CIENCIA POLITICAInfamous Occupations Various trades and professions ~ some of which ae now more or less respectable ~ have long been looked dows upon, sognatied, lpr ‘era, by lw or by custom, ia many diferent counties, Late mia 2nd exty madera Germans called ths wcrc and veremte Brae, fr dabonourable and proscribed occupations. In Fane they were Known a mire andl tio cite, ow ali des In thee ‘counties they were dened oating’ occupations" "We are dalag with slrge number of diferent professions, all of ‘them involving indispenssbe work to which varying shares of ope Irium were atached. Noe only exteutoners,skinnes, posites and begacs were consdeed dshonourable and tested ith sontempe, bat alto divine, helt, barbers, bath atendans, collectors of high sly Sseavenges, sweepers, rn cir, alors, sot pales, lnen weavers traveciggers, underakers, caretakers of tombe, millers, blacksmith ‘musiany, dancers score jpges, animal tracy taner shepherd piles and various senerant arsine and eottaners al safer Stigmatization and sacl excason, ‘Conempt for these people surfaced a ifereat ines andi different parts of the world Since low repute seems to bea canon denominn for ofthese professions, they beame generally Known 4 imo” oF ‘ishonourable ocupatons. Telingls the term infamous occupations” figures in ditionaris asa gloss om safamour' It doe nt fal, of ‘course tha people whose professions were eh ober of sch dit nation always accepted or aeed with We have restons to believe that in ost case, they did no” But this ey explores the pant of “4 Infamous Occupations 4s view of te host population se people among whom these despised “raftamen ined pons the quetion what made te majority of pops lation i ferent places anda diferent tines sigmatre etn people tthe provided indpensible services, and exchde them fon ordinary vocal? Some scholars recognize thatthe wounds for casing sch diverse wccuption tgater are far fom clea and suggest that there eed fot be any common characteristic uniting the occupation ofthe butcher ‘vith tha ofthe barber" Ahough, sity speaking barbers an butch fre share important features that serve a tlale signs the genes point well taken Looking a the sibject fom a somparaeve pers tive, we shall cover that infamous tecupations show overlap” and ‘rscronse’ rather than a fixed set of vommon characteristics the problem I want then explore concerns the “amily resemblances tthe different occupations and th remarkably lrg geographical ‘dstbation ‘We often Gand he sans Set of occupations defined as dstepatale, po Joxng and fghfl~ not onl i ancient Rome and medieval and ely modern Exope, bt also in Afi, the Mile East the South Asan so Cninet, China snd Japa, This ‘universal mpi that we cannot spin the stigma of infamy branded on thee proessone interme Tocalconexts only Members of thee esupatona yroups were despised, ete ith contempe and set apart fem ondinary socal i Yer proving ind Tensabl services, hey were alo very mach porto decom tha ‘gmatired them and exlod them from ranks In hs fine stad of arial people of late medieval Pas, Geremck ecogeizes that ot ll Of therm were file a monde, of of 90 sew anyone “The woes of Oscar Lewis 08 he aneuopolny of pone ia Lain Fr preset king sont pear he ne which cere or ‘ur dams ate meal Par, The obviaue parce of he trial pope ofthe Mie Agena compared wit hoe sted by {ent nd al es be sompnca emanrwhch were branded ties of nay whe remaining inne oat with the rane Srtrsof te the prone he cpr nthe epg he ee ‘ate nina (1987 302), Most of the despised cramen were inded placed outside of a the margin of society, and many of them also lived repartely im clealy marked houses om segregated areas and communis essai onthe ‘uth of the towns and wlges~ they hada Seed abode a all.46 Infamous Occupations People avoided all normal contact with them, ey bad accesso public locations ike churches and ny elaborate equ reputed these con tacts They had separate places and bad wo wu spec dove frente: ing and leaving these buildings. Their burl paces, roo, were oft Stgeogated from tho ofthe minstesm poplation Some of the dshonourbleocupationa groups, ke the skinner and executioners in pre instal German ie nd the eather works and entertainers in diferent phases of Japan’ history, ha eo be ecopizd by specie outts, unusual headgear or had to wea Bells to aman thi areal A Pasian decree of 1733 prescribed tit sinners ness ack grey coa, with buttons ofthe same color, and re pone at, “dam niche unihuldige,eriche Leute sus Unsraenbs und ue hens an sie erate’ (that innocent and honourable people Jono, om ‘ignorance of by acient, ge in touch wih them) All hese pst ‘sons ivoled rivalization and this served to regulate and formalize onact been the oeinary and theextaordinay aspect of Me The eangunenes alo symbolized nd Help to nls the separateness (and, unitensonaly the cohesion and solidarity of thse oxeupatsona (soups Ie flows eh mos of them were endogamous and had ted Ei ight. For example hey were not alowed o bea asdf ie tvideneincoure ‘One way co understand te diversity of infamous ocapatons and thie remarkable recurrence in ifs cltral and hare seis I Bstingih thre main aspects int, members of thee cocpetional groups wete often lumped together with cna iegitiate children, and members of bate chnic and religious groups. Ar she thieenth-centurySicsenegel (a miro or‘efleion’ of customary law in Saxon) phased fe Pre Fighters, children of proses, comma, and entertainers thy tel rehtl (depetved of ei sigs" These groups often overlapped, snc forcignes and outsiders have lays ben charged with work on which the majority lok down, Jes and Gypors speed and sometimes hld monopole in ertwhile “spied professions, like entertainment, banking, (horse radian butchering. Chimney sweep working in western Eugen itn moe, ame from the Alps and were calle Tesane’ and Savoyard St Peesbur, chimney sweeping wa nthe hands of Finns Inert tt sans and entertains in Fakstan belong 0 subaten ethnic soups tke the Qalandar and Kanja who spuilze, among other things in ail training the fabrication of toy, dancing, promteaon and begging” As iswelnowe, smiths in many Ain an Asan soi fer eonged Infamous Occupations 47 to distinc ec and endogamous groups and tended vo be reat with 1 mistre of ete and contempt" Like irowworkers eewhere, Cameroon smiths combine their proesion with several iminal special {ations ining faery services nd musi, and hold peal roles ‘ther sic of patage, Although they ate no paca eee, they {donot sem t be ehnicaly disinerfrom the Raps, who are dom Sant Barty are considered ontuchable and frm, ae elsewhere i ‘sca, an endogamous occupational group." “Tha uteider, members of eer ete groups, orcignes criminals and sonetins| former slaves or sere fin specialized and corto ‘Sspsd prfeesons cannot of course, expan shy these occupations tree consiered dahonowrabe, fort doesnot answer the question of try these people were charged wih thse askin the Bst place (rather than wn orbs" However, we know ofthe degrading of otherwise Irateal profess ar they had come as Sdlines into the hands Of Inemiber of despised supatonal groupe! The anecation wth erie tnd condemned criminals saan, ice ft draw ateton 1 Infamy, plo and proscription In is overview of tests in ast ‘asa, Pie notes: The auas of Tibet te kaon 2 he Ragyppa and numer evr 8 ‘how They Une mse pe futher ure 0 he Tian, Rona the ingen he capil sy of Case. They Ie pnd od tha eed tasks fp of eres al cee te ‘oso dnd smal om te sewed pb pce They hase ‘Seva ride for Sng thy may Be cle a ova for encape ‘anal adc snd enable oe pt mt charge Sem ove thor commune (1972 97" Second, many of these professions were not only proscelbed and spied alo considered rally) wclesn, were the people prac tsing them, Ir har been suagested hat these conditions te cowl felted. Weng on ancicae Rome, Ric nots tha bath pimps ard faders were fares, thar they 96 oly had mie vi rights ft were “ntouchable”, each condom feng off the oer” Even fndinary people ao desta they wee by aw or custom nt alowed find employment in these vente, hece the deigatons “eee “lite oe proscribed. Thee profenions ad, therfore, que une tionally become monopoles im he Bands of those who wore are rom Finding other work ~ which, topether with other regulations imposed on ther, implied restrictions of thi cl ahs. "We offen find various infos casks cared our bythe same group, ‘practised by one andthe sme person’ Ths may be obvogs ven the48 Infamous Occupations Impurity auwbuted to thee professions, Bu ic farther ates so thie ‘nity aed may also help understand thee close proximity co aga sad crime, “Third, and following from she previous qualcatons, it was widely bulieved that mebers ofthese occupational groups had magal poms “Though one would avo ordinary contact with them foe fo alle ton, several of chem could, ina diferent context and when spposshed ln an appropriate manner alo bing luck ad prosperity, o restore health Members of several despised cxcupations sso worked a iv 15 and beals. As ie well own, co counter or towh a chine Seep for asa woman, to he ksed by hin) i ail tay sonsdeed !uspions in Several pars of Germany and Aust, whee maps of these craftsmen and their appurtenances also fg prominent inthe iconography of New Year dcbratons. Weare desing wth th lower ‘las counterparts of Kings, to horn people England an rane have ‘buted miraculous healing powers for steal entre.” Like ther imoce humble counterparts, kings were set apart fom he convon ra ‘of mores, and wath high tbo ste that made them toc bleand provided them withthe healing power tha as Isc kw 2s the oj touch. Considering thee aypects of our subjct, it sms over optimistic to expect to understand the pice an eeputiion af thee professions tnd thei tepesentaves who rene tothe const of polation, {aboo, magi and rial. Even so, gnorng an eaty seme of Mauss and subsequent discussions on (symbol) lsiiation ia cultural "ntropology ths is what some contemporary scholars who have cect Pied themselves wit the sue have done” Aeheoeil perspective hat Mess and tiesto understand synboactnies al the more ex eciea ince we are concerned with occupation which were not only espe but sho sndepenable No saxesy could do without tem “There were no "racial reason’ for proscbing these oxrapaios Rather than in una rms thei outa and too states sould be tndersoo! in tems ofelure inthe content of domi clawicn 1 Recent studies of pollution and “it” confrm that taboos mark the boundaries beeen soe’ fundametal categories Taos a8 Van Gennep long ago rcopnize, ‘ee acts rather than negations of 4? (1960 {1909} 8) Diese reais matter “ost of place” As con fasion of cherished catego implies both dort at order. shoes tn the able food on the Bor cannibalism nes, and soon. As Mary Douglas memorably phrased i, what i uncles iv ls uncle. Infamous Occupations 49 oth taboo and pollcon havior focus om things and erates whch ae iigions of anomalous in terme of accepted categories. BY {sling he boundaries berwcen them by delisting aad feretating stra categorie 13000 help to endorse them, shape them, te the Shane, This why houndares, mars, edges a peripheries are ‘ten populated hy unsoal anomalous creatures, sachs Cerberus from ancent mythology he thre headed Jog guarding the gates ofthe Underworld In Cra Earope the Holy Vig mati the Boondaies ferween his world andthe set. These example sugges that anomalies heer animal, humans oor statues ~ cam be ceed with the magical means 0 meat benscen major socal eateries. When ames in a proper rts contet thet magiesl power can prove enecene Tn cram parts of nintenth- sentry ral Swede, postions were believed to have the aby to evoke she cadens disease chet, for inich tenon they were kept say from mare, pregnant Wome Togater with other marginal peoples his peasant Sosy the pros tute sted a6 «hare Benween groups, Bat as an agent in main an ‘cinforing boundaries, she was aso bined vo bring ck Anke wa pide at acy meting Fr men, wheres cn women Crone matoreane When she wer aur on the oe sbe warn he male Sphere Het me anima of male exo aia acted me ‘Tre comilred wo be forte nesing bres he sponte the ‘Seo nb loge ote ema pcre The elles in ale am female nt commen ay be oes wy of ming er ‘hell cng eeu 1977: 223) Ie seems les correct when Fey wes thatthe whore brought lack Iectse she wa no an anomaly when she appeared alone in the public sphere (1977: 222-3). The point is noe whether or not she was an homaly~ she definitely was an anomaly neki ural