You are on page 1of 8

Name____________________________________

UNIT 12: Disorders-Checks for


Understanding
ANSWERS
Module 65: Defining, Understanding
& Classifying Mental
Disorders
Objective 1| Identify the criteria for judging whether behavior is psychologically disordered.
Psychologists and psychiatrists consider behavior disordered when it is deviant, distressful, and
dysfunctional. The definition of deviant varies with context and culture. It also varies with time; for
example, some children who might have been judged rambunctious a few decades ago now are being
diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.

Objective 2| Contrast the medical model of psychological disorders with the biopsychosocial
approach to disordered behavior. The medical model assumes that psychological disorders are
mental illnesses that can be diagnosed on the basis of their symptoms and cured through therapy,
sometimes in a hospital. The biopsychosocial approach assumes that disordered behavior, like other
behavior, arises from genetic predispositions and physiological states; inner psychological dynamics; and
social-cultural circumstances.
Objective 3| Describe the goals and content of the DSM-V. The DSM-V defines a structured
interview technique that clinicians can use to reach a diagnosis. They answer objective questions about
the individuals observable behaviors. The reliability of the classification is sufficiently high. DSM diagnoses
are developed in coordination with International Classification of Diseases (ICD). Certain criteria must be
met before a person will be diagnosed. (p. 654)
Objective 4| Discuss the potential dangers and benefits of using diagnostic labels. What issue
does the Rosenhan study bring to the discussion of diagnostic labels? Critics of the DSM-IV argue
that diagnostic labels can stigmatize a person by biasing others interpretations and perceptions of past
and present behaviors and by affecting the ways people react to the labeled person. The benefits of
diagnostic labels are that they help mental health professionals communicate with one another about care
and therapy, and they establish a common vocabulary for the exchange of ideas among researchers
working on causes and treatments of disorders. Most health insurance policies in North America require an
ICD diagnosis before they will pay for therapy. One label, insanityused in some legal defensesraises
moral and ethical questions about how a society should treat people who have disorders and have
committed crimes. The problem with labels, according to the Rosenhan study, is accuracy-all 8 participants
were misdiagnosed due to one false statement
Objective 5| Discuss the prevalence of psychological disorders, and summarize the findings on
the link between poverty and serious psychological disorders. Research indicates that about 1 in 6
people has, or has had, a psychological disorder, usually by early adulthood. Poverty is a predictor of
mental illness. Conditions and experiences associated with poverty contribute to the development of
mental disorders, but the converse is also true. Some mental disorders, such as schizophrenia, can drive
people into poverty.

Module 66: Anxiety Disorders


Objective 6| Define anxiety disorders, and explain how these conditions differ from normal
feelings of stress, tension, or uneasiness. Anxiety is part of our everyday experience. It is classified
as a psychological disorder only when it becomes distressing or persistent or is characterized by
maladaptive behaviors intended to reduce it.
Objective 7| Contrast the symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder and panic disorder. People
with generalized anxiety disorder (two-thirds of whom are women) feel persistently and uncontrollably
tense and apprehensive and are in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal. They are unable to
identify, or avoid, the cause of these feelings. People with panic disorder experience periodic minutes-long
episodes of intense dread, which may include feelings of terror, chest pains, choking, or other frightening
sensations. Anxiety is a component of both disorders, but the reactions in panic disorder are more extreme
and may cause people to avoid situations where they have had panic attacks.

Objective 8 | Explain how a phobia differs from the fears we all experience. Phobias differ from
normal fears in their extremity and their potential effect on behavior. People with a phobia experience such
persistent and irrational fears that they may be incapacitated by their attempts to avoid a specific object,
animal, or situation.

Module 66: Obsessive Compulsive & Related Disorders


Objective 9| Describe the symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Persistent and repetitive
thoughts and actions that characterize obsessive-compulsive disorder interfere with everyday living and
cause the person distress. The obsession (the repetitive thought) may, for example, be a concern with dirt,
germs, or toxins; the compulsion (the repetitive action) may, for example, be excessive hand washing,
bathing, or some other form of grooming.

