The Effect of Fiber Enrichment on the Consumer Acceptance and Color of Pancakes

Jenny Chacon
Sarah Pruett Soufl
Anjali Sarath
Paulette Villa
Valerie Ward

NTRS 410 Experimental Foods

California State University, Los Angeles
April 20, 2015
Spring Quarter

Abstract
The beneficial role of dietary fiber in the prevention and management of many disease conditions
is universally accepted. However, despite recommendations from government and private
organizations consumption of fiber remains low, at 15 g, compared to the recommended
Adequate Intake of 25 g (King and others 2012). Interest in foods with high fiber content
incentivizes the food industry to develop fiber-enriched products that consumers accept. This
experiment assessed the color and consumer acceptance of a control pancake and two variants of
fiber enriched pancakes that varied based on the type of flour used. The control pancakes were
made with all-purpose flour, the first variation (V1) was made with a blend consisting of 50 %
all-purpose flour, 38% white bean flour, and 11% coconut flour, and the second variation (V2)
was made with a blend consisting of 50% all-purpose flour, 38 % barley flour, and 11% coconut
flour. The dependent variables, color and consumer acceptance, were assessed with a
colorimeter and nine-point hedonic scale sensory test. The null hypothesis was that there was no
difference in color and consumer acceptance between the variants and the control pancakes. The
alternative hypothesis was that there was a difference in color and consumer acceptance between
the variants and the control pancakes. Our results showed a significant difference in consumer
acceptance between the control and V1, and no significant difference between the control and V2
(p<0.05). There was no difference between the L* values of the control and the V1, but there
was a difference between the L* values of the control and V2. There was no difference in a*
values between control and V1 but there was a difference between the control and V2. The
results for the b* values showed that there was no difference among the samples (p>0.05).
Keywords: fiber enrichment, legumes, barley, sensory, baked goods

Introduction/Literature Review/Objectives
Extensive research since the 1980s has demonstrated that fiber is not only important for
gastrointestinal tract function but can help manage and prevent various diseases including
obesity, gastrointestinal disorders, cardiovascular disease and diabetes mellitus. Fiber, especially
from the consumption of whole grains, can lower serum cholesterol, contribute to weight control,
and aid in regulating bowel movements through increased fecal bulk. Dietary fiber consists of
nondigestible carbohydrates and lignins that are naturally found in plants. Recommended total
dietary fiber adequate intake (AI) is 38 g per day for men ages 14-50 and 25 g per day for
women ages 19-50, and although fiber is found in a variety of whole grains, legumes, fruits and
vegetables, the average person roughly consumes only 15 g of fiber per day. As a result, there is
interest from governmental agencies and food manufacturers for acceptable fiber-enriched
products, which may help people achieve the recommended daily intake for fiber (Gropper and
others 2013).
In a study that examined the use of barley flour in sourdough bread-making, Mariotti and
others (2014) evaluated consumer acceptance of sourdough breads made with barley flour
compared to those made solely with wheat flour. The control was a sourdough bread comprised
solely of wheat flour, and two other variants or treatments were made with barley flour. The first
variant was made with a 100% hull-less barley flour (variant 1), and the second variant was
made with a barley-wheat flour mixture that was 50 g/100 g barley and 50 g/100 g wheat (variant
1). Nine untrained panelists evaluated the three variants, ranking their degree of liking on a 9point hedonic scale ranging from 1 (dislike extremely) to 9 (like extremely). The results of the
panel evaluation indicated that there were no appreciable differences in their level of liking of the

three products (p>0.05). The researchers also evaluated crust and crumb color to determine if
there were any significant differences reflective of the different sourdough compositions. A
chromameter was used to measure the lightness (L; 0= black to 100 = white), redness or
greenness (+a = redness, -a = greenness), and yellowness or blueness (+ b= yellowness, -b=
blueness). The observed values for crumb color were reflective of the composition of the bread.
The treatment with higher barley content showed a lower L* value of 61.03 compared to 70.34
registered for the control; a higher a* value of 2.85 compared to -1.81 for the control as well as a
higher b* value 13.00 compared to 10.51 for the control. Crust color, on the other hand, was
more reflective of the chemical reactions that took place on the surface of the product during
baking. The results from the chromameter analysis showed that there were no considerable
differences in crust color between the treatment that used both barley and wheat and the one that
was comprised solely of barley. The mean L values for the control, variant 1, and variant 2 were
66.94, 68.36, and 67.69 respectively. The control exhibited the highest a* and b* values, 5.11
and 25 respectively. Variant 1, in comparison, registered a* and b* values of 2.90 and 17.93 for
crust color; variant 2 had a* and b* values of 3.22 and 18.56 respectively. The findings from the
study, especially with respect to consumer acceptability, encourage exploring the possibility of
using barley as a source of dietary fiber in baked goods (Mariotti and others 2014).
Other flours and flour-blends, in addition to barley flour, are of interest in developing
baked products that both have increased dietary fiber and are adequately acceptable to the
consumer. De La Hara and others (2013) investigated the effect of wheat-oats flour blends on the
sensory quality of layer cakes. Wheat flour was used to make the control, and various treatments
were done at different levels of substitution with oat flour substituting wheat flour at 25, 50, 75,

