "am", "is", "are." Examples: What (is) this? This (is) a cup. The word order in Arabic does not change when a statement is changed into a question, as is the case in an English sentence. 2. Verbal ( i21k3): when a sentence begins with a verb it is mown to be a verbal sentence. The verbal sentence consists of: Verb: Is in the third person singular and agrees with the subject only in gender, unless the subject is a pronoun mentioned through the conjugation. When the subject is a plural not denoting human beings, the verb is in the third person feminine singular, except when the subject does not follow the verb imnediately, in which case the verb may be either masculine or feninine. b. Subject: called in Arabic Je Lilt (the door). Te is always in the nominative case. c. Object: The verbal sentence may have a direct object called in Arabic 4 J 7 (the done on, the receiver of the action) depending upon the nature of the verb, transitive or intransitive. The intransitive verb cannot take a direct object. The object is always in the accusative case. It may be in the form of a pronoun suffix, a noun, or 107a phrase - the accusative case sign is assumed if the object is a phrase or a clause. Examples: The student wrote the lesson. . Cpu Loinr css The student (R) visited the AST TL, teacher (F). 7 o < ‘The students travelled today. 5a? Ladi? ‘The girle lived in the house. 1a seus, ‘They read the local newspapers. , GIN atl si Gof We visited them. ‘The new stallions ran in the horse race ‘three days ago. B. Particles and Verbs Affecting the Equational Sentence: Particles Affecting the Subject: Whenever any one of the following particles is used with the nominal sentence it will change the case of the subject from nominative to accusative. a. lor Gf verily, indeed, that, express assurance. These two particles are actually one particle with two different vowelling for the i525 (+ ) will take the short vowel ( whenever this particle comes at the beginning of a sentence or after the verb (JU ) "say". When it comes at the beginning of a sentence, it is usually omitted in translation. Examples: 108The weather is beautiful in Damascus. He said that his wife bought i U2 2543) 22555 51 JG ‘an aba". 2 (2) of : te #548 (* ) will take the short vowel (~) whenever this particle comes at any other place in the sentence than the ones Listed above. xamplet Wy brother wrote that the Sls FSI Gt gt os trip was very pleasant im inet? (enjoyable). 7 7 22, <3 bd. GSI mut" ana SY, "because". Examples: The Sumer is hot but the 4 LENT GS, FUG 51 Winter is cold. i [ Au yu ‘There are many people on the JL Sse GG af, seashore, because the , <0”, ott os. a. a Stee tue ce weather is beautiful. + ps2 "Ure cUloy jAd! If the subject of the nominal sentence is a pronoun, it will be attached as a suffix to any of these particles. Examples: ut ome Ssh were Ey but you (S) Gs} verily you (P1) ey because they because she 2. Verbs Affecting the Predicate: The verb (% Wand related verbs put the predicate in the accusative. These verbs, known as " % Wand its sisters U2! 5s! y GW", alter, change or negate the information given in the basic sentence. Listed below are the most frequent verbs, of this group, with their functions: a. OS mas" 2 2 788 ‘The weather (climate) is cold. Ppemiese|) eee ‘The climate was cold. wah FEI Ew 109ot The climate is cold. be "is not" The climate is not cold. ce be Mecame" The climate is cold. ‘The climate became cold. its The climate is cold. a. The climate is stili cold. eo. CtF eto become The climate is cold. The climate decane cold. tle 35 "still, continue" 3G East ones cola Inet Lut coe 1SU Ru eal " "to cease" is commonly used with the nega- tive particles " 4" or" Y ." When the verb " {JI , "is in the Perfect form, it takes the negative " Ls"; when it is in the Imperfect form, it takes the negative " Y¥ .m ‘The meaning rendered through this combination, whether the verb is in the Perfect or in the Imperfect form, is "not cease" or "still" in the present time. Examples: This institute still exists. The teacher is still in the school. The students are still in ‘the room. T am still working on my own. a eeeeeeesl fant es OT yg Ayes : veg BST os Saigty a'yi vale ok lt 255 uee lace rece emcee eee er tae yec ing, may be used interchangeably with "le." However, it may render the meaning of "to begin", "to start" or "to resune" when it is used as an auxiliary followed by another verb in the Imperfect. Examples: The weather is cold. “3 gust The weather became cold. Poy EOL So Sone of then work on their sale oi Jail i, ty own. aoe a aaa Some of them began to work ol ee ple a ST their own. eet ee The less frequent verbs of this group are: EX L "to continue to be... ‘not to stop doing ..., keep doing ..." "not to cease doing" "to be in the morning" } ‘= L, "to be in the night" ) "to become" 2 ) w=! "to be in the evening" {lo "to last, to continue" (gi "to remain" "to begin, get into a situation where . “Ub "to be, to continue to do something" 5 "come to be" a SL "to return, to come back" aParticles and Verbs Affecting Verbal Sentences 1. Use of ": The meaning of this particle is given only through the construction of the sentence. It is used to precede a verb. When it precedes a perfect verb, it renders the certainty of the completion of the verb!s action. On the other hand, if the following verb is an imperfect, it renders the prob- ability or the doubt of the completion of the verb's action. Example: ‘The student (certainly) has studied. ede OG The student (probably) might Bae ei arate study. 2. Use of " GS" with Imperfect: This verb, or any of its perfect forms, may precede an imperfect to give one of the following two meanings, depending on the expression of the idea. a. Past Continuous (was or were ... ne). Examples: Which game was your friend ¢ Gio cli gu i it playing? He was playing football. » AP Bs ow b. Used to. Examples: I used to watch football ty i Cs wut 233 ganes a lot. ae She used to work with me | iS yi? ete in the company. za go s + Use of " WS " with Perfect: When this verb, or any of ite perfect forms with the particle " 45" coming in between, precedes a Perfect, it produces the meaning of "Past Perfect" or "Pluperfect." Examples: neThe Arabs had become famous in horsemanship. My friends had (already) left ‘the house when I arrived. III. MOODS In Arabic the moods are differentiated by morphological forms which indicate the function of the verb. The imperfect has three moods: Indica~ tive, Subjunctive, and Jussive. These moods are distinguished from one another by the vowel of the last radical of the imperfect. A. Indicative: The Indicative mood expresses an incomplete state or action in either the present or the future. It takes iS 2 as the vowel of the last radical when the verb is not suffixed. When the verb is in the dual, masculine plural, or feminine singular (second person) forms, the indicative mood is expressed by the presence of the" 4 "(uss ) in ‘the endings of these forms; the indication of this mood in the feminine plural forms is assumed, i.e., there is no special vowel to indicate the mood. Examples: The student goes to school. MGT yi ak Lib ‘The two students go to GMI ot edie glint school. The students go to school. . 