CHAPTER ONE

1.0

INTRODUCTION

As the quest for change over on public power supply and stand by generation increase.
Engineering have researches deep into the different methods of achieving to both manual
and automatic types.
It may not be taken seriously in some places where power supply is up to 90 constant
or where intermittent outage causes no great damage. However, place where they have
business centers, industrial centers and even cold rooms need to almost 100% supply. So in
this case there is need to provide a standby power supply in the event of power outage. The
most important task is just to provide a standby power supply by great attention is paid to
the reliability of the system. That is immediately and change over without fluctuations.
The first type of change over switch were purely manual operated. They usually have
three switch able position, main, off and generator. An arm is provided from where the
operator can have access to the switching. Here, the effectiveness of the switching (i.e how
fast it is effected each time power needs to be changed) largely depends on the operator. The
change over system will be ineffective when the operator is not around.
The second generation of change over switches were made semi-automatic in which
the mains power supply directly powers the contactors. This arrangement is wired is such a
way that if the mains power supply fails, the contractors will all drop leaving the supply to
the generator position. The effectiveness of the system will now depend on the operator top
start up the generator on time.
The main problem suffered by the above mentioned two versions of the change over
switch is that the operator must have to be continuously on duty for it to be very effective.
They lent use full closed loop system to operate.
The present day technology has made it possible for the change over switch to come
in a number of designs switch using the closed loop system at feed back control. Some of

them use comparators, logic circuits and electronic timers to achieve the task. Some even
used simple micro processor chips to function.
The design of this project is such that a combination of comparators digitals switches
(logic IC), electronics timers and electromagnetic switches are used to achieve a very fast
and effective change over in this case. This project was entirely constructed and the thesis
written by Nwalua Chukwukereze under the supervision of Engr. Ihedioha in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Higher National Diploma in Electrical
Electronics Engineering.
The automatic change over switch makes use of protective relays and contractors
among other things which constantly monitor the power system to ensure maximum
continuity of the electrical service with minimum damage to life and property. They are
found mostly in domestic installations, hospital threatres, conference halls, computer
centres, data and research centres, laboratories and industries that require three phase
constant power supply. This equipment however is used to protect some house holds
appliances from electrical faults which may arise due to voltage drop. It was designed and
constructed purposely to alleviate the suffering encountered by the consumers following
supply authoritys consistent failure to meet its obligations of constant and uninterrupted
power supply. A circuit breaker is in corporate as a back up protection to improve the
reliability of the system and to meet its specification, although more back-up protection
could have been incorporated monitoring the supply but due to financial constraints, it has to
be limited to this operation. The schematic diagram of the automatic change over switch was
clearly explained as far as possible to be apprehended by any person within or outside the
engineering field. It is my intention however to present the work to Institute of Management
and Technology (IMT) students in Engineering and to the general public for consumption.
1.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION

BRIEF DESCRIPTION: The change over switch is said to be automatic because it employs
full closed loop system. It has comparators that test both the input and output conditions and
then uses the information to switch the relays to the appropriate positions.
There are three important switching position which are:
1) Switching of the contactors (i.e C/O)
2) Switching of the generator started if power fails
3) Switching off the generator as soon as power is restored
The system uses 3 comparators, one for each phase to test the voltage conditions to a certain
full voltage, low voltage or even power failure. When the 3 phase voltage are okay between
190v and 230v not neutral, the voltage from the converters to the input of comparators is
higher than voltage reference at the non-inverting input. Hence, the output of the
comparators will be below (zero volts).
If there is low voltage (below 190v) in one or more of the phase voltages, the voltage
at the inverting input will be less than reference voltage at the non-inverting input this will
produce a high output (+9v) from the comparator. One or more of this art the input of the
OR gate will cause the output of the OR gate to be high and after a delay time of about 30
seconds this voltage appears at the inputs of the AND gate.
Now the inputs of the AND gate will depend on the position of the enable switch. If
it is switched off, the information from the comparators will not pass the AND gate. But if it
is switched on (i.e both inputs will now be high) the information will be reflected at the
output of the AND gate and it will be used to achieve the 3 switches generator on/off and
then change over switch.
Also if there is complete power failure in one or more phase, the operation of the
system will be the same as described above for low voltage. For the switching actions, the
information at the output of the AND gate operates the 3 switches at the same time. It
supplies voltage to the coil of contactor A leaving the contacts on the normally close (NC)
position ready for generator supply. Also the generator starter and turn off receive
3

information, the turn off will switch on d.c supply to the high voltage coil while the starter
supplies starting pulses (through the multivibrator) to the kick starter. When the generator
starts running, a signal is sent to the starter to disable it.
Also the generator sends signals to the delay circuit and after some delay time. It will
switch on contactor B and the generator will start supplying. But if the power is restored
and the comparators okay the supply (i.e if it is above 190v) the OR gate output goes low
and time delay, the C/O will be effected again and the generator will be turned off by
cutting off d.c supply to the high voltage coil. The aim of the delay is to stoop any
fluctuation in power which is less than 15 seconds from reaching the control relays the
power supply uses a 9v back.up battery with a 9v regulator. It is interesting to note that when
supply is restored, the system automatically returns the consumers to his original power
supply as the case may be.

