Chapter 6 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS OF PIPING SYSTEMS ‘The eafoty of a piping system subjected to a temperature change and resulting thermal displacement is dotermnined by a flexibility analysis to insure against the following {9319.1.1]: Ovorstrain of piping components, Overstrain of supporting structures, ‘Leakage at joints, and Overstrain of connecting equipment, without material waste, aepe Required Analysis Compliance, with B31.8 Code flexibility analysis is a requirement of most petroleum and chemical plant piping installations, ‘The Code places the burden of this analysis on the designer [9800 (2)] and holds the designer responsible to the owner for assuring that all the engineering design complies with the requirements of the Code. ‘The Code is clear as to which piping systems require an analysis; all systems roquire an analysis with the exception of the following: [9319.4.1] 1. Those that are duplicates of auecessfully operating installations, 2. Those that can be judged adequate by comparison with previously analyzed systems, and 8. Systems of uniform size that have no more than two anchor points, no intermediate restraints, and fall within’the limitation of the equation: e Dy (L-uP sk ohn outside diameter of pipe, mm [in.] ssultant total displacoment strains, mm. [in], to be absorbed by the piping system. jevelopod length of piping between anchors, m (ft) U = anchor distance, straight line botween-anchors, m [ft] ‘Ky = 208000 $,/f, for ST units (mmm)? (30 8 /®, for U.S. customary units listed above, (in/ft)?) ‘By = reference modulus of elasticity at 21°C [70°F], MPa [ksi] (CAST! Guidebook to ASME B21.3 - Process Piping - Fourth Bdition108 Flexibility Analysis of Piping Systems Chapter 6 | CAST Guidebook to ASME B31.3 - Procese Piping - Fourth RaionChapter § Flexibility Analysis of Piping Sysiems 109. Although this simple equation is useful in determining the need for formal stress anelysis, it does have limitations. No goneral proof can be offered to assure that the formula will yield accurate or conservative results, Users are advised to be cautious in applying it to abnormal configurations (uch as unequal leg U-bende with L/U greater than 2.6 or near-saw-tooth configurations), to large diameter thin-wall pipe (stress intensification factors of the order of 5 or more), or to.conditions whore extraneous motions other than in the direction connecting the anchor points constitute a large proportion of the expansion duty, Allowable Stress Range, Sa B91.8 establishes maximum allowable stress limits that can be safely accommodated by a piping system before failure will commence for two separate stress loading conditions. These limits are for stross levels that can cause failure from a single loading, 5,, and those that can causo failure fram ropeated cyclic loadings, Ss. ‘The allowable stress range, Sa, (802.8.5 (@)] is the stress limit for those stresses that are repeated and cyclic in nature, or simply, it is the allowable stress limit for the calculated displacement stress range, “Sg, Sm < Sa [J319.4.4]. Sg (a secondary stress) will be discussed in the Displacomont Stress ‘Range section of this chapter. The allowable stress range is presented in B31.3 by two equations: ‘Equation (1a): 8, =/(.25 + 0.25 S,) Sq, by equation (1a), is a “system” allowable stress of the entire piping system of the same material and temperature. Equation (1b): Sq =P 11.25 (Be +8.) - St) Sq, by equation (1b), is a “eamponent” allowable stress at temperature where 5}, has been calculated for that component. ‘Sp and &;, aro the basic allowable stresses for the cold and hot conditions as defined in the Definition and Basis for Allowable Stress section in Chapter 1. Their values are found in BSL8 Appendix A ‘Table A-1. (Note:, For cryogenic ar eold pipe service, 8, is taken at the operating temperature, Sp is taken at the installed temperature), ‘The expression 1.25 S, + 0.25 S, in equation (1a) was selected with objective of allowing the calculated displacement stross range, Sp, to occur,7000 thermal cycles (plant startup/plant shut- down from installed tomporature to operating temperature) without a fatigue failure. The factor of safety offered by this expression for 7,000 thermal cycle service is on the order of 2 in terms of stress and on the order of 80 in terms of cycle life, CAST Guidebook to ASME 831.3 - Process Piping - Fourth Bdition110 Floxibittiy Analysis of Piping Systems Chapter 6 fils the streas-range factor calculated by the equation: f=60(NYO2 S13 ‘The 2002 edition of B31.3 limited thie equation for f to a maximum value of 1.0. The stress-range factor, f; is equel to 1.0 for 7000 thermal cycles or loss, Tho 2004 edition of B31 allows this f value ‘to oqual 1,2 for piping systems with about 3000 or fewer thermal cycles, N, in the life of the piping system provided all of the following conditions are met. Otherwise, fis not to exceed 1.0, 1. ‘The specified minimum tensile strength of the piping material shall be less than 517 MPa (75 psi). 2, The value of S, and Sp shall not be more than 138 MPa (20,000psi) each. 8, Tho pipe material must be ferric. 4, Tho operating temperature shall not exceed 371°C (700°F) . ‘Tho 2002 odition of B81.8 contained the following table which vould be used to determine the value of fi This table was deleted in the 2004 edition. ‘This table is useful in showing how the value of f changes as the numbor of eycles increases. Cycles, N Factorf 17,000 and less 10 Over 7,000 to 14,000 09 Over 14,000 to 22,000 08 ‘Over 22,000 to 45,000 o7 Over 48,000 to 100,000 06 ‘Over 100,000 to 200,000 05 __ Over 200,000 to 700,000 04 ‘Over 700,000 to 2,000,000 08 S;, is the longitudinal stress of each component used in the Sq equation (1h) will be discussed later in the Sustained Load Stross section in this chapter, An example of the application of the allowable stress range equation (1a) follows: eee CASTI Quidebook to ASME 821.3 Process Piping - Fourth RditionChuptor Flexibility Analysis of Piping Systems 111. ‘This piping eystem can be expected to operate safely provided the displacement stress range, Sy, does not exceed Sa of 172 MPa (24,969 pai) and tho number of thermal eycles does not exceed 18,000. ‘The allowable stross range equation (1b) for each piping component ean bé used as a design basis in place of equation (1a) provided the longitudinal stresses duc to sustained loads, Sz, have been caleulated for cach component and these longitudinal stresses are less than the hot allowable stress, Sy, (Sr, $ WS,)- ‘eigigresris rans nanacurnyy reas fest me oe é Note the allowable stress range is increased by nearly 35% in this example by including the unused allowable stress, WS}, for sustained loads in this oxample, It is interesting to note that in this example, Sq is above the yield strength at temperature. The value of Sy of this ferritic material at 260°C (500°F) is based on 2/Syield strength of the material at temperature. (Yield = 130 MPa/0.66 = 197 MPa (18,000.66 = 28,636 psi), at 260°C (600°F)). How can ain allowable stross be higher than tho yield strength of a material at temperature? ‘The