540) oll Ged Let You (F.S.) go to school. +247 yy Gee foe The students (F) goto, 5S oy Sau 2a ith ‘school 3 3B. Subjunctive: The Subjunctive mood implies wish, purpose, or conmand in indirect speech. ‘The subjunctive can only be used after certain particles (conjunc- ‘tions listed in CHAPTER IV - PARTICLES). The most common of these conjunc- ‘tions are: 1. " “ol tom: Every imperfect preceded by " Gf " would render the meaning of infinitive or gerund in English; but its distribution is different from that of English, i.e., it can not be used at the beginning of the sentence. Examples: I like to go to the market. =. JT 2. " ge" and" GOI": The meaning rendered by these two particles are generally, the sane. ‘They both give more or less, the meaning of "in order to", "for the purpose of", or "so that." Examples: I study the physical training § Ghat Gu UT O33 in order to become a coach ate a in sports (games). sew Oba I go to school so that “AG a aL yy 235t may learn Arabic. ey scat whee He joined this club in Betis piers order to practice re sports (games). She went to the market for the purpose of buying cloth (to buy cloth). ‘The Particle " 3S) " 4s actually a combination of " J " and -" It may be used in the combined form, as shown in the above nhShe went to the market to buy cloth. She went to the market to buy cloth. Being in the subjunctive mood, the imperfect would take the following forms in its conjugation: He likes to write the lesson. » Sur Cas sf ar They (two) Like to write the = GUT USS 31 oCAT UF lesson. - They (M) Like to write the lessons Gy li gS: OT GoeT She likes to write the lesson. Cur a st They (two E) like to write the , GS wT LAE 41 , lesson. - ‘They (F) Like to write the lesson. yall Gat of You (M.S.) like to write the Our car yf Gest lesson. - You (two M) like to write the .Gywi Lat 3f pO Uat lesson. ae fa You (M.P1) like to write the lesson. = . rool - You (FS.) lke to write the Yeewone O55 7 2885 oa! ol You (two E) like to write the Sur Uisiet pC. Utt lesson. . - = You (F.P1) like to write the = Gaya! Gass Gt G lesson. I Like to write the lesson. soya We like to write the lesson. nsThe final vowel of the imperfect "2 5 "in the forms without suffixes is changed to" iis Those parts which in the indicative mood end ina" » " following a long vowel lose the " y "in the subjunctive mood. The 3rd and 2nd Masculine Plural would take an" | Gf « after the loss of the " g ". This "| Gf "is merely a spelling convention as in the perfect 3rd Masculine Plural. Both feminine plural (3rd or 2nd) forms which end in the suffix " 9 " do not change, and are therefore the same for the two moods. The use of " a2 ", after" and " J°d, before” with verbs: The use of these words is, basically, to precede nouns and govern those nouns in the genitive case. However, when these two words are to precede imperfect verbs, the subjunctive particle " Gf" 4s placed between the imperfect and either of these two words. Examples: before I go to school. 5 a5 after I return from school. O35 307 C. Jussive: The Jussive mood is used to express command, to negate a statement, and is also used in conditional sentences. The verb in this mood will take a "© 4S. " for its final radical of the second person masculine singular form. The other forms of the second person are treated ike the subjunctive mood, i.e., the signs of these forms for the sub- dunctive and the jussive moods are the same. 1161. The Imperfect is in the jussive mood when it is preceded by a jussive particle (See Part Four - Particles). The following are the most common jussive particles " ,jsJI £1491 with a description of the function of each particle: Yo: This particle will place tie imperfect of the 2nd Person in the jussive mood to express the negative of the imperative, thus expressing a prohibition or wish that something’ may not be done. Do not enter! Do not go (F.S.)! Do not watch this match! - oto This particle, when it precedes the imperfect of the 3rd or Ist person, will render the denial of the action, and thus it will not place that imperfect in the jussive mood. Examples: He does not study today. . eal 7 o38 Y a Mr. "Akram" does not 6g Lou! ag Y ots Ll referee in this game. We do not play football. Bai aes ei Yo b. J: This particle will place the imperfect of all persons in the jussive mood to negate a statenent, and is translated in English in the present perfect. Examples: Our team has not lost a game. . ic. OP 88S ty We have not seen the final, as Ss ST be a game. an) sare We have not participated 5 7U/ | as. pas es in this match. ene es 0 ntce. J ( SAI7Y the 3 of Command): This particle will Place the imperfect in the jussive mood to express command of the 3rd or ‘the Ist person. Examples: let him write his lesson. 2655 385 Let us sit near the center hl 2E O53 GRD Line. a Be let then wait forusat = GL gol yo Ly AD the sport club. - “ - < 2. The Imperative is connected, both in morphology and in meaning, with the jussive. The imperative is found only in the second person. All imperative forms in Arabic, conform to a general rule; they are in the jussive mood and are formed from the imperfect. But despite this general conformity they differ in the details. The following explanation concerns the details in forming the imperative from: a. Sound Triliteral: (1) General rule: The imperative is formed by dropping ‘the personal prefixes of the imperfect, and placing a "_° Son on the final radical. (2) Details: After dropping the personal prefixes, the sound triliteral verb begins with a vowelless consonant, and therefore, it pen " is prefixed can not be pronounced. For this reason a "J when the vowel of the middle radical is either " aS" or - oo5e Examples: send ok oe aie return 25h ex 118@ Loy ane sit sath ee 5s" wi be 2 Deen The vowel of the prefixed "+ instead of "—~ i550 if the vowolling of the middle radical of that tri literal in the imperfect is "_? ia", Examples: write peexs) aaa study wa bbs 220 22ee enter Jet EAT The " © 5S." on the final radical is substituted with the dropping of the " from the suffixes of the feminine singular, the dual, and the masculine plural forms. After this elimination, an "| is added only to the masculine plural form. Examples: send (F.S.) go (F.S.) write (F.S.) sit (F.S.) sit (two) write (two) send (M.PL) tts ~~, go (HPL) gall, write (M.PL) 12st sit (M.PL) Vel ngNo change occurs to the suffix of the second person feminine plural. Thus: send (F.P1) go (F.PL) write (F.P1) Hence the conjugation of the imperative of all sound tri- Literal verbs will be according to the following patterns: 2nd Feminine 2nd Masculine send send eae send (two) send (two) us send (P1) send (P1) pects ts b. Weak Triliteral: The forming of the imperative from this verb group will also follow the general rule with the following details: (1) After dropping the imperfect prefixes, there is no 5-8" to all weak verbs which have a long vowel as need for affixing "* their middle radical. This is because the first consonant, after dropping the imperfect prefixes, is always vowelled. This is also true with verbs of " UAsm and" JAis" patterns, See the first set of examples belo (2) If the long vowel comes as a middle radical, or next to the last radical in derived verbs, that long vowel is dropped in the ook" (3) Whenever the verb has a long vowel as its last radical, imperative whenever the last radical is vowelless " that long vowel is always dropped in the imperative form and a similar short? vowel is placed instead of the" © 5S. " according to the general rule. Examples: No affixing "* i348" required. arrange wSye ofter rail Jearn Beate Dropping of long vowel and no "» say Mreee sleep quay sel. "et font The vowelling of the first consonant after the dropping of the imperfect suffix does not change in the imperative form. Retaining the long vowel: sey (F.8.) gs Seobyas sleep (F.S.) ek eet say (MPL) Vly repees sleep (M.P1) Iga Sols Dropping of long vowel as a last radical: walk ye spend we stay invite eit 12.Hence the conjugation of the weak triliteral verb in the imperative form will be according to the following patterns: (a) Long vowel as a middle radical: 2nd Feminine say (8) os say (two) Ys say (PL) wa 2nd Masculine (>) Long vowel as a last radical: 2nd Feminine walk (S) eh walk (two) Gey walk (P1) att c. Derived Verbs: say (S) ve say (two) Vs say (Pl) 155 2nd Masculine walk (S.) ol walk (two) tail walk (PL) 1 atl (1) The conjugation of the derived verbs, which do not need a» i558" as a prefix in the imperative form, will be according to the following patterns: 2nd Feminine arrange (S) arrange (two) arrange (PL) Gud 5 2nd Masculine arrange (S.) arrange (two) arrange (PL) tts (2) The remaining groups of verbs to be discussed are according to the following derived forms: 122The imperative from any of the above mentioned forms does not differ from the imperative of the sound triliteral verb except in the vowelling of the affixed "s ‘The -vowelling of the affixed "+ i}. " required in the imperative for Jai? {CSi pattem is always alSy. axamples: ae ot send St 452 eel give wast RY et On the other hand, the vowelling of the affixed "e i340" required in the imperative for ve Jeti eget) 6k) patterns is always " iS", Examples: - bey withdraw =~ =“ wait buy, = ity use hurry = ull ‘The imperative from this pattern is not used because ‘the verb in this pattern is reflexive. 