1.2

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

Due to inconsistent supply of power, there is a growing need for an alternative source of
power supply. This has lead to heavy capital investment in a bid to suppress power failure
and ensure regular power supply for the industry, hospitals, schools and homes. The problem
of power failure can be checkmated with the use of stand-by generating set.
An Engineering Author, Tony Rudkin said in his book titled Upgraded Signal
Source with Improved Performance and Reliability that the cost and depredation associated
with breakdown vary from one application to the other, and in some cases, the user has little
choice but to ensure that a stand-by unit is available to take over on event of failure of
primary system.
If some of these big firm do not make provisions for stand-by power source,
frustration could set in which may lead to the closure of business and thus throwing workers
into unemployment. Also in the case of hospital, undergoing a surgical operation and power
supply suddenly go off, the patient might loose his or her life due to the power outage.
4

Furthermore, if the president of the country is making nationwide broadcast and all
of a sudden power went off in the transmitting station, it would be viewed as an attempt to
sabotage the government ruling and some people must pay for it.
In his book, Tony Rudkin also said that the depredation caused by such reduce
efficiency of the organization and leads to a great deal of frustration.
Sequel to the rate at which more sophisticated electrical/electronics gadgets are being
procured and installed in our homes, hospitals and business premises, there is a justifiable
need for a faster and more reliable change over system in an event of power outage.
In view of these considerations, this project is aimed at designing and constructing a
workable automatic change over switch with a phase failure detecting circuit also known as
Automatic Mains Failure which switches on the head from power Holding Company
(PHC) to a generator when power fails and from generator to PHC when power comes back.
1.3

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

From various surveys in the industrial sector of Nigeria, it was generally noticed that
industries are vulnerable to long and short interruptions (that are considered reliability
issues, in the power system analysis).
The single-phased automatic changeover switch to design is a complete system with various
sub-systems and components arranged and linked to function primarily as a means of
manipulating the supply of electrical power to any desired load.
A changeover switch can be generally described as a device that allows the conversion from
one power source to another (for example, supply from PHCN to supply from a standby
generator). The switching obtainable from the changeover switch is usually manual, that is
the user has to move a lever to change from one source to another. This is usually associated
with time wasting as well as some health hazards like electric shock and trauma.
In order to eliminate this human intervention as well as introduce speed and precision in the
changeover operation there is need for an automatic changeover switch. This is typically a
switching system whose function is based on the predetermined configuration unit. It selects
5

the available power source without intervention of the user to ensure the availability of
supply at the desired times provided from one source to another can only be achieved by
device or a system that determines when the change should actually take place and which
source to be given preferences to supply the load. This brings about the need for a unique
control system.
The basic problem to be addressed here is how to connect two different sources of electrical
power simultaneously to a single unit (the automatic changeover switch) that can serve as a
link between these power sources and the load or network. Moreover, preference is given to
the power source such that one source supplies the load at a time and when the first (mains)
source fails, the link immediately connects the second (generator) source to the load.
1.4

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE WORK

This work serves the purpose of saving the electrical appliances in a household and offices
from power fluctuation-related damages which could be occasioned by overloading of
unprotected changeover switches. Such a device protects electrical appliances from possible
harmful effects of voltage sag. It provides an average user the comfort of enjoying the use of
electrical appliances at home and offices without the interruption of work and switching
over between the public power source and alternative power source. Convenience of not
having to walk all the way to the alternative power supply source to turn it off or on is also
provided.
It can also create entrepreneurship opportunity for our teeming unemployed youths of the
country owing to the large number of people that use alternative power supply that seek
automatic changeover from the public power supply to the alternative power supply.
1.5

SCOPE AND LIMITATION

The automatic change over switch, the switch aimed at achieving the following automatic
actions;
a)

To change power over to generator

6

b)

To change back to PHC

c)

To change the generator.

The automatic change over unit can be operated in single or three phase system. The
automatic change over switch has the following advantages;
a)

It minimizes damages to lives/equipment since it has its own monitoring system

and its switching requires no human contact with the switch, thus eliminating
human error.

b)

It reduces its change over timing to the minimum due to its fast response to
power outage.

c)

It maintains high quality of service through its fast and prompt response.

Moreover, the size and captivity of the unit will depend upon the load for which it will be
used. The unit is also portable, easy, convenient and safe to install.

1.6

INTRODUTORY CONCEPTS
MICROCONTROLLER

Microcontroller is a small computer on a single integrated circuit containing processor core,

memory and programmable input/output peripherals, also designed for embedded
applications in contrast to the microprocessor used in personal computers or other general
purpose applications
ELECTRIC POWER
This is the rate at which electric energy is transferred by an electric circuit. Electric power
can be produces by electric generators; can also be produced by other sources such as
electric batteries. The Standard International Unit (S.I. Unit) of power is the Watt which is
one joule per second.
MAINS POWER SUPPLY

Also known as the public power supply is the general purpose alternating current (A.C.)
electric power supply. In Nigeria, it is the PHCN (Power Holding Company of Nigeria) that
generates and dissipates the public power supply.
STANDBY GENERATOR
This is a back-up electric system that operates manually or automatically. Within seconds of
utility outage an automatic transfer switch senses the power loss and commands the
generator to start, and then transfer the electrical loads to the generator.
AUTOMATIC POWER CHANGE-OVER
This is an electrical mechanism that changes from one power source to another, for instance
from public power supply to a standby generator and vice versa. It switches off the generator
set after alerting you and switches over to the public power supply when there is light.
TRANSFER SWITCH
This is electrical switch that switches a load between two sources either from mains power
supply to a standby generator or vice versa. Some switches are manual, while others are
automatic and switch power when they sense that one source has lost or gained power.
RELAY
It is an electrically operated switch. Many relay use an electromagnet to mechanically
operate a switch. Relays are used to control circuit by a low power signal or where several
circuits must be controlled by one signal.