society Yor the reasons Feykman species, Depending on context, the prostitute could {eth naurpicioue among pregnant omer asacaed with the home) nf auspcioas inthe pubbe mall domain. These distinctions ae ip fl ur they have not leas been sulin recognized. “The literate on symbole clasistions suggests that there are ‘ious way to del with anomalies, They can be ignored or they can We'Nippesed or erated. Bue they can aso be acknowledged snd regarded a eclesn o sacred, which meus that inorder to avd pole Intom and Ganges snd hanes thei powes, behaviour towards them has tobe ritealied oc through formalined performances “dspace fom the ocmal ound of socal activi50_tnfamous Occupations This immedinely clevant for» beer understanding ofthe pos tion of members of posed occupations. As mentioned etic, they were too important indeed indspesableto be ether gnre ot sp presed. They provided salient servis, in parla bat nt eachely, the removal of body di, for which reason they ven some plats ‘cen described as specials in impuriy, as people who “spared cies the neve problems of dsling with pallet le may be useful co distinguish bereeen various forms of somal, Animas and humans may be considered snomalousheause of hi (1 morphology, (21 behaviour or practices, and (3) habitat" Whether somali relate ous one or all hee of them, eat invariably con ‘ered witha confusion of main social ategres. For example, in sme Soceties twins areconridered anomaly, fea Shey lar aoe die tinction, inleding the boundaries betacen humans (chartered by Single Dit} apd animale characterized by ill Bt) oe more Simply by posing a problem of slasifction bucame two individuals §ppeat where only one had een expec In other cies mack more ‘han morphology involved. The celebrated pang, found among the een Zar, considered an anomaly on severl sors This cate, 4 scaly anteater, oscupies a inteanedae poston because of ts moe phology (2 mammal with a sal skin) x Behavouei docs wot shan humans and reproduces Ike then) and ts bia le lve io the forest instead ofthe rie). symbole connection with water mi) account for is association with ferliy A sna eae ca he made forthe stork in western Earope, which ako his characteristics found in ‘mote than oe category, involving both behaviour ad habia. The sore {S' wld creature, but shares several featres wth human beings bike walking on two les, having 4 amy and a Rx abode to which turns every ping withthe sae parce. What makes this ir een ‘more anomalous, and hence a appeopeate mediator and binge of Tuck sts ose proximity to the human domestic domain for bulls it nest on or near the oof or chitiney ofa human dein only oe of many possible house which underscores the sor’: hack brining Power. The stork lives both on ln and near the water (cer the berwiseand:-betwees aces of marshes or Wetland) catching ch 2nd frogs Like humans, storks are monogamous and produc oly cme ‘or wo ofsring ata tine. No wonde ten, that these id have lng been objects of riualzation to hares their mapa! pow. They were and sel are widely regarded as lck-bsger erly) i ester ad ‘seal Earope Infamous Occupations 51 ‘Whore gangland the ork have in common and may explain their being keg, eh they ate wid eet, that thee fneouerers and utsons are rae enough (that, depending on ‘hance’ fortaty to inte alain, and hat ehey share important ‘Cares wi humans, in pacar fears related 0 feproductn lamas, ted abode, monogamy, and single Bits “Te ital ates toward she chieysweep and the prosune follow a smi pattern and eal rom sia categviatins. Ab acount wih shanna swesp on the plc oad ir repeded 5, poriclrysuypons or wore ad ert ores they are Bes Fo ar oii! Gres) apc 1 she i encoun in the Inoning emp on cha} Toe hin ouch soa, So nde be Kas by inl thecal pte eset a ssering progestin of auspicoustes. Tar why the emphasis on women? The chmey-sweep isa symbole mation since his work makes fom cross various boundaries, He © “anc and ems soot rom the chimney (meng Between Inde and ouside), Moreover the che see eta, coming {head levngin the spring He bo comes back ad forth Dewees bic and privet don oming in the howe and working on {Simst cena moe aston the erty where les the cher. Te prceace uf trang man inthe domes domain Sd the ayo hs math the chance encour i publi between iim and 2 woman (who belongs to the home). A sina carl loge ttorks for mae what were regarded ax aspous eacouters with Droste fin ara Sweden singe thee mecings were als predicted En ary proxi, affinin srg diferent of gender, ad anal fous polation of poe sod pate oman Thee ah, fai ‘Sesnlancesberweer mney sep and posites eck exe lm nating he ote v All reported cases of infamous occupations involve 2 conhsion of ‘dominant socal eatcgorcs, Perceived a poeatialy dangerous al con ‘ac with ther ha tobe ritalin, A lage group ofthese professions tre fone by hsalere and less, whose work cented on disposing [tad removing bosly di, spccally tha of humans, bar aso that ‘animals, This organic materl, which nclodes corpses and vielly SI ose bork product, universally considered polling” Refer fing to Lous Duron amous sud, Mary Dovglas indulges a pla Sib peneralization by bering that wherever the organic erupt into ‘esol there impurity; ity dest, ex eating and defecation incur Impurity and so are dged th tui (975: 214). But thse sate52_ Infamous Occupations ‘ments are abo problematic for they ignore istry and lave ws withthe ‘question of the euriatow of aocons of die and changing controls over Body factions” "or along tine, baling and cleaning wore closely asin since healing consisted manly i leaning, sn the removal of bay Prod tet inching Blood, utine, and impuries foo festering woud and Soren the preindsial world ths work was nthe hands of vats practones, ‘empiric who temained separated om medial yi ts ainda unites, The later rested therclen to thee ‘work and looked down on medial practice. Sjber, so his book on Preindusial tes, wets ‘re kind of meine, tae pained bythe tes oer raha taken the high rn the ther har Bem il bythe anal a ‘Sins hai mires Bones rg ny the as ‘oaling sare wh cage nH eng ape. pling th fd he ike, Thos lamers snd ote pao bk ss ied ody of knowledge sods scaly setton Comrie, th iterate medal men existe let echo dis ge) yg tar es tat wath i pa sure a el ys donee Seb 313)" oily waste als include parts ofthe human body tat had hee pulled out, ike teeth, oF cat af ike aig nails, foreski, andthe roading Bars and limbs, The occupational category that had spied nthe fel included arbers, bath atendane, quacks surgeon midwives, appe,toothpallers, grave-dgaersy elders skinners,exccutioners, Shepherds, promt, and vomeumes ls butchers (fall animals ot ‘only of taboo" animal ike horses, tanner, and oer leather orks, Tike sides sod shoemakers" ‘Skinners were charged wit cleaning, fr they had to emove the car ‘ase of dead animals fom the sets and oter public plaes They ko acted as asntans to the executioner in the seasons of jul {orrae and in the Work on the walfld. Skinners also removed the remains of conve who bad ded in detention. ‘The bos had to be transported rom the prison othe gallows where they were disposed of In some fashion (burial or hanging, according to the sentence, which in tum depended onthe condition of the cogpu)™ “The skinning trade dovetailed with that of executioners and shephends in ofa as thes woek nvoved the removal of dead bodies of mans ‘or animals. Moreover, members of al three oxcupatioal groups were tlk sooght after for medicine and medical crestment, mony et not clsiey of a mapcl nature. Because of hie anatomical knowledge, Infamous Occupations 53 {he executions could et hones but he also had reputation fr healing people for whom ordinary physicians did mot have ay, cre In the German-speaking trite for example, elece would ask im for the blood of exected persons and women would arnt hi for aioe ‘when fed with impotene hens" The seasons why the executions vas avoided were therloe, the same as thane fo which people §pproached him for medical westment- Bouse af hs work, He had Aces to bodily products and thos dpossd of the means to which Imag power was aibued. Apae fom Blood, he made much of finger or shumb thar had been uta forthe has of execute cn ts The executioner has been rightly scoped a agian ad the Fal avoidance regarding him i avo atesed by the many diferent names by which hs profession wis known." In some ates, exten {rs were aso charged withthe sapervson of brothels andthe cllecion tnd removal of urban refuse These sideline should peas no st rise ws for they lnk up wit erupions ofthe ngan sa asco the metaphorcal mater to cepresent death, ln dacassng mags of prosntution in pnecendhcentry France, Alin Cabin has age! hat they converged on bad sme, puteacton, cores, spas Fie ony nalady one dare not deny the power of congo sewers ad ef dumps." The etymology ofthe Word oth = trom the Anglo-Saxon ‘ech othe, to waste ay, goto in keine suggests close a ‘nin tesween the image of prostitution apd death “Abotesvepresetation of pronation in nineteenth century France Aiscssed by Corbin is also of immediate interest fot sine it ne rates the posite with that chain of eine female bodes, oii Ing inthe lower cases and bound to the istintivepysal ace of Upperclass males ~ an image ha, dsp, he started fo come undone” (G86: 212-13). We should think here ofthe submsive oe ofthe nurse the nursery mad the servan with rw ~ diferent ~ faces (who body Serves aan objet of obsession inthe master's hous ad the od female attendant, who as nuse and layout conlads thi cies of ‘women whose bodies sre he upper clas the bourgois body) ahd ico which the posite Sed perfec Entused ith all thot Is ‘nga, the management ofthe bodys neds Corbin phase all ‘hese women fo whom one might add the wet muse and the mabe) fame close o what has carer been ale “speci in pai’ who ‘pared others the inevitable problems of dsling with aed removing ody die he, polio. u “These examples suggest in what sense members inthe healing and leaning professions were considered anomalos. Ks because of hetS&_nfamous Occupations acces tir work. They wore charged with he remoal of quits: ual mater ot of place bal diving corp, boa exo ons (outemeny ey nc, loo mil pes pe a a ‘cand boty pars ike hand, ngr, herd aed ker nbs and parts tht hve fecha in sesonn of Relig or tthe Slon of pub ecco lis imporeant to note that eae cone to jn th ds the banding of di, bor th thermo oi from pli and her soil paca where components wee eo ‘Sere fe “out of places power symedohes of human des) ind death “thar cin one sy in hisepect abot npg an hab? Oly thc lane sens to matey sine mone meres ofthese cepa dd Soir pyslogaly om er human at ae ioe deg the “igutcance rachel wo dierences fubs besa of i phystal ormaons and sebutions of anima In some ese Ihenbes of iamoarccepaons Rave ben eepreseted 3 ls thay aman, sania He the Japan, wo bane ee teed oth the number fon caning ou lege (la sia 8 ong Ys finger hema den.” ir hab or socal spc, mew importa ceri, sce he me ofan Fs capes ope ns spray rua people a the mango, penphanes utabire or ogee ide towns and illest whih they worked Ta i ema She mupcal quater of members of cen oceans (lt, ‘iter lcs shepherds, ato and grea}, Maus, Unfold compelng papaverine paenon whch places hese peopl apat om tc common ran of mor snd itis hs separate fess wih endows th wth maps power (978 190329). Ths Mew pratt enys of Many Dogs o olan wth hoor ie ati ar oto le ioe pat Nm persecive sugets an intimate Connon twee roast rowrbed ocapaions andthe word of he dead “Thabo hve ocepatonal groups trades man categories of socal space neous, ovalounesidl. The necked German ‘ome toms, bere pope ade so mac of Ere eno) wee tured inward raat oc fshion. I dein hen, Walker bis by obser ta cach ved pte fom he other (971 1, A ime ‘then ee nd wecity weed o comms peed an banded 1 atacaole way whe orban apace sll cde substan ral in hse ec dferemes ere omolgoust hoe of order and ‘Soon lure and notre ad death oes tape no cones thatthe notion of Uncle onoud developed wh the rv of tba ie in thse anloked Infamous Occupations 55 German rowns and cies in the Ite Mile Ages and was considerably les pronounce, f oe emily absent, n the commercial, outward tuened coastal twas uf norhen Germany andthe Law Coues, The former have een appropraely called “home town’ ach Urn pat fom the othe We ae desing oth code of ono oninating ita area enclosed by city wal, whic already suggest against whom fone sought to defend oneself. As a minor the