Computer Graphics

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GEOMETRICAL
TRANSFORMATIONS
This section introduces the basic 2-D and 3-D

geometrical transformations used in computer
graphics.
In general, many applications use the geometric
transformations to change the
position,
orientation &
size of objects in a drawing.
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GEOMETRICAL
TRANSFORMATIONS
Example
A city planning application program would use
translation to place symbols for buildings &
trees at appropriate
positions,
rotation to orient the symbols &
scaling to size the symbols.
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GEOMETRIC
TRANSFORMATIONS
CHANGES IN
ORIENTATION,
SIZE AND
SHAPE ARE ACCOMPLISHED WITH

GEOMATRIC TRANSFORMATIONS THAT ALTER
THE COORDINATE DESCRIPTIONS OF OBJECTS.
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GRAPHICS TRANSFORMATIONS
Computer graphics system is the ability to
simulate both
the movement and
the manipulation of the objects in the plane.
These process are described in terms of
translations,
rotations,
scaling and
reflections.
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GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS
The mathematical statement of the
viewpoint
is
described
by
geometric
transformations applied to each point of the

object.
This effect is attained through the
application of coordinate transformations.
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Let us impose a coordinate system on a
plane.
An object obj in the plane can be
considered as a set of points.
Every set point p has coordinates ( x, y )
and so the object is the sum total of all its

coordinate points.
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Every set point p has coordinates ( x, y ) and

so the object is the sum total of all its
coordinate points.
Y
OBJECT
P(X,Y)
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If the object is moved to a new position,
it can be regarded as a new object obj ,
all of whose coordinate points p can be
obtained from the original points p by the

application of a geometric transformation.
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Y
1
P(1,1/2 )
1/2
O
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10
BASIC TRANSFORMATIONS
BASIC GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATION
ARE
1. TRANSLATION,
2. ROTATION,
3. SCALING.
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BASIC TRANSFORMATIONS
TRANSLATION
A translation is applied to an object by a

repositioning it along a straight line path from
one co-ordinate location to another.
In translation , an object is displaced a

given distance and direction from its original
position.
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TRANSLATE A 2-D POINT

We translate a 2 dimensional point by adding translation
distance, tx and ty to the original co-ordinate position
(x,y) to move the point to a new position (x`,y`)

x`=x+ tx ,
y`=y+ty
translation distance pair (tx , ty ) is called the
translation
vector
or
shift
vector.
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TRANSLATION
If the displacement is given by the
vector
v=txi + tyj ,
The new object point p(x,y) can be
found by applying the transformation tv to
p(x,y)
p=tv(p)
where x=x+tx and y=y+ty
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TRANSLATION
OBJ
P
V
Y
P
OBJ
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TRANSLATING A POINT
TRANSLATING A POINT
FROM POSTION P TO P`
WITH
TRANSLATION
VECTOR T.
p`
T
p
X
p = (x1, x2)
p = (x1, x2)
t = (tx, ty)
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TRANSLATING A POINT
This allow us to write the 2-D.
Translation location in matrix form

P`=P + T
Translation is a rigid body transformation

that moves objects without deformations.
# Every point on the object is translated by
the same amount.
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MOVING A POLYGON
MOVING A POLYGON FROM POSITION P1 TO
POSITION P2 WITH THE TRANSLATION
VECTOR (4.90, 5.10).
20
20
15
15
10
10
5
5
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15
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TRANSLATING CURVED
SURFACE
Similar methods are used to translate
curved objects.
To change the position of a circle or
ellipse
we translate the center coordinate
and redraw the figure in the new location
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ROTATION
A two dimensional rotation is applied to

an object by repositioning it along circular
path in the x, y plane.
To generate a rotation
we specific rotation angle and the

position(xr, yr) of the rotation point or (pivot
point) about which the object is to be rotated .
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ROTATION
Rotation of an object through
angle about the pivot point (xr,yr)
p
yr
p
xr
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ROTATION
Positive values for the rotation angle define

counterclockwise rotations about the pivot point .
Negative values rotate objects in the

clockwise direction.
This kind of transformation can also be

described as a rotation about a rotation axis.
This axis is perpendicular to the xy plane and
passes through the pivot point.
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ROTATION
We first determine the transformation

equation for rotation of a point position P when
the pivot point is at the coordinate origin.
The angular and coordinate relationships of

the original and transformed point position are
show in the next slide.
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ROTATION
(x.y)
r
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(x.y)
Rotation of a point from

position (x,y) to position (x,y)
through an angle relative to
the coordinate origin. The
original angular displacement of
the point from the x axis is
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ROTATION
In the previous slide ,
r is the constant distance of the point
from the origin ,
angle is the original angular
position of the point from the horizontal ,
and
is the rotation angle.
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ROTATION
Using
standard
trigonometric
identities we can
express
the transformed
coordinates in terms of angles and
x = rcos(+)
= rcos cos- rsin sin
y = rsin(+)
= rcos sin - rsin cos
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ROTATION
The
original coordinates
polar coordinate are
of the point
in
x = rcos,
y = rsin
Substituting (2) in (1)
we obtain the trans formation equation for rotating a point at
position (x,y) through an angle q about the origin
so, x=xcos - ysin

y=xsin + ycos
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ROTATION
WE CAN WRITE THE ROTATION EQUATION IN THE
MATRIX FORM
P = R.P
WHERE THE ROTATION MATRIX IS
cos-
R =
sinsin
cos
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ROTATION ABOUT THE ORIGIN

In rotation, the object is rotated degree
about the origin.
The convention is that the direction of

rotations
counterclockwise if is a positive angle
and
clockwise if is a negative angle.
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The transformation of rotation R is

P=R (P)
WHERE
X=X COS ( )- Y SIN ( ) AND
Y=X SIN ( ) + Y COS ( ).
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Y
OBJ
OBJ
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SCALING
A scaling transformation alters the size of an
object.
This operation can be carried out for polygons
by multiplying the coordinate value (x,y) of each
vertex by scaling factors sx and sy to produce the
transformed coordinates (x,y)
x=x. sx ,
y= y. sy
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SCALING
Scaling factor sx scales object in the x
direction ,while sy scales in the y direction.
The transformation equation can also be written
in the matrix form.

(x,y) = {(sx, 0), (0, sy)}. {x,y}
or
P=S.P
WHERE S IS THE 2 BY 2 SCALING MATRIX .
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SCALING
POINTS CAN BE SCALED BY SX SLONG
THE X AXIS AND SY ALONG THE Y AXIS INTO
NEW POINTS BY MULTIPLICATIONS
x = sx.x,
y = sy.y
IN THE MATRIX FORM, THIS IS

X
Y
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Sx
0
0
Sy
OR
P = S . P
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SCALING
Any positive numeric values can be assigned to
the scaling factors sx and sy .
Values less than 1 reduce the size of objects.
Values greater than 1 produce an enlargement.
Specifying a value of 1 for both sx and sy

leaves the size of objects unchanged.
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SCALING
When sx and sy are assingned the same value , a
uniform scaling is produced that maintain relative

object proportions.
Unequal values for sx and sy result in a
differential scaling that
is often used in
design
Application.
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SCALING
Scaling factors
with values less than 1 move object
closer to the coordinate origin,
while values greater than 1 move
coordinate positions farther from the origin.
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SCALING
Turning a square (a)
into a rectangle (b) with
scaling factors
sx=2
and sy=1
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(b)
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SCALING WITH RESPECT OF THE

ORIGIN
Scaling is the process of expanding or
compressing the dimensions of an object.
Positive scaling constants sx and sy are
used to describe changes in the length with

respect to the x direction and y direction,
respectively.
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SCALING WITH RESPECT OF