answor is this allowable stress can be higher than the pipe material yield strength because, this allowable is for secondary stress which is sélf- limiting. This stress will diminish in time through local yielding, (relaxation), of the strossed ‘components in the piping eystem, such as elbows or branch connections. Noto again, equation (1a) is a system allowable stress, the allowable stress of the entire piping system of the same material and temperature. Equation (1b) is a component allowable stress, the allowable stress of each single component in a piping systom whoro $1, has been caloulated for that component. On occasion, the thermal cycles a particular piping system will experience in the life of the plant may vary from ono or mare operating states, The system may undergo several plant upgrades where thermal cycling at the new operating temperature may oceur for several years before changing to still another operating temperature where thermal cycling would continue to occur. After two or three of those now thermal cycling operating states, it would appear that the stress-range factor, 7, would be difficult to determine. If this were the ease, then the remaining life of the piping system would be impossible to predict, because the remaining life is very much dependent upon the prior nuinber of thermal eycles. How does one determine the f factor in such a piping system? ‘The answer to this question is found in B818. ‘The Code provides an equation to calculate the equivalent fuel temperature cycles (1302.3.5] for such operating conditions. CAST! Gutdebook to ASM: B91.3- Process Piping - Fourth Edition‘112 Mexibility Analysis of Piping Systems — Chapter § ‘The equation is: Ny + ry5Ny + rg5Ng +... + ry Ne fori=1,2,.0 number of cycles of maximum computed displacement stress range Sg number of eycles associated with the smaller displacement stress range S; & Sp N= number of equivalent full temperature cycles: y N; where: y consider the following: ‘As an example of the determination of the equivalent cycles, Now tho allowable stress range can be accurately calculated for this piping system using the ‘equivalent eycles to determine the stress range factor, f. CASTI Guidebook fo ASME B21.5 - Process Piping - Fourth EditionL Chapier6 Flexibility Analysis of Piping Systeme 113 Returning to B31.3 Table 802.3.5 of the 2002 edition we find that the stress range reduction feictor f ranges from a value of 1 for 7,000 eycles or less to a value of 0.8 for 2,000,000 eycies. For piping experiencing more than 7,000 cycles in the life of the piping system, f can be caleulated by the equation: ft O(N)92 51.2 (the value of f was increased from 1.0 to 1.2 in the 2004 edition) ‘The use of this equation is illustrated as follows: ‘What is f for a system with 58,000 life time cycles? f= 6.0 (58,000 cycles)? = 0.88 Designers using values of f from Table 802.8.5 of the 2002 Edition of B31.3 with no interpolation would have a tendency to use f= 0.6. Here we can see the allowable stress range, 8, would he 18% higher using the non-interpolated table value in place of the calculated /. Soo Figure 6.2 for the graphical representation of f. The equation for calculating fin the 2002 edition f=6.0(N%2) 5 1.0 where f= LO for 7000 cycles (N = 7000). Although entirely.appropriate for this purpose, the equation is not entirely accurate. Consider a piping system with 7,000 life time cycles, The above equation will yield an f value of 1,02 (f= 1.02), where the table value is LO (f= 1.0), which is the correct value for 7,000 cycles. ‘Far the equation to yield the correct / value at N = 7,000 thermal cycles, the constant will have to be changed fram 6.0 to 5.875, However, using a three decimal accuracy in calculating / will imply a degree of aecaracy in B81. philosophy of calculating stresses that is not presont, Using the constant 6 will produce a roazonably close f factor and one that is consistent with the accuracy of the simplified approach of the BB13 Code. The reason for solecting 7,000 eyclos as a starting point for the determination of f was to simplify tho calculations of typical piping systems, ‘This 7,000 cycles represents roughly one cycle per day for a period of twonty years. Vory few petroleum refineries will ever see 7,000 eycles. Howover, some chemical plants, particularly batch-operated plants, are more likely to see more than 7,000 thermal cycles. CAST! Guidebook to ASME 21.8 Procoae Piping -Rourth Réition114 Mlexibility Analysis of Piping Systems Chapter Displacement Stress Range, Se ‘Tho displacement stress range, Sz, is the calculated range of (secondary) stress a piping system will ‘experience’ when subjected to thermal expansion or contraction, The temperature range for this calculation is the total expansion range from minimum to maximum for hot operating systems and from maximum to minimum for oryogenie or cold pipe. Prossure and weight (primary) stresses are not considered in this evaluation, 1 203 6 122A. gydlesporday 19 ‘or 20 yoa ite 09] | 0a] ‘stress reduction factor T os osteitis alan ee 1 2 s w 2 5 Total number ot yes Figure 6.2 Plot of the 2002 B81.3 Edition stress-reduction factor, f. ‘The allowable streas range, Sq is the stress limit for the calculated displacement stress range, Sy. ‘The B313 equation for the displacement stress range [1819.4] i where: Spy f5.1 +S, +48? Sq = stress due to axial force, caused by pressure, weight and thermal expansion, iq = axial force stress intensification factor. In the absence of applicable data, i= 1.0, ct Sy. = resultant bending stress ia Haw? (For full size piping components, the value of Z is that of the pipe, Reducing intersections will replace Z with the term Z, in the denominator. Z, the effective section modulus, will be discussed later.) My, S, = torsional stress = 2 My = torsional moment CASTI Geidebook fo ASME BS2.3 - Process Piping - Fourth Feition1 4 Chapter Mexibility Analysis of Piping Systems 115 Z = section modulus of pipe, mm® (in.3) (é& {bs D8), (the exact equation) Dj = inside diameter of pipe, mm (in,) D, = outside diameter of pipe, mm (in.) ij . = in-plane stress intensification factor from Appendix D ig = out-plane stress intensification factor from Appendix D ‘M; = in-plane bending moment, Nim Gn.b) ‘M, = out-plane bending moment, Nem (in.tb) Sp is calculated using the pipe nominal wall thickness dimensions. Corrosion, erosion and mill tolerance are not subtracted from the pipe nominal walll thickness for Sy calculations. Average Axial Stress, Sax ‘The average axial stress, S,,, over the pipe cross-section resulting from axial thermal forees is not normally considered in secondary stress displacement, Sj, calculations. In a typical rofinery/chemical plant pipe routing, these stresses would not be significant. However, caution should be exercised in extonding this practice in special considerations such as buried lines, double vwalll pipes as steam jacketed pipe found in sulfur plants, or parallel lines connecting header pipes with different operating temperatures (caused by valve closure in some, valve open in other parallel ines as found in pipeline pig-launcher/receiving