fee burghers of the towns ved in pied eelaves,srrounded by sil larly nscure ‘ural areas, where the majorty ofthe poplin had ive fr centuries The Birger were organized int uid o conporaons which povided them with thee "mamter satin" Eveything concerning the countryside = the_ people living there the fabrendeLewe, or traveling, Talk the animals and the widemes ~ posi constant heat vo the seed townsmen and frightened them. Hence the importance of cy wal hour which Penne wre sm hs book onthe revival of commetoe snd tran ie “Themes preing wat he nolo dees, The means an te me them rom plage by sone wal. Tacoma arses oe ‘bert wok rein byte ow a ih down en the Mey thi bevs anal buen This polarized suuctre provided the contest for the displacement of «rafsmen believed to be dshonoursle, and cay hele to seinforce ‘hei stigmatization and socal seregation. Paradoxically Mase ‘ognized, mainstream life did macht eae the codons of shoal by deawing boundaries by displacing thee cccupationl cups std Separating them from sl. Something of the bert and erwcen Balbitat of some af thee profesions tl sintsined in comtemporary ‘erminology in words ike bordel, bordel, and soon, which derive ttymolopeal ros bord order, margin, fn the cy of aera for fxample the righ distri ented with and ill miny concen trated in and around the eponymous talon, the steets whee houses twee bull nor net the forme iy wall vu Anomalies in vers of socal space bing us to second lange category ‘of infamoustade: the meant peripatetic gps member of oe ing and tansen oseupations, people who, because ofthe cen trade ‘ot work, had wo eave. Forenerainet in catiy modern Eacope was In the words of Peter Bark, eaaer to change their audience than their ‘pero and to chage thir audience they ha otal feo towa t56. tnfamaue Occupations town, om fair wo fag topping ash villages a5 mip be on he way" (0978.97). Similar resone exe for several categories of nomadic frsane in other pars of the weld, including the Nude East, the South Asian subcontinent and Japan! In various episodes of Japa’ history, wo min categories of desist and umovchale sceuputioal groupe have een dstnguishd: the Fax inter elledBorakumn' and the Hinn. The formes were more sede tad: and hey specialize in btchering, skoning, tanning and lethe= trork They alo worked cormorant Baber. alones, undertakers ‘hrtaer of tome and executioners apd were chard th the rade in nighrsl vice. The sswoctaton of thee work with death and the border zone berween ie and death i obvious. The Hinin were more tobe and worked s nent ativan and entertainers, moving back fn forth between he villages a regulates Their ranks incladed “iinet healers hess, prot, aro animal timers, jase, Scrbotsy and shooter hepa ‘though there ware not always hand and fast demarcation lines between the Ets and Hinin, athe later mere not comply closes of From the rake of the majority population, the distinction been the two cater is insti. On the one hand hee are the specials fn forgan) purity who, in (Badd) Japanese society, aso cided the ocupationsdeting seth animals and thet prodaty mst notably treat leather and fur‘On the ther hand, we ve the peipattic at ‘Ss nd otersier, vo, apart fom prontotes and heals, ere not froesonallyivelved inthe handling or removal of body di. The fenton we Have tales then, i why these inerane occupational [Soup in Japan as much ae elsewhere, were Tumpee together with people charged with dhe removal of boy reise va “The answer to chs question must be sought both in thir habitat and ther practies tha the nature of thet work, Moving around i pre- ‘dcsinay grain sss without an obvious permanent residence, Inemibees of these “losing” professions blared diincions between fshimal and human forms By waveling rom one city ro the ext they onfounded so thus dtd, major spl categories. Moving back am forth tetweca thse pacified enaven, they had to cross large tats of tiderne tbe bec aged that, ntl the ae eighteenth census ery Tew peopl traveled on the European continent. Apart rom the wbigu tous ates there were two ain social groupe onthe oad, Next othe priviged mobi of members ofthe dominant clases and ther gens, ‘one fide the deprvleged, who, for whatever reason, coud or woul Infomous Occupations 57 fot stay homes” "The lanes included member of fineantproesions, bt alo soliers, bear pilgrims cholaes, sadens nd oats One ‘onsdered them with irs, an atte tht ad ts toot athe pee Slominanyagearian,smallacale chaser of thse soci, People Withour tle dened relationship tothe ln, becouse they lacked Property and a peemanere residence fwbat the Geman call Hema, Fase suspicion, portly tecabe their behavour coud at be moioeed ‘nd conte, and partly became they ould not fe held accountable incase where they Incured debe, as they were eave and did ot thre any property thi could be claimed sete. I this sense oo ‘hey were anomalous Lolly engaged ad however bly a mae tall incladed in local Soil Me daring hgh yeh iiezany pas thom a ds with he eel nctwork eiprcty prediated om ik Df Kinship, marrage and neighbourhood Infact hey accepted money for their stevices which was hy itself, perccived a4 major ination ind inversion, besos ignored social eatonshie bul on texto i: Moreover not having 2 Sued abode (and one may as not having ’my propery) came lone he defined as. cine in seve pats of cat rmeern Europe" “The association with rime is important. Low of residence was implied in banishment, the most common punichment for fst offenders Sowities tha could not aod prisons. This may hep to explain why ‘members of inerane occupational soups were offen asocaed with ‘mil. Both lacked permanent eedense, whch in cs al cul ‘owas, provided the haw ofthe min fos for x persons eit std legal satus. Even more shan ther sodentczed counterpart, members of fnerae groups were “oat of place’. More than jos fang to Be the categories of the st popaton, they often Bowed, makes nd ‘sheer them “This was especially true for the enertiners «heterogeneous group incding mstians, sings, actors, agile, acrobity and aia tines In Furope genealy known as jones and Spillet te lho wied to denore masitans they were soaly and morally eeced, Since they rook ‘goods above honou? by acepéing money or thet Paying Gu fir Ere neem. Entertaners were no lle for il far} service, ot permite to take an oth they could got be wits ‘nor cltim iemnfcaton, and they were aso dened the right to caty Sms In some ates they were limped together with prostates for ‘het alleged indulgence in preseting fle Setites tnd feeling thee bodies for the lowest pie" In ater contests, entertains have ere been lumped roetber wih che dead: ‘Spiller sind nicht Leu wie andere Menschen, denn se ur ein Schein der Mensch haben, und fase den Todten zu vergleichen sind” (Entertainer are not lke hee58. infamous Occupations eon, since dey only have the appearance of humanity, and virally Fm the dead) The explice apmibolc equivalence with death ig tian, sine fay represent sacl death ~ the loss of one ent) Ea espeabl honourable) member of he common.” {Yer in site of such strong condemnations entertainers were ins pensble and formed an nepal par of mira and eaely moder ie Fein they mer especialy riportntaimes of trastion. Wi hee instrament msc sng ance story tling cig ad clowning they Sse in he sts of passage that marked” and Helped ong aboot ~ the main tanstons fhe ie ofthe commana aswel as tat ofeach Inada! member, In the worde of Water Sale "The tal popol tio could be counted a their ushenee fr the were apart of esas zs wala the daly routines from baht death (1983: 21) ue Salen Sho recopizes tha the inert muscan ws 4 homeew and indepen ‘eo india ho, though a mimetic taboo" romoved himself far [S pouble from weal pesure Athos macio economcly epeden on he ling sx he ‘etn cmpsl seen he en crm upon xi? titans acs bs hi To eSpace cat ed ‘Salo esunc Sachs tua onl Mies ns ep {San oflenve eprint este” In many espocs the, nent enteniners turned dominant cls sicaions upside down wish what generaly happens when toundarics are ritually marked and cose" They took mney goods for honour subsituted work for enterainment, reversed. production and non prodacton, repiced exploitation of matral resouress with fplotation of human resourctsy inveed el and othe, animal and fuman. In sun entertainers, however rely, subsite pay” frond tas” li, subering dominant sacar and convictions during wat es ben pl clled the termesr and teres in everyday Me which [ithe sume fie remind ofthe role of trainers 3b gun ‘masking boundaries" “The inca deployment of human eather than ateralesources tas been ante in mastery fashion hy Joep Brand ia his work on the peripatetic Qalandar and Kanan with whom he lived and waved ‘hoands of wes in North-West Pasta i he 1970s. Through their fxaordinary soci skle and thee “structural Hebi" aed "seal fad’ hese nomadic areas and entertains tbe exclusively on Ihuman socal sources, Unie sedenaryagricluraliss and pastoral ‘nomads who explo nator esoues, these “other nomad” ae not Food prodacers Herland writes: Infamous Occupations 59 Pespunse group, pany acted through Lge socienconomi ‘tet a wal ng doa ich ee tea i tno se may bao sp» ‘ene commnis ia wp such speed sive: Tee gested han psn sl pe sha meme ‘The Qalandar and Kana is itinerant entertainers chewhere, also pie prevaling nosone of prodtve) work by emphasing sca sl, explo human esoutes and eating etait ito work by their proteasomal impersonations theyconfound the. diintion Sewn tf and other male snd feral Implied in theo ey and Tidy are various Forms of gender inversion. Mt and women Sich oles 36 men take care of infants at home, while wom work Susie as beagats, dancers, musician and professional. prostitutes. Sometimes a6 pimps and procures for dhe wives, these peiptetics Indulge he symbolic reversal of fandamentl social categorie” As the very embodiment of these iverson, thy too mark and for ‘staal boundatie, Following Durktem, it may be argued that members of infamous occupation, Hike other outsiders, marginals and inverted rings provide negative role models and thus hep inthe definition, conan tion and renorcement of sl? versie oter, sil order ves chaos, Welhavealeadycclereed to the prosiate in ninetecnh-century tral Seen who acted seats in marking difeences = between iste ‘nd outside, socey and chaos, health nd lle, men and women, sh, in pariculny herween male an foal domaine A sadyof ces and tteranes in medieval France shows the working of a similar lope Inher writings, lec nse on the most negative cepesentaton of the entertainer a mont Stans, servants ofthe Deity wer ‘hey respect the opposite of the man of the church. Without mention ing hit always, che jonglew served a5 code ofan claborte syste of Aierencee Sane tuoars nae joe tne permanent an om Parson imp sar gale are Is eementon is fogs Tobesson dela e de sete ow ftp bo, do ru, ls ere en onrepin ae Spe or, (Whos abnays Beng mension, the jg i he pret tr of tmp compart ot wich one ators he tall wept i he Heft mo ment obese ws. The me sham ce60 tfomnaue Occupations Infamous Occupations 61 ed bola! he the more the ci coms hows hss be ‘Eonar ands “The image ofthe eetines 38 tps biti, infamous actor was somehatatenited with the appearance ofthe beg ors nbs tole sr Dominican or Tranescat Petche, the man ofthe church had Kimi become a ran of the coud sharing time and space with enter tains and tbo tineraas. The jongleur was erally ascpted 393 Ahan (so) worked to ake ¢Ivng, But bis earings although ‘ethan longer considered it, remaied ike ha ofthe postu, pe run, infamous peo” Tet. apart fom the more diet services they rendered entrain ‘es wer indspensale inthe symbolic consrction of eural and urban ie Trine tothe tors ad wlges mere nen strctred by seo tonal fairs and fesivals ae well by weding and oter major ans ‘Sons inthe individual fer of people snd the annua cil oftheir Community Indispensable thse ina stages in the ives of bork the inavidal spd the community 388 whole tbe peripatetic Became 380 ‘Sad with symbo death and the other world “Wing about fneant-cccupatnal groups in Japanese history, Cima fas pointed out that thete reveling entertainers, artisans, eaters divin ad pets =a stranger ousdes~ served as cultural broker oviding css nl hereby braking the monotonans ce of ‘rg ie hers eran poss were care the {af de people ered gens an fecame mtr Berner Jnmans a dees We the a te power to actan bal fhe Toenail aro taper by dng ty ld gels poe the pula, 19842889) |A mediating role of