THE ORIGIN
After a scaling transformation is
performed, the new object is located at
a different position relative to the
origin.
In a scaling transformation the only
point that remain fixed is the origin.
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Scaling transformation with scaling

factors sx=2 and sy=0.5
Y
2
1
1/2
1
1
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SCALING
If both scaling constants have the
same value s , the scaling
transformation is said to be
homogeneous.
If s< 1, then it is a reduction.
If s >1, it is a magnification
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HOMOGENOUS COORDINATES
To express any 2-D transformation as a
matrix multiplication,
we represent each Cartesian coordinate

position (x, y) with the Homogeneous
coordinate triple (xh, yh, h), where
x=xh/h,
y=yh/h
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A general homogeneous coordinate representation can also
be written as
(h.x, h.y, h).
For 2D geometric transformations,
we can choose the homogeneous parameter h to be any

non zero value.
A convenient choice is simply to set h=1.
Each 2D position is then represented with homogeneous

coordinates (x, y, 1).
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The term homogeneous coordinates is
used in mathematics to refer to the fact of
this representation on Cartesian equation.
When a Cartesian point (x, y) is

converted to a homogeneous representation
(xh, yh, h),
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Equations containing x & y,
such as f(x, y)=0 become homogeneous
equation in the 3 parameters xh, yh & h.
Expressing positions in homogeneous
coordinates allow us to represent all
geometric transformation equations as
matrix multiplication's.
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For translation, we have :
X
Y
1
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tx
1 ty
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1
47
which we can write in the abbreviated form :
P=T(tx, ty).P
with T(tx, ty) as the 3 by 3 translation matrix.
The inverse of the translation matrix is

obtained by replacing the translation parameters
tx & ty with their negative : -tx & -ty.
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Similarly, rotation transformation equation about the coordinate origin are now written as :
or as :
P=R( ).P
cos -sin
X
Y
1
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sin
0
cos 0
0
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1
49
The rotation transformation operator R(t)
is the 3 x 3 matrix, with rotation parameter
We get the inverse rotation matrix when

theta is replaced with -
Finally, a scaling transformation relative

to the coordinate origin is now expressed as
the matrix multiplication.
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Expressed as the matrix multiplication.
X
Y
1
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sx
sy
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1
51
Or :
p=s(sx, sy).P
Where s(sx, sy) is the 3 x 3 matrix with

parameters sx & sy replacing these
parameters with their multiplicative inverse
(1/sx & 1/sy) yields the inverse scaling
matrix.
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OTHER
TRANSFORMATIONS
Some packages provide a few
additional transformation that are
useful in certain application.
Two such transformations are
reflection and
shear.
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REFLECTION
REFLECTION :
A reflection is a
transformation that
produces a mirror image of an object.
The mirror image for a two-dimensional
reflection is generated relative to an axis of

reflection by rotating the object 180 degree
about the reflection axis.
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REFLECTION
1
ORIGINAL
POSITION
x
REFLECTED
POSITION
1
REFLECTION OF AN OBJECT ABOUT THE X AXIS.
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REFLECTION
REFLECTION ABOUT THE LINE y=0,
THE x AXIS, IS ACCOMPLISHED WITH
THE TRANSFORMATION MATRIX.
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1
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REFLECTION
A REFLECTION ABOUT THE y AXIS
FLIPS
x
COORDINATES
WHILE
KEEPING y COORDINATES THE SAME.
THE MATRIX FOR THIS TRANSFORMATION IS :
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REFLECTION
THE CHANGE IN POSITION OF AN
OBJECT THAT HAS BEEN REFLECTED
ABOUT
THE
LINE
x=0.
THE
EQUIVALENT ROTATION IN THIS CASE
IS 180 DEGREE.
y
ORIGINAL
REFLECTED
Reflection of an
object about the y
axis.
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POSITION
2
POSITION
2
1
1
3
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REFLECTION
We flip both the x & y coordinates of a
point by reflecting relative to an axis that is
perpendicular to the xy plane and that
passes through the coordinates origin.
THE REQUIRED MATRIX IS:
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-1
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REFLECTION
y
REFLECTED
POSITION
2
x
1
2
ORIGINAL
POSITION
REFLECTION OF AN OBJECT RELATIVE TO AN

AXIS PERPENDICULAR TO THE xy PLANE &
PASSING THROUGH THE COORDINATE ORIGIN.
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REFLECTION
TO
ENVISION
THE
ROTATION
TRANSFORMATION PATH FOR ITS REFLECTION
1. THE FLAT OBJECT MOVING OUT OF THE xy
PLANE .
2. ROTATING 180 DEGREE THROUGH 3-D
SPACE ABOUT x- AXIS.
3. BACK INTO THE xy PLANE ON THE OTHER
SIDE OF x AXIS.
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MIRROR REFLECTION ABOUT AN

AXIS
If either the x or y axis is treated as a

mirror, the object has a mirror image or
reflection.
Since the reflection P of an object point P
is located the same distance from the mirror as P,
the mirror reflection transformation m, about the
x axis is given by
P=mx(P)
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Where x=x and y= -y

Similarly, the mirror reflection about the y axis is
P=my(P)
Where x= -x and y= y.
Y
P (-X,Y)
P(X,Y)
X
P (X, -Y)
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SHEAR
A transformation that distorts the shape of an object such

that the transformed shape appears as if the object were
composed of internal layers that had been caused to slide
over each other is called a shear.
Two common shearing transformations are those that shift

coordinate x values and those that shift y values.
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SHEAR
An x-direction shear relative to the x axis
produced with the transformation matrix .
Which transforms coordinate
positions as
x=x+shx.y
1 shx 0
y=y
0 1 0
0
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1
65
SHEAR
y
(0,1)
(0,0)
(.5,1)
(1,1)
(1,0)
(0,0)
(1.5,1)
(1,0)
A SQUARE IS CONVERTED TO A PARALLELOGRAM

USINGTHE X_DIRECTION SHEAR MATRIX WITH
Shx=2
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INVERSE GEOMATRIC
TRANSFORMATION
Each geometric transformation has an
inverse which is described by the opposite

operation performed by the transformation.
Translation :
tv-1 = t-v , or translation in the opposite

direction.
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INVERSE GEOMATRIC
TRANSFORMATION
Rotation :
rr, or rotation in the opposite direction.
Scaling :
s-1sx,xy = s1/sx, 1/sy
Mirror reflection :
m-1x= mx and m-1y =my
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COORDINATE
TRANSFORMATION
Suppose that we have two coordinate
systems in the plane.
The first system is located at origin o

and has coordinate axes xy.
The second coordinate system is located

at origin o and has coordinate axes xy.
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COORDINATE
TRANSFORMATION
Now each point in the plane has two

coordinate descriptions :
(x,y) and (x,y), depending on
which coordinate system is used.
We can describe this transformation by
determining how the (x,y) coordinates of a
point p are related to the (x,y) coordinates
of the same point.
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COORDINATE TRANSFORMATION
Y
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P(X,Y)
(X,Y)
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P(x,y)
(x,y)
X
O
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TRANSLATION
If the xy coordinate system is displayed to a new
position,
where the direction of the displacement is given by

the vector v=txi+ty,
the coordinates of a point in both systems are

related by the translation transformation t v . (x, y ) =
tv (x, y)
where x=x-tx and y=y-ty
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ROTATION ABOUT THE

ORIGIN
The xy system is rotated degree about

the origin.
Then the coordinates of a point in both
systems are related
by the rotation
transformation r :
(x, y )= r (x,y)
Where x =x cos () + y sin () and
y = -x sin () + y cos ().
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SCALING WITH RESPECT TO

THE ORIGIN
Suppose that a new coordinate system is
formed by leaving the origin and coordinate
axes unchanged, but introducing different
units of measurement along the
x and
y axes.
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SCALING WITH RESPECT TO THE ORIGIN

If the new units are obtained from
the old unit by a scaling of
sx units along the x axis and
sy unit along the y axis,
The coordinates in the new system
are related to coordinate in the old
system
through
the
scaling
transformation ssx,sy .
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SCALING WITH RESPECT TO

THE ORIGIN
(x,y) = ssx,sy (x,y).
OLD UNIT
where x=1/sx.x and

y=1/sy.y.
Y
2
P(2,1)
1
O
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SCALING WITH RESPECT TO THE ORIGIN
The figure shows coordinate

scaling transformation using
scaling factors sx = 2 and sy
= 1/2
1/2
P(2,1/2)
NEW UNIT
O
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MIRROR REFLECTION
ABOUT AN AXIS
If the new coordinate system
is obtained by the reflecting the old

system about either x or y axis, the
relationship between the coordinates is
given by the coordinate transformation
mx and my.
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MIRROR REFLECTION ABOUT AN AXIS