and 100%. Although there was more than one variant, the researchers chose the control and the
variant with 50% substitution to be subjected to consumer testing . A diverse panel of 100
consumer volunteers between the ages of 18 to 55 years evaluated the control and the treatment,
and recorded their sensory evaluations on a 9-point hedonic scale. The analysis of the consumer
acceptance test results indicated that there was a significant difference between the control and
the treatment (p<0.05). The results indicated that the control scored higher in all parameters that
tested consumer acceptability, especially with respect to the appearance of the cake. The mean
overall acceptability score for the control was 7.05 compared to 6.52 for the variant; however the
scores for appearance showed a greater difference with the control scoring 7.80 compared to the
variant at 6.60. The researchers concluded that adequate consumer acceptability can be achieved
with wheat-oat flour cakes if the percentage of wheat- oats substitution and sugar are
experimentally adjusted to improve batter and cake characteristics (De La Hara and others 2013).
In another study examining fiber enrichment of layered cakes, Gomez and others (2010)
investigated the influence of wheat bran, oat bran, and cellulose on sensory characteristics. Fiber
sizes of 50, 80, and 250 micrometers were used, and percentage substitutions of 0%, 12%, 24%,
and 36% were applied . Crust or crumb color was documented using Minolta spectrophotometer
CN 508i, at five different points and every point measured five times (5x5). The addition of fiber
resulted in the crust color becoming darker (lower L* values, mean 49.8), more red tones (higher
a* values, mean 13.5) and lower yellow tones (lower b* values, mean 22.0). Crumb color
becoming lighter than crust (higher L* values, mean 73.8), less red tones (lower a* values, mean
1.8), and lower yellow tones (lower b* values, mean 18.8). Hedonic sensory evaluation

(acceptance of their appearance, odor, taste, aftertaste, texture, and overall liking) was
administered by a 100 participant panel showing that the application of 20% wheat bran resulted
in a cake with the most sensory differences versus the control . A smaller-sized fiber such as
microcrystalline cellulose produced a cake most similar to the control, resulting in the highest
scores of overall acceptability. All variations produced products with high sensory scores
indicating it is possible to produce a product that is acceptable to consumers when replacing up
to 20% of a selected fiber (Gomez and others 2010).
The incorporation of oat and rice bran into cakes were also examined in a study by Lebesi
and others (2012). The substitutions were made at a 30% flour weight basis. The variants tested
consisted of reference oat bran , 70 ppm Ex treated oat bran cake , 700 ppm Ex treated oat bran
cake , reference rice bran , 70 ppm Ex treated rice bran cake , and 700 ppm Ex treated oat rice
cake . Crust and crumb color of the cake samples were measured and findings were expressed in
a*, b*, and L* color range, with Ex treated oat bran cake (OB1) ranking most acceptable in
comparison to the control . Oat bran original (OBO) cake tone L* 33.593 (1.120)c, red tone a*
values 39.373 (0.261)d, and yellow tones b* values 20.286 (0.170)b. OBO1 in comparison
in tone is L*36.283 (1.315)d, red tone a* 38.486 (0.369)c, and yellow tones 19.630
(0.125)a. The enzyme-treated bran showed to be effective at increasing sensorial characteristics
of the cakes including consumer acceptance . Hedonic sensory tests (volume, texture, off flavor
and aftertaste) were conducted with a panel of fifty untrained participants showing optimal
sensory qualities were achieved when oat bran was treated with 70 ppm endoxylanase (Lebesi
and others 2012).
In another fiber-enriched baked good experiment, Laguna and others (2011) tested the
color and sensory characteristics of short-dough biscuits prepared with a resistant starch rich