entrsiners has alo ben ecorde for meer ind ealy modern Europe. Thi moby, tes Sale, increased the musicians’ shee of if, something the eon wth a ed Fost i aren Ta the fname manana the ours of, TEE te inane trmmier f le, ns sada and Yalu TTheyl wee on ed messengers on ve es ag Tania apr sn, munians wee oem scot ens ‘wien warn paren 1983-22, 24) i Rinerane occupational group incuded several professions which dealt trithhe body ands prac both human bodes and hose of animals “Among them wf the rer or animal carat who aso sometines Specialized in ering vor. As Claudine Fabre:-Vass has pointed out ner work on the chew in France, the castration of ig is dec see scton, since # makes posuble tele domestiatons tha the 26 epeance of thee animal the howe, sn order to ase ad faten them {HOKE The charew was thus inatumental nthe pres of domes ‘ation, which voles his mediation inthe easton of amas fom ‘uti o ise (ordre domesique) = anohee permutation of he tan ‘Stn rom nature to clure To mark hi unl satu he wa dressed ined la veste rouge det bas ruges He anounced his ara whch teas in seep sessona rhythms, by playing Pan Bate thus "ppcoritly sci the age for an unusual performance Theman per formed his operation on the vile square ner the fountain, where he vers sired by women and children for hi deneriy and secret a {Dominate the sex ofthe most unscizable anima’ Women regarded the ‘han 2 3 heslermagcan, because of his anatomical knowledge of female amas and his disposal ofthe ovaries of the sows on which he had operated and which wee Bleed to have magical power snd staat ery. "We kno less about his svial reputation in che wages he ited long his xed and rela meray which cold reach all he way down to Andalusia, The erat passed fom fate son and peoductd, in sme areas, 2 certain wealth and a respectable socal postion. Like the chimney sweep hates came frm the higher valleys of 0M tainous sone, including the Pyrenees and the Cevenes, andi some tea thoy ved they were ened with dhe homtand, for instance, "Rearnaie meaning ‘chiteue That his plceof origin his homeland, swat known may have made the citreurlss anomalous, er oo of lice, and may elp acount for what seems to hae been the avurable Etudes of his hot In this respec oo he embed the oer sine Ant leaner of domestic space ~ the chinese" “Te ctosing snd confounding of pubic and private space i also sharsreritic ofthe ovelspping profesion of barbers and musicians In eawern Aghanistan, there the (pejorative) tern dala refers to bath hendans, barbers, musicians, ars, dances, posites, procures Sad actors The despised Dali ate considered an endogamous ect ational group of outsiders. Managing mos of the infous cas ~ Barber shave heads and whisker, pl teeth, practise plebormy ary ‘outfit operations, make 3 vary of ongeic medicines for ering i ‘iss ct profesional crcmciers and aso work a veterinarians, stile their women pracse blond leing ~ they have their ow Sere> [ated guarere and bury ther dead outside de vilage cemetery wal [Although ll barker groups donor nessa include musicians ad a{52 _Infamous Occupations Infamous Occupations 63 rusian groups do ot necessarily include barbers the sorna and dobl Payers are barbers themselves or tle them, The exclusion ofthese Imascians may also he dae othe alee poling quali of theirs tent the double red ofthe rors placed entirely win the mouth (oF the player thus, the eee and by extension the whole instrament ‘ontaited by the player cnn spe [Saks 1983 79 “The Dalak share thar low soil poniion withthe barbers in Swat, nonthern Pakistan, a deseribed by Barth in hs ey on social sa ‘iton Together wih owo other groups, inching tuscan, dances, Prost, and thong and seve makers, the barbers ocupy the lowest Stratum of soces actully polled castes. Acconding to Bach the reason fr thei ow soil satus rel to thenatre of che sevice they render Al ites of passage in Svat ~ bith, circumcision, betozhal, mariage and deth ~are marked by Lapel public celeron In Performing hem, people form neighbourhood anwwiations ech of ‘which is amintered by barber who, etn for yey payments Sd gilts, bods sevice contact wit each sna Rowse the awocation Thee service inclade haccuing (of men by the haber of women by his wife and shaving, Bu barbers ae alo caged ‘with te organizavion of elevations andthe announcement of the event {© appropriate outsiders. Barth concludes "The “low”, “taboo” stats ‘ofthe barber stems fom this special rol. Because i iaoles inmate ontact withthe domestic ie ofeach fay, in breach ofthe tenets ‘of pradery and selon, the barbers status needs co be ley segregated fom that of ether person nthe sommunty(1960: 4, ‘Regarding the Dalk musicians in Afghanistan, Sakats emphases thar their services parallel howe ofthe barbers Swat, and gett nother reason why sora and do payers ares lsly associated wth Sem: the announcement of importante events ouses is made by ‘he ployng of Teese instruments), thus breaching the same bares of rvay that the professions themselves beach (1983: 81. But thee is ‘ore to playing mas that of itrest hee. Art hisorns pin out {har he preence of mail ntramente om ary modern Earopenn il Ue printing, Boome ofthe tanlnce oftheir sound = the fading of nots are wellknown santa symbols, which tert he tania of fhumaa fe x ‘The infamy of millers is also reat to habia, The bad reputation in some parts of Europe has ote been noted and thei greed ishonsty Snd drunkenness were almost proverbial, but their Unebrihket sll In some ofthe German rerories millers were p tothe seveneeth eotury, charged with sssitance 3 pub exeeaions by forishing the fallow ler, which mst have rellcted and reinforced thet associa= tion wth crime and criminals” In his Uscusion af the stereotypes of Iilrs in exer Eorope at Chaucer tne, Jones suggests that the Infamy of millers may have been related 0 thei Location. He notes that ils were soo satered fom gud they could nor protet the fights or thir reputations as wel asthe beter ongained professions” (HSS: 5}, Moceone: miles were ako outers of sors, brcase thie tis were nor only sates, but also ba mole places, neat Sean and river usualy at some dance from wllgen apd tons. ‘helt ofthe mile and his amily oul, therfore, not be monitored sin scrutinized a xy a howe of people who ved inte villages and ‘ovens Init of sateen cerry slr oF aly, Ginzburg point athe connection heeweenopennen to unorthodox ideas andthe Toco fill “Thr vrking eomdstions made miles ike nee fr tnvern keepers and winerant artisans ~ an occpational pou pe iy seseptive wo nw eas and inclined o propagate them. Moroes, rill, general located the peeps of sete areas and far om Pring eye, were wel sued to she clandestine therm” (1980: 120): Baus fhe isltd locaton, miles were ved be ee tio and lik. As Danckert privet In pope imagination, lonely Tocated mill were preferably choven asthe scenes for at of fer) tnd mde The lonely mil 3 beloved stage for peppered poroo- [raph tale (1963: 129, 131). He ques an egheetecntuy popular Song in which lls and aulery form narrowly related themes, a the Fiat snes tee ch wit mi sne Mi, hn wundrchne Wey (en ile ie Godan sal gra wh he Thais what name) “These presentations of what happened in and around mils nthe German etores, alongwith he sereorype of miles lead cutent these when the Canterury Tales were composed, must have64 Infamous Occupations Infamous Occupations 65 ‘enforced the ide of signing them (and the lnen weaves who had in large numbers come from the countryside co the towns in the cet etary) series ansocated wth the preparation ofthe gallows Whereas ‘he linen weavers ha eo asi nthe Bling of the scat he miles Id mentioned above to provide the Laer nse aces the gms ‘Seaton of milera persed ito the nineteenth century.” I seme that ‘we must understand ther bad reputation i es of abit oat Tocation) and presumed peace (promiscuity, adler, the). They were theme out of place and favlved ih mater out of place 2X tecent study of mills and miles in Lone, Frace, ascribes the bad ‘epuatin of les othe soated location, which key them ouside the local neework of reciprxity, and open to suspicion of thet Mesmer oar, meme sorcery habitant du mou porte es stgmates ne profeeon” (Miller thi, miller etch, he occupant ofthe mil ears ‘he stigmas of professoe.” ‘Bur miler dl not have aba reputation everywhere. The sereoypes ‘mentioned belore cannot, fr example be ated For the Dutch Repub tie "Thit may be dor to te diferent location of ral ard perhaps alo to the wbatiraton and commercaization of these ares. the Law Counc (where windmills prevaled and seved many purposes) millers ‘sally had thie mls ia oe near towns: hat earth oes of com ‘impli, rather than seatred in he countryside, Ths spat sande ‘nent of mils in the vicinity of population entes must have made mills ‘ore "sociable and enable thee o frm guilds” corporations which ‘may help explain why mir nthe Low Cnr did Sor Ive saflered rom soil opprobrum. In Sc’ western nein, water rls were located long streams ner the centres of procter states of Lond, and far aay tom the cen of habation, the Sovcaledagrotowes Bu thee Slated country mil ever served 8 3 permanent ceadence for fils Like the big farmhouse or master, mls were essenally workplaces: both the miller and is clan, the conan, who brought thee grain on mules co the mil, had thst permanent residence inthe agro own” Secilislation may also have played a part inthe ambivalence towards irn-workers ia sever Afpcan and Asan sites Unie forging, which ss pubic event, smeking enly taker place care buleup areas hence the analogy beeween smelng, and parisons "foth tke place in private ors the Seclusion of he bush In various parts of Alia smelters performed all the smelting operations etry ake. As Eugenia Herbert explains the implications Naked, spc ‘locing of Brot, or animal skin may’ lint ster more cosy with natre,corespnding this Bolason inthe bush during slong tn ir mediting role eeween the wid and the ivi? (1993: 93-4, 160). Won workers are often organized in endogamous occupational oups a fact that underwtes thee displacement thir dance fom the rex of the population, Sgfcani they combine ion working = ‘th a guinessenally"rannfrmaie eat ~ with othe inal pro fess; mont notably eeryhing tht a to do ith bh nition (erumeision), death url helngandeneeinent. Both valued and ‘hnmed, both chili heroes and outcnt, Mande Blackamiths are ‘zely involved in the action of socal and cuftral space: tele tbiguow postion peedapotes them to numerout wediaing cles {4eNaughuon (9KK: 40, The Dow in northern nda and Pakistan ae owe as iron-workers, bu they aso figure as mains, bards, sweep fs, gavedigues, and tanner.” Despsed and fated, and considered “incon sith in East Africa were aly clove to sacred King, whom they served as bodygtards, messengers and exectiones* The sjmbolic "uvaense between sts (executioners) snl Kings makes sentence the mastery of fre sa assoited with both “Be wae often dene ‘wth the force of ie et an with prosperity rend, the hammer ane Consituteds quinesental enblem of royal power throughout Cental [Alnca” Wenobce thrall three figures omit, executioner and Kn swerest apart from ordinary mura ings astra the Bounds Seeweon Ie and dest, this word and the nee Hs Bucket soa there ate "asc sims i all forms of hhumam eure, inasmuch as evryere people ea dik, and defecate, vod andslep, ej sex and proce, ge sk and de” the soa) Infamous occupations are defintely casein point. Closely ed up with ‘he ual tat mark the passages ofan indivi through the esl, they ate sen the interplay of ology and cate which as bee aed "the subtext of al ries of passage" The inevitable facts of aman ex perience bith, copulation and death ~ crest the space for tual Specialists who sand guard over these transitions and help being them Shout. Like thee ceremonie infmous cocupations ae colturaly and Instovically bounded bu cannot be explained insolation, in purely loal ‘exms. To paraphrase Van Geanep, beneath 2 uli of forms, eher Conscious expressed or merely implied, pial paren always reas the pater of the infamous occupations whose prattoners mediate ‘What emerges fom the study of thee proesions is» pice of 2 pacsdonial erate lina apd ot of plac, dling and ceded with ‘magia power, marginalized and yet part ofthe community, despised Gnd indapenable. About ach “oniverals™Barker notes that they “alvaysappeaeintgrated iat specs cules and take various shapes ‘sccoringly, bu thet unmistakable sniaiy males them general last ‘anscening