123IV. DEMONSTRATIVE PHRASE ‘The demonstrative phrase, like any other phrase, does not express a complete thought as a sentence would do. The construction of the demonstra- tive phrase consists of a demonstrative pronoun such as " | ia this" followed by a noun with the article " Jf", Such a phrase functions as a unit ina sentence (as a subject, object, ete.). Examples: This car is beautiful. I rode in this car. I bought this car in Beirut Note the importance of the article " J! " with the noun of the demon- strative phrase in the following examples: This car. This is a car. This is my car. ‘The first one is a phrase "this car", while the second and third are complete sentences - "this is a car, this is my car" - You may also note that the nous in the last two examples are indefinite and definite respec tively, yet they form sentences and not phrases.. Therefore, we can conclude that the noun following the demonstrative pronoun mst have the article "JI" in order to form a demonstrative phrase. ‘The noun in the demonstrative phrase may be modified by an adjective. Examples: 12hthis big house oe el bia these small schools SAS Zr oe these new students oot LST oyth ‘The demonstrative phrase as a vhole may function as the complement » 455) .G a2» of the noun-in-construction "25 ls" as a unit in the sane way as a noun alone. Examples: ‘The subjects of this book are important. ~ Most of these buildings . are old. The deeds of this man are beneficial If the noun-in-construct " ! (F. wasi )" a. Meaning "no one" or "none": feierel istacton oF, 6 b. Woun in Construct = Glas: one of my relatives fey ut if one of her friends Gees etl United to a pronoun ending: ° one of then eal one of them (F.PL) Sry d. Combined with ten: eleven students M, eleven students F, 2. The numeral " 4G! two, F lish: Tt is seldom used alone, since the noun is most commonly used in the dual number. Sonetines for emphasis, the dual noun is followed by the numeral " y G3 or o G3! two", which, like " ar! , one", agrees with the noun in gender and case. Examples: tal obks ‘two books (Nom. _ ee ed] eu (Ace/Gen. a ons 130(Nom. o asl ob yie two cars a G ( eee (hec/Gen. poms tg Ge po Gi3]"is to be found in construct Otherwise, the numeral "4 U5! FP, » Glas «with ten or in- compound numbers. Examples ‘There are 12 students here. . La lind pe Lol ay, There are 12 girls here. There are 22 books on the table. 3. The numerals from 3-10 inclusive: They are in the masculin form if the singular of the counted noun is feminine, and they are in the feminine form if the singular of the counted noun is masculine. Examples: Masculine Forms with Feminine Forns with Feminine Nouns Masculine Nouns three four five ck S et seven ac ol eight us ct sets oe ten we These numbers are in construct " las " to the noun counted, which is the complement and in the genitive plural indefinite " «TJ Glas", In other words, five books would be rendered as" 25 it a quintet of 131a 2g books." By defining the complement of the construct "42)] GlawI", the whole expression is made definite " 231 1.23 the five books." An dy as teaa2es alternate form would be "K.SJIZ25)1 where the numeral functions as an attributive adjective. ‘The numerals from three to ten are declined and they will assume the required position in the sentence. Examples: Ten students came. I saw ten students. T passed by ten students. }. Since the numerals 11 and up are seldom written in Modern Standard Arabic, it is not necessary to study the details of their forms. only the points concerning the counted noun need to be understood. However, these details are discussed here in order to make the discussion complete. a. From eleven to ninety-nine, the noun is accusative singular indefinite. And, excluding eleven and twelve, the masculine nouns take the units in their feminine forms but the " 2s ten" in its masculine form. With feminine nouns this is reversed. Example! With Masculine Nouns 11 students 12 students 12 students 13 students 15 students 13220 students 35 students sols Sytzy iz 99 students The unit in twelve compound is declinable whereas in nuneral compounds eleven and thirteen to nineteen are indeclinable with » ih25 » sign in all cases. c. The ten of numeral compounds (eleven to nineteen) is pronomced thus 322 with masculine nouns, and i with feminine nouns. The case vowelling is always " ii) .” 5. One hundred, two hundred, three hundred, etc. up govern the noun in the genitive singular indefinite and form a noun-in-construction ni GG). Examples: ee aR one thousand soldiers eth 35? one million books awbSe pontd two hundred books a GS GL three hundred books eS aA oo iw five hundred books eS GES oo Pa four thousand books SN ESF six thousand books a aT 1336. In the miltiples of hundred: a. Noun~in-construction "25 lel " is developed between the unit and the hundred. b. The hundred remains singular. c. The unit is in the masculine form since hundred is a feminine noun. d. The multiple is either written separately or as a single word. 7. In the mitiples of thousand: a. Woun-in-construction "is ls| " is also developed between the unit and the thousand. b. The thousand is pluralized after the unit. e. The unit is in the feminine form since thousand is a masculine noun. d. The miltiple is always written separately. 8. Numbers may be conbined with " , and." In the combination of numbers under hundred, the units precede the tens, while in the other combinations, the largest number is listed first with the rest following in descending order. Examples: twenty-seven books (6 Ls Ss ie ye 453 coef ees forty-five roons U5 SotSt y BE one hundred three books eres WGN, “1 13hone thousand one hundred Ane yal airplanes. 7 e one thousand two hundred = 15s Ui pas S25, pL, Gr fifteen ships. 