ingredient (RSRI) that conveys benefits similar to those of fibers. Researchers prepared a
control made with soft wheat flour and three variations that replaced the flour with 20, 40 and
60% Hi-maize 260, a resistant starch rich ingredient, while all other ingredients remained the
same. The surface color of all three RSRI biscuit variations was significantly lighter with L*
values of 70.4, 70.8 and 71.8 for RSRI 20%, 40% and 60%, respectively compared to control L*
value of 66.0. Two of the RSRI biscuits (40% and 60%) were significantly less yellow than the
control (b* of 30.6, the most yellow) with b* values of 27.5 and 26.6, characteristics that the
authors attribute to lower levels of wheat proteins and higher moisture content in the RSRI
biscuits that results in diminishment of the browning Maillard reaction. There were differences
in redness exhibited between the formulations: the control (a* of 4.7) was not significantly
different from the 20% RSRI biscuit (a* of 5.0), while the control was significantly different in
redness from the 40 and 60% RSRI biscuits (a* of 3.5 and 3.4 respectively). The authors point
out that the overall color differences between the control and RSRI biscuits, while statistically
significant, were slight. Sensory characteristics of six types (appearance, texture, color,
sweetness, taste and overall acceptance) were evaluated on a 9-point hedonic scale by 103
untrained panelists; the authors gave no specific values for the scores, the mean or standard
deviation. The sensory scores for the control and 20% RSRI variation were not significantly
different. The 40% RSRI variant scored significantly lower in texture, color and appearance but
the scores were not significantly different for sweetness, taste and overall acceptance when
compared to the control and 20% RSRI variant. The 60% RSRI biscuits scores were the most
significantly different from the control, and the biscuit was the least desirable product of all four
variants. The study concludes that the use of a lightly colored corn-based resistant starch at a

replacement for wheat flour of 20% may be successful when enriching the fiber content of baked
goods (Laguna and others 2011).
Ground flaxseed is also being studied as a source of fiber-enrichment in baked goods.
Pandurang and others (2014) investigated the sensory effect of incorporating ground flaxseed
into bread. Parallel controls made from wheat flourone from refined wheat and one from
whole wheatwere compared with three other variants using different ratios of either refined or
whole wheat and raw or roasted flaxseed flour: 5 g flaxseed/100 g wheat flour (5%), 10 g
flaxseed/100 g wheat flour (10%), and 15 g flaxseed/100 g wheat flour (15%). Color analysis of
the variants made with refined wheat flour and flaxseed showed that the crust was darkened
significantly (p<0.05) with increasing levels of flaxseed flour: the L* value of bread with 0 g
flaxseed was 51.65, 5 g flaxseed 50.21, 10 g 50.98, and 15 g 41.14. Values for a* and b*
lowered as the proportion of flaxseed increased, indicating less yellow and red coloration in the
variants: the a* value for 0 g flaxseed bread was 11.31, 5 g had an a* value of 9.56, 10 g 7.38,
and 15 g 10.74; the 0 g flaxseed bread had a b* value of 24.22, the 5 g bread a b* value of 22.4,
10 g 19.84, and 15 g 19.54. The group did not report results on objective crust color evaluation
for whole wheat flour variants, a shortcoming of the study. Sensory evaluation of the bread was
performed one time by ten trained panelists, who were asked to rank the bread in six categories
including crumb grain; crust color; crumb color; crumb texture; flavor and taste; and overall
acceptability. Overall acceptability scored highest for the control made with refined wheat flour
(7.8) and lowest for 15% raw ground flaxseed whole wheat flour bread (3.9). Panelists ranked
the variants containing roasted ground flaxseed higher over the variants with raw ground
flaxseed, and preferred the bread with the lowest percent of flaxseed (5%), with scores of 6.1 and
5.9 for refined and whole wheat flours, respectively, over the bread with higher percentages

(10% and 15%) scoring 5.4 and 5.1 (10% refined and whole wheat, respectively), and 4.2 and 3.9
(15% refined and whole wheat, respectively), with 15% ranked the least acceptable. Pandurang
and others (2014) conclude that roasted ground flaxseed incorporated into refined wheat flour at
levels of 10% or less may produce a desirable fiber-enriched bread.
In a current study, Coelho and others (2015) assessed nutritional and sensory characteristics of
bread made with chia flour or chia seeds. There were a total of two experiments performed throughout the
study, each conducting eleven trials per experiment. A control was prepared using only wheat flour 100g
and two variations that used 7.8g/100g chia flour and 11.0/100g chia seeds while other .Trials F7.8, bread
made with chia flour, and S11, bread made with chia seeds, were the only trials yielding products with the
features of functional foods to evaluate nutritional and sensory characteristic due to its elevated dietary
fiber content. Color was analyzed for both the crumb and crust. The brightness parameter of the crumb
was significantly decreased by the addition of chia materials, tending toward dark and being more
pronounced in trial F7.8. The brightness of the crust was decreased in the chia flour variation and
increased in the chia seed variation compared to that of the control; L* values of F7.8 was 63.8B+1.32
and for S11 66.4B+2.46, but showed no significant difference . The overall acceptance was was based on
a 9-point hedonic scale with F7.8 receiving score of 8.17a+0.825 and S11 receiving an overall acceptance
of 8.11a+0.951 and having no significant difference (Coelho and others 2015). The study concluded that
the incorporation of chia, in the form of either flour or seed, increased the level of dietary fiber of bread.
In another study regarding cakes, Singh and others (2015) studied the effect of corn bran as a
dietary fiber addition on baking and sensory quality. Due to corn brans high water holding capacity and
its ability to absorb mutagens in the human digestive tract, Singh and others (2015) examined the overall
acceptance of cakes made with different variations of corn bran along with cake flour. The control was
made with cake flour. In the six other variants, cake flour was replaced with 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30g /
100g corn bran. Using a 9-point hedonic scale, variants 10% and 20% did not significantly affect the
overall acceptability, each having a score of 6.55 a and 6.22a, respectively while the control had an overall