CHAPTER TWO
2.0

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Robert Dowuona (2008) found out that emergency power systems were used as early as
World War II on naval ships. In combat, a ship may lose the function of its steam engines
which powers the steam-driven turbines for the generator. In such a case, one more diesel
engines are used to drive backup generators. Early changeover switches relied on manual
operation: two switches would be placed horizontally in line and the ON position facing
each other, a rod placed in between, in order to operate the changeover switch, one source
must be turned off, the rod moved to the other side and the other turned on.
With technological advancement globally, maintaining the power quality and a steady
energy supply are the major requirements the electricity consumers are demanding for. This
is because many electrically powered and voltage-sensitive devices like advanced system
control, automation precise manufacturing techniques, continuous data processing require
uninterrupted power supply. For some of these devices, a temporary disruption or sudden
surge of power can cause scrambled data, a frozen mouse, interrupted communication
system crashes and equipment failures. Consequent upon this, there is urgent need to have
alternative power supply is expected to come into operation immediately there is power
seizure from the mains power supply. An efficient steady supply of power is therefore of
tremendous advantage both in terms of cost and efficiency.
With adequate power supply base of the nation at the moment, it is almost impossible to
supply electricity to consumers at all times. The unreliable public power supply has led
many to the alternative power supply sources. In Nigeria today, the use of generators to
power businesses and machines have become the norm. According to the Director-General
of Centre for Management Development, Dr. Kabir Usman that Nigeria has the highest
number of standby generators in Africa, averaging to every 2.5 people has at least one
standby generator. He also pointed out that about 60million Nigerians spend 1.6trillion naira
9

on generators annually. Many generators are in use; while some are manually started others
are automatically activated.
To ensure the continuity of power supply, many commercial industrial facilities depend on
both utility service and onsite generation (generator set). Because of the growing complexity
of electrical systems, it becomes imperative to give attention to power supply reliability and
stability. Over the years many approaches have been adopted in configuring changeover
systems, some of them are discussed below
i.
ii.
iii.
2.2

Manually Controlled Changeover

Sequential Logic Controlled Changeover
Microprocessor-based Controlled Changeover
MANUALLY CONTROLLED CHANGE-OVER

According to Jonathan (2007), manual changeover switch system still remains the oldest
changeover switch box used by majority of the electricity consumers. Manual changeover
switch box separates the source between a generator and public supply. Whenever there is
power failure, change-over is done manually by an individual and the same happens when
the public power is restored. This is usually accompanied by a loud noise and electrical
sparks.
2.2.1

LIMITATIONS OF MANUAL CHANGEOVER SYSTEM

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

Manual changeover is time wasting whenever there is power failure

It is strenuous to operate because a lot of energy is required
It causes device process or product damage
It has the potential to cause fire outbreak
It is usually accompanied by a lot of noise which may sometimes be psychologically

vi.

destabilizing.
Maintenance is more frequent because the changeover action causes tear and wear.
(Mbaocha, 2012)

2.3

SEQUENTIAL LOGIC-CONTROLLED CHANGEOVER (SLC)

In sequential logic control of power selection, sequential digital circuits are used to effect
the detection and control of the supplied power. Sequential logic control approach involves
10

only an automatic violation of the public power source in the event of power failure, but the
generator activation to supply alternative power is done manually. In effect the sequential
logic control is more efficient then the manual control (Shanmuhka and Ramesh, 2013).
Katz and Boriello(2005), the main advantage of the sequential logic control power
changeover switch is its simplicity.
2.3.1
i.

DISADVANTAGES OF SEQUENTIAL LOGIC CONTROL SYSTEM

The main possible clock rate is determined by the slowest logic path in the circuit,
otherwise known as the critical path. Every logical calculation, from the simplest to
the most complex must be complete in one clock cycle, so logic paths that complete
their calculations quickly are idle much of time, waiting for the next clock pulse.

ii.

(Katz et al (2005).
The clock signal must be distributed to every flip-flop in the circuit. As the clock is
usually a high frequency signal, this distribution consumes a relatively large amount
of power and dissipates much heat. Even the flip-flop that is doing nothing consumes
a small amount of power, thereby generating waste heat in the chip. (Katz and
Boriello, 2005).