stations). ‘This axial stress, S,y, (eaused by thermal displacement) caleulated by dividing the thermal axial foree by the cross section of the pipe metal wall, using nomial wall dimensions, could be significant and would be added to the S, term. Bending Stress, 5), ‘The bending stress component, S, [9319.4.4(b)] of the displacement stress range, equation Sx, is the resultant of in-plane and out-plane bending moments due to thermal expansion or contraction, In+ plane bending of a branch pipe at a tee intersection, for example, is defined as where the line of the displacomont of the branch pipe lies in the same plane as that of the run and branch pipe, Out-plane bending is where the line of displacement of the branch pipe is out of the plane thet: contains the run and branch pipes, ‘The section modulus used in calculating bending stress, 8, for full size piping components, (a NPS 10 x NPS 10 x NPS 10 tee for example) is'the section modulus of the NPS-10 pipe. For reducing intersections, Z,, the effective section modulus will be used for S} calculations, An example using 2, will be ehown. Torsional Stress, Sy ‘The torsional stress component, Si, of the displacement stress range is calculated by dividing the torsional moment by twice the section modulus of the pipe experiencing the torsion, ‘Torsional stress at branch intersections caused by torsional moments in the branch pipe, will be caleulated using the section modulus of the branch pipe. The torsional stress in the run pipe, if the torsional moment is through the run pipe, is calculated using the section modulus of the run pipe, CAST Guidebook to ASDLE BS1.S Process Piping - Fourth Bidition,116 Flexibility Analysis of Piping Systoms Chapter 6 Consider the following example to illustrate the calculation of the bending stress, the torsional stress, and the displacoment stress ranges. CASTI Guidebook fo ASME B81.3 - Process Pioing - Pourth Baltioni [escinitoncu) Bi Sate For most piping systems in the moderate temperature range, the allowable stress range, Sa, using equation (ia), would be in the 190 to 200 MPa (28,000 to 80,000 psi) range. In this example, the elbow is operating at a Sz of about 30% of the allowable stress range, Sa. ‘The equation for Sy is based on the maximum shear (TRESCA) failure theory and ‘or convenient comparison with Code allowable stress range Sq, Sy represents two times the maximum shear stress due to expansion loading. Sg can be derived using the Mohr’s Cirele (Figure 6.3). The stresses locateil on the principal stress axis of the Mohr’s circle, 6, are bending stresses. The stresses locatod ‘on taxis are torsional stresses. "oy = least principal (bending) stress og = maximum principal (bending) stress torsion (shear) at stress condition 2 (at 62) (ee) = 8 (location of the center of the Mohr's Circle and the location of maximum ebeor Tou in Mohw’s Circle) CAST Guidebook lo ASME BBLS - Process Piping - Fourth lition118 Flexibility Analysis of Piping Systems Chapter S Figure 6.3 Molu’s Cirde, Tax is located at a distance, (magnitude), equal to the hypotenuse of the right triangle with $2 and ‘ty as the triangle legs. The valuo of trax ean be calculated by the Pythagorean Theory to produce the equation for Sg, (without Sax): fan { 2) ota? 8p = 2x YORE In the calculation of Sg, the section modulus, Z, used in the above example for caloulating Sy is only valid for fall size components, It is not valid for reducing outlet branch connections with forces and moments applied through the branch pipe. In the analysis of reducing outlet intersections, BS1.3 instructs the designer to use Z,, the effective section modulus instoad of Z ({319.4.A%c)]. ‘The reason for using Z instead of Z is to adjust the calculated strosces to the actual true stress value, Tests have proven that for reducing intersections, using Zy will result in ealeulated stresses closer to the actual measured stresses than would be calculated using %, The effective section modulus equation Zy= mr) whore: 'Ts = the effective branch wall thickness, the lesser of Ty or (MT p). 5 Dy - Ty) 2g = mean radius of branch pipe = CAST Guidebook 1o ASME B31.3 - Process Piping - Fourth BalitionChaptor 6 Flexibility Analysis of Piping Systema 119 An example of the application of the effective section modulus follows. Manufactured by WEE Intemational, Houstan, Texas ae CAST! Guidebook to ASME H3L.3 - Procees Piping - Bourth Biition120 Flesibility Analysis of Piping Systems Chapter 6 CASH Guidebook to ASME BSL. Process Piping - Fourth RaluionChapter 6 Flexibility Analysis of Piping Systems 121. ‘The offective section modulus, Z,, was introduced to the B81 codes by Code Case 53 which follows. Interpretations of Code For Pressure Piping Case 58 (Reopened) - Stress-Intensification Factor Inquiry: ASA BS11-1955 (Par. 621d and Fig. 3.4), and ASA B31.3-1962 (Par, 319.36, and Table 319.8.6) provide a direct method for computing streas- intensification factors for full-size tees and fabricated branch connections. Application of the same factor to reduecing-outlet connections, as recommended 95 a pro tom solution in Footnote 6, is believed to lead to gross over-evaluation of the stress range. Clarification and relief from an apparently unnecessarily severe requirement are desired. | Mas wd am, ap) Rn, Higure 6.4 Applied moments. Reply: Footnote 6 of Fig. 8.3 and Table $19.8.6 mentioned in the inquiry reflect lack. of theoretical or experimental data at the time of its formulation. Isolated tost results which have since become available warrant, modifying the present rules for full-size tees and branch connections and extending them to cover reducing-outlet tees and branch connections as follows by reference to ASA BS1.1-1955 and ASA BB1.8-1962: CAST Guidebook to ASDER B31.3 Process Piping - Fourth Rdition122 Flexibility Analysis of Piping Systems Chapter ‘Determine in-plane bending moment Mj, outoftplane bending moment M,, and torsional moment M; at the branch junetion for each of the three legs and combine tho resultant bending stress S}, and torsional stross S; by Hquation (19) in Par. 622(b), where: M 6s 8, = for header and branch (63-1) ia)? +(0)"f* Sy=: { for header (legs Land 2) (63-2) [linen? + GoM Ss, = % for branch (legs 5) (63-8) The value i, of the out-of-plane stress-intensification factor appearing in Equations (53-2) and (63-8) equals the value i presently computed using tho dimensions of the pipe matching tho run of a tee or the header pipe’, The value i; of the in-plane stress-intensification factor is modified: + HS OTB ig 40.25 (63-4) ‘The soction modulus Z in Equations (53-1) and (53-2) is the section modulus of the ) header or branch pipe, for whichever the stress.is being calculated. The effective branch section modulus in bending Z, used in Equation (68-3) is a fictitious value ‘used for purposes of tast correlation: Dy = m2 Ty (58-5) Where rg =mean branch eross-sectional radius i T, = lesser of T, and ig, = effective branch wall thickness (Che effective branch wall thickness was later changed to the Lesser of i 1, and (ij5,) T ) = thickness of pipe matching run of tee or header exelusive of reinforcing