sng clural systems."65. infamous Occupations xt In six diferene histories! and geographical contexts ~ ancient Rome, medieval and early mover Europe the Middle Eas, Afcan soit, the South Asan subcontinent, and various episodes of Japanese history we id largely the same set of xcupations stigmatized ad prose, land the members of these profssns consideed“ntoochable apd ence italy segregated frm the majority population. Av Slaw fas sugested she soca segregation ofthese professional groupe mas of Fundamertalimporance im undercaning ter low boo sits and he ‘magical power stiabuted to several of them. But more wa sored in the dapcemeat ofthese cafsmen. Ae we hve se thy alo Set them selves apart fom the major socal categories of mines ify the boundaries of which they could then eos and break often 3 ide nd mediate. Members ofthese occupational group belonged tthe community and yer were exshed ri Reviewing brie the table del toupe and he argue lowed so far there are, st, the pilin purty who mowed bald fom public domins to enclosed spacer, pushing “organs eruption and Inaues “ou of place nclading varios bay nso, tr Kai Son’ or Bein the sene, a8 Norbert Bliss has summed up the dit of these operations in the content ofthe iviiing proces that anslrted ‘western European societies between about 1200 and 1800. The nature tof the material they dele wth and removed (body waste, organic off tnd decay) direc evoked images of death. Stcondy we have the Peripatecenreraines and artisans, whose ambiguity resided inthe Sneraney ~ im ther bing “out of place and in tt pays which involved the ivesson of numerous atgories,Enertines ere doy Sscated wih all min er of passage, both calndrclites ad ie isis, Tei inal tages, a8 Van Gennep demontstd long 3, represent symbolic death and svolve symbole feral In one wp Snorher members ofthe posed occupations mained trough their work relationship wih death ber defacto ike the skinner the executioner and the gravedigae, o symbolically like she etertainct: both groups were the main choreographers in the iconography ofall ‘major teamuisons nthe ves of people and their communes hes Ianties or “family resemblance we have been looking for eon ‘members of infamous occupations reside then, in thet stoi, lecty of symbolically, with tansons~ of which desth in particle sands out Te fllows that one would have expected an actuation of thirinfany snd pollasion, and an improvement of thei scil state when eres (of thee ocspations gave up their inerancy, sedentared, organi Infamous Occupations 67 ‘henselves into corporations, and moved their work fom public onnaine to more enclosed sings. Along seth the presumed sea ‘hanument ofthe werld apd she pact nthe craig prowess, hs 6 indeed what happened with sereal ersorile desptedprofeesions in early moder Europe. Consider, for example the muscans. Their ‘chableaion tok slong tine, bu eh way to espectabli insoc fives Agrwring number of them fee slntry and pu themetves tinder he patronage of scolar Toe and the church, changing their feperoite and sec eco more clas” gee, ike the chansons [iP geste atthe vs de sins. Among them we find famous mainszls fed toubadous, who made their reputations as poets storys, ‘Mies, of musians a the oats, Others organized themsenes {nto guilds and Fetes, abandoning ther ferant ie and ing Sporection snd lism. tom the church and other poweeul patons." "pr from individual and socal elfrsin terms of anganiation ed the Dutch town of Groningen si pursolae Ie therefore seems tht, tn dhe whole, ordinary people shunned chines sweeping, whch ind hte he lesen in which the rade and te practioner were held Tess highlycharaweistie of many dreputble occupations to be a5 Slated, in one ayo another, with cleaning, eth the removal of eine and dt leis ls skin tat foreigners sumed ere charged sith thes aks “The question 36 10 why ceresin valleys speciale ia chmacy scoping ie others were knows for ls dshonouabl actives hs fever receved 8 satiacory anrwer™ AS aoted above, this regional Ahsan of labor can perbaps best be waderstood in coaneton with coloyal and piel constrains, We have sce that valleys where ‘Siraey sweeps originate rom were arse of marginal farming, where ‘eople were unable to buildup slice sources forthe winter More ‘ver, people from poor morta ales had no oppor for more Siledemploynen, oc only Bocuse hey lacked he gusications, bat ko because sl eras were monopolized bythe surplus population itom lower and less poor valleys: Smlarpatens of competivon and ronopolzstion were repicaed bythe seeps thmsls. For this nt Prerton, daw pon some earks of Nader in particular his obset ations “Thore who dace Have any professional taming ~ above all those fom the most olated alles inte Tino ~engaed themselves fs chmney-sceps as far as che Netherlands (1980: 82 u “That chimney-swecping was generally Joked down upon is farther atte toby ie asociaon seth arog ade and acts that had fn unavoueiberepation. Sweeps were often idented with nernt rope, who have always ben el suspect and hed in ow raed by fhe hore population Apart Ho the roaming activity sel the main fesvon why iinerant folk wee considered drepuable wes, of course, ‘hat they had no xed abode fo were supposed not 0 have one) std tree ee les sult t0 sil contol, Inthe Germam speaking cou72_Why Chimney Sweeps Bring Luck ‘ues, sweeps were sometimes recruited fom the rank ofthe fahrende we, wih whom they remained closely asocated because of tele ‘wor which wae inant even when the sweep themselves had 4 fixed residence” The seasonal sweep from the Val eras, who swarned ‘over the north Talan plain during che ices months, weee highly ‘mobile, moving back and forth henwcen ty and countryside, This Brough them within te ach of he eran population, wth hoy they alo shared 3 din got.” Weting about the ess chine ‘seeps nother Kay Baler observes As long a shrews ough emplormen inthe wha ces ofthe ‘er ritey te venpe syed apn etd oom Then aes srry wen he one echo ca shew the ee reign Nex aig ‘he wet Sa so wh hy peel wie sala Regarding the tneract a seasonal character of chimmey-eweeping in ninetent-centary London, Meyhew reports ‘Bln tte conermemgrs Te fut of gn bout nsec ft ployment fan fl pated in many ofthe he aerig open pear fo sat people. The uy season inthe chin) reper ae omncs a he gg of Nove an oni {tothe smh of May ring therm of te ee the ade “E.G. the ack san hast reat eo hued cn at thrown out of employee Thee, wel many he ingle Ima, reso oer ds femme, Some un cosernong, tthe ike fe rine (1968 365375) Inthe Scandinavian couteies, chimney sweeping was even moee slosely associated with other dsteputable ccupations and activites, In Denmark and Sweden, Fr instance, the desis ratte or nad ‘maraolk combined chraey sweeping with other forms of cleaning and ‘ele calling including skinning andthe elated ling and butcher tng of horses Infact, che word "rakker” or racer” derives fom the Loser German ren, hat ito remove else apd dit while the word dma ov natiman denotes nighiman or cesspool dean!” Dscwing ful Tie in inetcentcencry Denmack, Rockwell writes tht the Why Chimney Sweeps Bring Luck 73 rabkerfolk “were separate group isthe population, atached to the Peasant sity but not prt of i She continues them nll ie gpa om hs ed permanent ‘ume snd er aed rm the lg hey mas are ees eid gman ile Rosy sles, dogs and a ying these animal and tect whch had dd of dene, ing boca cea do. dats sweeping chimneys, Sl ening re (1974 45349" Ver sila combinations of employment have been highlighted in a case seady of an eighceni-ceaty rttnan a southern Swede. Hs name ‘eas Bolhig, and he combined. chimney sweeping with gelding and butchering horses, sinning, and asisting the angina. A® the ahr nphasinw all hee aces were consid infamous and lig Ive atthe margin of Society aso Ierally, a he outskirts of town not far frm the place of execution, in siht ofthe gallows (Bali 1980), Ses fom the Alp alse bought up human hate and worked a nt rains In France, te Low Counts ad England, for example, youn Seep went frome door t dove during the offseason with marmot, ‘wick they rough rom the Also show and make does for mone They also played the hurdy-gurdy oF viele, a hand organ, wich they accompanied witha nasal vow.” Thus the Savoyarde,abreves ‘Mayhew, were once the general showmen and sweep of Europe (1968, Tete Foc present purposcs its also important ro note that chimney seeps had to shout: no only through chimneys and from roottops, bt alo in the tees fo announce tes ara, ln thie way they recmbled the daeputable town eres, coxcrmongery, ke ginder, snd other pulses and hawhers, with whom dey were indeed usualy asecatl $d dented In fac, cine sweeps loom age i collections dept ing and describing how (urban) people made dhe ving onthe street, bawking eet goods and services" What sweeps had aon common with hawkers, eres, divers and coachmen was shore apprenticeship Sd a had eputaion, Sweeps are often represented as shouting in sereneenth- and sighrent-cenury engravings, whote capsone describe showing 3rd ‘wunderng a allan ofthe ade late seyenteatrcetury eng Ing by Francesco Cur, sed on 4 deawing by Gaseppe Mara Mil (See Pate Ts captioned as followsPlate 1. Lo spartcamino, Chimney sep, Late seventeenth etry raving by Francico Cat based on a deawing by Giseppe Mitel ‘hoco by courery of Dr Fenando Bones, Archive Cancale elincona, Switeeand Why Chimney-Sweeps Bring Luck 75 We shal come back to he mage of Charo the mologcal igure wh feted the dead scos the Rive Sty. The wandering snd shouting of svecps ae lv cmpbasied in sober seventenh-cmmy porta Jeon Raps Bosman The caption of hs engraving une follows A. sandand lkaan phrase, wrlie come uno spacacomin (to shout ike chimney sweep) ail evokes 2 sila picture. Going fom oor to door Helped ix the sweep’ image as nrant folk In some ‘as, incling London and Vienna, wives of chimney sweeps worked orate musicians and pods, agin renforing the ampresion of Te shouldbe mentioned that sot, which sweep colleed and sold ro faumers (who poured on ther meadows and wheat fel to destoy sli and otber pets) served a fll medicine The sweeps nec tion with healer and quacks may abo have ben move erect. fac the expression ‘chinneyswecp without ladder, which Spears inthe {Low Countries around the sxenth century ef to street endows seligparpatives The phase aso sem to dente (not only io Dutch, tas in Pench and English) a man looking for sexual adventures 2 connotation one also Rnd in other sayings, like the Dutch expression “tahave her chimney swept, which refers fo sexual intercourse” The relationship hetween seeping chimneys and vex intercourse made cxpliiin an Ralian canzone popolre, ened Lo Spazacaino'76 Why Chimney Sweeps Bring Luck ‘Salina ease Prime came “on pls freee over inne, cme fr sie ove del ese, Ia ee va ded etal paecamin ‘Sheba st al spzecain. (Up and dows the county rade Free and rn tone bear Recher ye of te cheep (Coming oe wind STienate ga Sto ale the veep with a rans vee Fishel tm ‘hd hc she es i si dows, She rs the seep et and dei, ‘der hava ee Ee an avn dark wel shel hin se the al, he be ofthe cine. Oh how sry Lam ha my cine 56 arom oo out wile sagt lin Bon wor nada am experince th cae {pow bow go sbo ep and down ia he chinaey ‘hn ae for onthe the moon sine ope syThe ties has been hee [And serine monte ny chimney Sweeps Bring Lock 77 2 beau ty bore sho lvl reels the shinny seen {Chinney-smees formed separate category of people. They were con Sided an onaual To, and they ao sa chess as stint rm the people in who sdt they ved and worked. These most cel Stewed toby thee common etic origin. Bar no es sigfiant was the Strone tendency towaed endogamous marhapes aad the use of thie Tala or Feach ss well asthe wwe of» seca argo, the tam, which forher see the sweeps apart fom the bess Moreven, chimney Sheep often lived in poriclar seighbourhoods or ste which tree snetimes named afer them, ike dhe "Schoorstenvepesee (Ghianey sce” alley) a Amsterdam. In Viena ad in other pars of esta chimey-oveeping was conideted 8 radioets Griee, that isan occupation o rade that could be exeesed in combination wk the owmertip of a specie house; hence a chine sweeping pace oul only be acgued (hough purcise or inberiance) long eth the hoase Thi nimat ink between erupation and lneton Bata). ea tendency toward monopoly formation on the part ofthe sss Sn an atempr by the authorises to segulte the trae and to Keep iin place Such arrangement which beled to St the sweeps apart Tein indicate the extent t0 hich this oeupation was considered usual something owt of ee ordinary. ded, he residential pater Ur sweeps may be iced a spmbulic expression of ther marginal Rural folk fom Europe's higher mounain valleys were able 10 prac chimney seeping becuse other people looked down upon ic [Rt ehe same time, however, these marginal mountain peasants tid 0 ‘monopolize she tide, Concerning sweeps rm the Ticino, we know that Thawte, an often even emir fie had hee own dates and te ‘ove, which wer early demarcated and ito which incursions were ‘ot tolerated. This double bid ~ general avoidance and monopoly Formation =i highly characterstic of infamous occupations, espa Tocratve trades lke prostitution andthe work of the hangman. We shoul not Forge tha the word “positon ha and il has a wider meanings namely co rhogish ones honowe for money “Thee ae various indirtons tht chimney-sweeping was potable preily becuse it wan both induapesable nd widely shunned, rs inecenth-cntury London, for example, some masters ete very “cornfortable’ and some were, comparatively speaking’ ch." A similar situation prevailed in Autri, whee substantial pros from chiiey~ Sweeping helped keep the eae inthe hands ofa Fltively smal endo78_Why Chimney Sweeps Bring Luck Why Chimney Sweeps Bring Luck 79 ‘samous group of outsiders. Spisbegerabseres: “Generally speaking, theltalans managed Kep theta in thei ands." The wade wa ‘considered profitable, and they td o stable thei esoutes throu sxvantagous marriages. th general one can say thatthe chiming Sweeps had tease high standard living’ (197%. 