10
score of 6.35a. For color of the crust, cakes with up to 20% flour replaced with the corn bran were not
significantly different from the control; color profiles for the control were L*- 63.70a, a*-14.33a, b*44.68ab, 10% flour replacement L*-64.82a, a*-12.55ab, b*- 44.96ab, 20% flour replacement L*- 63.60a, a*11.63ab, b*-43.99b. Corn bran did not interfere with the Maillard reaction. The crumb color of the cakes
had a significant effect when the corn bran replacement exceeded 20%. An increase of more than 20%
corn bran resulted in a darker crumb, L*-71.37c, a*-2.86a, and b*-31.67a (Singh and others 2015). From
the results presented, up to a 20% flour replacement with corn bran can be used in the baking of cakes
without causing any significant change in color and sensory quality.

Toma and others (2009) studied the acceptability of cookies and burritos that were fiberenriched amongst elementary school students from kindergarten to 6th grade. The main
ingredient in the control burritos was refined flour while the treatment burritos were made with
25% Prowashonupana barley flour and 26% white whole wheat flour. The L* values indicated
that the color of the control burritos was lighter than the treatment burritos. The control burritos
had a lower a* value in comparison to the treatment burrito: 1.31 compared with 2.02. A lower
b* value was obtained from the white whole wheat flour variant. The L* values indicated that
the color of the control burritos was lighter than the treatment burritos. The control burritos had a
lower a* value in comparison to the treatment burrito: 1.31 compared with 2.02. A lower b*
value was. Acceptance in all grades that consumed the burritos was very close in the control and
the treatment (Control= 35.6%, Treatment 34.6%) a difference that was not significant. The
acceptance of the control cookie was 89.7% and acceptance of the treatment cookies was 83.8%,
a difference which was not significant, showing that the children enjoyed the fiber enriched
burritos and cookies as much as the control variants.
In another study, Prasopsunwattana and others (2009) evaluated the effects of the particle
size of the whole barley flour on tortillas. Sensory qualities and acceptability of flour tortillas

11

enriched with whole grain waxy barley, a grain with very low starch, high fiber and high soluble
fiber content. The control was prepared using only bread flour while three variations replaced
15.9% of the wheat flour with Prowashonupana whole barley flour ground to three different
particle sizes: regular (237.6m), intermediate (130.9m) and microground (68.4m). In terms
of color evaluation, the whole barley tortillas were not significantly different from each other but
were darker in color than the control. The color results in the Tortilla type for the control (bread)
was L* 68.48b, a* -1.00d, b* 17.09c. The color results for Regular (bread and intermediate
WBF) were L* 61.02c, a* 0.75C, b* 17.35c. The color results for Intermediate (bread and
intermediate WBF) was L* 60.76, a* 1.68b, b* 18.52ab. The color results for Microground
(bread and microground WBF) L* 59.52, a* 1.77ab, b* 17.54bc. The color results for Handmade
(CP) was L* 78.47a, a* -1.84e, b* 15.06d. The color results for Low-fat, low-carb, high-fiber
(CP) was L* 66.17b, a* 4.01a, b* 19.03a. Ninety-five untrained panelists evaluated tortilla
samples for overall acceptability, ranking their level of liking on a 9-point hedonic scale. The
scores for the Hedonic scale for the WBF tortillas were 5.8 for over acceptability, 5.7 for color,
5.8 for flavor, and 5.7 for texture. The barley tortillas were rated 6.3 for overall acceptability, 6.5
for appearance, and 6.8 for color. There were no reports that there were any differences in flavor
between the control, regular and microground variants. The reduction in particle size of the
whole barley flour did not significantly alter the sensory scores, measured by the overall
acceptability, appearance, color, flavor and texture (Prasopsunwattana and others 2009).
Hypothesis:
The null hypothesis for this experiment was that there was no significant difference in color and
consumer acceptance between the variants and the control pancakes. The alternative hypothesis