For reflection about the x axis
(x,y) = mx(x,y)
where x= x and y= -y.
For reflection about the y axis
(x,y) = my (x,y)
where x= -x and y =y.
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INVERSE COORDINATE
TRANSFORMATION
Each coordinate transformation has
an inverse which can be found by
applying the opposite transformation.
Translations:
t-1v =t-v , translation in the opposite
direction .
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INVERSE COORDINATE
TRANSFORMATION
ROTATION :
R -1RROTATION IN THE OPPOSITE

DIRECTION.
SCALING :
S-1SX,SY = S1/SX,1/SY
MIRROR REFLECTION :
MX= MX AND MY =MY

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COMPOSITE
TRANSFORMATIONS
We can set up a matrix for any
sequence of
transformations as a
composite transformation matrix by
calculating the matrix product of

individual transformations.
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COMPOSITE
TRANSFORMATIONS
FORMING
PRODUCTS
TRANSFORMATION MATRICES
OFTEN REFFFERED TO AS A
CONCATENATION OR
COMPOSITION OF MATRICES.
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IS
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TRANSLATION
If two successive translation vectors (tx1, ty1)
and (tx2, ty2) are applied to the coordinate
position p,
The final transformed location p is

calculated as :
P= T(tx2, ty2) .{T(tx1, ty1). P}

= {T(tx2, ty2) .T(tx1, ty1)}. P
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TRANSLATION
Where p & p are represented as
homogenous co-ordinate column vectors.
The composite transformation matrix
for this sequence of translation is
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TRANSLATION
OR
tx2
ty2
tx1
ty1
tx1+tx2
ty1+ ty2
T(tx2, ty2) .T(tx1, ty1)= T(tx2+ tx1, ty1+ ty2)
It demonstrates that two successive

transformations are additive.
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ROTATIONS
Two successive rotations applied to point p produce
the transformed position :
P = r(r(p}
= {R(r(p
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ROTATIONS
By
multiplying
the
two
rotation
matrices, we can verify that two successive

rotations are additive.
R(r(=r(+
P=r(+p
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SCALING
Concatenat transformation matrices for
two successive scaling operations produces

the following composite scaling matrice :
sx2 0
sy2 0
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Sx1 0
sy1 0
sx1+sx2
0
0
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sy1+sy2 0
0
90
SCALING
OR
S(sx2, sy2) . S(sx1, sy1) = S(sx1. sx2, sy1. sy2)
The resulting matrix in this case
indicates that successive scaling operations

are multiplicative .
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GENERAL PIVOT POINT

ROTATION
With a graphics package that only
provides
a rotate function for revoluting
objects about the coordinate origin,
we can generate rotations about any
selected pivot point (xr1, yr1) by performing

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GENERAL PIVOT POINT

ROTATION
The following sequence of translate-rotatetranslate operations :
1. Translate the object so that the pivot
point position is moved to the coordinate

origin.
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GENERAL PIVOT POINT

ROTATION
2.
Rotate the object about the
coordinate origin.
3. Translate the object so that the pivot
point is returned to its original position.
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GENERAL PIVOT POINT

ROTATION
ORIGINAL
POSITION OF
OBJECT &
PIVOT POINT
TRANSLATION
OF OBJECT SO
THAT PIVOT
POINT(xr1, yr1) IS
ROTATION
ABOUT ORIGIN
AT ORIGIN
TRANSLATION
OF OBJECT SO
THAT PIVOT
POINTIS
RETURNED TO
POSITION
(xr1,
yr1).
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GENERAL PIVOT POINT

ROTATION
The composite transformation matrix
for this sequence is obtained with the
concatenation :
xr
yr
cos
sincos
0
cos
-sin
sincos
0
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-sin
0
0
xr
yr
xr(1- cos)+ yr sin

yr(1- cos)+ xr sin
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GENERAL FIXED POINT

SCALING
Previous figure
illustrates a
transformation sequence to produce
scaling with respect to a selected fixed
position (xf, yf) using a scaling
function that can only scale relative to
the coordinate origin.
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97
GENERAL FIXED POINT

SCALING
1. Translate object so that the coincide
with the coordinate origin.
2. Scale the object with respect to the
coordinates origin.
DTEIT 19/8/
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98
GENERAL FIXED POINT

SCALING
3. Use the inverse translation of step
1 to return the object to its original
position.
Concatenating the matrix for these

three operations produce the required
scaling matrix.
DTEIT 19/8/
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99
GENERAL FIXED POINT

SCALING
ORIGINAL
POSITION OF
OBJECT &
FIXED POINT
TRANSLATION
OF OBJECT SO
THAT FIXED
POINT(xr1, yr1) IS
SCALE OBJECT
WITH RESPECT
TO ORIGIN
AT ORIGIN
TRANSLATION
OF OBJECT SO
THAT FIXED
POINTIS
RETURNED TO
POSITION
(xr1,
yr1).
DTEIT 19/8/
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100
GENERAL FIXED POINT

SCALING
1
xf
sx 0
-xf
yf
sy
-yf
sx 0
xf (1- sx)
sy
yf(1- sx)
OR
T(xf, yf).S(sx, sy).T(-xf, -yf) = S((xf, yf, sx, sy)

DTEIT 19/8/
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101
GENERAL SCALING
DIRECTIONS
If we want to apply scaling factors with
values specified by parameters s1 & s2 in the

directions.
To accomplish the scaling without
changing the orientation of object, we first

DTEIT 19/8/
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102
GENERAL SCALING
DIRECTIONS
Perform a rotation so that the
directions for s1 & s2 coincide with the x & y

axis, respectively.
Then the scaling transformation is
applied, followed by an opposite rotation to

return points to their original orientation.
DTEIT 19/8/
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103
GENERAL SCALING
DIRECTIONS
The composite matrix resulting from the
product of these 3 transformations is :

R-1.S(s,sR( =
S1cos2 +S2sin2
(S2-S1)cossin0
(S2-S1)cossinS1sin2 +S2cos20
0
DTEIT 19/8/
0
CG-6284
1
104
GENERAL SCALING
DIRECTIONS
(1/2, 3/2)
(0, 1)
(2, 2)
(1, 1)
(3/2, 1/2)
(0, 0)
(1, 0)
(0, 0)
USING SCALING TRANSFORMATION, WE

TURN A SQUARE INTO A PARALLELOGRAM BY
STRECHING IT ALONG THE DIAGONAL FROM
(0, 0) TO (1, 1).
DTEIT 19/8/
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105
GENERAL COMPOSITE
TRANSFORMATIONS
A general 2-d transformation ,
representing a combination of
TRANSLATIONS,
ROTATIONS &
SCALINGS can be expressed as :
DTEIT 19/8/
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106
GENERAL COMPOSITE
TRANSFORMATIONS
X
Y
1
DTEIT 19/8/
rsxx
rsyy trsx
rsyx
rsyy trsy
CG-6284
Y
1
107
GENERAL COMPOSITE
TRANSFORMATIONS
The
four
elements
rsij
are
the
multiplicative rotation scaling terms in the

transformations that involve only
ROTATION ANGLES &
SCALING FACTORS.
DTEIT 19/8/
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108
GENERAL COMPOSITE
TRANSFORMATIONS
Elements trsx & trsy are the transnational
terms containing combinations of
translation distances, pivot point & fixed
point coordinates &
rotation angles & scaling parameters.
DTEIT 19/8/
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109
GENERAL COMPOSITE
TRANSFORMATIONS
e.g. If an object is to be scaled & rotated
about its
centroid coordinate (xc, yc) &
then translated.
The values for the elements of the composite

transformation matrix are .
DTEIT 19/8/
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110
GENERAL COMPOSITE
TRANSFORMATIONS
T(tx, ty).R(xc, yc,S(xc, yc, sx, sy) =
sxcos -sysin
sxsinsycos
0
xc(1-sxcosycsysintx
yc(1-sycosxcsxsinty
REVERSING THE ORDER IN WHICH