Module 66: Trauma & Stressor Related Disorders


Objective 10| Describe the symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder, and discuss survivor
resiliency. Four or more weeks of haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and
sleep problems are symptoms of PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder). These symptoms appear following
some traumatic event or events the individual witnessed or experienced but could not control. Some
people are more resilient than others. On average, only about 10percent of women and 20 percent of men
react to trauma by developing PTSD at some point in their lifetime. For those who survive the trauma, the
experience can lead to a period of growth.

Module 66: Understanding Anxiety & Related Disorders


Objective 11| Discuss the contributions of the learning and biological perspectives to our
understanding of the development of anxiety & related disorders. Those working from the
learning perspective view anxiety disorders as a product of fear conditioning, stimulus generalization,
reinforcement of fearful behaviors, and observational learning of others fear. Those working from the
biological perspective consider the role that fears of life threatening animals, objects, or situations played
in natural selection and evolution; the genetic inheritance of a high level of emotional reactivity; and
abnormal responses in the brains fear circuits.

Module 67: Depressive & Bipolar Disorders


Objective 12| Define mood disorders; explain the different diagnoses given under this
category. Mood disorders are characterized by emotional extremes. The four types of mood disorders,
according to the DSM-V, are: 1. Major Depressive Disorder; 2. Dysthymia (low grade depressions lasting
much longer than 2 weeks; 3. Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)-depressive symptoms linked to lack of
exposure to sunlight; 4. Postpartum Depression-depressive symptoms linked to giving birth.
Objective 13| Explain which typical behaviors are found when one is diagnosed with major
depression. Depressive symptoms must last two weeks or more; symptoms typically include lethargy
and fatigue, depressed mood, loss of interest in friends or pleasure.
Objective 14|Explain typical symptoms of Bipolar disorder. Typical symptoms include alternation of
mood between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania. Specific
depressive symptoms include gloomy mood, withdrawn, an inability to make decisions, fatigue. Specific
manic symptoms include elation, bursts of energy, impulsive buying and a desire for action.

Module 67: Understanding Mood-Related Disorders (Depressive &


Bipolar Disorders)

Objective 15| Which facts must be included in forming an acceptable theory of depression? An
acceptable theory of depression must account for the many behavioral and cognitive changes that
accompany depression; its widespread occurrence; womens greater susceptibility to the disorder; the
tendency of depressive episodes to self-terminate; the link between stressful events and the onset of
depression; and the increasing rates and earlier onset of depression.
Objective 16| Summarize the contributions of the biological perspective to the study of
depression, and discuss the link between suicide and depression. The biological perspective on
depression focuses on genetic influences, in part through linkage analysis and association studies.
Researchers working from this perspective also study abnormalities in brain structure and function,
including those found in neurotransmitter systems. Their work has shown that a predisposition to
depression does run in some families, that the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin are scarce
during depression, that activity in the left frontal lobes is slowed during depression, and that stress-related
damage to the hippocampus increases the risk of depression. Despair drives some people to suicide, and
the risk is greatest when their energy returns as the depression begins to lift.
Objective 17| Summarize the contributions of the social-cognitive perspective to the study of
depression, and describe the events in the cycle of depression. The social-cognitive perspective
has drawn attention to the power of self-defeating beliefs (arising in part from learned helplessness), and
negative explanatory styles that view bad events as stable, global, and internally caused. Critics note that
these characteristics may coincide with depression but not cause it. The cycle of depression consists of (1)
negative stressful events (2) interpreted through a pessimistic explanatory style, creating a (3) hopeless
depressed state, which (4) hampers the way the person thinks and acts, fueling more negative stressful
events, such as rejection.

