226 Instrumentation and Control Systems 10.4 First-order systems 2 F+2s-Bpse+2 ‘22+ 45-16 4s +18 ‘Thus we can write the expression as: 2+ itt 8 G+4e-D Normal partial fraction methods can now be used forthe fraction. poise A, Grae ~ 44 *5-2 “As + 18 = A(e-2) + Bs +4) With 5 = 2, then B= 5/3. With s = -4, then A = ~17/3. Thus the ‘expression can be written as: 17 5 36+) * 3-2) A first-order system has a differential equation of the form (see Section 84.1) ee ‘where + is the time constant and & the steady-state gain. The Laplace ‘transform of this equation can be written as: r¥@) + M65) = AX) and so a transfer function of the form: Ys) G0) = Xe) = AT When a first-order system is subject to a unit impulse input then X(s) = Land the output transform Ys) is 16) =G6NG) = AG x1 = wT Hence, since we have the transform in the form 1/(s + a), using item 4 in Table 10.1 gives:System response 227 ki 0 WF ar ae ar Time Figure 10.2 Output with a ait impulse input toa frst. order system Figure 10.3 Behaviour of a first-order system when subject 10 a unit step input Figure 10.2 shows how the output varies with time; it is an exponential decay, The output rises to its maximum value at time t=O and then after 1 it drops to 0.37 of the initial value, after 2r it is 0.14 of the initial value and after 31 it is 0.05 of the initial value, Thus by about a time ‘equal to four times the time constant the output is effectively zero. The ‘exponential term tends to a zero value as the time ¢ tends to an infinite value. ‘When a first-order system is subject to a unit step input then X(s) = Ws. ‘and the output transform ¥(s) is: = 2k, MO) = GMO) = Tey) hile VD Hence, since we have the transform in the form a/s(s + a), using item 5 in Table 10.1 gives: Figure 10.3 shows bow the output varies with time. Initially, at time ¢ = (, the output is zero. It then rises to 0.63 of the steady-state value after Ir, then 0.86 of the steady-state value after 2 and 0.95 of the steady- state value after 3r, After 4r the output is effectively at the steady-state ‘Value of k, the exponential term in the above equation becoming zero as time 1 tends to infinity Example A circuit has a resistance in series with a capacitance C. The differential equation relating the input v and output ve, ie. the voltage across the capacitor, is: dee. veRCLE tye Determine the output of the system when there is a 3 V impulse input. ‘As a function of s the differential equation becomes: His) = RCsVe(s) + Vols) Hence the transfer function is vole G0)= Toa) = RCT ‘The output when there is 3 V impulse input is: Vol) = G0") = Reber x3 BAe228 Instrumentation and Control Systems Hence, since we have the transform in the form 1/(s+ a), using item 4 in Table 10.1 gives: ve= GIRO) e*F° Example AA thermocouple which has a transfer function linking its voltage ‘output V and temperature input of: 30x10 Gia) = BIO pre Determine the response of the system when it is suddenly immersed ina water bath at 100°C. ‘The output as an s function is 6s) = G(s) x input (9) ‘The sudden immersion of the thermometer gives a step input of size 100°C and so the input as an s function is 100/s, Thus: 30x10 + +0. Mom Tore R= Tore oI) “XI SECTS ‘The fraction element is of the form a/s(s + a) and so the output as a function of time is: V=30x 10 -e"9V 10.4.1 First-order system parameters ‘The following are parameters used to describe the transient performance ‘of a first-order system while it is moving towards the steady-state value: 1 Time constant When the time ¢= 5 then we have y = K(~e") = 0.63k, Thus, the time constant + fora first-order system when subject to a step input i the time taken for the output to reach 0.63, of the steady-state value 2 Delay time The delay time tis the time required for the output response t0 reach 50% of its steady-state value. Thus, since k isthe final value, the time taken to reach 50% of this value is given deem -e) feewSystem response 229 In2=“¢ In2 Rise time ‘The rise time fis the time required for the output to rise from 10% to 90% of its steady-state value. Note that the specification is not ‘always in terms of 10% to 90%, sometimes itis 0% to 100%. Since is the steady-state value then the time taken to reach 10% of that value is: Beewi-ey a 6 F ino= 2 te= rin 10 ‘The time taken to reach 90% of the steady-state value is given by: Ime) Me Too Za erm io =© tn In10-ing= 2 te= tin 10-tIn9 Hence the rise time is: t= totem tind Example Determine the delay time and the rise time for a first-order system with the transfer function: oo eT Comparing the transfer function with k/(ts + 1) indicates that the steady-state gain is 3 and the time constant is 2 s. Thus, the delay tinete t= tin 10= 21. 