12

was that there was a significant difference in color and consumer acceptance between the
variants and the control pancakes.
Materials and Methods:
Materials:
All ingredients were purchased at local grocery stores except for the white bean flour (Bobs Red
Mill, Milwaukie, OR) which was purchased from Amazon.com. Ingredients are listed in Table 1
below. All equipment that was used is named in the methods, color and sensory evaluation
portion of this paper, and was available in the laboratory (FA 141).
Table 1: Pancake Formula

Ingredients (g)

All Purpose
White Flour
Control or Variant 1

White bean flour (g)Barley flour + Coconut

+ Coconut flour
flour (g)
Variant 2

Variant 3

All Purpose
White Flour

220.73

110.48

110.48

White bean flour

84.85

Coconut flour

24.75

24.75

Barley flour

84.85

White granulated sugar

22.25

22.25

22.25

Baking powder

8.12

8.12

8.12

Baking soda

4.06

4.06

4.06

Salt

2.65

2.65

2.65

Large Egg

88.29

88.29

88.29

Vegetable oil

48.03

48.03

48.03

Whole milk

430.86

430.86

430.86

TOTAL

824.99

824.99

824.99

13

All of the ingredients listed above were converted to grams using ESHA Food Processor (Version
10.11 ESHA, Salem, OR, USA) from the standard recipe in the Appendix as Attachment 2.
Using the ingredient measures from Table 1, weigh the ingredients for all three variants. Lightly
oil a 7 pan and proceed to preheat over medium-low heat until it comes to 184 C. Combine
the sugar and dry ingredients for each variant in their respective mixing bowls. In other bowls,
thoroughly combine egg, oil and milk. Then pour the milk mixture into the flour mixture. Mix
the wet with the dry until well combined; this is defined as the batter having been mixed just
enough so that there are no dry areas and is uniform in texture. We found that the amount of
mixing needed varied from flour to flour and day to day based on relative humidity of the air and
the ingredients. Use a small cup or ladle to drop 2 Tbsp of batter onto the pan to make one
pancake. Cook on one side until brown (about 2 minutes 15 seconds for control, 2:00 for white
bean, and 1:45 for barley pancakes) then flip once to brown the other side and remove at 4:00 for
control and white bean, and 3:00 for barley. Sample pancakes at room temperature (below 30
C).
Sensory Evaluation
Fifteen untrained panelists assessed and recorded their extent of liking of the pancakes by
selecting their level of liking on a 9-point hedonic scale that ranges from extreme like to
extreme dislike (Refer to Attachment 1 in the Appendix). The data helped evaluate the overall
acceptability of the pancake variants.
Color
CIELab color was measured using a Minolta Chromameter (Model CR-410, Konica Minolta
Sensing Americas, Inc., Ramsey, NJ, USA), which was calibrated using a Minolta white
calibration plate No. 17333240 for CR-200/CR-300/CR400 with 2 OBSERVER to measure

14

lightness (L*), red/green (a*), and yellow/blue (b*) color values. Readings were collected from
the center of each sample. A total of two (2) samples of the pancakes were randomly chosen per
variant (3).
Statistical Analysis
Descriptive statistics were calculated; analysis of variance (ANOVA) and t-tests were performed
using Excel. The experiment was replicated twice and the results were combined for the final
determination of difference.
Results and Discussion
The results of the sensory and color evaluations are presented below in Table 2.
Table 2: Means Standard Deviations (SD) of Pancake Results for Consumer Acceptance
and Color
Treatment

Hedonic Score1

Color (L*)2

Color (a*)2

Color (b*)2

Control

7.07 + 1.3a

63.04 +2.79a

9.1 +1.50 a

29.73+2.9a

All-purpose
flour
Variant 1
(V1)

5.28 + 1.71b

62.79+12.53a

6.47+5.85ab

22.44+ 4.02a

6.76 + 1.33a

67.7+1.82 b

5.03+1.34b

25.76 +1.15a

White Bean
Flour +
Coconut
Flour
Variant 2
(V2)
Barley
flour
+ Coconut
Flour
1

MeansSD of 2 replicates; 15 judges per variant within replicate one and 14 judges per variant within replicate two.
MeansSD of 2 replicates; 2 readings per variant within each replicate

15
ab

Means within the same column with the same letter are not significantly different (p>0.05).