SEQUENCE
OF
TRANSFORMATIONS
PERFORMED POSITION OF AN OBJECT.
DTEIT 19/8/
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A
IS
111
ALGORITHM
IDENTITY-MATRIX(H):- Routine to create the identity
transformation
ARGUMENT
H is the transformation array of 3*2
elements.
LOCAL
I , J variables for stepping through
the H array
BEGIN
DTEIT 19/8/
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112
ALGORITHM
FOR I = 1 TO 3 DO
FOR J = 1 TO 2 DO
IF I = J THEN H [I , J]<-- 1
ELSE H [ I ,J]<-- 0;
RETURN;
END;
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
113
ALGORITHM
It has the effect of multiplying the matrix H
on the right by a scaling transformation matrix
of
DTEIT 19/8/
SX
SY
1
CG-6284
114
ALGORITHM
MULTIPLY-IN-SCALE (SX,SY,H):- Routine

to post-multiply the transformation matrix by a
scale transformation
ARGUMENTS
SX is the x scale factor
SY is the y scale factor

H is a 3*2 transformation
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
matrix
115
ALGORITHM
LOCAL I for stepping through the array
BEGIN
FOR I = 1 TO 3 DO
BEGIN
H [I, 1]<-- H[I, 1]*SX
H [I, 2]<-- H[I, 2]*SY
END;
RETURN;
END;
DTEIT 19/8/
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116
ALGORITHM
For translation TX, TY ,we post-multiply
H by the translation matrix
1
TX
DTEIT 19/8/
TY
1
CG-6284
117
ALGORITHM
Again we simplify the multiplication by
neglecting zero terms.
Since
the
third
column
of
the
transformation matrix is always 0,0,1,the

algorithm for translation is as follows.
DTEIT 19/8/
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118
ALGORITHM
MULTIPLY-IN-TRANSLATION(TX,TY,H):- Routine
to post-multiply the transformation matrix by a translation
ARGUMENTS TX translation in the x direction

TY translation in the y direction
H a 3*2 transformation matrix
BEGIN
DTEIT 19/8/
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119
ALGORITHM
H[3,1]<-- H[3,1] + TX;
H[3,2]<-- H[3,2] + TY;
RETURN;
END;
DTEIT 19/8/
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120
ALGORITHM
For a rotation of A radians counter
clockwise, we post-multiply by
COS A
SIN A
-SIN A
COS A
0
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
121
ALGORITHM
The algorithm takes the angle as an
argument ,
calculates the sine and cosine , and
then performs the matrix multiplication
for nonzero terms.

DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
122
ALGORITHM
MULTIPLY-IN-ROTATION(A, H):- Routine to postmultiply the transformation matrix by a rotation
ARGUMENTS A angle of counterclockwise
rotation
LOCAL
S,C the sine and cosine values
I for stepping through the array
TEMP temporary storage of the
first column
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
123
ALGORITHM
BEGIN
C<--COS(A);
S<--SIN(A);
FOR I=1 TO 3 DO
BEGIN
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
124
ALGORITHM
TEMP<--H[I,1]*C-H[I,2]*S;
H[I,2]<--H[I,1]*S+H[I,2]*C;
H[I,1]<--TEMP;
END;
RETURN;
END;
DTEIT 19/8/
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125
ALGORITHM
DO-TRANSFORMATION(X,Y,H):- Routine to
transform a point
ARGUMENTS X,Y the coordinates of the point to
be transformed
LOCAL
TEMP temporary storage for the new
X value.
DTEIT 19/8/
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126
ALGORITHM
BEGIN
TEMP <-- X*H[1,1]+Y*H[2,1]+H[3,1];
Y<-- X*H[1,2]+Y*H[2,2]+H[3,2];
X<--TEMP;
RETURN;
END;
DTEIT 19/8/
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127
ALGORITHM
TRANSLATE (TX,TY):-User routine to set
the translation parameters
ARGUMENTS TX,TY the translation amount
GLOBAL
TRNX, TRNY storage for the

translation parameters
DTEIT 19/8/
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128
ALGORITHM
BEGIN
TRNX <-- TX;
TRNY <-- TY;
CALL NEWFRAME;
RETURN;
END;
DTEIT 19/8/
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129
ALGORITHM
SCALE(SX,SY):-User routine to set the
scaling parameters
ARGUMENTS SX,SY the scaling factors
GLOBAL
SCLX,SCLY storage for the
scale parameters
DTEIT 19/8/
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130
ALGORITHM
BEGIN
SCLX<-- SX;
SCLY<--SY;
CALL NEWFRAME;
RETURN;
END;
DTEIT 19/8/
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131
ALGORITHM
ROTATE (A):- User routine to set the rotation
angle
ARGUMENTS A the rotation angle
GLOBAL
ANGL a place to save the
rotation angle
BEGIN
ANGL<-- A;
CALL NEWFRAME;
RETURN;
END;
DTEIT 19/8/
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132
ALGORITHM
BUILD-TRANSFORMATION:-Routine to build the
image transformation matrix
GLOBAL ANGL,SCLX,SCLY, TRNX, TRNY
the
transformation parameters
IMAGE- XFORM a 3*2 array
containing the
image transformation
DTEIT 19/8/
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133
ALGORITHM
BEGIN
IDENTITY- MATRIX (IMAGE-XFORM)
MULTIPLY-IN-SCALE(SCLX,SCLY,
IMAGE-XFORM);
MULTIPLY-IN-SCALE
(SCLX,SCLY,IMAGE- XFORM);
DTEIT 19/8/
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134
ALGORITHM
MULTIPLY-IN-ROTATION
(ANGL,IMAGE-XFORM);
MULTIPLY-IN-TRANSLATION
(TRNX,TRNY,IMAGE-XFORM);
RETURN;
END;
DTEIT 19/8/
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135
ALGORITHM
MAKE-PICTURE-CURRENT:-User routine
to show the current display file
GLOBAL FREE the index of the next free
display- file cell
ERASE-FLAG indicates if frames
should be clear
BEGIN
IF ERASE-FLAG THEN
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
136
ALGORITHM
BEGIN
ERASE;
ERASE-FLAG<--FALSE;
END;
BUILD-TRANSFORMATION;
IF FREE > 1 THEN INTERPRET (1,FREE-1);
DISPLAY;
FREE <-- 1;
RETURN;
END;
DTEIT 19/8/
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137
RASTER METHODS FOR

TRANSFORMATION
Raster functions that manipulate
rectangular pixel arrays are generally
referred to as raster ops. Moving a block of
pixel from one location to another also
called a block transfer of pixel values. On a
bilevel system
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
138
RASTER METHODS FOR

TRANSFORMATION
This operation is called a bitbelt (bitblock
transfer) particularly when the function is
hardware implemented. The term pixbelt is
some time used for block transfer on
multilevel system ( multiple bits per pixel ).
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
139
RASTER METHODS FOR

TRANSFORMATION
Typical raster function often provided in
graphics packages are :
1. Copy - move a pixel block from one raster
area to another.
2. Read - save a pixel block in a designed
arrays.
3. Write - transfer a pixel array to a position in
the frame buffer.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
140
Pmax
Pmin
P0
Translating an object from screen position (a)

to position (b) by moving a rectangular block
of pixel value coordinate positions Pmin &
Pmax specifies the limits of the rectangular
block to be moved, & P0 is the destination
reference position.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
141
EXERCISE 3
Prove that a uniform scaling (Sx = Sy) and
a rotation from a commutative pair of
operations but that, in general, scaling and
rotation are not commutative operations.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
142
EXERCISE 3
Show that transformation matrix (5-33),
for a reflection about the line y =x, is
equivalent to a reflection relative to the x
axis followed by a counterclockwise
rotation of 90.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
143
EXERCISE 3
Show that transformation matrix (5-34) for
a reflection about the line y=-x, is
equivalent to a reflection relative to the y
axis followed by a counterclockwise
rotation of 90.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
144
EXERCISE 3
Determine the form of the transformation
matrix for a reflection about an arbitrary
line with equation y= mx+b
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
145
EXERCISE 3
Determine the sequence of basic
transformations that are equivalent to
the x-direction shearing matrix(5-35).
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
146
EXERCISE 3
Determine the sequence of basic
transformations that are equivalent to
the y-direction shearing matrix (5-36).
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
147
Magnification of an object while keeping

its center fixed. Let the geometric center be
located at c(h,k) in figure (a). Choosing a
magnification factor s>1. We construct the
transformation by performing the following
sequence of the transformation :
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
148
(1) Translate the object so that its center

coincides with the origin in figure (b), (2)
scale the object with respect to the origin in
figure (c), and (3) translate the scaled object
back to the original position in figure (d).
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
149
The required transformation ss,c can be

formed by composition ss,c=t-1v.Ss,s.Tv
where v= -hi - hj. By using composition,
we can build more general scaling, rotation
and reflection transformation.For these
transformations,
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
150
We shall use the following notations : (1)

ssx,sy,p -scaling with respect to a fixed
point p ;(2) r,p -rotation about a point p ;
(3) ml-reflection about a line l.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
151
2
C(h,k)
1
1
DTEIT 19/8/
2
(A)
CG-6284
x
152
(B)
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
153
(C)
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
154
y
4
3
2
1
1
(D)
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
155
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
156
TWO-DIMENSIONAL VIEWING
viewport
window
WORLD COORDINATE
DEVICE COORDINATE
A VIEWING TRANSFORMATION USING STANDARD