elements 7, = thickness of pipe matching branch B ‘L. Note that pad or saddle thickness 1’, should not be taken as greater than 1.57, in formula for A for pad or saddle reinforced tee; this limitation was inadvertently omitted from the Code. CAST Guidebook to ASME D923 - Process Piping - Fourth Walton |i Chapter Flexibility Analysis of Piping Systems 123 Stress Intensification Factor In the preceding éxamples, the stress intensification factor (SIF) was caleulated [B31.3 Appendix D] and used in the equation to determine the bending stresses resulting froin thermal expansion or contraction. The SIF is an intensifier of the bending stresses local to a piping components such as teed or elbows and has a value equal to one (1.0) or greater. Bach pipinig component is represented in this bending stress equation by its own SIF which is unique for the component. Components with 2 low SIF, (in the range cf 1 or 2), because of their geometry containing smooth transition radii, have the greatest efficiency in blending bending stressos from one section ofthe piping through the camponent to the adjoining piping section. Components with sharp geometrical changes, such a8 an unreinfurced, fabricated tee, will have a high SIF in the range of 4 or 5, because the unreinforced tee will have @ much lesser efficiency in blending bending stresses because of their sharp comer geometxy. SIF equations were first introduced into the piping codes in 1955, These equations were based on an extensive cyclic fatigue testing program conducted by ARC, Markl, HH. George, and EC. Rodabaugh at Tube Turns in the late 1940's and early 1950's. Figures 6.6 and 6.6 are examples of the fixtures used for SIF testing. This testing program first established an equation to represent the fatigue lifo of a butt weld in a straight length of pipe when cycled at a constant displacement. This equation, for ASTM A 106 Grade B piping material, is: 245,000 Noz where § = bending stress caused by the constant alternating displacement and, N= number of full displacement eycles until failure. The SIF of the girth butt weld, (the continuation of a pipe wolded to its solf) was assigned a value of one (1.0). Figure 6.5 Stress intensification factor test equipment, CAST Culdebook to ASME B81. - Process Piping - Fourth Edition' i | i i | 124 Wlexibilily Analysis of Piping Systems — Chaptor 6 Figure 6.6 Testing enginoers observe displacement indicator during SIF test. ‘This testing program then tested tees at the same displacement as the butt welded pipe samples and found that the tees failed after fewer displacement cycles. Tt was reasoned that the presenico of the too in the system intensified the stress to cause the earlier failure. ‘The stress was calculated anil compared to that of the buti-welded pipe. ‘The ratio of these stresses is the SIF of the tee, and the stress intensification equation was modified for the tee and all other piping components as: 245,000 Ne , Where 4” is the STP. All piping components are represented in a flexibility analysis with the components’ SII. ‘The value of the SIF is 1.0 or grontor, The components SIF is a representation of the component fatigue endurance as compared to that of a butt weld in a straight run of pipe. ‘The Appendix D stress intensification factor (SIF) equations for piping components have beon demonstrated to bo velid for header pipe with the ratio, D/T< 100, An example of a size range where demonstration bas been proven valid is, DN 900, (9.53 mm), (NPS 36, 0.975 inch nominal wall), DAF = 96. Pipe with smaller outer diameters, in standard and heavier pipe wall thickness, would also have this ratio less than 100. In the absence of more applicable data, use Appendix D stress intensification factors for D/T ratios greater than 100. ‘two of the nine Appendix D stress intensification and flexibility factor equations are presented in ‘Table 6.1. Further explanation of the notes associated to each equation follows Example 6 XX. CASTY Guidebook to ASME BS1.3 Process Piping - Fourth BitionChaptor 6 Flexibility Anaiysls of Piping Systems — 125 ‘Table 6.1 Flexibility and Stress Intensification Factors (Appendix D, Table D800, ASME B91.3-2004) Sirous Intensification Factor Flexibility Notes 9), Flexibility Factor, [OutorPlan, | In-Plane, | Characteristic, [Deserintion k Io I Skotoh a Welding elbow or pipe bond 1.05 0.15 0.9 TR; A Notes (2), (07) > a rc ye at y= bend raals i a iT Wolding too por ASNIE BIE.9 j 09 StH en Fes oi Notes (2), (49, (6), C1, (199) i ne ana uy oe ‘These: stress intensification factors are used in calculating the bending stress, Sp (the bending é moments multiplied by the SIF, for both in-plane and out-plane loading divided by the section modulus of matching pipe), contribution in the displacement stress range equation, Sg, for each component in # thermal fatigue analysis CASTY Guidebook to ASME 21.3 - Process Piping - Fourth Hdision126 Flexibility Analysis of Piping Systems Chapter 8 ‘The values calculated for elbows by the above equations for both stress intensification and flexibility factors will be lower, particularly in large diameter thin-wall elbows when internal pressure is considered in the analysis. The elbow will experience a pressure stiffening per Note 7 of Appendix D: Note (7): In large diameter thin-wall elbows and bends, prossure can significantly affect the magnitude of k and I. ‘To correct values from the Table, divide k by: (Zayas ‘And divide I by: 5p 28 143, e\# & B)T) Gy whore: P= internal prossure B= modulus of elasticity at temperature, seo Table 6, CAST! Guidebook to ASME BSL.3 - Process Plping - Fourth BditionChapleré Mlaxibility Analysis of Piping Systems 127 ‘The conclusion is pressure’in & large OD, thin wail elbow will cause » reduction in bending stress ‘because of the reduced stress. intensification factor for the elbow and-a higher: Pipe-end reactions ox “connecting equipment or anchora due to the reduction in the elbow flexibility factor, Neither the stress intensification nor the flexibility factors for welding tee per ASME B16.9 are affected by internal pressure as is the olbow. ‘The flexibility characteristic and rosulting SIF factors for the B16.9 tee can be change only by changing the shape of the tee.. Note 11 provides guidance on ‘to how to change these factor 4AE % Note (LD: Ifr,® 1/8 Db and Tg > 1.57, a flexibility characteristic of —— may be used, ‘These Note 11 increased values for ry and ‘Ty improve the shape of the tee by increasing the ‘transition radius from the branch to run pipes and increasing the thickness in this transition region, ‘These two changes increases the stiffness of the tee resulting in greater fatigue enduranee as can be seon by the resulting lower SIP. A comparison of flexibility characteristics and intensification factors can be made of an ASME B16.9 welding tee with and without the x, and Ig limits of Note 11. The above NPS 36, 0.975 nominal wall toe will bo used for this comparison. Without Noto 11, ry and To limits are: h=0.0652 =4418 1, = 5.551 With Note 11, rand Tg limits are: h=0.0926 h=8546 = 4.395 About a 20% reduction in each SIF is realized with the improved