2.4

MICROPROCESSOR-BASED CONTROL

The microprocessor-based control operates control operates through a central processing

unit programmed in a software-implemented format and stored in memory; Random Access
Memory (RAM) and/or Read Only Memory (ROM) subsequently used to effect controls in
real time.
There are two aspects of microprocessor control namely
i.
ii.
2.4.1

Microcontroller-Based Controls and

Computer-Based Controls
MICROCONTROLLER BASED CONTROLS

11

In microcontroller-based controls, microcomputers are employed with the resulting systems

described as embedded. It gets information like data status from sensors and then issues
control commands to actuators. One distinguishing feature of the embedded system from
other real-time system is that they are only executing task relative to a fixed and welldefined work load. They do not provide any development environment; they are low-level
programmed (Mbaocha, 2012).
2.4.2

COMPUTER-BASED CONTROLS

The computer-based control operates through a computer system employed in a multimachine-distributed computing environment. Other feature known as real-time software,
extensions are provided for programming languages and protocols enabling, such systems to
be programmed and checked. These systems are programmed to override the operating
system mechanism to control directly the hardware. They are high level language
programmed.
This project however is designed and implemented as a microprocessor-based controlled
system specifically using the microcontroller as its basic component. It is a dedicated
embedded system.

2.5

DESCRIPTION OF THE NEW SYSTEM

In view of the limitation of above previous changeover systems, this project proposes and
implements a changeover system that drastically reduced the shortcomings, the noise,
arching, tear and wear, stress and time wasting associated with manual switch box and
sequential logic control are eliminated totally by the introduction of solid state relay. Digital
components are used to make the work more reliable, unlike the previously existing ones
that make use of circuit breakers. Also PIC16F84 microcontroller was also incorporated to
help improve the speed of automation. The system is controlled by a software program
embedded in the microcontroller. This work I handy and portable compared to the bulky
work previously done, it has also some important features like an indicator light to indicate
12

the presence of public power source and over voltage and under voltage monitoring.
Economically, this project is of affordable cost because of the use of integrated circuits (ICs)
in place of discrete components.
2.6

RELATED COMPONENTS IN THE SYSTEM DESIGN

There is a great deal to designing a process control voltage changeover system than just
selecting the appropriate interconnecting components and developing the software. There is
the need therefore for a review of the technical terms, process and related components.
2.6.1

SWITCH

A switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit, interrupting the
current or diverting it from one conductor to another. Also can be used to select and ON or
OFF state of a system. In a power system the ON state represents power flow while the
OFF state represents the otherwise situation. Switches are commonly used in power
electrical circuitry (Theraja, B.L and Theraja, A.K, 2000).
The various switching systems used in power systems include.
i.

MANUAL SWITCHING

Where a cut-out (an electrical connector device) is used to approximately interconnect and
select down the voltage phases by manually plugging in a removable fused connector from
one base to the other depending on the one with power. This conventional approach is
usually employed in homes often than in industries.
ii.

MECHANICAL SWITCHING

Mechanical switching involves using some sort of mechanism for closing and opening a part
of current flow. A typical example is the gang switch used in isolating supply lines.
iii.

ELECTROMECHANICAL SWITCHING

13

Electromechanical switching is a form of switching which integrates electrical and suitable

mechanism for power flow. In this case, power is supplied to the mechanism using solenoids
to activate the switching mechanism.
iv.

AUTOMATIC SWITCHING

Automatic switches are those switches that are activated in response to any change in system
characteristics (current or voltage). It usually employs relay for detection of change in
system characteristics after which a corresponding switching is activated immediately.
v.

MICRPROCESSOR CONTROLLED SWITCHING

In the case of microprocessor controlled switching a microprocessor chip is software

programmed and stored in its memory unit to b interfaced between the available power
source and the connected loads.
2.6.2

SWITCH GEAR

A switch gear is the combinations of electrical disconnect switches, fuses or circuit breakers
used to control, protect and isolate electrical equipment. Switch gear is used to both deenergise equipment to allow work to be done and to clear faults downstream. The tumbler
switch with ordinary fuse is the simplest form of switch gear and is used to control and
protect electrical installations and other equipment in homes. This type of component is
important because it is directly linked to the reliability of the electric supply (Ahmed,
Mohammed and Agusiobi, 2006).
However, such switch gear cannot be used profitably in high voltage systems
2.6.3

RELAYS

A relay is an electrically operated switch that has two major parts coil unit and the contact
unit. Current flowing through the coil of the relay creates a magnetic field which attracts a
lever and changes the switch contact positions.
Relays have two switching positions the normally closed and the normally open. There is
no electrical connection between the coil unit and the contact switching position when
energized. The link is only magnetic and mechanical. The operational principle of the relay
14

is basically like that of a switch controlled by electromagnetic force. This magnetic force is
generated by flow of current through a coil in the relay. The relay opens or closes a circuit
when current through the coil is started or stopped. The circuit symbol of a relay is shown in
fig: 1.1 below

Fig: 2.1: Circuit symbol of a relay

2.6.4

TRANSFORMERS

A transformer consists of a laminated iron core wound with two coils the primary and the
secondary. The primary coil is connected to a source of alternating voltage which builds up a
changing magnetic field setting up a similar type of AC voltage at the secondary. This is
done through mutual inductance between the coils by magnetic flux linkage. When the
number of turns in the primary is more than that of the secondary, it is called a step-down
transformer. It is called a step-up transformer when the reverse is the case (Therajah et al,
2000). Step-down transformer was used in this project to transform the high voltage to a low
voltage output.
The figure 2.2

below

diagram of an

iron-core

shows

transformer.