15-16) Dic ‘sig the popolation growth during the fist of the nineteen eorary inthe hie of Lacaro (comprising he Cenovalin the Val Verzasca andthe Onsernone), Buhler notes tat part of the saris population joined the ako the sweeps How ol is option be oud, he old ne dove se ‘eps enya persed ye {Swe seal crane ene sol hs hat ne Sain somes wih wy ater sins tl sae pert cmpaton sold one hep Peyton 6 nt png nhs pat he So iors sl pee Te ‘ating hm ang Seepng ped ¢ ee rae Cone tay she oer tengo emia wer condo ‘a's he ate of Ins ciel se sand Sing ef mae tar 30 san ae operon {De nce a to athe byes 8 fone A campus Sth og th a ey lene sr ching ower mh dy sad wove ce 180 Eisner css mom oe) In the itrature on chimney sweeping, the elasionship beeen ti: iy and oacupation is wadely recognize, at the sonmecion betwee ‘monoplization ofthe ade ands profitability Bat he dark seo this ‘monopoly formation has received ese atin. Prot derived fom ‘hinneysweeping also greatly depended on public cntempe for the feade as dshonourablepeofesion es lw esteem put mow people off ‘chimney sweeping, but if aso faceted monopolation and helped Fase prof. Ths the dshonour of chimneysweepng conspited Iain ts relatively high remuneration, When chimney sweeping ewan to lose some of stigma (perhaps cing to the nection of ev technology), si London around the side ofthe nineteenth emury. new people vad the trade, and. profs. conquer) ‘creased There seams to be no other way to explain the apparent contradiction implied ia high profes from work that ordinary. pope Sune and eo outsiders, w The unusual postion of sweeps in (early) modern Eeropean society is also emphasized! by thei rest and he general way in which they were “presented, Ass well koow, clothes are particulary suited to mark “Indsress soil tatu and changes of sca satus. Taken ou of context, Tech writes en of thing hs 8 mig hey ca be stacked aay in a dvr Ih neve wh 2 yori sso ake op hi the whey puter inst oan hey for dis thc mary of eed soa cls nope val cme: ale and Tea fos cy and dy mas nd cee, Brie od wow ‘ely para haul ar al ined ecg by the cing thy eae (976 53) Since the carly imsenth centr sweeps have dese either in Hack or whe: flack was more common, and only im Helland did thy mets de white ie way he cu st him, Sweeps apart fom adinary peopl, who never essed entirely in black riekice excep ofcourse when they too, became onsale widows Gr brides Meveoven like people working In other snamous occups ‘omy smcepe ore unusaslheadgear (universally a standard stats trans) Their Mack tprhat was apy called "ove-pipe’. Though it Fad evn in togue inthe uenneseah century. sweeps were she tly people who continu! o wea ths particule Kind of hat gether with representatives of oer una wade, cluding undertakers and For obvious reasons, members of infamous osupations had 10 be direct recognizable, Of core the reverse abo kl ood: that sees onl be csiy recognized he top-aebring «meron ign of her {rade suggests that they oeupd special apd umes place society. Income Germanspeaking ares, the clothes sweeps wore were made puny of moleskine Here we ace desing wth anther meaningful mb, with an obviow tural analogy mols too, are anomalous hey have to find thse wy Hingly eheough dack and nacow passage ‘ray, Suh clic and headgear have stamed the chareter of sa, marking sweeps nt Que human and plang them ouside che oral Sommers "The imography of chimney-svees has muck to tach us abost the way sets were ead snd tented by ordinary people pat teu) rich Source onthe nagryof sweep found in pare pon nes, mostly dating from the Tae nipetwenth and ea went ures" In ghese document several ting are elvan. Vitaly all SF thm ae New es eligi ose oe sends nd feceive daring a important period of elena tention, c0 Ws Thok Tere we ouch opon she qinessence of the unusual character80 Why ChimneySweeps Bing Luck svi wo weeps, aly hired roland ie mage [owes The seep bing stn parla fo rds ~precely bene 2% him umstaThefore he auc wh gs hich ate Iewise uncommon, bora erin. See the hte) Sep docs ot rows eigenen eee, Re ant a3 medor He shoul oom len boundary, sell, and Hk al nna sing, event saint eaten Re toh oo nd am ober of ial valu and hence sour amet sd powers “The Tninsicy of chimney-wcep is abundantly satel. by these pre posts The cals ty whch ds om the ae ninth ery show the chy sep as oom ee wh, ina gomngoe wt, pats» a bouucy aed (6 oun oman, oe tan amiga he eer ahd yor mae Ina le sees of New Year welling ay he cine weep ‘onan a epee prim a proper bay sy of ese Prete poscans show the chimney sweeps bop nthe company of Young it wh whom he ems be naiaying an amore onshp. On spar of 1906 tht hoy sande fend heron nea hin puting shad noha On ater ho rt ‘her ofthe wets we see the By sep deed in Hak Wah bik tophaty sting on he nowconte oo Ps Nes et Sis young gi deeds «Peso costume They ar ls totes {xch wairan am ove the ote shone, Thy ase th es fd ook teach her ins flyway. Inthe background church lek indcues mine ee anther poco 90 tows oy ol ‘himney- swept th doo of hose, sling oung won dese in white wo sande onthe heed id sens he ambscur sone ‘heer oven of hese restatons hey ees nen dete with women who ar angle) corespond fo he ok bel that, tote on ches bigs parila es ‘to ae of coun abo tial Rte wom cher tured mor Unimarrd bebevitan between tee Socal teres “he bee in he operat powe of hse cans 50 sng that when sweep ate ot atl they are spl cnc ot Honigmann witnemed onthe canon ofthe Almabib in hasta ‘The man who dior down segs hey were more slowly an need spurns aetio]Wacened hit Iie caey swe Te se ‘ous god lek, jo laine totam» ey ‘seep a his oun orf hema abe sf hrc the {Se ofthe i whom he pci he waned eh (1968 381) Why Chimney Sweepe Bring Luck 81 Everything that surround dhe sweeps on these posta is ambiguows, [apt from adsesenty bids and gi im ie costumes, we see fur ithe lovers sucking ig dacarded shoes fang ad bid, mise foe. chimacy,treshols and open doors. These materia are dict {oles They do not B conventional categories, and thas form sit he symbole for persons who are unclear and abnormal themselves Finc,'s mentioned caries lat everywbere people ascribe magical power to tnarginal and mia things, especial et and else, we can ow undersand why all thee objets are supposed to bing ck. They [re medio each Link sens to geet she new, facing he ra ‘Sion rom one soa category of slesrout sate to anotbec™ Soot and ‘hes, apart from being refs, re inermodiary between heath and feof between earth and sk-vauit fase a cimeys, doors and hrs ‘is media between inside and oud, as chime sweeps bate tale ad female, unmatred ad martes and outside, ty and ‘ean old and new (New Yes) a5 mite i inermediary betwen ‘esto ees ai everreen ree and Between summer and wine, 36 Pines between huran ad ania a ladybird between tae and Wild, Utes berween anmarsi and mario, at adaescens berween ‘hikeen and adults Thee postcards thos revel a siguficant pater ‘he imagery convey the deaf transton ee passage fom oe stats Se or catogory to adhe, "We should noe suns, howeves that mediators always bring lack. As is well knowsy some of them re Righty Inauspicious ~ a or example, the execution and, of couse saris (anomalous) animals Why then do sme mediators bring lnk, wile oes are bev to bring Infrae! Ir acems that thi very mach depends on their aia and the kindof tltion they main wit ofinary people" A chance cour with an execitones st have been considered nse, since {he man was outede his proper domain: that his house, the prison Sd the ple of execution, Mewting him By chance meant being placed ‘Sha pc with convict and condemned prisoners Sch an encoumer with the enectioner th etablchod an snwanted contact and was therefore believed to be inauspicious, Chimney sweeps, by conta were never inerders beause their work required them to walk the sets and Enc the ovate domain ofthe custoers, Moreover, her ves were ‘recone, for cleaning chimneys prevented fires tht would Gstroy the Tome "elingly, Se Horian, the sweep’ patton saint, sometines Aepied wih a bucket full of water (ce Pte 2). Hence peeing them by chance inthe set or touching them was considered auspicious. Final it shoudl be clear tha these encounters, bot favourable and Unfavorable, desined dhe mail power also fom tei rele carerea ate2_ Sune Florian, pation ein of chmneysweeps. About 1850 Oberammergauiimatmuscun, photo AKG London. Why Chimney Sweeps Bring Luck 63 “parece all were exceptional meetings. And bot lk and misfor ‘ine have been and sll are regarded a extaordinan Iris oo coincidence thar chimney sweeps were prominent inthe cols th repesemation of weddings, Together wt funeral weddings are {Roce ofthe ans nd anal positon af sepsis he mediating ‘hey ployed inimpontan cilendrs transis. Sweeps nox only appear SRN ears well wihing cand they actualy assed a banquets of ie wallwudo teencen Chriss and New Yet. The autobiography of iMacep om the Ticino iiss that bet in the power of sweeps Ue Wek daring major periods of anion wa sil widespread amon the upper cle nth ery sweat century A similar, mediating co, abo in calendsical ites, was played b chimney sees i England, Between approximately 1730 and 1850, htepe domed the popsiar May Day festival im Landon and ese Shoshone celebrations took plac daring period of eansition: the Tha ofthe busy season ad atthe beioning ofthe slack pid ~ ha orig the page fom pens to sari, am terval which coi Sed wih the passage om winter go summer Disgused in various sways, dhe sweep parade he sets for err days with garland, cl Teng money 2 strategic places. They mere fanascclly dese, wit Irate wit, ie cous and ge crowns. Some swecps were dressed in| trom’ clothes others danced and made nea soo rough musi Tet tine with thee shovel pd Bese Tes been argued tha sch sua of reversal expess dhe Lminaty ofthe permanently statu ink Tuener 1968-165) odeed, May Day wen not onl called “Sweep Da’, but aso known a8 "Chimney Snsep Canis) That he stractrally weak were most prominent this eal abo atest by Mayhew’ observation Tes but eldom that any ofthe lage masters go out om May-Days this custom Rene84_ Why Chimney Sweeps Bring Luck Why Chimney Sweeps Bring Luck 85 ‘lly confined to he lise mates aod thir wen (1968, 37). The feed of St Fan has nay neo May “eet since the ir profesional chimney seeps began to ls tal the Middle Ages to seek work n ighboring counties (lis 1963 52 Pally we should remember th wats evel ese ass mpd in wearing opt which had bon boc on uppercase En aa Soba of ere "We can now undertand why ~ ofall workers ~ chine seeps in pail were s prominent at wigs and at cra fete and in gene loomed so lage inthe imapinron of pein Furopeats As seanges whose indnemsbl wok rout tam to the hear ofthe demesne domain, sweeps bridged» amber of ower ppsins. They marked and helped bing abou ans te hal eee andthe Ie eee of ial clang aor cafe ‘Steves in the proces nthe lien tes (whan he een af ‘marae the