Sensory Evaluation
A 9-point hedonic scale was used to test consumer acceptance of three pancake variants. The
control had the highest mean score at 7.07, followed by the barley-coconut flour variant (V2) at
6.76, and finally the white bean-coconut flour variant (V1) at 5.28. The results of the sensory
evaluation showed that while there was a significant difference between the control and V1
(p<0.05), there was no significant difference between the control and V2 (p>0.05). Therefore, we
rejected the null hypothesis with respect to the control and V1 and accepted the null hypothesis
with respect to the control and V2. There was a significant difference in consumer acceptance
between V1 and V2 (p<0.05). The null hypothesis was rejected, and it was concluded that the
panelists found a significant difference between V1 and V2. Based on these results, we
concluded that there was no appreciable difference in the panelists level of liking of the control
and the variant made using barley and coconut flour.
The findings are consistent with the results of a study conducted by Mariotti and others
(2014) that evaluated the use of barley as a source of dietary fiber in sourdough breads. The
results of their study showed that the sensory panel did not register any significant difference in
their level of liking between the control and the variants that used barley flour. Variant 1 in the
study, as noted earlier, was made with 100% hull-less barley and variant 2 was made with a
barley-wheat flour mixture comprised of 50g/100g barley and 50g/100g wheat flour.
Prasopsunwattana and others (2009), in their study that evaluated the use of whole barley flour
to increase the fiber content of tortillas, also found that the use of barley as a source of fiber did
not significantly alter the level of consumer acceptance for the product compared to the control.

16

Pandurang and others (2014) reported in their findings that their treatments made with ground
flax seed in different proportions scored significantly lower than their control. The analysis of
our results also led to similar findings with regards to the control and white bean flour: consumer
acceptability of the treatment made with the protein-rich fiber source was significantly lower
than the control.
Measurement of Color
A Minolta Chroma Meter (model CR-410, Konica Minolta Sensing Americas, Inc., Ramsey, NJ,
USA) was used to objectively measure color of the pancakes. The colorimeter was placed on the
middle portion of the pancakes to obtain the measurements. For each of the replicates, two
random samples were chosen from each variant to be evaluated for color. Care was taken to
ensure that the measurements were made on the same side on all the samples so as to avoid
drastic variations within samples. Lightness of the samples was evidenced by the L* values,
measured on a scale from 0 to 100 (black to white). The colorimeter registered high L* values
(63.04 for control, 62.79 for V1, 67.7 for V2) for all the variants, indicative of a light tonal
quality. The results also indicated that there was no significant difference (p>0.05) between the
L* values of the control and V1 and that there was a significant difference (p<0.05) between the
control and V2. The null hypothesis was, therefore, accepted with respect to the control and V1,
and rejected with respect to the control and V2.
The results of our analyses show that the control was marginally lighter than V1 which
was made using white-bean flour, a rich source of protein. These findings are in contrast to the
findings from other studies that used high-protein flours/seeds as the source of fiber enrichment
in their treatments. Pandurang and others (2014) found that their treatments that were made using
ground flaxseed were significantly darker than the control that made using refined wheat flour.

17

Coelho and others (2015) used chia seeds and chia flour as their sources of fiber enrichment in
their treatments. They found that these treatments tended to be much darker compared to the
control made with wheat flour. The differences between our findings and these results may be
due to the fact that V1 was not made solely with white bean flour. Another contributing factor
that contributed to the relative lightness of the sample could be the smaller proportion of white
bean flour used in this recipe. The mean L* values also show that the control was darker than
the treatment that used barley flour, contrary to the findings of Mariotti and others (2014) which
showed that the use of barley in sourdough breads resulted in a darker crumb than the control
made solely with wheat flour.
The aspect of color represented by the a* values measures the hue on a continuum from
green to red. The results for the a* values indicated that there was no significant difference
between control and V1 (p>0.05). The null hypothesis was retained as regards to the control and
V1. There was a significant difference between the a* values of the control and V2 (p<0.05);
therefore, in this case, the null hypothesis was rejected. However, there was no significant
difference between the a* values for V1 and V2. The results for the b* values showed that there
was no significant difference among the samples (p>0.05). The null hypothesis was accepted.
As regards the mean a* values of the samples, the control had the highest value at 9.1,
followed by V1 at 6.47, and then V2 at 5.03. These values indicate that all the samples tended
towards the red region of the continuum, with the control having a stronger red hue. With fiber
enhancing flours, there are no specific outcomes that occur. Mariotti and others (2014) found
outcomes similar to our findings in that the control had the highest a* value compared to the two
variants made with barley flour as did Pandurang and others (2014) compared to the variants
including the addition of flaxseed. Alternatively, Laguna and others (2011) found a varying