Figure 2.2: schematic diagram of an iron-core transformer

2.6.5

A741 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMP)

15

schematic
step-down

The A741 IC is an operational amplifier that has two input terminals, otherwise known as
inverting and non-inverting input. It amplifies only the difference between two signals
applied at the input terminals. It can be also used as a voltage comparator for two different
inputs. It has a high input impedance, high voltage gain and low output impedance. It has a
total of 8 pins as shown in figure 2.3
The pin terminals and designated assignment are contained in table 2
TABLE 2.1: PIN ASSIGNMENTS OF A741 OP-AMP
PIN
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

2.6.6

ASSIGNMENT
Offset Null
Inverting Input
Non-inverting Input
Negative Power Supply
Offset Null
Output
Positive Power Supply
Not Connected

PERIPHERAL INTERFACE CONTROLLER (PIC16F84)

PIC16F84 is a peripheral interface controller with many functional units. It carries out
adequate functional controls as interfacing device between sets of electronic circuitry. It
belongs to the peripheral interface controller-microchip technology device and has the
following characteristic features.
i.
HIGH PERFORMANCE CPU FEATURES
It has only 35 single-word instructions except to learn
All instructions are single-cycle except for program branches which are two-cycles
Operating speed: DC 20MHz clock input
DC 200 ns instruction cycle

1024 words of program memory

68 bytes of Data RAM
64 bytes of Data EEPROM
14-bit wide instruction words
16

ii.

PERIPHERAL FEATURES
13 input/output pins with direction control
High current sink/source for direct LED drive
o 25mA sink maximum per pin
o 25mA source maximum per pin
TMRO: 8-bit timer/counter with 8bit programmable prescaler.

iii.

iv.

8-bit wide data bytes

15 special function hardware registers
Eight-level deep hardware stack
Direct, indirect and relative addressing modes
Four interrupt sources:
External RB0/INT pin
TMRO timer overflow
PORTB<7:4> interrupt-on-change
Data EEPROM write complete

SPECIAL MICROCONTROLLER FEARTURE

10,000 erase/write cycles enhanced FLASH program memory
10,000,000 typical erase/write cycles EEPROM Data memory
EEPROM Data Retention > 40 years
In-Circuit Serial Programming via two pins
Power-on Reset (POR), Power Up Timer (PWRT)
Watchdog timer with its own On-chip RC Oscillator for reliable operation
Code protection
Power saving SLEEP mode
Selectable Oscillator options

ENHANCED TECHNOLOGY
Low power, high speed technology
Fully static design
Wide Operating voltage range of
o Commercial: 2V to 5.5V
17

o Industrial: 2V to 5.5V
Low power consumption of less than 2mA at 5V, 4MHz or 15mA at 2V,
32KHz(retrieved from
http://www.microchip.com/downloads/en/DeviceDoc/39630C.pdf)
In summary, there are two memory blocks in the PIC16F84. These are the program memory
and the data memory. Each block has its own bus, so that access to each block can occur
during the same oscillator cycle. The data memory can further be broken down into the
general purpose RAM and the Special Function Registers (SFRs). The operations of the
SFRs that control the core are described here. The SFRs used to control peripheral
modular are described here in the section discussing each individual peripheral module. The
data memory area also contains that data EEPROM memory. This memory is not directly
mapped into the data memory, but id indirectly mapped. That is, an indirect address pointer
specifies the address of the data EEPROM memory to read/write. The 64 bytes of data
EEPROM memory have the address range 0H 3H. The reset vector is at 0000H, while the
interrupt vector is at 0004H. The first 1k x 14(0000H 03FFH) are physically implemented.
Table 2.2: PIN ASSIGNMENT OF PIC16F84
PIN
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

ASSIGNMENT
RA2Input/Output Port A
RA3Input/Output Port A
RA4 Timer Port A
MCLR Mortar Clear
Vss Ground
RB0/INT Interrupt Port B
RB1Input/Output Port B
RB2Input/Output Port B
RB3Input/Output Port B
RB4Input/Output Port B
RB5Input/Output Port B
RB6Input/Output Port B
RB7Input/Output Port B
VDD
OSC2/CLK OUT
18

16
17
18

OSC1/CLK IN
RA0Input/Output Port A
RA1Input/Output Port A

CHAPTER THREE
3.0

THE SYSTEM DESIGN, ANALYSIS AND METHODOLOGY

Systems Analysisis the process of investigation of a systems operation with a view

tochanging it to new requirements or improving its current working.
The analysis stage is the front-end phase of the development process of microcontrollerbased systems. This phase constitutes an essential step of the development process and one
ofthe critical issues that determines the quality of the final product.The analysis phase sets
the stage for the whole project. The necessary groundwork forunderstanding what the
project is all about is completed in this phase. We take the strongposition that the more effort
you put into planning, the smoother the rest of the project willgo and the better the quality
will be of your final product.

19

The total design and development of any microcontroller based system typically involves
three. Phases. They are as follows
i.
ii.
iii.