sweeps tse in sso clevason and soled he Smit alah, We ave nt the ney ey an lee with Charon, te mytolopal eryman charge wth the trapor ofthe dead. This rete farther Undescres hee Imditing power with which he wat cred the seasonal es {Casas New Year May Dl te sweeps stn and marked te ‘tanstion of he emir sxy ms neato athe hog os ‘es of sts reer. As Turn selec es alo ‘ton ito ace are slot soy ites of ats cleans ees acl tes andres of pup ccs ay sometimes bers of Sate reveal (198168, w These sbierations om chimneysweeps my ao how sme light 09 the isu af he vocal ifatos cpa son the nose of ‘infamy itself. " The cane ile doube abou the unl and arial pace sweeps cupid ney modes Exopea soiin Thi peli and tow socal stun bie often ben voted, openly ‘herve sich a8 Mayhew who in work on tinea toni et wm as Gs fp cane and who wot, ‘ering to page Com Shkcspete, thatthe ployer est ‘cpa wont of the meaeny fou beso te poet da {05e,.399 eth mrp of te swe hs ner been tat Peat, Sep are al desea ae parte wha owe ane 5 bot as member of marginal gover Bat the inperons of a nay” ae never spelled out the Tua value of sweeper Inside o nord nd therih llr ht developed oud thee Jessen a alton of curses ater hana 50 many nd xaos oft iain "We have een the chimney-wenp tended form endogamons zeus ted i rts lca sa hav, bd eh om png nd ngr, and wore special sata. Al these colle tare cn rut teat to seine thn spat fom erat peopl, who ey desk wiibem nin salad way In several counties {Sd the chimney sweep soul nx spy eter the hous of i i one the capt in mont ee a woman a a 0 Bek #8 Sits rash Ths caso we Bese 0 ring lik, nd we on Shertnd ike he aa king and toocing the chimney ee {Spey wochng he oot om fs brash or clotesh ay mage! oper ttn as an aemp to werd of rl and to share tn the good powers srk on rc wi his bol mato The bel ont Sign power of twsepe nd soo deed om te Leal uy of Aor Whar nay hare forced the meding capac of the ci sweep ahd eahaced his amity hs icreasing his ta vale {Titharheemere th howto cstores range sch “vk on the mon cel snd nina cao of th hos, nae Thea wich ako happened to be the pox af the fee domain “Ths may hel to nerand why serps were en depicted and Assoc with women hy they were prominent at wedding hy hey ste someon pected sy sarong aad why se {hem indnged in eoveniom ring eva esse rom etc pana of the wrld me Know tha prokasionale whose work ivan ines contac withthe danas He of ther peopl {Hisstaly segregated rom th rx ofthe communi In chap this, ‘tc have sendy menoned the sole of the haber in Swat Noth Pak ‘tan: Barth poe out that he low taboo sae of the ater seme from hi cn haeing, cumin apd the orgasim of ee Seats feed forthe sex of pugs of every nial “Bsaun Ihspeci fle] invles inmate conse whe dome ic feck {Elgin trae ofthe wun! Eason of podery and seaion, the barber tar nedh to be ely separated rom thatthe persons 12 communi (1960 23-4)" The costo of fresking 3 ig ff ‘Eesweap gether withthe ter fom of stazaton 0 which ie was sujet can also Be undertood ar marking bis spec sas ‘lore leing itn cre the undais heres oui and nie, ‘eoween pubic nd pate “Tecate of the mney sep may tea throw some light on people working mrhe dona scans son the non lm Eel Vial al of tem operate scars reales ~ Pod shi, trv long mpd a fo of Casing Surgeon, babe, ser,85 Why Chimney Sweeps Bring Luck exccuones, posses, nen weavers, chimneyswoepe — they all handled of, and refuse" A paroclae cae point wos the exe catoner or hangman, who, in etn eepons, combined fis work with skinning, the supervision of trodes, caring the sick, and underaing the cleaning of cesspool." Like the sweep, whove work he vonetines sumed as well, he mas an important mediaoe The execatoner had ccs 10 magical means [body rematns) snd bridged « whe sees of ‘pposinons, mediating sich basi, cleat caeporis a and bly, tity and cea, life ad death, ise and out, tis world and the eat Thertore,hangmen and chimney rvcepe nse the most lao ‘ate siualzation im ther dealings wth diary people® Only when tondinary people became abnormal themseler i ty, convicted. found themselves ia another sat of ansionmarying) or when something was wrong wth thes house or etl ity lead, id they for ther Rinsmen turn ~in highly tue ways members of hese Aisepuable professions. T hve ered to explain why the rations with chimneys were serngly raed and ehy these craftsmen were ceed with ack Irsngng power The example of he sweep may the sls line the oton a nama: Ambiguity, malty marpnality aod mediating apaces were the hallmarks of members of disreputable profsions “The concept of ifuny cx athe Germans called ie Uncbickt dis ued the supernatural powers scribed to chimney sweep and ther ‘workers in despised trader. We have sen how these cpachis dived From the atu of dee indispensable services an rom the marina aston these people were granted in carly modern European societies. ‘When alos: entry ago Mauss wrote his book on mai, he wat om she ight rack when dicing the magia powers of members of crtain ‘ccupationl groupe (nclading, heer, barbers, executioners Brave “lige and blacksmiths) he wrote: i their profession whic ples ‘hese people apart fom the common run of more ad ei ths ep ates which endows them with mapcal power (1975: 29), 5 The Blood Symbolism of Mafia 1 ‘This cosy considers the mature of svi tes berween people who const ky transactions As the example of Selian mai soars, Socily dened kinship and other insztons hat desw onthe metapoe of bod help srustre sales woaliiony that ar awed in ext legal paces called "orgaied crime’ Since members of thse soda {es cannot for bvion eaons~ tn for protection vo ntations of he State, trast and rtaation have to be generated within their 4” ranks post aleady recognized by Simmel sn his Weatse on set "We sal see thar she relationships ceowgh which mais in Sc ‘pers evoke blo imagery, and that blood metaphors are used ro mark Shifter reiprcins These rlationshipe include apnatc Riship {consangsiniy, sal kaki, tual kinship (godparethood, co patenthod) and sisal frendstip (blond brotherhood). Moreover vie Tense and death mark sancsons and reason (vende). This ey cexplocts how these elaonships ae scaly and cluraly defied how loyalty and rst are bul up, bezayed and sanctioned, and how orga ‘zation Hei and strctral Mud are quintessential to xa legal coalions in modern nation-states? From this perapetv, {hope te shed some light onthe question of why blood asa symbole device ‘Sominntes the cour snd pacts of maton 0 At the loca evel ond of Kinship and fendship make up calsons ‘of mao called aie’ fami single: faigta. The Wom of 9[55 The lood symbolism of Mafia ‘The Blood Symbolism of Mafia 98 Kinship and blo is iifcane because no all members are autheni Hien, Each Family contol its ow retry ~ rar willie o town, 30 ssban ret or nrighhourbood, Iecustom are conde sight and invite ioe response. The wrtory is losly dented with he aml 236 seen from the prevailing naming pratces and senscity to ever iminor forms of wespassiag, Overwhelming evidence sagas eat the power base of mafia i always toca “The sae of these Iocl groups ranges becween halen and swell oer ity members. Familie ince a Bore or co, an waders ‘or sottocpoy ane or more conga’ or counsels and other "me of Nonour They all haves reputation for woence and ate able "mind thei wn honines' tha i kepserets and culate ort, At hipher levels of integration, these local groups were represented in the 50 Called Comomasiome or Capols, which makes ruler and serves 2460 ‘rdinating board. Since the esty 1980, flowing the confessions of Several mfios! who stared cooperating with the authorities, much hss been made ofthe alleged hierschial and unified seuctore ofthe ‘Scan maf or Cosa Nostra Aste two norte mafia wars ofthe carly 1960, and che cary 1980s demonstrate, however, centralizing tendencies have always been offset by seumenation, From the very ‘ore the Commusione teant to control internal ght) wits up {nthe Inte 1950 lal groupe and cht ales ted to conto and ‘he for ther own ende The bet known example the se the Corson, original Ioeal group of mais from Coreone (a ral ‘ova of about 14,00 habitants ip Sky's wextern nmr) and their allies who carly planed and established ther hegemony fer the Sruel ci war of 1981-2 in which mote than housind mie kat ther ives ‘As well known, mfx enterprise involves control over the local sconomy ficaing tel exe, buling contracts and marke, ca ‘asung votes for pliitan protectors and snc the 197 neratonsl Arupieacking There were wel oer hundred ofthese fale in Sly aba whole and shout tent Bve i Palermo slone. In tol there were several thousand mao What s known shout the composton tnd struct of hese fares? ist, they Include agnatc Kinsmen ~ hat i, Mood eelanes who ae excusively related through males ot, differently phase, rated fon the fathers side. Often, the core of hese families consists of [ether apd bis sone, a se of brothers, sometimes including ne ot ‘ore agnatic uncles and cousins” particulary, es of brothers hve ays been very common in mai families, hot inthe cys in the ‘county. All hee people ae cated by blond tht i, both biology and cual: Hore apples what David M. Schneier zor about Amer ‘im biships The asf ological reatednee snd sexl reasons lay ‘fundamen ole for they are syebol, celal formulated symbols interme of which a syste of sail relsonhip is defined sed der feat (1977- 56)" Cie ts preeminence ms coalitions, agate EEnshipin Sel a5 in ober Indo-European kinship syste, provides racionships of ifs, enduring solid” bin tbe absence of ftetive sete conto ust canbe found anyabee, is pia inthe Ione bron ana knamn, Sucerton to postions of adership usually follows the sme agai lines The olde som often takes te place of i athe, om sometimes, his fathers brother ess commons hs mothers brother For example, in San Gaseppe Jato, Giowann Betcs succeed fn fee, Bernardo, tn Palermo, tfano Bontate suceeded bi father, Paling: i Alcame, Pippo Rm soceeded his father, Vincenzo; and in Rie, Gaseppe Dr Cristina alo succeed i ater uw Bonds within and becwcen aio fares ate ceinforced by itermae fage- Along with agnatie Kinane, therfore, these families inca in Taw, orafes Also deine as Kime (pret) they are relates fy mariage and a seule not people to whom one elated y blood, hough masage between ousie does occ Bonds with ils gre prominently in coaios of mafia. Next to set of agate Kinsmen, ‘Se often Rds sts of brothereirlaw asthe cone ofthese local groupe of maa ails. “Among the faous Coreonesi fr insane, Salatore (Too) Rina raintained strong bonds wich his broverinlaw Leola Bagalla brother of his wife. Rina was also on inmate terms with Gisseppe Marchese, howe sister married Leolaes Bagel (ee Figo 1. More ‘ver mone lets he organizational Roxby an trocar a tly ofthe Siclian mai, ratlieal reasons ae also wed vo bul Powerfal alliances OF parla importance are the onde between Protester and ster son since the postion of leadership may tis be wansfeed matical This happened when Salto lero ‘eas chosen tohead the intercontinental supecan by hs ering mothe’ brother, Rosario Di Maggio." “The composition of hese Fils, who were alinvaved in he ine rnaioal heroin rae, ntrctiv for our parpones Beaune itetes ‘he raul principles operating in groupe that condac sky rane tion inhi mareiage and eh, ech of which animate global net works as ch us lel groop.ay aol] Figure 1 Kinship tes between mafos: brothers in-law aa ‘The Blood Symbolism of Inhisdicosion of the enrepreneunal ms ad he heroin comm Arce (1987 196-200 uote from 1982 indent ofthe Palermo Ike Prosectors Office which provides farther details of these fs elated through mage, ich itemarige ith Amer ‘an mafia fries (ce Fare 2 thn the Gambino bts ae comin of de Spars bates Rein Viceso_and Anti, the fate, Smo beg eter th Ginko mother ht Goer maid Gaeppe Masao Mee Calor, Casey aol Sabee Di Magne Calo ‘ting med evs Stl ar stenesing Kh ewe the fies 1987 0 Although Adachi revognzes che implications of these allanss for the internal cohesion of thee groups, he stangely But not unty pic atogarzes intermarriage, adoption and sponsorship a 3p fey rsennal pescice, and diamines them ae sara (138 195). Drawing on the same separ from the Palermo Public Prosecutor Selng (1990 199-200} more pie sbout thee alliances ‘more sense otek imports Pan con Ne Joy tin ea ‘tegen dyna apd peeve che lod ya There nt Spt las vated fe Camino hee beter and wo cous fae Di Sul Tie tes’ fier bt mend Di Magi wwe et Medtmoal «Spat Satori he gg erin ke of all