18

range of results from their research on the addition of Hi-maize 260, as well as Singh and others
(2015) with their work on the effect of corn bran on cakes.
The b* values represent the hue of the samples on a sequence from blue to yellow. The
results indicated that there was no significant difference in the b* values among the samples. The
mean b* values indicated that all the samples tended strongly towards the yellow region. The
highest mean value was registered by the control at 29.73, followed by V2 at 25.76, and V1 at
22.44. Gomez and others (2010), in their study that explored the use of wheat bran, oat bran, and
cellulose as sources of fiber enrichment in layered cakes, also found that the increase in fiber
resulted in lower b* values for the crust color in the treatments compared to the control. Our
finding that increased fiber content caused lower b* values are also consistent with the results
obtained by Laguna and others (2011) which showed that short-dough biscuits made with a
resistant starch rich ingredient (RSRI) were significantly less yellow than the control. Pandurang
and others (2014), in their study that examined the use of ground flaxseed in bread, also observed
that increasing fiber content in bread results in lower b* values
Nutrition Information
Table 3: Nutrition Information for Pancake Variants JENNY
Product
(g/serving)

Calories
(kcal)

Total Fat
(g)

Total Carb.
(g)

Control -Allpurpose Flour

260

11

33

260

11

30

Variant 1- Allpurpose Flour

+
White bean
flour +
Coconut flour

Variant 2-

Fiber (g)

Sugars (g)

Protein (g)

19
All-purpose
Flour +

Barley flour
+ Coconut
flour

260

12

32

The results of the Genesis analysis are listed in Table 3, Nutrition Facts for the Pancake control
and variants, above. It showed that the control, V1 and V2 have the same total caloric value and
the control and V2 are relatively close with the exception of total fat and fiber. V1 in comparison
to the control is reduced in carbohydrates, is higher in protein, sugar and fiber. This indicates that
nutritionally a reduction of all-purpose flour with and addition of white bean flour and coconut
flour would be a comparable substitute to increase fiber content.
Percent Moisture Loss
Percent moisture loss was calculated for pancakes upon the second replication of the experiment.
It was calculated using the equation:
meaninitial-meanfinal / meaninitial * 100%
where the mean is the mean of initial weight in grams and final weight in grams.
Variant

Initial Weights (g)

Final Weights (g)

Percent Moisture
Loss

Control

29.2

24.7

23.5%

31.0

21.8

28.4

22.0

29.0

21.5

30.3

23.1

28.7

21.1

30.4

20.5

White Bean Flour

31.4%

20

Barley Flour

31.3

23.7

29.8

21.7

33.8

18.1

30.2

24.2

33.9

25.6

31.5

24.1

34.9

28.1

34.4

26.7

22.0%

The white bean flour variant had the greatest moisture loss, while the control and barley variants
lost about the same amount of moisture during cooking. Although our work did not carry out a
complete nutrient analysis of the final product compared to the pancake batter, the moisture
content would be helpful in determining accurate nutrition facts. Calculating the moisture
content of baked goods allows manufacturers to produce more accurate food labels for their
products.
Conclusion and Future Work
There was no appreciable difference in the panelists overall consumer acceptability of
the control compared to the variant made using barley and coconut flour. Consumers may accept
the barley flour pancake (V2) as well as they do the control and this could be explored further by
testing pancakes made with a higher percentage replacement of all-purpose flour with barley
flour. Nutritionally, a reduction of all-purpose flour with an addition of white bean flour and
coconut flour (V1) would be a comparable substitute to increase fiber content yet had the lowest
mean score at 5.28 when evaluated by the Hedonic scale.

21

In future studies increased replications of the variants would be beneficial to diminish the
inconsistency in cooking times so as to produce a final product that is made with minimal
differences. The use of proper cooking equipment such as an electric griddle with temperature
control would allow for more uniform heating elements that would allow temperature to be
controlled. Expansion of the number and variety of untrained panelists would provide more
accurate data on consumer acceptance. Having the nutrition students as the untrained panelists
creates an unintentional bias for or against the product.

22

References
Coelho M, Salas-Mellado M. 2015. Effects of substituting chia (Salvia hispanica L.) flour or
seeds for wheat flour on the quality of the bread. LWT - Food Sci Technol 60: 729-736.
doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2014.10.033

De La Hara E, Oliete B, Gomez M. 2013. Batter characteristics and quality of cakes made with
wheat-oats flour blends. J Food Qual 36: 146-153. doi:10.1111/jfq.12020

Gomez M, Moraleja A, Oliete B, Ruiz E, Caballero A. 2010. Effect of fibre size on the quality of
fibre-enriched layer cakes. LWT - Food Sci Technol 43: 33-38. doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2009.06.026

Gropper SS, Smith JL. 2013. Fiber. In: Gropper SS, Smith JL. Advanced Nutrition and Human
Metabolism. Sixth ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. 111-136.