Hardware design and development

Software design and development
Prototype
implementation and diagnostic testing
Commence

Software
ment of the
take of
Details of the procedure working principles of the various stages are briefly described. The
hardware
hardware part consist of the biscuit details, design and calculation of various components
used in the work including the values of the ones assumed too. While the software part is
Writing of the
Realize the hardware
mainly the programming implementation on the PIC. Summary details are contained in the
software program
block diagram
flowchart block diagram as show below in all, a total of twelve (12)geometrical block
shapes were assembled together to achieve the complete design.
Burning of the
program with the
chip and necessary
error correction

Component selection
and bread boarding

Integration of the hardware and software system parts

Confirmation of the assembled circuit

first on bread board

Construction and final testing of the

system design
Fig3.1: Block Diagram Of The Micro-Controller Based System
20
Ending part

3.1

Hardware Design And Analysis

The complete project work was sectionally achieved in five (5) units they are:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

The power supply unit

The voltage reference/variable unit
The comparator unit
The microcontroller unit
The switching unit

There can be briefly seen in the block diagram of figure 3.2 below
PHCN
Source
Gen supply
source

Power Supply
Unit

Reference/Vari
Auto Switching Unit
able Voltage
Figure
3.2:Block Diagram Of The Complete Design
Unit
3.2 THE POWER SUPPLY UNIT
The power supply unit has a step down transformer. T1 that reduces the high input voltage
Comparator
of 240v to as low as 12v output. It also has a bridge rectifies that converts the low A.C to an
equivalent D.C output, though still pulsating in nature. A Low pass filter connected
A.C
immediately after the rectifies helps to reduce the A.C content bringing out a cleaner
Load
increased D.C output. MicroThere is a light emitting diode (LED) D5, connected in series with a
resistor and both in controller
parallel with the output D.C to help indicate the process is working as
designed.
3.2.1 DERIVATION OF VALUES

21

in a design of this nature, some values are decided (assumed) for the smooth working of the
components as well as purposeful result to be realised. In this value derivations the assumed
ones are stated wherever used.
The voltage measured at the output of the step-down is A.C and in root mean square value
(r.m.s). The required D.C needed for the design is 12v i.e VDC=12v
using the formular

The input frequency is 50hz. This is doubled at the secondary output as seen below

V
Input
T

Figure 3.3 Wave Form Of The A.C Input/Output Outpu

T t
the peak inverse voltage of the diodes is dependent on the vmax of the power unit.

any value greater than 18.86v as real inverse voltage of the diode will do for the design.
Diodes in4002 has piv of 100v, hence was chosen for the work

22

In the calculation of the capacitor value, the total load resistance and the expected minimum
ripple content were chosen as
RL= 400 = Load Resistance
Ripple Voltage, Vr=10mV
Capacitor C,

=0.000361 Farad
C361f
Standard value is used 1000f, i.e C1= C2= C3= 1000f
The indicator circuit has a total of 12v connected to it
Vs=VR1 + VLED
the forward biased voltage of the LED is 2V with an operating current of 20mA
.:Vs=VR1 + 2
Where Vs= 12
12 = VR1 +2
VR1= 12 -2
VR1=10
VR1=ILED r1
R1=
=500
Standard value of the resistor chosen was 560
R1=560

23

The ic voltage regulator (ic2 7805) has a positive output voltage of 5v even when the input
to the ic is 12v or more this output is connected to the micro controller that requirers 5v as
the maximum voltage supply. The biscuit diagram is shown below figure 3.4
+12v
IC1
R1

+5v

D5
D1
220v
Input

D4
+Vc
D3

D2
FIGURE 3.4 CIRCUIT CONNECTION
OF THE POWER SUPPLY UNIT
C1
T2
3.3 THE REFERENCE/VARIABLE VOLTAGE UNIT
this unit provides the required two voltage values one fixed and the other variable, which are
both eventually fed to the comparator unit. It is built around two voltage divides circuits
C
comprising of zener diodes and resistors. The variable voltage2 is taken across resistor r2,
serially connected with a zener diode d6 of valu 4.7v.

0 -Vc
The fixed voltage is comebued out of the zener diode D7 with value of 6v. The two resistors
r2 and r3 are of the same value of 1.8k
R2= R3=1.8k
D6 = 4.7v
D7 = 6v

24

the two voltage values are only possible when the supply input is 220v. The circuit
comebuino is shown below.
Vc
c

D6

R3

Variabl
Fixed
e
output
output
Figure 3.5:Circuit
Connection Of The Reference/Variable Voltage Unit
R
2

3.4 THE COMPARATOR UNIT

D7

the comparator is an operational amplifier integrated biscuit of LM741 connected to produce

an output value of high (1) or low (0) when the difference between the two outputs is
positive a high output will be produced; but when the difference is negative, a low output
will be produced. At a voltage of 220v source input, the voltage value at pin 3 of the
comparator op-amp is 6v. The one at pin 2 is 7.3v, the resultant output will be low (0)
because the difference is negative
i.e 6v -7.3v=-1.3v
But when the supply voltage goes very low to about 190v or below, the voltage at pin 2
reduces far below that of fixed value pin 2 (6v). This results to a positive high output(1) at
pin 6 of the comparator op-amp. The op-amp requires both positive and negative voltage
sources (+12 and -12v) from power supply to function.
The circuit diagram is shown in figure 3.6 below.
+12
Fixed
input
(6v)

IC2

6
Output
Figure 3.6:Circuit Connection Of The Comparator Unit.
Variable
(7.3v or less)

253

3.5

THE MICRO CONTROLLER UNIT

The micro controller unit has three major components

i.
ii.
iii.