RECTANGLES FOR WINDOW & VIEWPORT
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
157
2-D VIEWING
A world coordinate area selected for display is
called a window.
An area on a display device to which a
window is mapped is called a viewport.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
158
2-D VIEWING
#.
The mapping of a part of a world-
coordinate scene to device coordinate is

referred to as a viewing transformation.
#.
The 2-d viewing transfor-mation is
simply reffered as the window to veiwing

transformation.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
159
2-D VIEWING
ws2 Window
ws2
Viewport
Viewing
coordinate
window
ws1
Viewport
Monitor1
ws1
Window
TWO-DIMENSIONAL VIEWING
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
Monitor2
160
2-D VIEWING
Any number of output devices can be open in

aparticular
application,
&
another
window-to-
viewport transformation can be performed for each

open
output
devices.This
mapping
is
called
workstation transformation.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
161
ASPECT RATIO
#. Since the viewing transformation involves
scaling, undesirable distortions may be
introduced whenever sx
sy. For example,
circles within which the window may be

displayed as ellipses and squares as
rectangles. In consdering how
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
162
ASPECT RATIO
These distortions may be
avoided, the concept
of aspect ratio is needed. The aspect ratio of a

rectangulatr window or viewport is defined by
A=xmax-xmin/ymax-ymin
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
163
ASPECT RATIO
If the aspect ratio aw of the window equals the
aspect ratio av of the vieport then sx=sy, and no
distortion occurs.If aw !=
av,
then distortion
occurs. If desired ,
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
164
ASPECT RATIO
In this case we can describe a region within
the viewport, a subviewport, whose aspect
ratio is that of the window.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
165
ASPECT RATIO
The method for selecting a and enlarging

portions of the drawing is called windowing. The
technique for not showing that part of the drawing
which one is not interested in is called clipping.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
166
ASPECT RATIO
There is the object model and there is
the image of the object which appears on

the display. When we speak of the object,
we are actually referring to a model of the
object stored in the computer .
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
167
ASPECT RATIO
The object model is said to reside in
object space. This model represent the

object using yhe physical units of length.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
168
12M
(.25, .5)
(.25, .5)
(.5, .2)
12M
IN THE OBJECT SPACE,POSITION IS MEASURED IN PHYSICAL

UNITS SUCH AS METERS. IN THE IMAGE SPACE , POSITION IS
GIVEN IN NORMALIZED SCREEN COORDINATES.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
169
ASPECT RATIO
We must have some way of covertingfrom
the object space units of measure to those of

the image space ( screen space ) . this can be
done by the scaling transformation.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
170
1/48 0 0
X
0 1/48 0
0 0 1
=
A SCALING TRANSFORMATION WILL CONVERT OBJECT
COORDINATE UNITS TO NORMALIZED SCREEN COORDINATES.
DTEIT 19/8/
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171
ASPECT RATIO
The object is too complex to show in its

entirety or that we are particularly interested in
just a portion of it.We would like to imagine a box
about a portion of the object . we would only
display what is enclosed in the box. Such a box is
called a window.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
172
WINDOW
OBJECT SPACE
IMAGE SPACE
A WINDOW TO VIEW ONLY PART OF AN OBJECT.

DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
173
ASPECT RATIO
We would like to imagine a box on the
screen and have the image confined to that

box.Such a box in the screen space is called
a viewport.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
174
VIEWPORT
A VIEW PORT TO DEFINE THE PART OF THE

SCREEN TO BE USED.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
175
ASPECT RATIO
When the window is changed, we see a
different part of the object shown at the

same position on the display.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
176
DIFFERENT WINDOWS, SAME VEIWPORTS

DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
177
ASPECT RATIO
If we change the viewport , we see the
same part of the object drawn at a different

place on the display.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
178
The overall transformation which performs

these three steps we shall call the viewing
transformation.
TRANSLATE
SCALE
TRANSLATE
VIEWING TRANSFORMATION
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
179
In general,the viewing transformation is
-WXL -WYL
DTEIT 19/8/
(VXH-VXL) /
(WXH-WXL)
0
0
0
(VYH-VYL) /
(WYH-WHL)
CG-6284
0
0
VXL VYL 1
180
VXH-VXL)/
(WXH-WXL)
VXL-WXL(VXH-VXL)/
(WXH-WXL)
DTEIT 19/8/
(VYH-VYL)/
(WYH-WYL)
VYL-WYL(VYH-VYL)/
(WYH-WYL)
CG-6284
181
CLIPPING
Clipping tells us how to cut off the lines
which are outside the window so that only

the lines within the window are displayed.If
it is inside, the line is displayed; if it is
outside, nothing is drawn.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
182
CLIPPING
If it crosses the boundry we must

determine the point of intersection and draw
only the portion which lies inside.
19/8/
DTEIT
BEFORE
AFTER
CG-6284
183
CLIPPING
CLIP LEFT
CLIP RIGHT
CLIP BOTTOM
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
CLIP TOP
184
ALGORITHM SET-VIEW PORT(XL,XH,YL,YH)

#. User routine for specifying the viewport
Arguments
XL,XH
the left and right viewport boundaries
YL,YH
the bottom and up viewport boundaries
Global
VXL-HOLD,VXH-HOLD,VYL-HOLD,VYH-HOLD
storage for the viewport boundaries
DTEIT
19/8/
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185
ALGORITHM SET-VIEW PORT(XL,XH,YL,YH)

BEGIN
IF XL>=XH OR YL>=YH THEN RETURN ERROR `BAD
VIEW PORT`;
VXL-HOLD <--- XL;
VXH-HOLD <--- XH;
VYL-HOLD <--- YL;
VYH-HOLD<--- YH;
RETURN;
END;
DTEIT
19/8/
CG-6284
186
ALGORITHM SET WINDOW PORT(XL,XH,YL,YH)

# User routine for specifying the window
Arguments
XL,XH
YL,YH
the left and right window boundaries

the bottom and up window boundaries
Global
WXL-HOLD,WXH-HOLD, WYL-HOLD,WYH-HOLD
storage for the window boundaries

DTEIT
19/8/
CG-6284
187
ALGORITHM SET WINDOW PORT(XL,XH,YL,YH)

BEGIN
IF XL>= XH OR YL>= YH THEN RETURN
ERROR`BAD WINDOW`;
WXL-HOLD <--- XL;
WXH-HOLD <--- XH;
WYL-HOLD <--- YL;
WYH-HOLD <--- YH;
RETURN;
END;
DTEIT
19/8/
CG-6284
188
THE CLIPPING PROCESS

CLIPPING
Clip left
Clip right
Clip bottom
Clip top
Viewing
transform
DTEIT 19/8/
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189
ALOGRITHM CLIP-LEFT (OP, X,Y)
Routine for clipping against the left boundary

Arguments
OP,X ,Y a display file in instruction
Global
WXL window left boundary
XS,YS arrays containing the last point
drawn
NEEDFIRST array of indicators for saving the
first command
DTEIT
19/8/
CG-6284
190