shape tee when the Note 11 r, and ‘Tp limits are met. Figure 6:7 compares the SIF of some common tee geometries. Figure 68 and Table 6.2 are tebulated expansion stresses for several tee geometries for the piping layout shown, ‘The effects of ‘the changing SIF caused by changing the tee geometry is very apparent in each of the in-plane and out- plane loading eases. Ginpane a Beutsane Si _svess intensification factor ‘0 Opa “Bwrpipst intersection geometry Figure 6.7 Comparison of common branch intersection stress intensification factor values. CAST! Guidebook to ASME RS1.3 - Process Piping - Fourth Riitionity Analysis of Piping Systems “Chapter 6 Inplane Out-plans i ie fl wep ea s Figure 6.8 Three-anchor piping configurations. ‘The calculated expansion stress, Sy at an intersection in a piping system can change significantly with the solection of the type of branch intersection, Tabulated in Table 6.2 is the stress al the intersection for each of several intersection geometries for both in-plane and out-plane loadings. Table 6.2 Calculated Sy for Various Tee Intersections ‘ixpansion Stress, psi Item Interseotion Geometry In-Plane Out-Plane 1 jelding Too per ASME B16.9 4974, Weld-in contour insert | fabricated Tos jéld-on fitting ‘Extruded welding Tee, ry ‘Bxiraded welding Tee, ry, 5 é T__[Bxtraded welding Teo, 8 2 3 4 37911 | 39,580 | { ‘Unreinforced fabricated Tes Bae ba Appendix P ~ Alternative Rules for Evaluation Stress Range ‘This appendix provides alternative rules for evaluating the stress range, Sz, in a piping system. This method combines the operating thermal and sustained Ioad stresses, (experienced during operating conditions), and compares these stresses to Soa, the allowable stress. Soa = 125018, +8,) | This appendix requires the values of Sp and Sp bé calculated and the greater of these values is not to exceed Sa. (CASTY Guidebook to ASME 281.3 - Process Piping - Fourth lditiom( | Cuapier§— Hlextbiltiy Analysis of Piping Systems — 129 So =y{S|+5,? +487 Sp {(S.)+8,P +452 ifn Ap stress due to axial force, caused by pressure, weight and thermal expansion, ig= axial force stress intensification factor. In the absence of applicable data, i, = 1.0. ‘The terms 8, end S, were defined earlier. Displacement Stresses of Dissimilar Welded Pipe Joint When two different pine materials having differont thermal expansion cocfficionts are welded together for service in a hot (or eold) piping system, differential radial thermal expansion will occur. ‘This differential thermal expansion will introduce a secondary stress at the point of weld, B31.3 does not provide method for calculating this stress; however, piping designers must detormine if this differential radial thermal expansion will eause over-strain (aver stress) of the welded joint. An example of a procedure for caleulating the displacement stresses in a welded joint of dissimilar motals using U.S. customary units follows: CAST! Guidebook 10 ASME 891.3 - Proceso Piping - Fourth Pition180 MetasyAnaiyels of Piping Systeme Chaper 8Cagpter 6 Flexibility Analysis of Piping Systems 131 ‘The AoAT can be graphically represented as shown in Figure 6.10 for the materials. Differences in expansion strain at temperature between materials can bo extracted. expaneion eta, x10 4 temper, Figure 6.10 Values of AaAT. CASTY Guidebook to ASME 51.3 - Provess Piping -Rourth Bdition| | : | | i | 182 Flexibility Anslysis of Piping Systems Chapter 6 Cold Spring Cold spring [9310.5.1} in a piping system is the intentional deformation of the piping ‘or the purpose of reducitig pipe end reactions on supporting steel or equipment. This deformation is introduced during fabrication and erection by cutting the pipe length long or short, depending on the expected ‘thermal expansion. Piping systems operating above the installed temperature would be cold sprung by shortening the pipe length by an amount equal to or less that the expected thermal expansion. To illustrate this concept, consider the following: Cold spring can extend to a value of 100%, however, if the supporting steel is overloaded in the hot condition with no cold spring, it is very likely the steel will be overloaded when 100% cold spring is employed. About 50% cold spring should be about the limit when cold and hot reactions are both. considered. CASTY Guidebook to ASHE B81.8 - Process Piping - Fourth BaltionChaptor 6 Flesibility Analysis of Piping Systems 133, For cryogenic or cold pipe service, where E., the modulus of elasticity at the onld operating temperature, is greater than E,, the thermal reactions will inerease when this R,, equation is used and the thermal analysis to producos the value of Ris conducted using Ey, ‘As seen in this example and using the R,, equation, eold spring can be used to reduce reactions. Cold spring cannot be used to reduce thermal stress range. Sx cannot be lowered by the presence of cold. spring. The range of thermal displacement, cycling will remain unchanged regardless of cold spring as ‘graphically illustrated in Figure 6.11. The stress range, after a fow thermal cycles, remains the same ‘rogardless of cold spring. i : 5% Cold spring Figure 6.11. Effects of relaxation upon reactions and stresses, stress range is unchanged. Sustained Load Stress Sustained load stresses are primary stresses caused by pressure or weight and will not diminish with time or as local yielding of the stressed pipe occurs. BSLS establishes limits for sustained load stresses. In the Design Conditions section found in Chapter 2, the first sustained stress limit is listed: “The nominal pressure stress shall not exeeed the yield strength of the material at temperature” [§302.2.4(b)]. ‘The nominal pressure stress is the hoop stress, sometimes called the circumferential pressure stress. CASTI Guidebook to ASME 818 Process Piping - Fourth Balticn| 184 Plexibility Analysis of Piping Systems Chapter & ‘The hoop stress, Oy, is calculated as follows using the thin wall formula: PD = <> MPa (psi ‘On = Sy MPa (psi) where: P = internal pressure, kPa (psig) ‘pipe outside diameter, mm (in.) ipe nominal wall thickness less corrosion, erosion, and mechanical allowances, mm (in.) ‘This pipe wall thickness is adequate to protect against a primary stress failure of bursting, provided the yield strength of the pipe material is greater than 82.1 MPa (11,988 psi) at the temperature of the prossurized condition, (Note: The stress limit for pressure design is S,, not the yield strength of the material) ‘The second sustained load stress limit B81.8 presents is on Iongitudinal stresses due to sustained loads, Si, [1802,3.5(c)]. Those are stresses that are directod along the axis of tho stressed pipe (tensile or compressive) and are caused by pressure, weight, and other sustained loads, BB13 does offer an equation for calculating Sy, introduce by a Code Case and is in the 2004 edition of the Code! ‘The B31. Code Case Sj, equation is: SL= ViBal+8aF +48? sw, where: $= ZA stress duc to axial foree, Pa (is) ° CAST Guidebook to ASME B31.3 - Procets Piping - Fourth BationChapter 6 Flexibility Analysis of Piping Systeme 135 Note: Fy includes the axial foree dus to weight, Fy, and longitudinal pressure force, Fp, for piping systems that do not contain expansion joints. PxAy wa? ae where; d = the pipe inside diameter based on the pipe nominal wall thickness, T, loss mechanical, corrosion, and erosion allowances, e. Mill under run tolerance is not removed. For piping systems hetween main anchors with unrestrained expansion joints, (no tie or limit rods on ‘the joint), the pressure thrust force F, would be carried by the main anchor and not the pipe. Fy in the pipe for pressure thrust would be zero. ‘Ap= cross-sectional area considering nominal pipe thickness less allowances, mm? (in2). ‘The bending stress callused by weight is calculated by: where: Mg; = in-plane weight moments, Nomm (in-Ibs) Myo = out-plane weight moment, N-mm (in-Ibs) % — = section modulus of pipe, mm® (in.