IC3 =PIC16F84
C3-C4=27PF ceramic capacitor
Xtal=Crystal Oscillator (4mhz)

The micro controller used, pic 16f84 has a total number of 18 external pin terminals, only
eight terminals were physically implemented. Pin 14 is for the power supply (+5v)
The microcontroller used, P1C16F84 has a total number of 18 external pin terminals, only
eight terminals were physically implemented. Pin 14 is for the power supply (+5v) and pin5
is grounded. The IC has two ports, port A and port B. Port A which houses the input data and
port B for bringing out the output data. At port A, pin 1 and 2 are used for the input data
destination while at port B, pins 8 and 9 are connected as output terminals. The
configuration of the micro controller is at a frequency of 4MHz made possible through the
use of external oscillator a crystal oscillator connected between pin 15 and 16. The two
terminals of the crystal oscillator are grounded from each side with a non - polarized
capacitor C3 and C4. The table 3.1 below shows the pin types, their assignments as well as
designated names.
NO

PIN NAME

PIN

PIN TYPE

PIN DESCRIPTION

NUMBER
Oscillator crystal input/exeternal
1

OSCI/CLK IN

15

clock source input

OSCI/CLK

16

Oscillator crystal output

OUT
RA2

Plot A, Input 1

RA3

Plot A, Input 2

26

RB2

Plot B, Output 1

RB3

Plot B, Output 2

VOD

14

Positive Supply Source

VSS

Ground Terminals
LEGEND
I=Input
O=Output
P=Power

+5v
C3 design of a suitable
14 problem specification and
The system software development starts with
flow chart as shown in figure below. This is to accomplish very easily the design task and
Input
15 flow chart will ensure good flow of
implement
structured
1 the specifications. A successful
RA
Xtal
1
signal. This is done before the 2implementation of the program writing in a low level
assembly language was used in implementing the program writing of this project.
16
The programmers language was used to transfer the written programCinto
the chip. In other
4
words, the programmers language was used to convert the assembly language into machine
code for the actual consumption of the chip (PIC16F84). One logic set up is that once pin 1
Output1
is high,Input
pin 8 output terminal is programmed to be high too when pin 2 terminal is high, pin
RA3
2
8
2 as well. The circuit connection
9 output terminal will be high
is as shown in the figure
below.
The program is made up of the main program and the delay sub routine. A Output2
list of assembly
system program could be seen in the appendix attached at
9 the ending part of chapter five, but
5 in figure 3.8
the main program flow chart is shown below
27

Fig 3.7: Circuit Connection of the PIC16F84

Microcontroller

Start Process

Initialize Port A and Port B

Input Voltage Level

Using Port at 1, 2

Compare Voltage Levels

on Port at Pin 1 High

Is The
Voltage
Level At Pin
1 High?

NO

Output Port B, 8 to
Start Gen

Is the
Voltage
Level At Pin
2 High?

YES
Output Port B, 9 to
Start Gen

28
End Process

Figure 3.8: Program Flow Chart for the Microcontroller IC

GEN

+12V

PHC
N

Relay A

R5

Q1

A.C
LOA
Any of the two transistors Q1 or Q2 can be biased into conduction thereby grounding the
D
relay to be energized. This causes an automatic switch over to the GEN or generator supply
from the PHCN source. The only time the phcn source is constantly to the load is when the
two transistors are at off positions and that happens when the supply is available, at the same
R6
time up to the standard value require for Q2
the A.C load. The complete circuit diagram is
shown in the figure 3.10 below.
Neutra
l

29

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0

IMPLEMENTATION AND TESTING

The implementation of this project was carried out in stages, starting from bread-boarding,
veroboarding up to the final stage of arrangement and packaging even the soldering exercise
was carefully and skillfully carried out to avoid damage of the components.
Primarily, it was in three parts the software programming, the hardware assembling and
the combination of both parts as one unit on a veroboard.
4.1

SOFTWARE IMPLEMENTATION

30

The type of programming language used was a low level assembly language due to its
machine oriented ability and its electronic circuit friendliness. The peripheral interface
microcontroller chosen and used is the PIC16F84, the input/output data setting of the
microcontroller was software/program instruction based. MPLAB software (a software
program that runs on a PC to develop application for microchip microcontrollers and digital
signal controllers) was installed in a high definitive dual core HP system unit. This made an
easy access and running of a micro plan text assembler MPASMWIN (an executable file
that helps in programming a microcontroller chip with assembly program) that has already
been installed in the system. With the flowchart established earlier on during the design
process, inputting of data was not as difficult as envisaged.
After the data writing and formatting on the system software, it was run on the MPASMWIN
text assembler for error-free confirmatory test. When it was confirmed error-free, the
program was now burn into microcontroller integrated circuit (IC) that is used in the project
which is PIC16F84.
4.2

BREADBOARDING AND VEROBOARDING ASSEMBLY

Breadboarding is simply a stage when all the electronic hardware components including the
PIC16F84 are carefully assembled on a construction base using the designed circuit diagram
as a guide. When this has been carried out, the initial results gotten were not as expected.
For instance, the reference voltages were adequately confirmed as inputs to the comparator
integrated circuits (ICs), but there was no output coming out from them, even when there
was noticeable power presence from the input public supply. A correction was immediately
effected by changing all the voltage reference components the zener diodes of D 6 and
D7(Chapter three circuit diagram).
The circuit was powered again. This time there was output voltages as inputs (high and low
values) to the comparators and with the presence of the input voltage to the comparator,
expected outputs were measured at their outputs. Thus a successful transfer of assembled
components from breadboard to veroboard was done with the desired result gotten.
4.3