9. The last listed number determines the case and number of the counted noun. B. Ordinals: Ordinary Yunbers in Arabic are adjectives and therefore abide by the same rilles of agreement as other adjectives. The formation of most ordinal numbers involves the use of the active participle " 71 Jef " of the triliteral as a pattern. The ordinals are as follows: “4. me mmerai first is" JSF gist an 2. From second to tenth, the ordinals are formed according to the * Je " pattern, more or less from the cardinals, and they are fully declined: Masculine ge ut 3ra sor uth Sth éth 7th 8th 9th 10th3. The compound ordinals (11th to 19th) are formed by the ordinal of the units and the cardinal of the tens, and are indeclinable, i.e., they are always in the accusative regardless of the case of the noun they modify. Feninine vasculine nea US Gout 52 giudi asth “Gh inulf A special formy LWJi in "eleventh" is used instead of " al," or" asf om 1, To express ordinal numerals like the 20th, the 30th, ete. The cardinal nusbers are wed with the article " jf" for both masculine and feninine: 2oth 30tn 4oth 100th 000th 5. To express ordinal numerals like 2ist through 99th, the ordinals of the units are used plus " » and" plus "20th, 30th, ete.” Examples: Feminine Masculine e 23 2 ee ora 2ist Soot iouit Sorts go bt 2end SsAels TI Sots pL 13623rd 2th 25th 26th 27th 26th 29th of aly and sly sy b. The forms otf and gs LIT will be without " ip-S" or " “50 jn both nominative and genitive cases, and will take Minis 1 in the accusative, thus: ZiT «Gut. ¢, These ordinals are declinable. VII. EXCEPTIONS A. Particle " Yiexcept": The most common way to express exception in Arabic, is by the Particle "¥1 ." The noun following this Particle, ‘the excepted one, is in the accusative case in most, but not all, circum stances. Thus: ‘The teachers went except WISE Spt a5 Shakir. “ - 7 137For the purpose of explanation, "the teachers" in the above example is called the "generality", and "Shakir" is called the "exception." To avoid complications, it is best for the student to use the accusative in all circumstances where the "generality" is mentioned. When the "generality" is not mentioned, the noun after "91 " the exception, goes into the case in which the generality would have been, had it been mentioned. This situation, however, can only occur in a negative sentence. Examples: Only Shakir came. 2 25G9 ot uo au I saw only Shakir. tS UL BATT "Shakir", the noun after " uw ™, changes its case as if" JJ were not there, e.g. Shakir came. I saw Shakir. B. The Nouns " > except" and " 42+ other than, except": The noun excepted by either of these two nouns is always in the genitive case. As for the case of " 5 " and " Jo«", it would be accusative when the generality is mentioned. If the generality is not mentioned, their case would be according to their position in the sentence. Only Shakir came. 1G ot L I saw only Shakir. oS SESS fa eae ein 74 I went to cash all checks asaliaisaholec atl except this one (check). Z ae ey 138C. The Word "!4* L except: This word is, generally, considered to be a verb. Hense, the noun excepted through this word would be the object of the verb and, therefore, 4s in the accusative case. Examples: He filled the application .G: Wi pt tou asi ML except the second part. 4 All the students went to school except Shakir VIII. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES A. The conditional sentence contained two clauses, i.e., "the condi- tional clause b2if » and wthe result (finite) clause yea] eae Generally speaking, the conditional sentence is of two type: 1. Likely (possible): The condition expressed in the sentence is fulfillable or realizable - denoting action that might have happened or may yet take place. In this case, the conditional clause " bin is intro- duced by " Sh tor # 15] ar. OL}: The verb in both clauses - conditional and result may be either in the perfect or in the imperfect. The expression, however, is always in the present or future time. Examples: If you strike, you will be struck. or or (es If you go with then, (Cah) at Beene al T will go. ae ee: 9If I find him, I will give him your regards. When the verbs in both clauses are imperfect, they must be in the jussive mood, unless the verb in the result clause is preceded by the letter "4 ." In this case, only the verb in the conditional clause is in the jussive mood. On the other hand, when the verb of the conditional clause is Perfect, then the verb in the result clause may or may not be in the jussive mood, as illustrated in the last three examples listed above. b. lil: After " 11 " the perfect is used in the conditional clause and either the perfect or the indicative mood of the imperfect in the result clause. The result clause of " ||" condition may also be an equational (nominal) clause or begin with an imperative or prohibition; in such cases, the result clause must be introduced by the letter" Gm, ‘Examples: If (when) you go, I will go + BO as ip with you. ere a ed cen i? CAST 55 it, If he pays me my due, ois Gal AS G5 15 I shall give you see as one dinar. If you attend the party, = GI GS Ws LAUT 25S i do not forget to oe ter greet my friend. sgt ok Le If you see him, convey OTS AES 11 the invitation to him. > 140From the above discussion it is evident that the conditional clause generally has a perfect verb, and is commonly preceded by " | il" while the verb of the result clause has a wide range of options. Examples: Result Clause Conditional Result Clause Clause Perfect I'11 come with them. Jussive I won't come. Prohi- If they come I won't come (at all). bitdon ad Vg > 15h Imper- a You come too. ative Equational It 4s possible for me Sentence. ‘to come with them ‘Equational Then they are welcome! Clause 2. Unlikely: The condition expressed in the sentence is unful- fillable or doubtful of fulfillment - denoting a condition which is contrary ~ to fact. In this case the conditional clause is introduced by " $J " and the result clause is introduced by " 4)". The perfect verb in the condi- tional clause - unlike that preceded by ©! or / ~ may refer to present or past time. Examples: a3 Oe If he were to come (but he ee TE will not) I would honor him. If I were rich (but I am not) I would help you. uyIf we had heard that U5 Lan a LS (but we did not) we Be eae should have informed pba you. An unlikely negative condition is usually expressed by "¥ J" with an equational sentence, or " 7) ‘J " with a verbal clause in the jussive, giving the equivalent of the English "were it not for" or "if it were not for." Examples: If it were not for the Arabs, Beet Dake i eealtl Yes) the light of civilization pee 7 would have been extinguished pom imrse sr tard in the Middle Ages. ee eae If it were not for my urgent work, I would have been travelling with you. Had I not bought a car recently, I would have bought this car. B. When the condition is to express strictly the meaning of the past » "45 GW" 4s inserted before the verb in any conditional sentence. Examples: If I had heard that, I should have informed = If he had not said that, Ld Ws JG as Daotlan'T bare ened WEI ORE him. etet The conditional sentence may be introduced by the following pro- nouns and adverbs when the sentence has a general sense or meaning: 1. Those which enter into the same construction as " GI 12He who works succeeds. toe dR be. Ly what: Wat: you do T do. SSI GE eo ©. USS whatever: Whatever you order, I order. edast OE UST a. gf who, whoever; what, whatever: Whoever (any man) works succeeds. toe de Whatever book you read you will benefit. e. gis when: When you work hard you succeed. . ee ft. UST . G25 whenever: tok Whenever you go I go. 2a S6iF ati Whenever you enter I enter. & LigS however: However you sit I sit. 2, Those which enter into the same construction as ‘af "the most, comnon one is " Luis whenever": Whenever he travelled to SS ow oy ou Us a foreign country, he a = ee wrote a report. wh SSS The particle " . " is commonly attached to the above words for emphasis. 13TX. COMMENCEMENT OF ACTION Beside the verbs * 740 .TS1 wand {52 which properly mean "to begin", there are several verbs - verbs of conmencement "3 Lt cour “, which can be used as auxiliaries preceeding imperfect verbs to express the beginning of action. Such verbs, in this capacity, are trans- lated "to begin to", and they must be in the perfect tense. ‘The most com mon of these verbs are: 4 A. “GI to take: . eceeg cor th He began to examine his blood wee Bes ei, LI pressure. aa 3. Gls to becone: He began to train in marks- eur we Ge manship. Va7 or 155%) mto begin": Zece, ‘The merchants began to + AE one A Rbsi ta display their goods. D. de> to make: The people began to weep Ub oA TIS when they heard the news. oe . : eg ee ea He began to compete with the eee Ue Us players. * _U to rise: The workers began to disclose teeT JU 6 their denands. ont asThese verbs also could be used to precede verbal noun with " 3 " or +." Examples: He began to examine (in examining) . wae Sf his blood. ‘The merchants began to display es ge eet ae (in displaying) their goods. He began to make (in making) 1G the necessary arrangements. X. VERB OF SURPRISE OR ADMIRATION " Gow iJI 3uSt ” eeed A. Surprise at or admiration of a quality can be expressed by * Jas! Lit Pattern. Examples: What a severe pain! Bit af What a beautiful girl! eno gefiu How good (preferable) it is! ist u Tt should be noted from the above examples that "SG oT Gut» are considered here as verbs, not adjectives. They mist always have "inss" at the end, and the noun at which surprise or admiration is expressed is its object, and is therefore in the accusative case. The verb itself is alvays in the masculine singular form. " UL." may be considered as the subject of the "Surprise Verb." B. Surprise at,admiration of a quality or exclanation is also commonly expressed by the ... ‘G+ -.. Jb: pattern which is composed of: 1. ‘The vocative particle " U". 