FIRSTOP, FIRSTX FIRSTY arrays for saving the
first command
CLOSING indicates the stage in polygon
BEGIN
IF PFLAG ANG NEEDFIRST(1) THEN
BEGIN
FIRSTOP (1)<--OP;
FIRSTX(1)<--X;
FIRSTY(1)<--Y;
DTEIT
19/8/
CG-6284
191

NEEDFIRST(1)<-- FALSE;
END
Case of drawing from outside in
ELSE IF X>= WXL AND XS (1) < WXL THEN
CLIP-RIGHT (1,WXL,(Y-YS(1))*(WXL-X)/(XXS(1)+Y)
Case of drawing from inside out
ELSE IF X<= WXL AND XS (1) > WXL THEN
IF OP>0 THEN
DTEIT
19/8/
CG-6284
192

CLIP-RIGHT (OP,WXL,(Y-YS(1))*(WXL-X)/(XXS(1))+Y) ELSE
CLIP-RIGHT (1,WXL,(Y-YS(1))*(WXL-X)/(XXS(1)+Y);
Remember point to serve as one of the end points
of next line segments
XS(1)<--X;
YS(1)<--Y;
DTEIT
19/8/
CG-6284
193
Case of point inside

IF X>=WXL AND CLOSING <> 1
THEN CLIP-RIGHT(OP, X,Y);
RETURN;
END;
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
194
ALOGRITHM CLIP-RIGHT (OP, X,Y)

#. Routine for clipping against the right boundary
Arguments
Global
WXL window right boundary
XS,YS arrays containing the last point
drawn
first command
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
195

FIRSTOP,FIRSTX,FIRSTY arrays for saving the
first command
BEGIN
IF PFLAG AND NEEDFIRST(2) THEN
BEGIN
FIRSTOP(2)<-- OP;
FIRSTX(2)<-- X;
FIRSTY(2)<--Y;
DTEIT
19/8/
CG-6284
196

END
ELSE IF X<= WXH AND XS (2) > WXH THEN
CLIP-BOTTOM (1,WXH,(Y-YS(2))*(WXH-X)/(XXS(2)+Y)
ELSE IF X>= WXH AND XS (2) < WXH THEN
IF OP>0 THEN
CLIP-BOTTOM (OP, WXH, (Y-YS(2))*(WXH-X)/(XXS(2))+Y)
DTEIT 19/8/
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197

ELSE
CLIP-BOTTOM(1,WXH,(Y-YS(2))*(WXH-X)/(XXS(2)) +Y);
XS(2)<--X;
TS(2)<--Y;
IF X<=WSH AND CLOSING <> 2 THEN CLIPBOTTOM (OP, X,Y);
RETURN;
END;
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
198
ALOGRITHM CLIP-BOTTOM (OP, X,Y)

#. Routine for clipping against the lower boundary
Arguments
Global
WXL window lower boundary
XS,YS arrays containing the last point drawn
NEEDFIRST array of indicators for saving the first
command
DTEIT 19/8/
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FIRSTOP, FIRSTX FIRSTY arrays for saving the first
command
BEGIN
IF PFLAG ANG NEEDFIRST(3) THEN
BEGIN
FIRSTOP (3)<--OP;
FIRSTX(3)<--X;
FIRSTY(3)<--Y;
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
200

END
ELSE IF Y>= WXL AND YS (3) < WYL THEN
CLIP-TOP (1,( X-XS(3))*(WYL-Y)/(Y-YS(3))
+X,WYL)
ELSE IF Y<= WYL AND YS (3) > WYL THEN
IF OP>0 THEN
DTEIT 19/8/
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201

CLIP-TOP (OP,X-XS(3))*(WYL-Y)/(YYS(3)+X,WYL)
ELSE
CLIP-TOP(1,(X-XS(3))*(WYL-Y)/(Y-YS(3))
+X,WYL);
XS(3)<--X;
YS(3)<--Y;
DTEIT 19/8/
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202

IF Y>=WYL AND CLOSING <> 3
THEN CLIP-TOP (OP, X,Y);
RETURN;
END;
DTEIT 19/8/
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203
ALOGRITHM CLIP-TOP (OP, X,Y)

#. Routine for clipping against the upper boundary
Arguments
OP,X,Y a display file instruction
Global
WYH window upper boundary
XS,Ys array containing the last point drawn
first command
DTEIT 19/8/
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204

FIRSTOP,FIRSTX,FIRSTY arrays for saving the first
command
BEGIN
IF PFLAG AND NEEDFIRST(4) THEN
BEGIN
FIRSTOP(4)<-- OP;
FIRSTX(4)<-- X;
FIRSTY(4) <-- Y;
END
DTEIT
19/8/
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205

ELSE IF Y <= WYH AND YS(4)> WYH THEN
SAVE-CLLIPED- POINT (1,(X-XS(4))*(WYH-Y)/(Y-YS(4))
+X,WYH)
ELSE IF Y>=WYH AND YS (4)<WYHTHEN
IF OP >0 THEN
SAVE-CLLIPED-POINT( OP,(X-XS(4))*(WYH-Y)/ (YYS (4))+X,WYH)
ELSE
DTEIT
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206

XS(4) <-- X;
YS(4) <-- Y;
IF Y<= WYH AND CLOSING <> 4
THEN SAVE-CLIPPED-POINT (OP, X,
Y);
RETURN;
END;
DTEIT 19/8/
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207
MULTIPLE WINDOWING
Some systems allow the use of multiple
windowing:
A first image is created by one or more

window transformations on the object.
Windows are applied to this first image to

create a second image.
Further windowing transformations may be

done until the desired picture is created.
DTEIT 19/8/
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MULTIPLE WINDOWING
ADVANTAGES:
Every application of a window
transformation allows the user to slice up a
portion of the picture and reposition it on
the screen.
Thus multiple windowing gives the user

freedom to rearrange components of the
picture.
DTEIT 19/8/
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209
WINDOW
VIEW PORT
YWMAX
YVMAX
YWMIN
YVMIN
XWMIN
XWMAX
WORLD COORDINATES
XVMIN
XVMIN
DEVICE COORDINATES
A VIEWING TRANSFORMATION USING STANDARD

RECTANGLES FOR THE WINDOW & VIEWPORT
DTEIT
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210
MC
CONSTRUCT WORLDCOORDINATE SCENE

USING MODELINGCOORDINATE
TRANSFORMATIONS
WC
CONVERT
WORLDCOORDINATES
TO VIEWING
COORDINATES
VC
DC
MAP
NORMALIZED
VIEWPORT TO
DEVICE
COORDINATES
NVC
MAP VIEWING
COORDINATES TO
NORMALIZED VIEWING
COORDINATES USING
WINDOW-VIEWPORT
SPECIFICATIONS
TWO DIMENSIONAL VIEWING TRANSFORMATION

DTEIT
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CG-6284
211
y WORLD
WINDOW
1
VIEWPOINT
y0
x0
x WORLD
WORLD COORDINATES
NORMALIZIED DEVICE
COORDINATES
SETTING UP A ROTATED WORLD WINDOW IN VIEWING COORDINATES &

THE CORRESPONDING NORMALIZED - COORDINATE VIEWPORT.
DTEIT 19/8/
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212
y WORLD
y WORLD
y
y0
y VIEW
VI
EW
x VIEW
x0
TRANSLATE THE
VIEWING ORIGIN TO
THE WORLD ORIGIN.
DTEIT 19/8/
x WORLD
x WORLD
VI
EW
ROTATE TO ALIGN THE

AXES OF THE TWO
SYSTEMS
CG-6284
213
YWMAX
YVMAX
(xw, yw)
(xv, yv)
YWMIN
YVMIN
XWMIN
XWMAX
XVMIN
XVMIN
A POINT AT POSITION (xw, yw) IN A DESIGNATED WINDOW

IS MAPPED TO VIEWPORT COORDINATES (xv, yv) SO THAT
RELATIVE POSITIONS IN THE TWO AREAS ARE THE SAME.
DTEIT 19/8/
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WINDOW TO VIEWPORT
A point at position (xw,yw) in the window
is mapped into position (xv,yv)in the
associated viewport. To maintain the same
relative placement in the viewport as in the
window,we require that:
DTEIT
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WINDOW TO VIEWPORT
xv-xvmin
xw-xwmin
xvmax -xvmin = xwmax -xwmin
yv-yvmin
yw-ywmin
=
yvmax -yvmin
ywmax -ywmin
xv = xvmin - ( xw - xwmin)sx
yv = yvmin + ( yw - ywmin)sy
DTEIT
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216
WINDOW TO VIEWPORT
xvmax -xvmin
sx =
xwmax -xwmin
yvmax -yvmin
sy = yw -yw
max
min
THE CONVERSION IS PERFORMED WITH THE
FOLLOWING SEQUENCE OF TRANSFORMATIONS:
DTEIT
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217
WINDOW TO VIEWPORT
Perform a scaling trans-formation using
a fixed point position of (xwmin, ywmin) that

scales the window area to the size of the
viewport.
Translate the scale window area to the
position of the viewport.