Module 68: Schizophrenia


Objective 18| Describe the symptoms of schizophrenia, and differentiate delusions and
hallucinations. Schizophrenia is a group of disorders that typically strike during late adolescence, affect
men very slightly more than women, and seem to occur in all cultures. Symptoms of schizophrenia are
disorganized and delusional thinking (which may stem from a breakdown of selective attention), disturbed
perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions. Delusions are false beliefs; hallucinations are
sensory experiences without sensory stimulation.
Objective 19| Outline some abnormal brain chemistry, functions, and structures associated
with schizophrenia, and discuss the possible link between prenatal viral infections and
schizophrenia. People with schizophrenia have increased receptors for the neurotransmitter dopamine,
which may intensify the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. Research is under way on a possible link
between negative symptoms and impaired glutamate activity. Brain abnormalities associated with
schizophrenia include enlarged, fluid-filled cerebral cavities and corresponding decreases in the cortex.
Brain scans reveal abnormal activity in the frontal lobes, thalamus, and amygdala. Malfunctions in multiple
brain regions and their connections apparently interact to produce the symptoms of schizophrenia.
Research support is mounting for the causal effects of a virus suffered in mid-pregnancy.
Objective 20| Discuss the evidence for a genetic contribution to the development of
schizophrenia. The odds of developing schizophrenia are approximately 1 in100 in the general
population; 1 in 10 if a family member has it; and 1 in 2 if an identical twin has the disorder. Adoption
studies show that an adopted childs chances of developing the disorder are greater if the biological
parents have schizophrenia, but not if the adopted parents have it. But 50 percent of those whose identical
twins have schizophrenia do not develop the condition themselves, demonstrating that genetics is not the
sole cause of this disorder.
Objective 21| Describe some psychological factors that may be early warning signs of
schizophrenia in children. No environmental event can by itself trigger schizophrenia, though some
things may trigger the disorder in those genetically predisposed to it. Research has identified some early
warning signs of schizophrenia, including a mother whose schizophrenia was severe and long-lasting; birth
complications; separation from parents; short attention span and poor muscle coordination; disruptive or
withdrawn behavior; emotional unpredictability; and poor peer relations and solo play.
Objective 22| What is unique about Somatic Symptom disorders; provide 2 examples of this
category. Somatic Symptom disorders occur when symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form without any

Module 69: Somatic Symptom & Related Disorders


apparent physical cause. 2 examples include Conversion Disorder and Illness Anxiety Disorder (formerly
known as Hypochondriasis).

Module 69: Dissociative Disorders


Objective 23| Describe the symptoms of dissociative disorders, and explain why some critics
are skeptical about dissociative identity disorder. Dissociative disorders are conditions in which
conscious awareness seems to become separated from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings. The
most famous dissociative disorder is dissociative identity disorder, commonly known as multiple
personality disorder. Critics note that this diagnosis increased dramatically in the late twentieth century,
that it not found in many countries and is very rare in others, and that it may reflect role-playing by people
who are very open to therapists suggestions. Some view this disorder as a manifestation of feelings of
anxiety, or as a response learned when behaviors are reinforced by reductions in feelings of anxiety.

Module 69: Personality Disorders


Objective 24| Contrast the three clusters of personality disorders, and describe the behaviors
and brain activity associated with antisocial personality disorder. Personality disorders are
inflexible and enduring patterns of behavior that impair social functioning. The main component of the first
cluster is anxiety; of the second cluster, eccentric behaviors; of the third cluster, dramatic or impulsive
behaviors. Antisocial personality disorder is characterized by a lack of conscience and, sometimes,
aggressive and ruthless behavior. Brain scans of some murderers with this disorder have shown reduced
activity in the frontal lobes, an area of control for impulsive, aggressive behavior. There is no gene for
antisocial personality disorder, though genetic predisposition may interact with environmental influences
to produce it.

UNIT 13: Treatment Checks for


Understanding
ANSWERS
Module 70: Introduction to Therapy, Psychodynamic &
Humanistic Therapies
Objective 1| Discuss some ways that psychotherapy, biomedical therapy, and an eclectic

approach to therapy differ. Psychotherapy is an emotionally charged, confiding interaction between a


trained therapist and someone suffering from psychological difficulties. The biomedical therapies are
prescribed medications or medical procedures that act directly on a patients nervous system. An eclectic
approach to psychotherapy uses techniques from various forms of therapy; psychotherapy integration
attempts to combine a selection of assorted techniques into a single, coherent system.
Objective 2| Define psychoanalysis, and discuss the aims of this form of therapy.
Psychoanalysis is Sigmund Freuds therapeutic technique of using a patients free associations,
resistances, dreams, and transferences, and the therapists interpretations of them, to help the person
release previously repressed feelings and gain insight into current conflicts. Clinicians working from the
psychoanalytic perspective try to help people gain insight into the unconscious origins of their disorders,
work through the accompanying feelings, and take responsibility for their own growth.
Objective 3| Describe some of the methods used in psychoanalysis, and list some criticisms of
this form of therapy. Psychoanalysts may ask patients to free associate (saying aloud anything that
comes to mind) and watch for pauses or diversions that may indicate resistance (the defensive blocking
from consciousness of anxiety-laden material). Analysts may offer patients their interpretations of these
instances of resistance, of dreams, and of other behaviors, such as transference (transferring to the