10= 4.65 ‘The rise time is:230 Instrumentation and Control Systems 15 te~te=tIn9=2In9=445 Example ‘A mercury-in-glass thermometer acts as a first-order system with an input of temperature and an output of the mercury position against a scale. The thermometer is initially at 0°C and is then suddenly placed in water at 100°C. After 80 s the thermometer reads 98°C, Determine (a) the time constant, (b) the delay time, () the rise time. (a) For such a system the output @ is related to the input by the equation: @= 1001 -e*) Hence: 98= 10001 -e*™) 02-6 02 =~ ‘Hence, the time constant r is 49.7 s. (b) The delay time is: t= tlm 10= 49,7 In 10= 1144s (©) The rise time is: = f= tg= tn 9 = 49.7 In9 = 109.28 10.5 Second-order systems The differential equation for a second-order system is of the form (see Section 8.4.2) a s2to say =tais Where « is the natural angular frequency with which the system oscillates and { is the damping ratio. Hence, for the Laplace transform we have: Ys) + Neogs¥(o) + @2N(8) = ko) and so a transfer function of: GG)2 22. __i_ FeYowsral‘System response 231 i i i if ti id Han het ll te piel When a second-order system is subject to a unit step input, i. X(s) = 1s, then the output transform ¥(s) is: —_ i _ 10) = GOO = Grates tan) ‘There are three different forms of answer to this equation for the way the output varies with time; these depending on the value of the damping ‘constant and whether it gives an overdamped, critically damped or ‘underdamped system (see Figure 8.24), We can determine the condition for these three forms of output by putting the equation in the form: hod 1)= Teepe where p and p, are the rots of the denominator quadratic term, the so termed characteristic equation + os +o} =0 Hence, if we use the standard equation to determine the roots of @ ‘quadratic equation, we obtain: Keon [40704 - dere aT and so the two roots are given by pis—eoy +n, JET and pr =—Leoy~ Con fP—T ‘The important issue in determining the form of the roots is the value of the square root term and this is determined by the value of the damping. factor {, Loot With the damping factor ¢ greater than 1 the square root term is real ‘and will factorise. To find the inverse transform we can either use partial fractions to break the expression down into a number of simple fractions or use item 10 in Table 10.1. The output is thus: eo o= PP ‘This describes an output which does not oscillate but dies away with time and thus the system is overdamped. As the time t tends to infinity then the exponential terms tend to zero and the output becomes the steady value of keay(pyp). Since pyps = cn, the steady- state value is k232. Instrumentation and Control Systems 2 nl With ¢ = 1 the square root term is zero and so py = ps = ~ay; both roots are real and both the same. The output equation then becomes: 1@)= © ston)? ‘This equation can be expanded by means of partial fractions to give: Fy eee L540,” Gran) Hence: yale ~agte™] ‘This is the critically damped condition and describes an output which does not oscillate but dies away with time. As the time ¢ tends to infinity then the exponential terms tend to zero and the output tends tothe steady-state value of k <1 With { < 1 the square root term does not have a real value, Using item 17 in Table 10.1 then gives: ys FE selon 9) where cos ¢ = ¢. This is an under damped oscillation. The angular frequency ofthe damped oscillation is SS oxai-F (Only when the damping is very small does the angular frequency of the oscillation become nearly the natural angular frequency cm AS the time ¢ tends to infinity then the exponential term tends to zero and 50 the output tends tothe value k Example ‘What will be the state of damping of a system having the following ‘transfer function and subject to a unit step input? ae OO) = TassSystem response 233 ‘The output ¥(3) from such a system is given by Ms) = GOX) For a unit step input X(s) = M/s and so the output is given by: a a HGPRT 16) FANGS ‘The roots of s* + 85 + 16 are pi = pr = -4. Both the roots are real ‘and the same and so the system is critically damped. Example ‘A system has an output y related to the input x by the differential equation: &y $e 5B reer ‘What will be the output from the system when it is subject to a unit step input? Initially both the output and input are zero. ‘We can write the Laplace transform of the equation as: 1G) + $5Y(9) + 6Y() =X) ‘The transfer function is thus: 1) G00 = 3} * ake For a unit step input the output is given by: 10) Fa eee "ETD Because the quadratic term has two real roots, the system is ‘overdamped. We can directly use one of the standard forms given in ‘Table 10.1 or partial fractions to first simplify the expression before ‘using Table 10.1. Using partial fractions: ye s(s+3)(s+2) ~ 5° s+3 "542 ‘Thus, we have 1 = A(s + 3)(s + 2) + Bs(s + 2) + Ca(s +3). When s = 0 then 1 = 64 and so. = 1/6. When s = -3 then 1 = 