*) Iq 2 10, the stress intensification factor for the component under analysis, 175 xig for all components included in Appendix D in the absence of more applicable data; subscript x = i (in-plane) and o (out-plane). CAST! Guidebook fo ASME 251.8 Process Fiping - Fourth BiitionCASTY Guidsbook ¢o ASWEE 891.3 Proceas Piping - Fourth Edition‘Flexibility Analysis of Piping Systems 137 Chapter 6 CAST Guidebech to ASME BSI. - Provess Piping -Fowth Kdttion 4188 Flexibility Analysis of Piping Systams Chapter Occasional Load Stresses Occasional load stresses in piping systems aro atrosses caused by loads such as wind or earthquake [91302.3.6]. ‘These stresses are calculated considering: a) the pipe deflection caused by wind load, acting as a horizontal constant pressure on the outside surface of the pipe, or b) the pipe deflection caused by earthquake loads, acting as a horizontal or vertical acceleration of ‘the mass or weight of the piping system, ‘The typical method of analysis for earthquake loadings, in a location subject to a horizontal acceleration of 0.28 G, for example, is to determine the stresses resulting from deflections caused by a horizontal constant, force equal to 28% of the pipe weight applied in the same horizontal (or vertical) manner as a wind load ‘The allowable stress for occasional loads, Sor, summed with the atresses due to sustained loads, Sy, is 1.838,. Son + $1, $ 1.898, ‘Wind and earthquake need not be considered as acting concurrently. CAST! Guidebook 19 ASALE BSL. - Process Piping - Fourth BéitionChapter Flextbility Analysis of Piping Systems 139 Wind Loads B31 directs the designer to use the method of analysis stated in ASCE 7 ([901.52} for tho determination of wind loads based on exposure categories. Wind loads, Wiyr, are calculated using by the equation: Wyn = a:GCphe ‘The equations for the determination of q,, the velocity pressure, at height z are shown below. Metric (Nim®): US customary units (Ib/ft?): _ = 0.618 Ky Kye V1 iq = 0.00256 K, Kye V21 whore: K, = velocity pressure exposure coefficient (partial data duplicated in Table 6.5, values listed for Exposure “C” and "D” only) ‘Ky = topographical factor, Ket = 1.0 for Exposure “C” and “D* I 1portance factor based on building category (partial data duplicated in Table 6.6) V_ = wind speed from ASCE 7 (see Figure 6.12), meters/second (miles/hour) G, = gust response factor (partial data duplicated in Table 6.5) Ar = area of pipe surface, including insulation, exposed to wind, m? (fl?) C; = force coefficients, sco Table 6.7 ‘ASCE 7-95 lists: four exposure categories, each deseribing the type of terrain for wind load calculations. Examples of these terrains are: Exposure A - large city centers ‘Exposure B - urban and suburban areas, wooded areas. ‘Exposure C - open terrain with scattered obstructions having heights less than 30 fect. Exposure D - flat, unchstrueted areas exposed to wind flowing over large bodies of water for a distanco of at least 1.61 km (1 mile). ‘Table 6.4 Building and Structure Classification Nature of Occupancy Catogoi All buildings and structures that represent a low hazard to human Hfe {in the event ofa failure, sia itr rd ‘Buildings and other structures that represe life in the event of a fatlure, and structures designated as essential fac fire stations, power generating stations, ete. ies: hospitals, Ww CASTI Guidebook to ASME B2I,2 - Process Piplug - Fourth ditioni 140 Flexibility Analysis of Piping Systems Chapter 6 i I ier Figure 6.13 Basie wind speed, miles per hour (meters per second). CASTI Guidebook to ASME B9L.3 Process Piping - Fourth RditionChapter Flexibility Analysis of Piping Systems 141 Table 6.5 Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient, Kz, (for Exposure “C” and “D") and Gust Response Factor, @ Height Above Ground Level, z oy meters feet 0-46 0-15 61 20 76 25, Bi 30, [Te 40, 15.5) 30, 18.0 80, 0 80, The importance factors listed are for essential facilities, depending upon the category listed in Table 64. Table 6.6 Importance Factor, I Category Imporiance Factor, Units metric UScastomary i metric UB castomary CASTT Guidebook to ASME BA1.3 - Process Piping - ourth dition142 Plexibility Analysis of Piping Systeme Chapter 6 An example of the calculation of the velocity pressure, q,, follows. CAST Guidebook to ASHE BS1.8 - Prozeee Piping Fourth BditionChaptor Flexibility Analysis of Piping Systems 148, CASTY Guidebook to ASAES BS1.S Process Piping - Fourth Raltionpxringenetinetckser crap ae! i # : i 144 Flestbintty Analysis of Piping Systema —Chapler 6 ‘igure 6.14 and Figure 6.14b are graphical illustrations of the change in wind pressure, a. oxprossed in Newtonsimotor? and pounds/foot® for 40 m/s (20 mph) wind velocity, Category I, ‘Exposure “C”, Importance Factor 1 for changes in pipe height above the ground. Bettie 5 6 8 9 12 15 18 2 2 a7 31 a7 43 49 65 Gt Haight of Pipe Above Ground, m ‘Figure 6.142 Wind pressure on pipe in metric units. . US Customary Units 0 po td — BS | 5 = 10 18 20 2 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 180 200 Height of Pipe Above Ground, ft Figure 6.146 Wind pressure on pipe in US customary units. ‘This stress is then added to tho longitudinal stresses due to sustained loads, $1, and this summation must be less than the allowable stress of 1.988), [91802.8.6], (1.388, for cold pipe service). Note that 1.888,, where S), = % yield strength of the material, is equal to about 0.9 yield. These sustained stresses aro primary stresses that shall not exceed the yield strength of the material at ‘tomperaiure. ‘This is another example of the maximum principal stress failure theory. CASTT Guidebook lo ASHE 391.3 - Process Piping - Fourth RditionChapter 6 Flextbiltly Analysis of Piping Systems — 145 Earthquake B13 code directs the piping designer to ASCE 7-96 [901.5.8] for a procedure to determine the forees acting on pipe caused by earthquake ground motions. These forces, which aet in both the horizontal and vertical directions, will cause displacements in the piping similar to wind: “The designer is to determine the resulting oceasional load stress from these displacements, add tho sustained load stresses, Sy for comparison to the allowable strass of 1.33 Sy [9902.36] ‘The ASCE 7-95 equation to dotormine earthquake force, Fy, on pipe is! LO Cy Ip Wp Newtons (pounds) where C, = seismic coefficient based on soil type and shaking intensity, A,, Table 6.8 (Seo Table 6.9 for Soil Type), Ay = the svismic coefficient representing offective peak acceleration, (shaking intensity), from igure 6.15, Jy= 15 for pipe containing hazardous fluids, Jp= 1.0 for all other pipes, ‘We = operating weight of the pipe, N (Ibs). ‘Table 6.8 Seismic Coefficient, Cy Shaking Intensity, A, A.