therapist the strong feelings harbored against a family member or other significant person). Critics note
that traditional psychoanalysis has relied on after-the fact interpretations and repressed memories, and
that it is time-consuming and very costly.
Objective 4| Contrast psychodynamic therapy and interpersonal therapy with traditional
psychoanalysis. Psychodynamic therapy was influenced by traditional psychoanalysis but is briefer and
less expensive. A psychodynamic therapist attempts to focus on and conceptualize a patients current
conflicts and defenses by searching for themes common to many past and present important relationships,
including (but not limited to) childhood experiences and interactions with the therapist. Interpersonal
therapy (a brief 12- to 16-session form of psychodynamic therapy) focuses primarily on relieving current
symptoms (such as depression) rather than on an intensive interpretation of the origins of unconscious
conflicts.
Objective 5| Identify the basic characteristics of the humanistic therapies, and describe the
specific goals and techniques of Carl Rogers client-centered therapy (active listening).
Humanistic therapists focus on clients present and future experiences, on conscious rather than
unconscious thoughts, and on taking responsibility for ones feelings and actions. One of the most famous
humanistic therapies was Carl Rogers client centered therapy. Rogers proposed that therapists most
important contributions are to function as a psychological mirror for the client through active listening, and
to provide an environment of unconditional positive regard, characterized by genuineness, acceptance,
and empathy. In this growth-fostering environment, Rogers believed, clients would increase their own self-

Module 71: Behavior, Cognitive & Group Therapies


understanding and self-acceptance.
Objective 6| Explain how the basic assumption of behavior therapy differs from those of
traditional psychoanalytic and humanistic therapies. To help people alleviate current conflicts and
problems, traditional psychoanalytic therapists attempt to explain the origin of behaviors, and humanistic
therapists attempt to promote self-acceptance and self-awareness. Behavior therapists assume the
problem behaviors are the problem, and they attempt to change them through new learning.
Objective 7| Define counter conditioning, and describe the techniques used in exposure
therapies and aversive conditioning. Counter conditioning uses classical conditioning techniques to
pair new responses with old stimuli that have triggered maladaptive behaviors. Exposure therapies
(including systematic desensitization and virtual reality exposure therapy) train people to relax (a response
that cannot co-exist with fear) and then gradually but repeatedly expose them to the things they fear and
avoid. Exposure therapies try to substitute a positive response (relaxation) for a negative one (fear).
Aversive conditioning uses counter conditioning techniques to pair an unpleasant state with an unwanted
behavior. Aversive conditioning tries to substitute a negative response (such as nausea) for a positive one
(pleasure) to a harmful stimulus (alcohol).
Objective 8| State the main premise of therapy based on operant conditioning principles, and
describe the views of proponents and critics of behavior modification. Operant conditioning
therapies are based on the principle that voluntary behaviors are strongly influenced by their
consequences. Behavior modification procedures thus enforce desired behaviors and withhold
reinforcement for, or punish, undesired behaviors. Therapists sometimes create token economies, in which
people receive tokens for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later trade the tokens for a privilege or
treat. Critics object (1) on the practical grounds that these behaviors may disappear when the tokens are
discontinued, and (2) on the ethical grounds that it is not right to control other peoples behavior.
Proponents counter with the arguments that (1) social or intrinsic rewards can replace the tokens and
continue to be reinforcing, and (2) reinforcing adaptive behavior is justified because, with or without
behavior modification, rewards and punishers will always control peoples behavior.
Objective 9| Contrast cognitive therapy and cognitive-behavior therapy, and give some
examples of cognitive therapy for depression. Cognitive therapy attempts to teach people to think
in more adaptive ways, on the assumption that thoughts intervene between an event and our emotional
reactions to it. Cognitive behavior therapy attempts to teach people to think in more adaptive ways but
also to practice their new ways of thinking in everyday life. In Aaron Becks cognitive therapy for
depression, therapists try to change self-defeating thinking by training clients to look at themselves in
new, more positive ways. In stress inoculation training, another form of cognitive therapy, people with
depression learn to dispute their negative thoughts and to restructure their thinking in stressful situations.