DTEIT
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218
CLIPPING
An algorithm for three dimensional

clipping identifies and saves all surface
segments within the view volume for
display on the output device.
All parts of the objects that are outside

the view volume are discarded.Clipping in
three dimensions can be accomplished
using extensions of two-dimensional
clipping methods.
DTEIT 19/8/
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CLIPPING OPERATIONS
In the following sections, we consider
algorithms for clipping the
following
primitive types :
point clipping.
Line clipping (straight - line
segments).
Area clipping (polygons)
Curve clipping.
Text clipping.
DTEIT 19/8/
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220
POINT CLIPPING
Assuming that the clip window is a
rectangle in standard position, we save a
point p = (x,y) for display if the following
inequalities are satisfied:
xwmin <= x <= xwmax

ywmin <= y <= ywmax
DTEIT
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221
LINE CLLIPING
A line clipping procedure
involves
sevaral parts.
First, we can test a given line segment to
determine whether it lies completely inside

the clipping window. If it does not,
DTEIT
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222
LINE CLLIPING
Secondly, we try to Determine whether it
is completely outside the window .
finally, if we cannot identify a line as
completely inside or completely outside, we

must perform intersection calculation with
one or more clipping boundries.
DTEIT
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223
LINE CLLIPING
We process line through the `inside-
outside `test by cheching the line endpoints.

#
A line with with both endpoints inside

all clipping boundaries is saved.
A line with both endpoints outside any

one of the clip boundaries is clipped.
DTEIT
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224
WINDOW
BEFORE CLIPPING
WINDOW
AFTER CLIPPING
LINE CLIPPING AGAINST A RECTANGULAR CLIP WINDOW

DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
225
COHEN-SUTHERLAND CLIPPING
This is the one of the oldest & popular
line-clipping procedure.
It is the method that can be used to test
lines for total clipping is to perform the logical

and operation with both region codes. If the
result is not 0000, the line is completely
outside the clipping region.
DTEIT
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226
LINE CLLIPING
Those lines that cannot be identified as
completely inside or outside a clipping

window by these tests
are checked for
intersection with the windows boundries.

DTEIT
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227
LINE CLLIPING
#
The clipping process for a line is started

by comparing an outside endpoint to a
clipping boundary to determine how much
of the line can be discarded. Then the
remaining part of the line is checked against
the other boundaries and continue untill
either the line is totally discarded or a
section is found inside the window.
DTEIT
19/8/
CG-6284
228
1001
1000
1010
0001
0000
0010
0101
WINDOW
0100
0110
BINARY REGION CODES ASSINGNED TO LINE

ENDPOINTS ACCORDING TO RELATIVE POSITION WITH
RESPECT TO THE CLIPPING RECTANGLE.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
229
P2
WINDOW
P2`
P2``
P1`
P3
P3`
P4
P1
LINE EXTENDED FROM ONE

COORDINATE REGION TO ANOTHER
MAY PASS TROUGH
THE CLIP WINDOW, OR THEY MAY
INTERSECT CLIPPING BOUNDARIES
WITHOUT ENTERING THE WINDOW.
DTEIT 19/8/
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230
COHEN-SUTHERLAND
LINE CLIPPING ALGORITHM
Procedure clipcohsuth(winMin, winMax :

dcPt2; n : integer; pts : wcPts2);
type
Boundary = (left, right, bottom, top);
Code=array[Boundary] of boolean;
var
I : integer;
function encodes {pt : wcPt2} : Code;
var c : Code;
DTEIT
CG-6284
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231
COHEN-SUTHERLAND
begin
if pt.x < winMin.x then c[Left]
:= true else c[Left] := false ;
if pt.x > winMax.x then c[Right]
:= true else c[Right] := false ;
if pt.y < winMin.y then c[Bottom]
:= true else c[Bottom] := false;
if pt.y > winMax.y then c[Top]
:= true else c[Top] :=false ;
end ;
{ encode }
DTEIT
CG-6284
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232
COHEN-SUTHERLAND
function accept { c1, c2 : code } : boolean ;

var k : Boundary;
begin
accept := true ;
for k := Left to Top do
if { c1[k] } and c2[k] } then accept :=true
end;
function reject { c1,c2 :code } :boolean;
var k : Boundary;
DTEIT
CG-6284
233
19/8/
COHEN-SUTHERLAND
begin
reject := false ;
for k := Left to Top do
if { c1[k] and c2[k] } then reject := true
end;
function ptInside { c: Code } : boolean ;
begin
if { c[Left] } or { c[Right] } or
{c[Top]} or { c[Bottom]} then
DTEIT
CG-6284
19/8/
234
COHEN-SUTHERLAND
ptInside := false else ptInside := true;

end;
procedure swapPts (var p1, p2 : wcPt2);
var tmp : wcPt2;
begin
tmp := p1 ; p1 :=p2 ; p2 := tmp;
end;
procedure swapCodes (var c1, c2 : Code );
var tmp : Code ;
DTEIT
CG-6284
19/8/
235
COHEN-SUTHERLAND
begin
tmp := c1; c1 :=c2; c2 :=tmp;
end;
procedure clipLine (p1,p2 : wcPt2);
var code1, code2 : code ;
done, draw : boolean;
m: real;
begin {clipLine }
done := false;
DTEIT
CG-6284
19/8/
236
COHEN-SUTHERLAND
draw := false ;
while not done do
begin
code1 := encode (p1);
code2 := encode (p1);
if accept (code1, code2 ) then
begin
done := true ;
draw := true
DTEIT
CG-6284
19/8/end
237
COHEN-SUTHERLAND
else
if reject (code1, code2)then done:=true
else
begin
(insure that p1 is outside window)
if ptInside (code1) then
begin
swapPts (p1,p2);
DTEIT
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238
COHEN-SUTHERLAND
swapCodes ( code1 , code2 );

end ;
m : = ( p2.y - p1.y) / (p2.x -p1.x );
if codel [ Left ] then begin
p1.y : = p1.y + ( winMin .x - p1.x ) * m ;
p1.x : = winMin.x
end { crosses Left }
else
DTEIT
19/8/
CG-6284
239
COHEN-SUTHERLAND
if codel [ Right ] then begin

p1.y := p1.y + (winMax .x - p1.x ) * m;
p1.x := winMax.x
end { crosses Right }
else
if codel [ Bottom ] then begin
DTEIT
19/8/
CG-6284
240
COHEN-SUTHERLAND
p1.x := p1.x + ( winMin.y - p1.y ) / m ;

p1.y := winMin.y
end { crosses Bottom }
else
if codel [ Top ] then begin
p1.x := p1.x + ( winMax.y - p1.y ) / m ;
p1.y := winMax.y
end { crosses Top }
DTEIT
19/8/
CG-6284
241
COHEN-SUTHERLAND
end
end;
if draw then
{ draw line from p1 to p2 }
lineDDA (round( p1.x), round(p1.y),
round (p2.x) , round (p2.y))
end; { clipLine }
DTEIT
19/8/
CG-6284
242
COHEN-SUTHERLAND
begin
for i:=1to n-1 do clipLine (pts[i] ,pts[I+1]);
clipLine ( pts [n] , pts [1] );
end; { clipCohSuth }
DTEIT 19/8/
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243
POLYGON CLIPPING
To clip a polygon we need to modify the
line-clipping procedure
A polygon boundary processed with a
line clipper may be displayed as series of

unconected line segments, depending on the
orientation of the polygon to the clip
window.
DTEIT 19/8/
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244
POLYGON CLIPPING
For polygon clipping , we require an
algorithm that will generate one or more
closed areas that are then scan converted for
the appropriate atrea fill. The output of a
polygon clipper should be a sequence of
vertices that defines the clipped polygon
boundries.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
245
POLYGON CLIPPING
BEFORE CLIPPING
AFTER CLIPPING
DISPLAY OF A POLYGON PROCESSED