=0.10g | Aa=0.20g | Azn030g | Ayx0.40g | Agn05 0.16 0.24 |" 0.20 0.30 032 0.24, 3. 0.16. 0.28 0.36 E Be 0.13 [0.25 0.54 0.36 * site specific gotechnical investigation and dynamic ite response anslyees shall be performed, ‘Table 6.9 Soil ‘Type Classifiestion Shear Wave Velocity, v Soil Type Soil Profile Motrie Units US Customary Units eerAree Bard Rock 25,000 fps Ro 2,500 to 5,000 fps__| | Very Denee Soil and Soft Rock Sif Soil Sail 1,200 to 2,500 fps 800 to 1,200 fps | < 600 fps CAST! Guidebook to ASM 81.3 - Process Piping - Fourth Ralition146 Flexibility Analysis of Piping Systoms Chapter 6 Figure 6.15 Seismic effective peak velocity-related acceleration (Ay) CAST! Guidebook to ASME B91.3 - Process Piping - Fourth EditionChapter Flexibility Analysis of Piping Systems 147 é CAST! Guidebook to ASME BSL.S - Process Piping - Fourth Réltion148 Mlosibility Analysis of Piping Systeme Chaptor 6 ‘Table 6.10 Attachment Amplification Factor (a) ‘Component Supporting Mechaniem ‘Attachment Amplification Factor (a) i [_____ Fixed or direct connoction | io j Beistnic-ectivated restraining device 10 ‘Resillent support system whore T T/T < 0.6 or T/T > 1.4 L 10 TT 06 Tt si4 [ 20 ‘T, is the fundamental period of the pipe and its pipe support attachment to the supporting structure and TT is the fandamental period of the supporting structure. An example of the application of the ASCE 7-98 seismic procedure follows: seaeoepreecperenerny es snr CASTY Guidebook (o ASME B81.3 - Procees Piping - Fourth Ration PeersChapier6 Flexibility Analysivof Piping System 149 ‘This occasional load stress is added to the sustained load stress, Sj, and compared to the allowable stress, 1.988, (1302.8.6). The ASCE 7 earthquake procedures above can be used to calculate the vertical seismie force, Fe, by using 6 of the horizontal C, factor in the Fy, equation above. All other term values remain the same 1s for the horizontal force calculation. ‘The vertical seismic force for the above example is calculated as follows: ‘py = 04 (%4) (2.0) (1.8) (1.0) (1,000 Ib) = 400 Tb The stross resulting from Py is negligible as compared to that resulting from Fy, and would not be added to the horizontal stress value but is considered separately (as not acting at the same time). This Fy load is considered in the selection of pipe supports; hold-down supports may be required if Fpy exceeds tho weight of the pipe. Relief Valve Set Pressure ‘The Code directs the designer ({322.6.3) to uso the procedure in ASME Section VIII Division 1, UG.-125 (c) for establishing the sot pressure of pressure relieving doviees in piping systems. The one exception to this procedure is that, with the plant owners approval, the tomperaiure-pressure variations of paragraph 304.2.4 are permitted. ‘The Section VIII requirements for relief valve set pressure depends on the number of prossure relief devices employed. ‘The set pressure for a piping system having one pressure relief device shall be such to prevent the pressure from rising more than 10% or 3 psi, which ever is greater, above the design pressure of the piping system. ‘The sot pressure for a piping system having raultiple pressure relief devicos shall prevent the pressure from rising more than 16% or 4.psi, which ever is greater, above the system design pressure. Each piping system shall be evaluated to determine the potential for exposure to unexpected external heat sources or fire, Lf the potential is real, then supplemental pressure relief devices shall be installed. Tho sot pressure for the supplemental relief devices shall be such to prevent the pressure from rising mors than 21% above the aystem design pressure. The set pressure tolerance on spring loaded relief valves shall not exceed 2 psi (13.8 kPa) for system design pressures up to and including 70 psi (484 kPa) and shall not exceed 8% for design pressures above 70 psi (483 kPa). Non-reclosing pressure relief devices, as rupture disks, may be used for over pressure protection When rupture disk are utilized, it is recommended that the design pressure of the piping system be sufficiently abive the operating pressure. CAST Guidebook to ASHE B31.9 - Process Piping - Fourth BéitionPonca apereneg 160 Flexibility Anlysieot Piping Systems Chapters ‘The burst pressure (at temperature) of the rapture disk shall have a tolerance of a maximum + 2 psi (13.8 kPa) for a marked burst pressure up to and inchuding 40 psi (276 kPa) and +5 % for a marked ‘burst pressure above 40 psi (276 kPa), BBL3 does establish the set pressure for liquid thermal relief devices; the set pressure shall nat exceed the lesser of the system test pressure and established in section 845 of the code, or 120% of the design pressure. Safety Relief Valve Discharge [1301.5.5] ‘The occasional load stresses resulting from a safety relief valve discharge occur at the intersection of the relief valve branch pipe and the header. It is at this location that bending moments caused by the discharge thrust will be the greatest and the resulting stress must be calculated. This stress calculation would be the same as the calculation of bending stress discussed earlier exeopt that in the place cf bending forces ccused by thermal expansion, the forves of the relief valve thrust are used to generate the bending moments. The allowable stress for this bending stress is 1.338). This force ean be caleulated using the force calculation procedure for open- and closed-discharge systems in APLRP520. ‘An example of this relief valve reaction and resulting bonding stress calculation follows: + Manufactured by WPI International, Houston, Texas, CASTY Guidebook to ASME B31.3 - Process Piping - Fourth EditionChopiers Flexibility Analysis of Piping Systems 151 CAST Guidebook to ASMIE BB13 - Praceas Piping - Fourth Baition152 Flestbility Analysis of Piping Systems Chapter 6 & i i } : t : 5 a io fe API RP-520 : 12.4.1 Determining Reaction Forces In An Opon-Discharge Systom The following formula is based on a condition of eritical steady-state flow of a [compressible fluid that discharges to the atmosphere through an elbow and a vertical discharge pipe (see Figure 6.17). Long-adiysebbow eee Vent pipe relief valve Support to resist ‘weight and reaction forces Nola: the suport should be locaiod as close as poscibe to the contar ino ofthe vent pipo, Figure 6.17 Open discharge piping with support. CASTE Guidebook to ASME BS1.8 -Prooess Piping - Fourth HistonChapler6 Flexibility Analyeis of Piping Systems 153 “API RP-520 24.1 Determining Reaction Foreos In An Open-Discharge System (Continued) [The reaction force (F) intludes tho effects of botih momentum and static pressure; thus, for any gas or vapor, kT yM pa wLEEOM 4 (a,xpp whore F = reaction force at the point of discharge to