King DE, Mainous AG 3rd, Lambourne CA. 2012. Trends in dietary fiber intake in the United
States, 1999-2008. J Acad Nutr Diet. 112(5):642-8. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2012.01.019.

Laguna L, Salvador A, Sanz T, Fiszman SM. 2011. Performance of a resistant starch rich
ingredient in the baking and eating quality of short-dough biscuits. LWT - Food Sci Technol 44:
737-746. doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2010.05.034.

23

Lebesi D, Tzia C. 2012. Use of endoxylanase treated cereal brans for development of dietary
fiber enriched cakes. Innovative Food Sci and Emerg Technol 13: 207-214.
doi:10.1016/j.ifset.2011.08.001
Epub 2012 Apr 25.

King DE1, Mainous AG 3rd, Lambourne CA.

Mariotti M, Garofalo C, Aquilanti L, Osimani A, Fongaro L, Tavoletti S, Hager AS, Clementi F.

2014. Barley flour exploitation in sourdough bread-making: a technological, nutritional and
sensory evaluation. LWT - Food Sci Technol 59: 973-980

Marpalle P, Sonawane S, Arya SS. 2014. Effect of flaxseed flour addition on physicochemical
and sensory properties of functional bread. LWT - Food Sci Technol 58: 614-619.
doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2014.04.003.

Prasopsunwattana N, Omary MB, Arndt EA, Cooke PH, Flores RA, Yokoyama W, Toma A,
Chongcham S, Lee SP. 2009. Particle size effects on the quality of flour tortillas enriched with
whole grain waxy barley. Cereal Chem 86: 439-51.

Singh M, Liu SX, Vaughn SF. 2012. Effect of corn bran as dietary fiber addition on baking and
sensory quality. Biocatalysis and Agri Biotech 1:348-352. doi:10.1016/j.bcab/.2012.02.005

Toma A, Omary MB, Marquart LF, Arndt EA, Rosentrater KA, Burns-Whitmore B, Kessler L,
Hwan K, Sandoval A, Sung A. 2009. Children's Acceptance, Nutritional, and Instrumental

24

Evaluations of Whole Grain and Soluble Fiber Enriched Foods. J Food Sci 74: H139-146. doi:
10.1111/j.1750-3841.2009.01165.x

25

Attachment 1
ACCEPTABILITY TEST FOR FIBER-ENRICHED PANCAKES
You may rinse your mouth with water at any time during the test if you need to. Please taste the
samples according to the 3-digit random code provided on the samples and the ballot. You may
not go back and re-taste the samples. No talking during sensory testing.
Check the box that best describes your overall opinion of each sample
3-Digit Sample
Numbers
(9) LIKE
EXTREMELY

(8) LIKE VERY

MUCH

(7) LIKE
MODERATELY

(6) LIKE
SLIGHTLY

(5) NEITHER
LIKE NOR
DISLIKE

(4) DISLIKE
SLIGHTLY

(3) DISLIKE
MODERATELY

(2) DISLIKE
VERY MUCH

(1) DISLIKE
EXTREMELY

26

Appendix Attachment 2
Recipe
Pancakes - Control
Ingredients:
1 cup all-purpose flour

1/4 teaspoon salt

1 tablespoon white sugar

1 cup milk

1 teaspoon baking powder

1 egg

1/2 teaspoon baking soda

2 tablespoons vegetable oil

Directions:
Next Preheat a lightly oiled griddle over medium-high heat. In a bowl combine flour, sugar,
baking powder, baking soda and salt. Make a well in the center. In a separate bowl, beat together
egg, milk and oil. Then pour the milk mixture into flour mixture. Beat mixture until smooth.
Pour or scoop the batter onto the hot griddle, using approximately 1/4 cup for each pancake.
Brown on both sides and serve hot.

This recipe was adapted from All Recipes which can be accessed at
http://allrecipes.com/recipe/pancakes-i/ Accessed April 13, 2015.

Appendix Attachment 3

27

Labels:
Control (Variant 1)

28

A good source of: protein, B1, B2, B3, folate, calcium, phosphorus and iron

29

30

White Bean Flour (Variant 2)

A good source of: protein, B1, B2, folate, calcium and iron
An Excellent Source of Fiber (20%)

31

32

Barley Flour Variant (Variant 3)

A good source of: protein, B1, B2, folate, calcium and phosphorus
A Good Source of Fiber (12%)