1s.2. The preposition " Jn with a pronoun suffix agreoing with the referent subject, and 3. The preposition " G+" with a noun object. Examples: What a beautiful girl! What students they are! What modest demands! sel ely. WY ‘The noun in the " asf Lim pattern is always definite, whereas the noun in the" G++. 5 U" pattern is always indefinite. res XT. THE ADVERBIAL ACCUSATIVE " Jac il The adverbial accusative is a word or a phrase put in the accusative case to modify the action of a verb or the predicate of a sentence. Such words or phrases generally modify an action or a state by specifying tine, in what manner, in what capacity, for what purpose, for what cause or intent, etc. These modifications are usually expressed in English by adverbial phrases introduced by "concerning", "with regard to", "in respect to", "as" or "for the sake of" etc. Examples: Fatina is more beautiful than . 22,5 $4 VLG 3257 LbU Karina. (nore in respect to 2 beauty). She arranged the house beautifully. (in a beautiful manner).T came to school for the sake of studying. (because of my love of studying). I saw him walking in the street. ‘Types of Adverbial Accusative: A. ‘Adverbial Accusative of State or Condition JlJi : This adverbial shows the state of the agent or the object at the time of the action of the verb. It must be an indefinite derived adjective expressing a transitory condition and coming after a complete sentence. Examples: ‘The man cane riding. és, er ee I cane running. Eis le eie The subject or object of the action to which the J refers JULI! Gels should be definite and precede the JG. If JLIi cel is indefinite, the JL must come first as: ‘The man came riding. esi ea A man cane riding. 25 Ogi, Te When J follows two definite nouns each of which may be JULI Zale , it is best to ascribe it to the noun which directly precedes. Examples: I found Shakir riding. 6 OS, Sud uad But if we wish to ascribe it to the pronom we mst say: I found Shakir while Iwas riding. 1,54 GSI, ci The JL-may be an indicative sentence: gee ret, ‘Ahmad came running (he runs). US sel Oe WTJalal died (and) while his wpee Lh, gue son was (is) young. I entered the house (and) dg le aedg erat GS while there was (is) a oo burglar in it. 1. the JL nay be a primitive noun when it expresses: a. Order: I spoke to him face to face. wot les Gus Enter one by one. wlasty Fats 1 bol b. Division: I taught him (the mmowledge) 6 CU OL A? ae pear section by section. c. Price: : T bought: the apples each «Lin ey pares) Seer) with a Ryal (piaster). 2, The J+ must be connected with its noun by a binder (4-1, ) and this may be: An implied pronoun: 205 Bo I came (I) running. + ASI (GI) Ste I bought the grapes at one ( axa) Jolt CET E2538 s Dirham a kilo (from it). : Ao be JUST yi, - the JL conjunction: I travelled and (while) the ote, 255u people were asleep. ce. JUST 414 with a pronoun: cores red, Ahmad came and his hand was Bethe as fag sel ee on his head. 7 8a. 45 stn » introducing the completed past action in the affirmative: So ver ge ae I came when the sun had + ET enh AF, Se (already) appeared. B. Cognate Accusative or Absolute Object GthaI Jynistl: The cognate accusative is a verbal noun (noun of action) used as an object for a verb from the same root to reinforce the meaning of that verb. It is always in the accusative case and indefinite. The cognate accusative expresses intensity, emphasis, or manner. Tt is usually modified by an adjective or other expression, which may be translated as an adjective, adverb, or a phrase as the context determines. Examples: He surely beat 0363 He surely killed . 5 I greatly approved it eel ee He commented at length Js cit ae gar on the social “A rc problems. Lb Gus It may be another noun of action (not of the same verb), or an adjective expressing accidental qualities as: I loved her with a great love. I wondered at your striking Ahmad severely Muhammad is very accomplished. He emphasized the complete implementation of the orders. wg‘The cognate accusative is of two kinds: Le ur ‘that which assures: Is the noun of action of the same verb and simply strengthens its meaning thereby removing the idea of metapher. ‘This noun of action is always in the singular as: I assuredly pushed hin. 2055 7855 a. ot that which makes manifest: This noun of action gives more meaning than the verb itself, and is used to express number and form. It may be made dual or plural as: He van swiftly. I squatted. I took two steps. I sat upright. ‘The cognate accusative is originally the noun of action of the same verbs but the following may take its place - GUA! JpdT Orb — a. The noun of action of another verb having a similar meaning as: I rejoiced greatly. é es ey b. The noun of action of the same: verb but on a different measure as: I washed well. eT Ce c. any «JS when in construction with a noun of action as: I loved her completely. 2olT os Geer d. A demonstrative pronoun as: T read that reading. fiji OL 2153 150e. An adjective as: I ran the strongest running. 2. Number as: I hit (beat) him three hits. we beew ths g. Instrument as: 2 azerr I hit him one lash. aby Ge org C. The Object Complement «, Jpristi: It receives the action of the verb. The verb mst be transitive, therefore in this respect differs from other Jus Lit whose verbs may be either transitive or intransitive. If the verb is not originally transitive, it is made so by a preposition ast I rode the horse. + Sat 28s; I sat on a chair. es wes I dressed him in a beautiful ae O33 Ler suit (dress). { informed him that you are ready (present). I brought a book D. The Adverbial Accusative of T: expresses the time or place of the action of the verb, and is called wees " 42 Jail " because the nouns have the meaning of " yi in" as: T travelled at night. wT, of) Eu I prayed today. epg) ees I sat aside. ASL (gy) The noun of time whether definite or indefinite is put in the accusative as: 152T came yesterday. CU oe I travelled a while. EFL The noun of place when indefinite is put in the accusative as: I looked east and west, .U sir ¥ uw 05, GS ont north and south. When the noun of place is definite, the preposition" gi" is introduced as: I prayed in the mosque. eal pee ‘The adverbial accusative of time or place may be substituted by one of the followings: 1. SSS ¢ geet ali" or " Gant some". Examples: I walked all day. sotenl 3S 2255 I visited all the capitals. oll ob 255 I visited some (a few) cities. + aed B25 233 2. Adjectival adverbs such as " Jisb long", " 05 short", mich", etc. Examples: I stood for a long time. I saw a lot of places. 