METHOD OF TESTING
31

The following stages of testing were carried out in the testing process
STAGE I:
An input supply of 220V was connected to the circuit, the output of the comparator was
measured to give zero (0) value, the pin terminal of the PIC16F84 was also low. As a result
the switching circuit transistor was at cut-off, but the voltage at pin1 of the controller was
high, making it produce low output at its pin8 terminal.
STAGE II:
Input voltage was reduced to a lower value by the variation of the potentiometer. The
comparator output went high, transistor Q2got biased becausethe pin9 of the microcontroller
went up. This caused relay A to energise, closing up on the generator to come ON.
STAGE III:
When there was no output supply at all from PHCN pin1 and pin8 terminals of IC 3 went
high and low respectively causing transistor Q1 to be switched into saturation mode. Thus the
relay once again got energized as a result the generator is switched ON once again. The
implication is that the generator only came ON when either the public supply was very low
or not available at all.
4.4

CASING AND PACKAGING

This project is a prototype set target, therefore set of 100 watts bulbs, A.C voltage powered,
were connected to the output load.
The veroboard containing the soldered components is housed inside a rectangular shaped
box. All the external switches, the A.C bulb, circuit breakers and the cut-out fuses were
mounted externally on the box. Care was taken during all connections; the rectangular box
was made from a good quality plywood, painted with a high quality colour paint.
4.5

ACHIEVEMENTS

A design of this nature is a peculiar one, but effort was put in here to checkmate and mitigate
the effect of low voltage supply, since all other changeover devices only switch over to
generator when the supply is absent. This design does not only automatically change over to
generator as input supply to the load, but through the intelligence of the programmed
32

microcontroller, switch over to the generator at a time the supply is dangerously low. This
benefit will be useful in industries whose heavy and expensive A.C machines are in use.
After all, low voltage supply affects the machine windings more than high voltages due to
internal overheating.

CHAPTER FIVE
5.0
5.1

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

CONCLUSION

After a research work and findings on the existing changeover devices through the use of
cut-out fuses, a normal switching system and even automatic coil-energised changeovers, a
step-further was taken to put in place active component monitors to provide as input data to
a microcontroller software programmed chip in controlling the time and method of
switching over to a standby generator once there is low or no supply from public power
supply. It makes the design highly sensitive to avoid damaging effect of low voltage in
particular or instant changeover to the alternative source for a continous supply to the load
uninterrupted.
5.2

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED
There was problem of inconsistent power supply during the design stages. This
caused mostly the delays as well as unstable data values, more so when the device
was power input based.
Cost financing of the project seriously affected the progress of the work.

33

 Sourcing for components was also a constraining factor as it led to going to distant
cities such as Lagos and Portharcourt in order to purchase some major components
of the project.
5.3

RECOMMENDATIONS
The level of this project achieved is only at a prototype level and is therefore unsafe
for installation as a household device except the various power ratings of the

components are upgraded.

System design of the project can be enhanced for a multi-phase based input instead

of the single-phased input.

All connections at various stages of the circuit design should be carefully reexamined before the introduction of the high input voltages. This can be disastrous if
ignored

34

REFERENCES
Ahmed, M.S, Mohammed, A.S and Agusiobo O.B (2006): Development of Single Phased
Automatic Changeover Switch: African Union Journal, Vol.10, No.1. pp 68 74.
Amos, S.W.; and James, M. 1981. Principles of transistor circuit: Introduction to the design
of amplifiers, receivers and digital circuits, 6thed., Hartnolls Ltd., Bodmin, UK.
Automatic transfer switch retrieved from http//:www.wikipedia.com. July 15, 2011
Katz, R and Boriello, G (2005): Contemporary Logic Design. 2nd edition. Prentice Hall,
Italy. Pp 445 589.
Kolo, J.G (2007). Design and Construction of an automatic Power Changeover Switch:
African Union Journal, Vol.2, No.11, pp113 118 (October, 2007).
L.S. Ezema, B.U. Peter, O.O. Harris (2012):Design Of Automatic Change Over Switch With
Generator Control Mechanism.Electrical Power and Electronic Development
Department, Projects Development Institute (PRODA), Enugu: Natural and Applied
Science, Vol.3, No.3. November, 2012. Pp 125 130.
Microcontroller features retrieved from
http://www.microchip.com/downloads/en/DeviceDoc/39630C.pdf)
Mbaocha C. (2012): Smart Phase Changeover Switch Using AT89C52 Microcontroller:
Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Vol.1; Issue 3: pp 31 34.
Nwafor, C.M, Mbonu E.S, and Uzedhe G. (2012): Cost Effective Approach to Implementing
Changeover Systems: Academic Research International; Vol.2, No.2

35

Robert Dowuona-Owoo (2008). Design and Construction of Three phase Automatic

Transfer Switch: A Thesis presented at Regent University College of Science and
Technology Ghana
Shanmukha Nagaraj & Ramesh S. (2013): Programmable Logic Controlled Circuits:
International Journal of Research in Engineering & TechnologyVol.1, Issue 2, July,
2013; pp 111 116.
Theraja, B.L and Therajah, A.K(2000). Electrical Technology. S.Chand and Company
Limited. New Delhi, 1999.

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