3B and so B= 13. When s = ~2 then 1 = ~-2C and so C= 1/2. Hence we can write the output in the form: Y=L+ 71-1 bs 3643) GD234 Instrumentation and Control Systems Figure 10.4 Step response of an under damped system Hence, using Table 10.1 gives: Y=0.17 40.33 €%-05e% 10,5.1 Second-order system parameters For the underdamped oscillations of a system we have the output y given by: {a-Fe+9) 1-- sinG i= ‘with the damped natural frequency c given by: w= am /(i- 1 we have real roots and the square root is of a postive ‘quantity and thus the overall root can be written as a real number, as in the examples given above when we had s= +1, s= +2, s=—I ands =-2. ‘The output will have exponential terms and depending on whether the terms have negative or positive power terms then so the system will be stable or unstable With ¢ <1 then the square root is of a negative quantity. If we write j forthe square root of minus 1 then the roots can be written as: Pi=tontjonfI=F — pr=ton—jom JIE We can thus write the values of the roots, and so poles, in the form a + jb; the jb part of the value is known as an imaginary number. The ‘output can be written as exponential terms with the terms having powers of the form a + jb. Such values give rise to oscillatory transients However, the same rule applies for stability, namely that if the a term is negative then the system is stable and if itis positive itis unstable. The poles of a system, i. the roots of the characteristic ‘equation, determine how the system behaves during its free Fesponse to an input. The poles can be real or complex, i.e. having an imaginary component. When the poles are purely imaginary or have imaginary parts, the output will hav ‘oscillatory components. For a system to be stable, all the poles ‘must be negative or, if complex, the real part must be negative. 10.6.1 The s plane ‘We can plot the positions of the poles on a graph with the real part of the ppole value as the x-axis and the imaginary part as the y-axis. The resulting graph describes what is termed the s-plane. AAs an illustration, Figure 10.8 shows the s-plane for the transfer fanction: i OO = GED with s = -I and s = ~2, there being no imaginary terms. This describes a stable system since the roots are negative and give rise to exponential terms which decrease with time. Figure 10.9 shows the s-plane forthe transfer function:System response 243 Xx al Figure 10.10 Poles at~1 + 1.73 fora stable system my a ” Figure 10.11 Poles at +1 + 1.73 for an unstable system i gee ee 2a a Figure 10.12 Double pole ‘at~I for critical damping —— GO= GE with s = +1 ands = +2, there being no imaginary terms. This shows an unstable system since the roots are positive and give rise to exponential terms which increase with time. For the transfer function: O0= eee we have the roots ofthe quadratic given by + TE 2 1£j1.73 Figure 10.10 shows the s-plane for this transfer function, this describing ‘an underdamped but stable system. The system is stable because the real parts of the roots are negative. For the transfer function oe OO = Saase4 we have the rots ofthe quadratic given by: 2+ Ja=16 2 =41j173 Figure 10.11 shows the s-plane for this transfer function. For the transfer function: le 6o=ahy wwe have the roots s = -1 and s = -1. This is critical damping. Figure 10.12 shows the s-plane for this transfer function. In general we can state (Figure 10.13): ‘A system is stable if all the system poles lie the s-plane. ‘The relationship between the location of a pole and the form of transient is shown in Figure 10.14. The more negative the real part of the pole the more rapidly the transient dies away. The larger the imaginary part of the pole the higher the frequency of the oscillation. A system having a pole which has a positive real partis unstable,244 Instrumentation and Control Systems Figure 10.13 The s-plane: stability ‘when poles are in the left half Figure 10.14 Relationship between pole location and the resulting transient: each oscillatory transient arises from a pair of roots a + jb with only one of them shown in the figure Example Which ofthe following systems are stable: @) GG)= UG +5 + 1, 0) G)= MF -S5+4), (© Gs) = Ms -25 + 3), (@) GO)= Ve +546)? (a) This has poles of AHF san ‘The poles allie in the left half of the s-plane and so the system is stable. (©) This has poles of s = +4 and s = +1 and so both the poles lie in the right half of the s-plane and the system is unstable, (© This has poles of: ED eps ‘The poles will both lie in the right half of the s-plane and so the een sunuble (d) The denominator can be written as (s - 2)(s + 3) and so has poles at +2 and -3. Because one of the poles is in the positive part of the Spe the yen suseSystem response 245 10.7 Software A very widely used software package used in the design and