3. Demonstrative pronoun explained by an adverb, Example: I stayed up that night. atu 4. Number specified by an adverb or constructed an adverb. Examples: I travelled thirty days. 2G) I was absent six days. 1525. Verbal nouns (noun of action) which convey the meaning of adverb. Example: I travelled (at) sunrise. E, The Adverbial Accusative of Cause or Reason 4 expresses the cause of the action. It must be a noun of action but not of the same verb, and agree with the verb in respect to agent and time, and also be indefinite as: I fled (because of) fear. AG I visited him (because of) love. Here " 55" expresses the cause of flight. It is a noun of action although not of the same verb, and agrees with the verb "to flee" andits agent because the one who fled is the one who feared; it is also in- definite. If any of these conditions are not fulfilled, the noun of action must be introduced by one of the particles of causation gee git a oJ as: I fled on account of fear. I went to him for water. eed Sonetines " 25 JyniilT » 4s itself the cause of the action and must then be a noun of action of a verb denoting a mental process as: ‘The Messiah died from love 2G A ciiiu for us. At other times the verb is the cause of the action and then ores » 15 JyXLi0 may be the noun of action of any verb ast 2 fe sere I beat him to correct him. ~ OG wis 153if the" “J Jyrki "4s made definite by the article or in con- struction it may be put in the accusative as: I fled (because of) the fear. + GT Ce I fled fearing the killing. HOT GA It is better to add a preposition. Thus: I fled fron fear. + Gghll Gece F. Accompanying Adverbial Accusative " 4 J in (The object _in relation to which the action is done): It is an object which accompanies the action while it is being completed. This object follows " » “ having the meaning of "with"; this " » "is called " powell ‘!5 " of association. This " 4" must not have the meaning of the conjunction as: I traveled in the morning. ot ad Zaid went (walked) along the road. =. Gjbl'y 5 te Here " 3" cannot be the conjunction because it does not join °? oer the word " ce " to the pronoun " ©_#L. ", as the noun cannot be joined to an attached pronoun except when the pronoun is repeated as: I came together with Zaid. ot M5, Gi oe Tt 4s also found after "GS" and" Le" of interrogation as: How are you with Zaid? or WalSy ei How do you get along with Zaid? What's between you and your brother? rd 1hbee In order to use the noun as “iA. Jai, the following conditions must prevail: What precedes this noun is a complete sentence. 2. The particle " 4 " must convey the meaning of "with." 3. The usage of this adverbial is rather uncommon in the Modem Standard language. is the noun which explains what would otherwise have been vague. This vague- ness is in respect either to" ©¢!4 substance" or " tw relation." 1. cl UT 7.25 (specification of substance): Explains what is vague in respect to number, weight, measure, quantity, similarity or area. Examples: He has 20 books. I bought a kilo of butter and a sack of wheat and two miles of land. T have a handful of flour and equivalent of rice. 2, inet! 52245: Limits or defines the predicate as: Per er of Zaid is honorable in respect to PCereer een birth. aa How noble a man is Zaid. ays ork Zaid has more relatives (OU aly OT ty than Said. 2 155This accusative of specification is usually used instead of the subject of a sentence or the object of a verb in order not to complicate the construction. Examples: The student has increased in knowledge. Salim is diligent but Ahmad is more diligent than him. (a Gc$! diligence). He is greater than Jubran in fame and output. (, U5 production). XII, SYNTACTIC CLASSIFICATION ‘The purpose of this section is to acquaint students with developing ‘terms and general rules which appear in many grammatical analyses of Modern Standard Arabic. Very few writers in Modern Standard Arabic actual- ly adhere to all of the rules. od A. Yertabie (52251 ve tavartable git: mis grouping is based on whether the word shows the signs of its positichs in the sentence or not. 2. variabie \5223F; me word 1s said to be variable vhen ite ending changes according to its position in the sentence. The variable words are either verbs or nouns. a. Verb: The syntactic "variations" for the verb are the three moods, i.e., indicative, subjunctive, and jussive. The imperfect is ‘the only form of the verb which is variable. The signs of the moods appear at the end of all its conjugations except the conjugations of the feminine 156plural for the 2nd and 3rd persons, and also when any imperfect form has © ; the "emphasis © "as a suffix, which is rarely used. Examples " Cad, he goes": Indicative Subjunctive Jussive Feminine Plural and ‘Git Indicative, subjunctive, Jussive ara Sak " * * With emphasis © suffix I SEIT maicative, subjunctive, Jussive You B25 " " ” The signs of the "variation" are expressed by the short vowels or by dropping the letter " © " from the ending of the verb. For full details see CHAPTER FIVE, Section IV - Moods. b. Noun: The syntactic "variations" for the noun are the three cases, i.e., nominative, accusative, and genitive. All nouns are con- sidered variable except the limited number found under the Invariable group. ‘The signs of the variation are expressed by vowels - short and long, and letters as explained in CHAPTER FIVE, Section I - Cases. Bxample: Short: Vowel: I found imowledge to be os e eeres useful. 157Long Vowel: I saw your brother with peel eas Clsent a your father in the ? re market. rool Letter: I saw the two teachers sel intl G atu ety with the students F. 4 2, Invariable yi-4J/: The word is said to be invariable when it retains one form of ending regardless of its position in the sentence. The invariable word may take one of the three short vowels or the" 2° os." as its permanent ending. ‘The invariable words are limited to the following types: See CHAPTER FOUR for explanation and examples. All particle: b. Verb: (1) Perfect: The conjugation of each person in the perfect tense is confined to one form regardless of its position in the sentence. See CHAPTER THREE, MORPHOLOGY - Verb, for explanation and examples. (2) Imperative: The imperative form is always invariable in any sentence. See CHAPTER THREE, MORPHOLOGY - Verb, for explanation and examples. (3) Imperfect: The only invariable forms of the imperfect (a) 2nd and 3rd persons feminine plural. Examples: 2nd Gai Indicative, Subjunctive, Jussive 3rd os iu " © © 158(b) Forms having the emphasis " © " as a suffix. ‘Examples: I ore c. Nouns: The limited number of nouns grouped here have aiready been discussed in their respective sections of this Handbook. They are listed here according to their English equivalent, but in Arabic, they are considered as nouns. They are: Pronouns; Demonstrative Pronouns; Relative Pronouns; Nouns of Condition; Interrogative Pronouns; Compound Numbers; and some Adverbs of time and place suchas" G25 4 Gal CAE eed BG, . B. Declinable G2i2JI vs Indeclinable Gall Go ppl: This grouping is strictly for nouns. All the nouns in this classification are of the variable category. The distinction is made on the manner they express the "variation [1,2 " of their positions in the sentence. The nouns considered in this group are generally singular. The only plural included in this grouping is the broken, irregular, plural in certain forms. 1. Declinable Geist! : The nown‘is said to be declinable when ite a. Accepts "nunation gos: "as the sign of indefiniteness. b. Expresses the genitive case by the short vowel " i705. Examples: This is a new book. ites id 159I saw a new book. I read in a new book. All variable nouns are considered declinable unless they fall into the patterns which are categorized as indeclinable. 2. Indeclinable ‘UTS. _ ‘The noun is said to be indecLinable when itt a. Does not accept "nunation ose? "as the sign of indefi- niteness. b. Does not express the genitive case by the short vowel » 3525," Tt expresses this case jointly with the accusative case by the short vowel " i<25." Examples: This is a red book. I saw a red book. I read in a red book. The indeclinable noun thus expresses the variation of its position in the sentence only when it is indefinite. When made definite, by article Ii or noun-in-construction 4], it would be declined like any declinable noun. Examples: preiee > ‘This red book. 2oN7 2 ust? I saw the red book. I read in the red book. 160He brought a better one. ee LEE (more suited than it). 