the atmosphere, in pounds, Newtons). W = flow of any gas or vapor, Ib/hr (kkg/s). k = ratio of specific heats (C./C) Cy = specific heat at constant pressure, Cy = specific heat at constant volume, 'D = temperature at inlet, °R (°F + 460). ‘M = molecular weight of the process fluid. ‘A, = area of the outlet at the point of discharge, Py = static pressure at the point of discharge, in psi gauge (bar gauge). In this precoding example, the stated gas velocity in the tail pipe was subsonic, If the tail pipe } ‘velocity is sonic at the discharge plane, which is reasonable for most relief valve installations, the value of Pg can be calculated by the equation presented by Fred Moody: Pye fe : Pa Tega, Vk DM ; where m = mass discharge rate , IbSmase/86e : ‘Ty = reservoir stagnation temporature, Rankine P, = ambient prossure, paia ‘Tho value of Ps for this example is zero, ‘API RP-620 2.4.2 Determining Reaction Forces In A Closed-Discharge System [Pressure relief valves that relieve under steady-state flow conditions into a closed| system usually do not create large forces and bending moments on the exhaust} system, Only at points of sudden expansion will there be any significant reaction| forees to be calculated. Closed-discharge system, however, do not lend thernselves to| simplified analytic techniques. A complex time-history analysis of the piping systom may be required to obtain in the truo values of the reaction forces and associated| moments. CASTY Guidebook to ASME 591.8 - Process Ping - Fourth Euition& i i 154 Plexibitity Analysis of Piping Systoms Chapter 6 Increasing Flexibility BLS offers several methods to increase the flexibility (1319.71 of a piping system. Addod flexibility may be necessary to reduce the piping system loads on load sensitive equipment such as pumps, ‘turbines, or compressors, ‘The traditional method for increasing flexibility is to add expansion loops or offsets in the piping layout. The key objective of adding flexibility by using loops or off-sets is to move the conter of gravity of the eystom away from the line of thrust, Consider a simple two anchor piping layout: and draw a line of thrust connecting the two anchors (Figure 6.18). Bstimate the conter of gravity. Flexibility is increased when the added pipe moves the center of gravity away from this line of thrust, wo ‘anchor Pipe OD = 10.750" Pipe wal thickness = 0.005" “Temperatura = 750°F = Center of geity ‘Figure 6.18 Increasing pipe flexibility. ‘This center-of-gravitylline-of-thrast concept is further illustrated by the following two computer analyses of the above pipe layouts (Figures 6.18 and 6.19). Both piping layouts are the same pipe size end temperature, and the anchors are the same distance apart. ‘The “L? shape layout has a ‘maximum expansion stress “code” of 24,455 psi. "The “2 shaped has 42,594 psi. The L shape moved the center of gravity, “cg,” away from the line of thrust which produced a lower stress and greater flexibility even though the Z shape had one more elbow. 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Wem | oe = spot aise | —oaae" | —eivaosie” | or | anono-oss Bane T Loar oa [aoe = 1 coo | —~anoses”| a [00000 oe ASAT | GOUT = UTTER | one | FLT © [amore wrt aE wre ed wT= ef i I T Eo to" eng oo = aS. wweer- TAS t C T T t T = BOWHE= BS "TEED, t rc t t Perec Se aE r= | ara T (sso { Es To TEND YEW | 9s ebos asa | ao] —— ano ee | aT co eee ane [0000 ons | o-|—~oo000" tor em ar a | Bioorg | ear or to aii areca |e etnies | a ar wre | wanes | — eum |r a a te Ce | pore oneerg | wwe [ra mh ae SISuINS ST “MONTES Gor Coda), or eonng aY WE SM TAVETVO 69 sdweg BT sumIssg IMI 30 TeSpoEY SAPYE gdmChaptor 6 Flexibility Analysis of Piping Systems 157 Pipe Supports ‘The purpose of pipe supports [F321] is to control the weight effects of the piping system, as well as loads caused by pressure thrust, vibration, wind, earthquake, shock, and thermal displacement. ‘The weight effects to be considered for support design shall be the greater of operating, (including thermal expansion loads) or hydrotest loads (unless provisions are made for temporary supports during hydrotost). The BS13 guidance for pipe support types and materials of construction is presented in B91 Table $26.1, Listed Standard, MSS SP-58. The material selection for clamps and bolts, for example, is of particular importance in elevated temperature service, SP-58 assists in the selection of a clamp material, for example in 750°F gervico. A review of the tables in SP-58 reveals that carbon steel clamp material would not be suitable, nor would the common type bolting, ASTM A 207, used in clamps. The designer is guided to use an alloy stocl for the clamp euch as ASTM A 240 and ASTM A 193 Grade BT bolts. Pipe Support Span Pipe support spacing is an important consideration in the design of piping systems. ‘The permissible mid-span deflection concept, “y”, is one technique commonly employed for support spacing. ‘This technique is based on a specified mid-span “y” deflection of the supported pipe eonsidering the pipe, contents, and insulation weights. ‘The equation for determining the distance (L) between pipe supports is: uf, yEL i Tiiw where = pipe support spacing, fact, ‘ y= permissible mid-span deflection, inches = modulus of elasticity at design temperature, Ibfin.2 4_pé oh where “D,” and “D;” are the pipe OD and ID in inches W-= weight of supported pipo, including pipe, eontents, insulation, Ub/ft. I=moment of inertia of pipe = © GASTY Guidebook to ASME R218 - Proceso Piping - Fourth Baton158 Flexibility Anslysis of Piping Systems Chapter 6 An cxample of the application of this mid-spen deflection approach follows: ss ze : Pie ee : : HO be : Variable Spring Hangers ‘Variable spring supports aro often necessary in piping systems where there is a difference betwoon operating temperature and the installed temperature. For example, if resting supports were sclocted for a piping layout, and thermal expansions.were to cause the pipe to lift off the support causing an inereaso in piipé load on adjacont supports or on load-sensitive equipment euch as pumps or turbines, then a spring support may be required, ‘This increase in load may be more then the adjacent support or equipment can safely accommodate, A variable spring may be the preferred pipe support for these instances where pipe lift-off would othorwise oecur. The designer must decide which type of spring support to use and then size the spring. CAST! Clisibook to ASM BS1.3 - Process Piping - Fourth BationChapter6 Flexibility Analysis of Piping Systema 159 A test to determine if the correct spring sizo has been selected is to calculate the spring percent variability. The variability determined by this calculation should not excsed 25%; for springs near load-sensitive equipment, a spring with a lower variability should be selected (e.., one in the 6 to 8% range). ‘The equation for calculating the pereont of variability is: % Variability = Movement x Spring Rate Operating Lead * ‘The procedure for sizing springs is demonstrated in the following examplo. CASTE Guidebook 19 ASAE 32.3 . 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