Depressed people also work to establish the attribution style of nondepressed people (taking credit for
good events and not taking blame for, or over generalizing from, bad events).
Objective 10| Discuss the rationale and benefits of group therapy, including family therapy. In
groups normally consisting of 6 to 9 people, therapists may be less involved with each member, but the
(on average)90-minute session can help more people and cost less per person than individual therapy
would. Clients may benefit from knowing others have similar problems and from getting feedback and
reassurance. Most forms of therapy can be adapted to a group setting. Family therapy views a family as an
interactive system and attempts to help members discover the roles they play and to learn to
communicate more openly and directly. Millions of people participate in self-help and support groups, such

Module 72: Evaluating Psychotherapies & Prevention Strategies


as Alcoholics Anonymous.
Objective 11| Explain why clients tend to overestimate the effectiveness of psychotherapy.
Clients judge psychotherapy to be effective for three reasons: They tend to enter therapy in crisis, they
need to believe their time and expense justified, and they try to find something positive to say when asked
to evaluate their therapist. But researches not generally upheld clients estimates of therapys
effectiveness.
Objective 12| Give some reasons why clinicians tend to overestimate the effectiveness of
psychotherapy, and describe two phenomena that contribute to clients and clinicians
misperceptions in this area. Clients enter therapy when they are unhappy, leave it when they are less
unhappy, and stay in touch only if satisfied with the treatment they received. So clinicians are mostly
aware of other therapists failures, not their own. Both the placebo effect (the belief a treatment will work)
and regression toward the mean (the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fallback toward the mean)
contribute to clients and clinicians misperceptions of the effectiveness of psychotherapy.
Objective 13| Describe the importance of outcome studies in judging the effectiveness of
psychotherapies, and discuss some of these findings. Outcome studies are randomized clinical
trials in which people on a waiting list receive therapy or no therapy. Statistical digests (meta-analyses) of
hundreds of these studies reveal that (1) people who remain untreated often improve, but (2) those who
receive psychotherapy are more likely to improve, and (3) people who receive psychological treatment
spend less time and money later seeking other medical treatment, compared with their counterparts on
waiting lists.
Objective 14| Summarize the findings on which psychotherapies are most effective for specific
disorders. Meta-analyses indicate that no one type of therapy is most effective overall, nor is there any
connection between effectiveness and a therapists training, experience, supervision, or licensing. Some
therapies are particularly well-suited to specific disorders, such as cognitive, interpersonal, and behavior
therapies for depression; cognitive, exposure, and stress-inoculation therapies for anxiety; cognitivebehavior therapy for bulimia; behavior modification for bed wetting; and behavior conditioning therapies
for phobias, compulsions, and sexual disorders. The more specific the problem, the greater the chances for
effective treatment. Debate continues over the extent to which clinical practice should be based on
scientific evidence or intuitive responses.
Objective 15| Evaluate the effectiveness of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing
(EMDR) and light exposure therapies. In EMDR therapy, a therapist attempts to unlock and reprocess
previously frozen traumatic memories by waving a finger in front of the eyes of a person imagining
traumatic scenes. EMDR has not held up under scientific testing, and its modest successes may be
attributable to the placebo effect. In people with seasonal affective disorder, a form of depression linked to
periods of decreased sunlight, light exposure therapy (exposure to daily timed doses of light that mimics
outdoor light) has been proven effective by scientific research.
Objective 16| Describe the three benefits attributed to all psychotherapies. All types of
psychotherapy seem to offer new hope for demoralized people, a fresh perspective, and an empathic,
trusting, caring relationship. The therapeutic alliancethe emotional bond between therapist and clientis
an important part of effective therapy and may help explain why some paraprofessionals can be as helpful
as professional psychotherapists.