7 - He brought the best one. Gly) ols JL FE (noun-in-construct). aaa - 3. The indeclinable nouns may be grouped under two major headings: a. Singular Nouns: E (1) Every noun ends with an extra long vowel " tn or hanga +1 as 6 Si vel So. (2) The following Adjectives: (a) Comparative - masculine and feminine, as “ fem. us. 23 a (b) Colors and defects as ell fom. #1 aos wi fen. + Ae. (c) Relative adjectives - masculine and feminine, on Xs fem. ltd pattem aso! SD ou Sl. (3) Proper names: (a) Names end with feminine ending " +“ for feminine and masculine as ils 4 bL « (b) Nouns end with feminine long vowel " fn or +I” as: ele Glide UE. Lt. (c) Feminine names without feminine ending as 153 « 2 BZ eyes slay. gata. (4) Compound names as EAS ee (ec) Names end with extra" ol "as yULZ wy Le 161(£) Foreign names more than three letters as pal! « eos Sys SSL. Foreign nanes with three letters - middle letter unvowelled " usS* " are declinable as gyi Jye es Ie byt Broken Plural: (1) Patterns of: Jelisas s,s eselse 5 der lie aoe t Ends with an extra long vowel as pe eye bs! Ends with an extra "hama * "as + Gael « » Lble XTIT. DEFINTTENESS A. Definite and Indefinite Nouns: As you have noticed, from the Giscussions on nouns, that the noun is indefinite unless it indicates or points to a specific object. The noun may indicate a specific object through form or through meaning. The most common form, through which the noun is nade definite, are: Pronoun, Demonstrative Pronoun, Relative Pronoun, Noun with definite article and Noun-in-Construct GULF, ‘The nouns which are considered definite through meaning are proper anes and nanes of places such as the name of a country, a city, a river, ete. ‘Though proper nares are definite in meaning, they are vocalized with "Nunnation O79? ", if they are declinable like any other indefinite noun. Examples: 162Shakir went to school with ol pe BBG os Salim. ae oleae Paresy eel] I saw Ahmad and Muhammad gg yp al f unary Got cote play in the football = 7 AD field. AT ee The Tigris River passes SI aif ial ys 27 Gite 3EF ‘through the city of : =o Baghdad. Lebanon is located West se) eit of Syria. 7 at B. The Use of the Article This article, beside its main function as a "definite article", is used for generality. In other words, ‘the noun, to which the article is prefixed, is used for the purpose of expressing a general idea and not for the purpose of being definite. Examples: The Port of Beirut is. SLAG gi “pee ges eins ‘important in (the) commerce? ~~ SS 77 ** - There are special institutes . bUsUE whidle for (the) sewing. <= - ‘The Arabs were famous 6 fF pS au 4n (the) horsemanship. el gh roel set) XV. VOCATIVE +! aii ‘The vocative is expressed by the vocative particles " L "and" Uol a5 FG) ." The construction of the vocative follows the following general rules: 163FU" is always with A. The noun following the particle " (| oF the article " I " and in the nominative case. Examples: 0 student! yt ar o gins tbs st © students! oer St O girls! tut VET the particle " Lm is often used to precede " Get riZet. 0 generous nant et BST A 0 people! or aie B. The noun following the particle " \," is always without the article "Ji ", and may be constructed according to one of the following rules: 1. If the person addressed is present or the noun is not deter- mined by any following words (adjective, nou-in-construction ils! ), ‘then the noun is put in the nominative case. Examples: de & des & res U OO If the person addressed is not present or the noun is deter- mined by some words after it, then the noun is put in the accusative case. Examples: 1640 ignorant (not addressed to any particular person)! © you, who climbs the mountain! © Abdu-lrahman! 0 my dear brother! 0 fair minded! (brother of fairness) ©. The vocative may be expressed without the vocative particles if the person addressed is close (in relation or friendship), or he is close to, or involved in the discussion of the caller. Examples: Joseph! Where are you going? Toals Shey, re 03 Ahmad! What is your Se ye! Nin gals Goad opinion in this subject? D. The adjective modifying the noun without the article " JI" is definite. Since the English "0" has practically been eliminated in calling a person, in modern usage, the above listed examples could very well be translated into English without "0", XX COMMN STRUCTURES A. Preposition " J: this preposition is called the " J" of sinilarity" «5/7 GW 0 rt 4s prefixed to the now to render the meaning of "as" or "like." ‘The denonstratives and the relative pronouns are treated like the noun in this respect. Examples: 165T kmow Ahmad as a friend. He sat in the classroom oi like a student. fee el I like furniture like 2 el 145 GUI Ot this (furniture). ~ This preposition is also prefixed to the following: 1. Demonstrative " LIS": ny prefixing " J" to this demon- strative, the meaning of "also", or "likewise" is developed. This is not true, however, with any other denonstrative. Example: T bought from this store a (40 GRU Iie ge C553) bed and a table and also 7 7 ye a new refrigerator. the Eb His, das 5 2, Particle " 4": When the preposition "J " is not followed by a noun, it would be prefixed to the particle " L. ", and it would render the following meaning: as he said Gees Likewise bi ous as if wus The word /9in/ ais : This word has the primary meaning “at or B with." It is equivalent to “have, has" in showing possession. It is not a verb, and therefore should not be mistakenly conjugated. It can stand alone or with a pronoun suffix. This word is negated by negative particle /waa/ 4 in showing denial of possession. Examples: 166‘The student has a book. us Ahr I have a book. peeres ars He does not have a book. CGS eu 1. Syntactic description of the above examples: a. They are equational sentences. b. ‘The predicates precede the subjects because the subjects are indefinite, " ~ US a book." » The word" aie " may be united with the particle " L ", thus "Laie ", giving the meaning "when." Exampl I saw him when he was here. GAG Ule pau C. The verb /yuujad/ £52 : This verb corresponds in meaning to “there is" or "there are" in English. Because of this usage, the conjuga- tion of this verb as well as the indication of tense are not needed. The only requirement needed for this usage is the indication of gender, that is /ywajad/ afy, is used in relation to masculine words, and /tuujad/ af 5: is used in relation to feminine words. Examples: meena eed ee There is a restaurant near QI pb ty, ‘the school. There are many chairs . in that room. D. The Word " JS all, every": 1. When this word is used with Pronoun endings, it renders the meaning of "all" or "whole." Examples: 167all of then all of 4t (nim) 73 all of it (her) as all of you (M.P1) Aas all of us uis 2. The word" JS " will render the meaning of "each" or "every" whenever the following noun is indefinite. On the other hand, if the following noun is definite, then the meaning of "all" or whole" is rendered. Examples: each day all day (the whole day) every month ‘the whole month EB. Usage of "4x4 " and "Jes ": These two words are equivalent in meaning to the prepositions "after" and "before" respectively. + In Arabic, these two words should be used before a noun. However, if they are used before a verb, the particle " %! " 4s inserted between them and the verb. Examples: Wernn etuiy after you est. NUT Saas ES IE up. I eat breakfast before I aes ot i jo eos ist shave. In the speech of many Arabic localities, the particle " uf » is replaced with the particle " L. " to render the same meaning. 