analysis of control systems is MATLAB. The following is a brief indication of how it'can be used in the context of this chapter. ‘Commands can be entered by typing them after the prompt and then pressing the return key to execute the command, Numerical values can be assigned to a variable by using the equal (=) sign, e.g. typing the ‘variable a, then the equal sign and then the value 2, so entering a= 2, and then pressing the return key. Each element of a row vector (the basic format used for data in MATLAB is the matrix, this being a rectangular table with the elements ordered in rows and columns, when a matrix consists of only one row it is termed a row vector) is entered between square brackets, with a space between each term, and set equal to a variable. We can enter the coefficients of a polynomial as a row vector, the coefficients being entered in descending order of the powers of the variable; if a coefficient is not present we must enter a 0. For example, forthe polynomial p(x) = 284+ Sx +2 we type in p=(152) and then press the return key. To determine the roots of a polynomial we use the following command: roots ({1 5 2)) oF roots (p) followed by pressing the return key. ‘One way of entering a transfer function into MATLAB is to use the ‘command tf (num.den), where mum and den are row vectors of the coefficients of the numerator and denominator polynomials. For ‘example, to enter the transfer function (s + 3)/(s* + Ss + 1) the sequence can be: ‘num = [1 3] followed by pressing return key den = [1 5 1] followed by pressing return key 1 =tf (num, den) followed by pressing return key An alternative way of entering a transfer function is to use the command zpk (zeros,poles.gain), where 2er0s, poles and gain are row vectors of the zeros, poles and gain of the transfer function (note that zeros are the values of s that make the numerator 0). Thus, the transfer function 6(s + 3)/(s + 2(5 + 5) would be entered as: [-31 followed by pressing return key -2 -$] followed by pressing return key gain = 6 followed by pressing return key 8 = 2pk (zeros ples gain) followed by pressing return key Once transfer functions have been entered, we can combine them. Thus for to series components gl and g2 we can enter:246 Instrumentation and Control Systems engl ts? * is used for multiplication We can use the transfer function g to find the time response of a system. For the response to a unit impulse we use the command: impulse (g) followed by pressing return key For a unit step we use the command: step (g) followed by pressing return key ‘Where the input is not unit but some value & we enter the command as: ‘impulse (k*g) followed by pressing return step (k*) followed by pressing return key ‘As an illustration, for the second-order system: 2 Ge) = _ 2+ Yons tok with the natural angular frequency as 3 rad/s and the damping factor as 0.3, the output when itis subject to a unit impulse input can be obtained by the MATLAB program (the symbol * is used to indicate the term following isa power and the semicolon to separate rows in the program): Wa=3; Ze=03; num = Wn"2; den = [1 2*Ze*Wn Wa"2}; = tnum.den), impulse(g) 10.7.4 Simulink ‘Simulink is a software program that uses a graphical interface for modelling systems so that systems can be specified on screen by ‘connecting boxes rather than writing a series of commands. Sinmulink is started from within MATLAB by typing the command Simulink. This then opens Simulink and gives access to a number of Simulink libraries from which selections can be made. Thus, if the Continuous library is opened, the Transfer Fen entry in the library can be dragged by the ‘mouse into a modelling window. Other components can similarly be dragged from libraries and a graphical model of the system built up on screen, Figure 10.15 shows what the screen might look like for a first-order system. By double clicking on boxes, data values can be entered for a particular system. The model can then be run with the appropriate input by selecting parameters from the simulation menu. The ‘output response is plotted by using the command plot(t.y).‘System response 247 T Step Figure 10.15 Simulink screen Problems Questions 1 to 10 have four answer options: A, B, C or D. Choose the Correct answer from the answer options. 1. The Laplace transform of a step input of size Sis: As B ss C Sis D ss 2. The Laplace transform of the time function 2e™ is: A 2643) B 2-3) Cc M(s+2) D 3-2) 3 The Laplace transform of the time function ¢ €™ is: A. 3ets-3)1 B Mss +3)) Cc Ms-3F D Ms+3y 4 The time function corresponding to the Laplace transform 5/(s + 3) is: se Se™ 3c 3e* vou 5 Assystem has a transfer function of 1/(s + 3). When subject to a unit impulse input, the output of the system will have the Laplace transform A Me+3) B ss+3) C Msts+3)) D G+3y