ad hen cone to head the Fey an by br wing nce Resto Dy Mapp. tesla was maid to 2 Spt. Hs ae ae are Saal is nce in New Josey ws mare oa Gabo. Hr coin an ae ‘Shela New Jone nat melt 3 Cambio son Toman ws {eters of Joon Cambin, who mas mel to dierent ‘ambin, His Cn Masia Cmca ratte eof John ambit ouner bk Gane. All Amerce-sde member af tof Tewere re Mn of Hono om Sy ad al a omen or rnd Chey ‘As Seeing source, the Sian Prosecutor Seiashitan, condles:‘The Blood Symbolism of Mafia 93 di “Tes four fa ig pry Sly an pli New York form 2 ‘re lan unite thing nyo te Une Sstes~ he ste A my i Cons None. Jobe Guin the comer pst Inthe i ned State for all ofthe group sciss nay and the al est anon forte eae shpment, Savor’ Ie hae eae the < Gambino bothers" pcpal ect he ental persone oS d ‘rab med tree and heey capa enor Like move of their Fellow mao! in America, writes Sterling, the ‘Gambing brothers were sending her erin money back co Sly Ts going Inzrilo and Spacla, to be lavested in legate busines ike fhe contruction iusry an el estat. By 1982, the Gambin-Inze i-Spatls holdings in Palermo alone were found co be worth aboot ‘one billion dlls. ‘Nexto agate bonds fn es, especial relations herween broth cesilam ae slen options for moos, Tes relations hep ul ard Stongten the base uns ofthe Sin ag, both win and between Toc groups oc face. Betore Resario Maggi rete (and dh, heh lef te leadership of hese treated families to Salto lz lilo. who was bis ser som (Serting 19% 200), The oceypoweral Rimi ~ father and son Vincenzo an Flip ~ of |Aleamo, inthe peoince of Trapani, solidified their es through inter mariage with Gaetano Badalrend, the bos of Cins! who conrad Pale apart iv Punta Rais Filippo and Gaetano were brothers in law Discussing the clans between mf! from both side oF che ‘Adan who were involved in the drug rade, Gambera (onthe bass of {11985 report rom she lanPakament) touches on he tract pia ‘ple of etcty underlying traninational mafia networks: _o Figure 2 Kinship tes between four mafia ais nthe USA and Sly Mabon wee arate intermediary cue of ti tong conto ‘rch sian Amer rani maken he Une Sites Thee ‘allowed geste fexty and ae Tush elton Herne mons erga and the oA ge cringe ccna bre eres at ve LEfRaubi foro coir aie from Amc wth tbe enone whe ‘ae toercandc nl nut ost aie Seno such pe teed fonds eased beeen amd Mle Ease suppers, ‘Sporn masa more confers peat. 1995-236) “Tuce organizations are capable of handling drags on a wholesale, ‘oceconinental ale the Chinese Teds for heron, the Colom Cartels for cosine andthe Scan msi for both (String 1990 31) Tesould be rewarding to explore hw these easnatonl operations ate34 _The Blood Symbolism of Mafia ‘maseined and orchestrated in remote hinterland precy the kind 1 places antopoloit use eo sl foe tei Bl work) to invest xe how these optations hing on kinship, marriage nd ey ire. ely the kind of subjects anthropologists sed to sadyin sch remote Places} and how they sustain frm of lobalzstion tha no gover Inentcan opr contol he transport of unisesecultrl goalrs the world’s peipheces and the ransormation nis htopoltan cents in Noth Ameen aod Earope. w Although olawsare rae by marge thr than Bod te cone ‘lod nor creel, cig rm te bonds fee ans. Fr, ‘nig volves slope wih role wh ae elated by Hod Simon hom. Sci te acer inthe Meine, people places sone emphasis ign and female hos Weal {eels in he Chratan tation ies dhol someon cue te ‘ane roup and shouldbe virtn” Theconsunmnton of age involves resking the hymen and llowd by Rath Bosh insole the pling of Hood (Telingy one crea scala ono) Ichar been sped! ha nth coer, to, hood has sso ticnce hcl mason helps bulla eationhip = ko 4 elatemship beween group. In the Indorpesn conception of Hood, this Boo oom fam the case no he gro of pate Sn shedding help corporat the bre he gt Lin-goup of fern" mane ‘Wein on fading in nineten-cemaey Conic and ote Med ‘ance oir, Wison pots ut cov ete the ond shed in feath and he Hood of wny tat he ede lo es hand {dnd by extention, ot he agnts st mariage Alo of lerane, tng the Bedouin, to, he shedding Bo oa virgin gen nae age to sele «fad wns cena a kindof symbolic vengeance, Hood foeblood’ (Win 18.529 2230). escemaking i fede wa sr among pastoral families in he arb About these sybli® raolon fhe vende conc porary Sirina, Cagnes nes: ‘Le mode deconstion pus gue pays et emia un bonne ‘ican ds vce ode fone de nde Fri, Le sng pa "pan er nelle arate symiqr de act sag ee {cour de Thome ql» pct. (196): 6) (the mex sil fom of roniaton i ming faa fm se clan of tec wth woman rm the dno tek The vipa = ‘The Blood Symbolism of Mafla_ 95 ‘Noobs spied in ft psec competion forth ond ‘We wil came bic to this pine when dacaning the concer of blood tn feuding and peacemaking, Remember thatthe pracace “blood for Blood has disicly homeopathic impleanons. Welung on ancien Rome, Baron argues share Romans, lke cazsles, were deeply custome to hnking in terms of hownepatc sates, Like things re ured by like (imi sniibus canonta This was tre noe only Soreery aad mine but also eligon and aw.» (1992: 180). Ina howe she refers to ‘Plt’, Phacnay” (te pharmadom as poson sad nsdote, both sickness and cure), and recalls that Roman justice ‘perated on the ex talons, she principle of equivalent vengeance (par it “These connotations ofthe concept of Blond may help to explain why in mafia errors, next the bonds beeen brothers rations between broker inlaw ave so imporane, Mai drew on theo of Kins [thf impliestiony of consangingy) o conatite the units hat make lip Siclian mafia. Loyalky to superiors ithe families of the men of honour aks peoiy ove contents to one own agate they a roll he rls prvaiing among men of honour As casein 1994 tm Bente own sn the ween foothill of Erna) lsat 3 mao ‘nay Kil fis fiwo-oter who "alk hat, reveals formation out the organization to ousdes.” “This brings sto the imagery nf Hood in recrimene ital. Since the mid-198 anda a consequence ofthe so-alled maf wat in which fe Corlenes wiped out many etablshed mais! in Paleo and is Fiero, hundreds of pent (pert) provided the investing ‘magistrates with information about the orgatation of Cosa Nosta. At ‘consequence today nach mores known about mafia than before, One ‘tthe fs and mst tious pont, Tommaso Bast, mensoned that feerismen nwo a mia fal ~iation into the brotherhood or to ie made a man of honour = involved rie ofpazae he high pin of stich wasp ac and forma em any ober secret soci.” Bld from hit picked finger wa bed om a paper nage of 2 saint, thick wae ston fein hit and Awe burned, be repeated he follow: ing vow: May my fet bara lke eis oly pte T am una 9 ths oath" Through these uals of inonporton, blood assumes ‘magical propenics of medion and socal cohesion. ut blond i ls ‘Sencated wath impuiy and can impede eather than promote socal tonding, The poling poten of Blood ss probably ae lest paely ‘xponae Tor the often noed exshsion of women From these sal ter and fom sere site im geen"96 The Blood Symbolism of Mafia v The blood symbelim is no less ck inthe srtement of ends and the imposition of sanction. Vengeance and feng are tademarks of Imafst. We have already refered to setaaton and the principe of the ex talons in the seling of accounts Berween mais Ae oem ‘of negative reciprocity, cei means the Cle offer what he fhe done “Mafiosi are guided by sayings ke ‘Mood washes Hood, “offences have to be wash with blood” and "vendetts sth het forgiveness As inthe case of shedding blood inthe ntation sual of mar! (May my Bld be spilled us as these drops ate spilled, and so onl, there isan element of what Frazer ils homeopathic tag in stale tion or aepaine reciprocity “Blood washes Hood, or Like products or al the ‘As chewhere in the Mederrancan (eg, Sardinia, Corsica, Monte fg, Albania, the Moroccan Rif and smong the Bevin), reshtion ctveen mofo! includes vendeias against am entre ami in econ for offences by single members Ia these ea, the conception of lon sumer ere importance, Retaliation accurced om lane see ding fhe imecal mapa war" ofthe eats 1980s, when the Coleone, fer fee scecel ing 4 sing of public ofan Sly who inter ith her basins, decimated the Paleo mafia establshment by ue ei the leaders and hi kien, nlding twenty-one arr ad leven eaves of Gaetano Badalament (Sering 1990: 209-10)" The ‘nay the Caleones wage this deadly hasbeen serosa Palin shows the feisty and ide of maf cosion, the sompat= Iie ease with which allances change according to circumstances As Chae Sering pus i "The Corleone: had worked in Irom the outer ‘most provinces courting the envious, the voraius, the upwardly tobe: Now they had secret ales fom Trapani o Agent o Caan {othe hear of Palermo (1990 206), Commenting on the usr of te ‘najioso Vincenzo Paci in prison in 1989 on Rin oder, ile st Imaies dhe strategy of the Coles as fellows “The murder of Vncena Paso an hkl this rather one sme diy) ia xe dowd the ste on he graeme lige song the Seinen” of the grest mafia wat xaninedat'9 whee tens hse Marto Manoa resume looked he ood chi the al Darwin rule of Coa Noy with ech Gh tinge other thee Toe Ria aly satowe hem al pp Morse ad ‘we hile by Pina th Soe’ Grn, rc had en il by Vee cn, and now Paco had ee cnnatel by Mache repos (Geaeppe and Antonino Marches! Then Ri bd led fur ae ‘shone tne cman he acon, whe mang ae tht ha at ak The Blood Symbolism of Mafia_97 leche ther, ete oa fe way (995: 308; 308 Alea cera yours before hi ares in January 1993, however, Ria tnd boveme » victim of i on ss ‘Aeshe maf ar ave demons toe mt al 2 detoying the Nonured Sony av bo sen mens fs og he swe of he 13 er hog he sco of he Cerone Inching alin sae by mre repented the gonemment co ine: i aac th emer ah Pees tev hey send + pel ronment hc mol Fd 3p {Remar dears of Tomaso Bare, homeo and Young, ‘ooning ste’ evidence contravened the moss scr rales of Cost [Nostra an ig a woken response. Eventhough they were appar tu safeguarded by protecon programme, many pent lst case men afte they tested The culture of Sood feuds =the launching ‘of vendeas agama entice Calis in cevege for offences by single ‘members seems toi the Indo-European notion that blood symbolizes the stongest and most enduring of human Bonds" ‘Blood is 2 powerful symbol through ts metaphorial and meooy nial -qlie it can stand for Ie and ext for deflement and pura, for mediation and social cohesion. Thi obvious i the hnography of Blood revenge. The cnept of Blood hep define an feinforce relationships between close kinsman: ees berwecn fathers Sed sons, the bonds betwen brothers, apd, by eatrsion, the bods eeweenblood-bathers. Blood syns the fe of an indiidal and thar of 2 group.” Mocove, as a symbolic device, Mood mediates [ezwcenindviduls and between groups, bcween insides, and between insiders and outsiders, shoring up Felons tha ae inherey uns be leible and suber eo change In the context of elation, she ding blood es power way to tash he wane of dishonor’ an es, tormupersede she ete of pllstion and socal exsasion. “lod revenge, then, voles moc than etiam ad detereence fn her book on tal organs and customs inthe Ballans, Mary Durbar ‘ogg hat evenge was aen on bal ofthe soul ofthe vin cater {han to punish che actual killer (1928: 170). As Mootenerins weed ‘vengeance placed” wiehin the victinvs clan the Blood that had ben fost (1328: 170, “An echo ofthis ease of los (nd the magical way to make up fr slko reaches fom lr source. Ax Burkert reminds m3 the aneral98 The Blood Symbolism of Mafia pyre of Paso, Achile aaughtered several animals but ako ewelve ‘aptred Troan ‘This can be andentood aa abut of pe fry yo a dead the tbe sod nae te Neves, when ite ht ao te ‘ed man Bowed blood mach coe denn cp ede ht {heen wa fo ld on se sod man hse wet Be Fm ck ie bod elu 1988 4 Baker 198943) Very smite fons of etiation occur today, as evidenced by the Serbian General lad’ cemark afer his cups conquered the Masi tnclve of Scbenica on 11 July 1998. Addrenung ht solders and cher FingoSerbin iin Kil by the Maslin altar nthe ares, Mla is epore to hve sd: Ts going co Be a mez [along cows Feast ‘We wl ill 19 many of them that we sill wade though thee Blood up to ou keen Other aspects of blond revenge deserve mention, We have lady refered to the linia postion of those who have been dshonoured 3d Who are therfore expected, cven vay blige to take revengs Prange into mourning these victims have alte fetes of people ‘of place’, They are avoided, exclude, owracied~ an they ve ake revenge. Only after they have “then blo! an thus removed their