1682. Quite often the word " it; is preceded by "Laas " (combi- nation of preposition " i" and particle " G ") thus" a8 Liem rendering the meaning "afterwards" or "later." F. Tho Use of " of Sn it is necessary": The verb" “ni must, should, have to, or to be necessary" is not conjugated like the rest of the verbs. The person it refers to is known from the main verb of the sentence. Following this verb, the sentence is always in the subjunctive mood, and the particle " ©!" is invariably used. Examples: We have to wear special cloths. He has to study his lesson. T have to wait for my friend here. 1, Sometimes the preposition " t' " followed by a noun or pronoun suffix referring to the person in the sentence is used between Sin and the particle " U1 for emphasis. Examples: ‘The Lt. has to go to ol) Sa of Ui ‘the camp. ? He has to go to the camp. SCZ yy Ca We have to wear special . 15K (OU GALS 3 cloths. ie You (MP1) have to study. Gaul 140535 of Sf 2a the lesson. a“ a - 2, Sometimes the verb " “7m is eliminated and only the preposi- tion " ol same meaning. Examples: plus the required pronoun suffix or noun is used to render the 169He has to go to the SU I camp. ‘You have to study the Goat yal ad OF SF lesson. + ‘The perfect form of this verb " G55 " is also used to give ‘the same meaning in the past. Lu. The verb " GS" is also used, preceding " Cain, to give the meaning of "must, should, etc." in the past. Example: Thad to go to the camp. 2035" Gy cahf oh T should have gone to the camp. . / ay 5 sw G. Use of " its since, for": This word functions as a "preposition." Therefore, the noun following it is always in the genitive case. (Although it is permissible to be in the nominative case) the meaning it renders in such a function is illustrated in the following example: For a month, since ene aonth ago. Pc For the past few days, a few days ago. a af ie Of a long time ago. a dasbheS5 435 Lately, recently. 7 Le 170INDEX OF GRAMMATICAL TERNS (Numbers refer to pages) ACCUSATIVE 22. ACCUSATIVE INDEPENDENT PRONOUN 21. ACTION, NOUN OF 75. ACTIVE and PASSIVE VOICE 125: Perfect 126, Imperfect 127, Passive of verbs with two objects 128, Passive of verbs with preposition 129. ADJECTIVE 17: Gender 18, Case 18, Number 18, Comparative 19, Super- lative 19, Relative 20, 35. ADJECTIVAL VERBS: See Verb of Surprise or Admiration. ADVERBIAL ACCUSATIVE Jus LiLif 16, of State or Condition J If au7, Cognate or absolute object GIL-J Jy tait1n9, object complement & J32if 151, of time or place (Ast JonKLf 151, of cause oF reason 2) Jif 153, of accompanying “XI JyvKiT ish, of specification jx. iss, ANSWER PARTICLES 95. ASSIMILATION: See Suprasegmentals. ATTACHED or TIED "t": See Noun, Collective Noun. BROKEN PLURAL: See Noun. CASES 21: See Noun 12, Adjective 17, Syntax 103, Feminine Plural 23, Five Nouns 2h. CARDINAL NUMBERS: See Numbers. COLLECTIVE NOUN 17. imCOLORS 33. COMMENCEMENT OF ACTION 1h. COMON STRUCTURES 165: " Sm of similarity 165, usage of " any H and" J5" 168, use of "ot Spt" 169, use of * 42 » 110, verb " afs2" 167, word" ale " 166, word " JS "167. COMPARATIVE 19. CONDITION PARTICLES 98. CONDITIONAL SENTENCE 139: Use of 51 139% 1] 10, LG ue, nouns and adverbs 12, 13. CONJUGATIONS 37, 38, 39, hO, Li, 50, 51, 52, 53, Sh, 55. CONSONANTS: See Sound System. DECLINABLE ret vs. INDECLINABLE ea & eostait ass, DEFINITE ARTICLE: See Orthography. DEFINITENESS 162. DEFINITE and INDEFINITE WOUNS 162, use of article Jt 163. DEYONSTRATIVE PHRASE 12). DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN 27. DERIVATIVES, VERBAL 70: Noun of Action 78, Noun of Excess 87, Noun of Instrument 85, Noun of Object 7h, Noun of Place and Time 83, Noun of Subject 70. DERIVED VERBS 55. DIPHTHONG: See Sound System. DUAL: See Noun, Adjective. EQUATIONAL SENTENCE 106. 172BXOHPTION 137. Particle Y} 137, wor and 5 138, 1ar L139. EXCESS, NOUN OF 8. FEMININE PLURAL: See Noun, Cases 23. do FUTURE TENSE: See Inperfect Verb. aly FIVE NOUNS: KAJI GENDER: See Noun, Adjective. GENITIVE 23. HELPING VOWEL: See Orthography. IMPERATIVE 118. IMPERFECT 1,3, FUTURE TENSE 50, WITH PRONOUN SUFFIX 50. Types: Sound 45, 50; Double 6, 52; Weak : Initial 46, 53; Middle 47, 54; Final 8, 55. INDEFINITE OR NUNNATION: See orthography. INDEPENDENT PRONOUN: See Pronoun. INDICATIVE MOOD 113. INSTRUMENT, NOUN OF 62. INTERROGATIVE PARTICLES 96. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN 25. INIONATION: See Suprasegmentals. INTRANSITIVE: See Verb. JUSSIVE MOOD 116. JUSSIVE PARTICLES 95: See also Jussive Mood. ONG VOWELS: See Sound System, Orthography. 173MASCULINE PLURAL: See Noun. MBASURES 53: See Verbs. MODS 123: Indicative 113, Subjunctive 1k, use of 4) and Jd 126, Jussive 116, MORPHOLOGY 12, 33, Noun 12, Verb 33. NEGATIVE 100, NOMINATIVE 21. NOUN 12: Gender 12, Number 13, tied or attached "t" 12, dual 13. Plural 1h: Sound Masculine 1h, Sound Feminine 15, Broken 16, Collective 17. woun-pi-corsmeucrion G3LAIF 103. NUMBER: See Noun, Adjective. NUMBERS 129: Cardinals 129: Numeral 130, 1313 Combined 132, 1343 Dual Forms 130. Ordinals 135: First Form 135, Second to Tenth 135, Compound 136. NUNNATION or INDEFINITE: See Orthography. OBJECT: See Verbal Sentence. OBJECT, NOUN OF 71. ORDINAL NUMBERS: See Nunbers. ORTHOGRAPHY 8: Vowels: Short Vowels 8, Long Vowels 8, Sukuun 9, Transition Vowel 9, Definite Article 9, Nunnation or Indefinite 9, Helping Vowel 9, Types of "aa" 10, Types of Hama 11. PARTICLES 88: Affecting meaning of expression 99, Answer 98, Condi- tion 101, Conjunctions 96, Interrogative 99, Jussive 98, Negative 99. 1mNouns Acting as Prepositions 94, Prepositions 68, Subjunctive 98, Vocative 98. PARTICLES AFFECTING MEANING OF EXPRESSION 96. PARTICLES and VERBS AFFECTING EQUATIONAL SENTENCE 108. PARTICLES and VERBS AFFECTING VERBAL SENTENCE 112. PASSIVE VOICE: See Active and Passive Voice. PERFECT 36: With Pronoun Suffix 1. PLACE and TIME, NOUN OF 60. PLURAL: See Noun, Adjective, Sound Masculine, Sound Feminine, Broken. PREDICATE: See Equational Sentence. PREPOSITIONS: See Particles. PRONOUN 25: Independent 25, Suffix 25, Independent in the Accusative 27, Interrogative 28, Demonstrative 30, Relative 32. PRONOUN SUFFIX: See Pronoun. RELATIVE ADJECTIVE 12, 32. RELATIVE PRONOUN 29. SENTENCE 106: Particles and Verbs Affecting Equational Sentence 108, Particles and Verbs Affecting Verbal Sentence 112. ‘Type: Verb 107, Subject 107, Object 107. Equational 106, Subject 106, Predicate 106, Verbal 107, SHORT VOWELS: See Sound System, Orthography. SOUND SYSTEM 1: Consonant: Similar to English 1, No English Equivalent 1, Diphthong 5. 15Vowels: Short Vowels ), Long Vowels ),. STRESS: See Suprasegnentals. SUBJECT: See Equational and Verbal Sentence. SUBJECT, NOUN OF 67. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 11h: Use of any and Jd 116. SUBJUNCTIVE PARTICLES 95: See also Subjunctive Mood. SUKUUN: See Orthography. SUPERLATIVE 20. SUPRASEGMENTALS 6, Stress 6, Intonation 6, Assimilation 7. SYNTACTIC CLASSIFICATION 156: Declinable ot vs Indeclinable SET So et ass, vartante CLT ve mvariabie wut 156. SYNTAX 103 TIED or ATTACHED "t": See Noun, Collective Noun, Noun of Subject. ‘TRANSITION VOWELS: See Orthography. TRANSITIVE: See Verb. ‘TRILITERAL VERB 36: Sound 37, Weak 38, 39, Double 110. TYPES OF "aa": See Orthography, Final Weak Verb. ‘TYPES OF HAMZA: See Orthography. VARIABLE eet vs eee et 156. VERB 36: Derived 55: Jo5 56, Gait 57, GA7 a, Gu 62, Eur a, LS 6s, Ey 65, CR or, Ty 68, Future Tense 50. 116Imperfect 43: Vocalization 4, Sound 5, Double 46, Weak 6, With Pronoun Suffix 50, Transitive 36. Perfect 36: Sound 37, Weak 38, 39, 40, Double 0, With Pronoun Suffix 41, Triliteral 36, Transitive 36. VERBS OF SURPRISE or ADMIRATION 15. VERBAL DERIVATIVES 70, See Derivatives. VERBAL SENTENCE 107. VOCATIVE 16h. VOCATIVE PARTICLES 95. VOWELS: See Sound System, Orthography. 60 $85-001/22236 117