Questioning: An Effective Teaching Method

Author(s): Imogene Ramsey, Carol Gabbard, Kenneth Clawson, Lynda Lee and Kenneth T. Henson
Source: The Clearing House, Vol. 63, No. 9 (May, 1990), pp. 420-422
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/30188543
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An
Effective
Questioning:
Method
Teaching
IMOGENE
RAMSEY,CAROLGABBARD,KENNETH
CLAWSON,
LYNDALEE,and KENNETH
T. HENSON
The

value of using questions to teach has been

recognized for centuries. As early as 200 B.C.,

Socrates used questions to provoke his students and
make them listen carefully,analyzetheir thoughts, and
think critically.In this country, questioninghas a long
historyof use in education. In 1912 Stevens(see Dean
1986)reportedthat teachersused approximately80 percent of the school day to ask questionsand receivestudent answers.Clegg (1971) found that, on the average,
today's high school teachersask 395 questionseach day
(Dean 1986, 184).
Educatorsrecognizethat teachersneed to haveexpertise in the skill of asking questions. As early as 1906,
Hamiltonwas quoted as saying that questionsare the
core of effectiveteaching.Ornstein(1987)saidthat "the
essenceof good teachingis relatedto good questioning"
(71). Questioningservesa numberof essentialfunctions
in teaching.If studentsare to participatein the nation's
social structure,they must learn to think and act independently(Dean 1986). Questioningcan play an importantrole in this development.In general,questioning is closely related to the accomplishmentof the
school's educationalgoals (Frager 1986). This is true
becausequestionsare effectivetools that teachersuse to
guide studentthinking.
Historically, teachers have focused their attention
primarilyon meetingthe needs of the school. In recent
years, however, teachers have been concerned with
meeting student needs as well. Dean (1986) explained:
"Questionsmust be used to stimulatestudentthinking
and enhance class participation.The effective use of
questions automaticallycauses a shift from teacher

domination toward student involvement." As one

author (Kloss 1988)said: "Asking questions,then, can
help the teacherstep back a little and allow those who
should be most involvedin learning-the students-to
come forwardas full and equal participantsin the collaborativeadventureof the mind" (248).
Recent researchto determinewhether teachers are
asking higher-levelquestions showed the answerto be
an unqualifiedand resoundingno. Kloss (1988, 245)
quoted a 1986study by Daines, which reportedthat 93
percentof the questionsaskedby elementaryand secondary teacherswere at the literallevel of comprehension,
and 88 percentof the students'answers-regardlessof
the teaching style and grade level-were also at the
lowestlevel of cognitiveskills. Clearly,attentionshould
be given to preparingteachersto ask more higher-level
questionsthat will elicit more thinkingand analysis.
Teachersshouldalso be concernedwith the questions
their students ask. In many classrooms,students ask
few questions.

Limitations
Askingand answeringquestionsis a commonhuman
activityand one of the most frequentlypracticedteaching strategies.Yet teachersdo not appearto be using
this teaching strategyadequately. Skillful questioning
must be constant and consistentso that it becomes an
art. However, few teachersare willing to devote time
and energy to cultivate this teaching strategy (Kloss
1988).
Most of the questionsaskedin a typicalclassroomrequireonly recitationof memorizedmaterialand are on
the lowest cognitive level. Teachersappear to be unawareof the extentto whichthey are omittingmeaningful, well-phrased,and higher-orderquestionsfrom their
teaching. Only "20%/of the questions asked in the
elementaryand secondary classrooms require critical
thinkingskills" (Hamblen1988,200).
An additionallimitationof the question-and-answer
strategy practiced by teachers is that teachers often
answertheir own questions.Dantonio (1987, 48) stated

ImogeneRamseyis a professor, CarolGabbardis an

associate professor, Kenneth Clawson is a professor,
LyndaLee is an associateprofessor, and KennethHenson is a professorand dean, all at the Collegeof Education, Eastern Kentucky University,Richmond, Kentucky.
420

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1990, Vol. 63

Questioning

that "answering your own questions also stifles thinking, not only by inhibiting the discussion but by cluing
students that you will give them the answer if they are
silent long enough. If you repeatedly rephrase your
question, the students get confused and discussion drifts
away from the focused thinking you are trying to
foster."
Ainley (1986) referred to the asking of questions to
which one already knows the answers as a very odd
linguistic activity that appears to be almost entirely
restricted to classrooms. "It is part of the 'school
games,' and teachers and students both know its purpose: the teacher does not want to find out information,
but rather to ascertain whether or not the students know
the answers" (Ainley 1986, 24).
Teachers very often ask multiple follow-up questions
of students before a response can be given. Yet this
"quantity of questions asked does not necessarily demand quality responses on the part of the learner"
(Dean 1986, 184). Follow-up questions should be used
by the teacher to move students through learning steps
from lower-level to higher-level thinking, and to "usher
the habit of an intellectual pause in the discussion, refreshing both leaders and participants" (Will 1987, 34).
"Asking questions is a slower means of teaching than
lecturing" (Kloss 1988, 247). It should be emphasized
that time and planning are needed in preparing questions for the classroom. "Teachers must develop and
present proper questions in order to receive the appropriate response" (Dean 1986, 185). "Teachers need
to spend time coding and analyzing their own questions,
student answers, and student questions" (Hamblen
1988, 199). "One must keep in mind that the nature of
the question has a remarkable impact on the progression
of thought in the class" (Dean 1986, 185). Sometimes
teachers rely too heavily on questions. For example,
rather than beginning each lesson with questions,
"research shows that it is far more effective to wait until
a knowledge base has been established before initiating
questioning" (Henson 1988, 99).
The Teacher's Role
A well-known teaching principle suggests that the
academic achievement of students is positively correlated with the number of clear academic questions
posited by the teacher. Teachers' questions often follow
a structured, repetitive pattern. The pattern consists of
(a) establishing the framework, background, or context
of the question; (b) asking the question, and (c) reacting
to the question by correcting, clarifying, expanding, and
praising (Clark, Gage, Marx, Peterson, Staybrook, and
Winne 1979).
On the average, teachers ask 395 questions per day
(Gall 1970). Woolfolk and McCune-Nicolich (1984) said
that these questions might be asked in accordance with
one of six levels of Bloom's cognitive taxonomy of objectives. Questions might elicit responses that are con-