Objective 17| Discuss the role of values and cultural differences in the therapeutic process.
Psychotherapists may differ from each other and from clients in personal beliefs, values, and cultural
background. Such differences can affect the formation of a bond between therapist and client. People
searching for a therapist should have preliminary consultations with two or three to gain an understanding
of the therapists values, credentials, and fees, and to find someone with whom they feel comfortable.
Objective 18| Explain the rationale of preventive mental health programs. Advocates of
preventive mental health argue that many psychological disorders could be prevented. Their aim is to
change oppressive, esteem-destroying environments into more benevolent, nurturing environments that
foster individual growth and self-confidence.

Module 73: The Biomedical Therapies


Objective 19| Define psychopharmacology, and explain how double-blind studies help
researchers evaluate a drugs effectiveness. Psychopharmacology is the study of drug effects on
mind and behavior. Since the 1950s, drug therapy has been used extensively to treat psychological
disorders. Double-blind studies, in which neither the medical staff nor the patient knows whether the
patient is taking the real drug or a placebo, eliminate the bias that can result from clinicians and patients
expectations of improvement.
Objective 20| Describe the characteristics of antipsychotic drugs, and discuss their use in
treating schizophrenia. The antipsychotic drugs dampen responsiveness to irrelevant stimuli, and they
have been used effectively to treat schizophrenia accompanied by positive symptoms (the presence of
hallucinations and delusions). Dosage varies from person to person. The first-generation antipsychotic
drugs, which blockD2 (dopamine) receptors, can produce tardive dyskinesia, (involuntary movements of
facial muscles, the tongue, and arms and legs). The second-generation of antipsychotics, which target D1
receptors, can affect metabolism, increasing the risk of obesity and diabetes.
Objective 21| Describe the characteristics of antianxiety drugs. The antianxiety drugs depress
central nervous system activity. They are often used in combination with psychotherapy for treatment of
anxiety disorders. Antianxiety drugs can be psychologically and physically addictive.
Objective 22| Describe the characteristics of antidepressant drugs, and discuss their use in
treating specific disorders. Antidepressant drugs increase the availability of norepinephrine or
serotonin, which elevate arousal and mood. Antidepressants like Prozac, which block the reuptake of
serotonin, are known as selective-serotonin-reuptake-inhibitors (SSRIs).Dual-action antidepressants block
the reuptake or absorptionof both norepinephrine and serotonin, but they have a greater risk of side
effects. Antidepressants are used to treat depression (often in combination with cognitive therapy) and the
anxiety disorders. Antidepressants begin to influence neurotransmitter systems almost immediately, but
their full psychological effects may not appear until weeks later. The suicide risk for those taking these
drugs may have been overestimated.
Objective 23| Describe the use and effects of mood-stabilizing medications. A few drugs, such as
lithium for bipolar disorder, have proven very effective in stabilizing moods. Researchers do not yet
understand how these medications work.
Objective 24| Describe the use of electroconvulsive therapy in treating severe depression, and
discuss some possible alternatives to ECT. ECT is a biomedical therapy in which a brief electric
current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient. Although controversial, ECT remains an
effective, last-resort treatment for many people with severe depression (it is ineffective in treating other
disorders) who have not responded to drug therapy. How ECT works is unknown. Depression has also been
alleviated by some implanted devices that stimulate parts of the brain or the vagus nerve sending signals
to the limbic system. Following early reports of success, large clinical trials are under way to study
repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS). In this painless procedure, pulses of magnetic energy
sent through the skull to the surface of the cortex stimulate or dampen activity in various areas of the
brain.
Objective 25| Summarize the history of the psychosurgical procedure known as a lobotomy,
and discuss the use of psychosurgery today. Lobotomy was a crude procedure in which surgical
instruments inserted through a patients eye sockets were used to sever connections running to the frontal

lobes of the brain. The intent was to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients, but instead it
usually created lethargy and an impulsive personality. This surgery disappeared in the 1950s,when its
harmful effects became known and new and effective drug treatments were introduced. Today,
neurosurgeons rarely perform brain surgery to treat psychological disorders. Even when MRI-guided
precision surgery is considered for exceptional, life-threatening conditions, it is a treatment of last resort
because its effects are irreversible.Objective25| Explain the rationale of preventive mental health
programs. Advocates of preventive mental health argue that many psychological disorders could be
prevented. Their aim is to change oppressive, esteem-destroying environments into more benevolent,
nurturing environments that foster individual growth and self-confidence.

You might also like