421

vergent (only one correct answer) or divergent (many

possible correct answers) (Woolfolk and McCune-Nicolich 1984).
There are four types of questions that may help
teachers assess students' understanding. These four
types are (1) silent questions, (2) oral questions, (3) written questions, and (4) student questions (Lindquest
1988).
The research is controversial as to which type of question fosters the greatest academic achievement among
students. Woolfolk and McCune-Nicolich (1984) suggest that several types of questions can be effective. The
types of questions asked by the teacher should depend
on the instructional objectives and the student's age,
socioeconomic background, and ability. For lower-ability students, simple knowledge or comprehension questions requiring more convergent responses are more successful. For these students, teachers should phrase questions that result in high frequency of correct responses
followed by much praise and encouragement. For highability students, teachers should ask more difficult questions that elicit fewer correct responses. For these higherability students, teachers should also quicken the pace
and limit encouragement, praise, and discussion. Discussion should be limited to clarifying, correcting, or
criticizing students' responses. For those classes composed of mixed-ability students or students with fragile
self-esteems, a mix of higher- and lower-level questions
should be posed, followed by criticism or praise and encouragement as deemed appropriate considering the instructional goals and needs of the student (Medley 1977;
Ward and Tikunoff 1976).
Questioning in the classroom can have many purposes. To begin a lesson, questions of evaluation may be
asked. To end the lesson, teachers may ask knowledgelevel questions. Teachers who are skilled at questioning
may use questions to develop lesson structure (Kloss
1988). Questions may be used to probe the students'
understanding of the lesson (Lindquist 1988). Given this
framework, the following tips are offered to help teachers ask more successful questions in the classroom.
1. Ask knowledge-level questions when assessing students' ability to recall, recognize, or repeat information as it was learned.
2. When assessing students' higher-level thinking, use
terms such as how, why, what if to encourage
deeper thought.
3. Prepare questions in advance.
4. Ask questions in a logical sequence.
5. Ask specific questions that students can answer
silently.
6. As direct questions are asked, sprinkle the questioning with direct statements.
7. Request that students repeat the teacher's question
before answering.

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422

The Clearing House

8. When a specific student is asked a question, have

another student repeat the question before allowing
a response.
9. Allow students to converse with each other in a
directed manner after a question is asked or
answered.
10. Request that students express their own questions
fully and specifically.
11. Name specific students in a random order to respond to questions.
12. Provide adequate waiting time after naming a respondent. Rowe (1974) found that waiting approximately three to five seconds after naming a respondent before eliciting a response brought better
responses from more students.
Asking successful questions in the classroom is a skill
that requires knowledge of questioning techniques,
planning, and creativity. The art of successful questioning in the classroom can be cultivated through practice.
The Student's Role
Much has been said about the teacher's role in using
questions effectively. But what of the role of students?
Generally students are thought of as responders-teachers ask questions and students respond.
Accordingly, the student may benefit from a systematic approach to answering, which includes attending
to the question, deciphering its meaning, generating a
silent answer, and answering overtly. Answers can be
revised as needed (Kloss 1988, 247). The process described here involves time-time to listen to or read
questions, time to analyze questions, time to consider
possibilities and select answers, and, finally, time to
share answers through spoken or written language.
There is evidence that "low ability students need more
time" (Ornstein 1988, 75).
The process described here suggests other roles for
students: thinker, speaker, writer. And if the question
to which students are responding cannot be answered
from their reservoirs of information, then they may become researchers.
In assuming the latter role, the student becomes a
questioner. "There is a popular belief that children
learn from asking questions" (Comber 1988, 147). Students who ask thoughtful, focused questions may secure
valuable information and, at the same time, help others
gain new insights and knowledge. Such questions reflect
the thinking ability of the students who ask them, and
also reveal something about their self-confidence. Be-

May

cause asking questions can leave students vulnerable,

able thinkers sometimes hesitate to raise questions.
Dillon (1982) has pointed out that the social rules of the
classroom may make students' questions inappropriate.
In a secure atmosphere, questions can become powerful
catalysts for learning and provide excellent models for
other students.
The potential of questions to unveil students' confusions and understandings is barely tapped in many classrooms. Students must first trust that they can ask questions without being criticized. It is important that
teachers listen to students' questions, so that students
who might be ignored, or who are at risk of failure, do
not escape their attention.

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