BY A LINE CLIPPING ALGORITHM.
DTEIT
19/8/
CG-6284
246
POLYGON CLIPPING
BEFORE
CLIPPING
AFTER
CLIPPING
DISPLAY OF CORRECTLY CLIPPIED POLYGON
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
247
VECTOR METHOD FOR

SPLITTING CONCAVE POLYGONS
E5
3
2
E4
E6
1
E1
0
E2
E3
2
SPLITTING A CONCAVE POLYGON USING

THE VECTOR METHOD
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
248
VECTOR METHOD FOR

PREVIOUS FIGURE SHOWS A

CONCAVE
POLYGON WITH SIX
EDGES. EDGE VECTOR FOR THIS
POLYGON CAN BE EXPRESSED AS :
E1 = (1,0,0), E2 = (1,1,0)
E3 = ( 1,-1,0), E4 = (0,2,0)
E5 = (-3,0,0), E6 = (0,-2,0)
DTEIT
19/8/
CG-6284
249
VECTOR METHOD FOR

#
WHERE THE COMPONENT IS 0,

SINCE ALL EDGES ARE IN THE X Y
PLANE .THE CROSS PRODUCT Ei x Ej
FOR TWO SUCCESSIVE EDGE
VECTORS IS A VECTOR
PERPENDICULAR TO THE XY PLANE
E4 WITH Z COMPONENT EQUAL TO
Eix Ejy - Ejx Ejy
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
250
VECTOR METHOD FOR

E1 x E2 = (0,0,1), E2 x E3 = (0,0,-2)
E3 x E4 = (0,0,2), E4 x E5 = (0,0,6)
E5 x E6 = (0,0,6), E6 x E1 = (0,0,2)
# SINCE THE CROSS PRODUCT E2 x E3
HAS A NEGATIVE Z COMPONENT, WE
SPLIT THE POLYGON ALONGE THE
LINE OF VECTOR E2 .
DTEIT
19/8/
CG-6284
251
VECTOR METHOD FOR

The line equation for this edge has a slope
of 1 and a y intercept of -1. We then
determine the intesection of this line and the
other polygon edges to split the polygon
into two pieces. No other edge cross
products are negative, so the two new
polygons are both convex.
DTEIT
19/8/
CG-6284
252
V1
V2
V3
V4
SPLITTING A CONCAVE POLYGON USING THE ROTATIONAL METHOD.
AFTER ROTATING V3 ONTO THE X AXIS, WE FIND THAT V4 IS BELOW
THE X AXIS. SO WE SPLIT THE POLYGON ALONG THE LINE OF V2V3.
DTEIT 19/8/
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253
CURVE CLIPPING
Areas with curve boundries can be
clipped with methods similar to line &
polygon clipping.
Curve clipping procedures will involves

nonlinear equations, and this reqiures more
processing than for objects with linear
boundries.
DTEIT
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CG-6284
254
CURVE CLIPPING
The bounding rectangle for a circle can be
used first to test for overlap with a rectangular

clip window.
#
If the bounding rectangle for the object is

compeletly inside the window, we save the
object.
DTEIT
19/8/
CG-6284
255
CURVE CLIPPING
#
If the rectangle is determined to be

compeletely outside the window, we discard the
object.
If the bounding rectangle test fails , we look

for other computation-saving approaches.
DTEIT 19/8/
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256
CURVE CLIPPING
#
For a circle, we can use the coordinate extents

of individual quadrantes and then octants for
preliminary testing before calculating curvewindow intersection.
For an ellipse, we can test the coordinate extent
of the individual quadrants.

DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
257
CURVE CLIPPING
BEFORE
CLIPPING
AFTER
CLIPPING
CLIPPING OF A FILLED CIRCLE

DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
258
TEXT CLIPPING
There are several techniques that can be
used to provide text clipping in a graphics

package.
The technique used will depend on the
method used to generate character and

requirement of a particular application.
DTEIT
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CG-6284
259
TEXT CLIPPING
The simplest method for processing
character strings relative to a windows
boundary is to use the all-or-none stringclipping strategy.
If all of the string is inside the a clip

window we keep it. Otherise the string is
discarded.
DTEIT
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CG-6284
260
TEXT CLIPPING
#
This procedure is implemented by

considering a bounding rectangle around
the text pettern.
# The boundary position of the rectangle are

then comparedto the windows boundries,
and the string is regected if there is any
overlap. This method produces the fastest
text clipping.
DTEIT 19/8/
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261
TEXT CLIPPING
An alternative to rejecting an entire
character string
that overlaps a window
boundary is to use the all-or-none characterstring strategy.

#
Here we only discard those charecters

that are not compeletly inside the window.
DTEIT
19/8/
CG-6284
262
TEXT CLIPPING
#
In this case the boundary limits of

individual character are compared to the
window.
# Any charectwer that either overlaps or is

outside a window boundary is clipped.
DTEIT 19/8/
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263
TEXT CLIPPING
A final method for handling text clipping
is to clip the components of individual
charecters. We now treat characters in much
the same way that we treated lines.
DTEIT
19/8/
CG-6284
264
TEXT CLIPPING
#
If an individual character overlaps a

clip window boundary, we clip off the parts
of the character that are outside the window.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
265
TEXT CLIPPING
STRING1
STRING2
BEFORE CLIPPING
STRING2
AFTER CLIPPING
TEXT CLIPPING USING A BOUNDING RECTANGLE

ABOUT THE ENTIRE SCREEN.
DTEIT
CG-6284
266
19/8/
TEXT CLIPPING
STRING1
I
R
ST
STRING3
G2
NG1
R
ST
TRING3
STRING4
BEFORE CLIPPING
STRING4
AFTER CLIPPING
TEXT CLIPPING USING A BOUNDING RECTANGLE

ABOUT INDIVIDUAL CHARECTER.
DTEIT
CG-6284
267
19/8/
TEXT CLIPPING
STRING1
STRING1
2
G
N
I
R
T
S
BEFORE CLIPPING
ST
AFTER CLIPPING
TEXT CLIPPING PERFORMED ON THE COMPONENTS

OF INDIVIDUIAL CHARACTERS.
DTEIT 19/8/
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268
EXTERIOR CLIPPING
We have considered only procedures for
clipping a picture to the interior of a region.
By eliminating everything outside the
clipping region. What is saved by these
procedure is inside the region.
DTEIT 19/8/
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269
EXTERIOR CLIPPING
In some cases , we want to do the
reverse , that is we want to clip a picture to

the exterior of the specified region. The
picture parts to be saved are those that are
outside the region. This is reffered as
exterior clliping.
DTEIT
19/8/
CG-6284
270
EXTERIOR CLIPPING
#
A typical example of the application of

exterior clipping is in multiple window
system.
Exterior clipping is used also in other

application
that
requires
overlaping
pictures.
DTEIT
19/8/
CG-6284
271
EXTERIOR CLIPPING
#
Procedures for clipping objects to the

interior of concave polygon windows can
also make use of external clipping.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
272
EXTERIOR CLIPPING
A line p1 p2 that is to be clipped to the
interior of a concave window with vertices
v1 v2 v3 v4 v5. Line p1 p2 can be clipped in
two passes
#
first, p1 p2 is clipped to the interior of a

convex polygon v1 v2 v3 v4 to yield the
clipped segment p1` p2` .
DTEIT
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273
EXTERIOR CLIPPING
#
Second, then an external clip of p1`

p2` is performed aginst the convex polygon
v1 v5 v4 to yield the final clipped line
segment p1`` p2``.
DTEIT 19/8/
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274
NORMALIZED VIEW
VOLUMES
At the step, a scene is constructed by

transforming object description from modeling
coordinates. Next, a view mapping converts
the world descriptions to viewing coordinates.
At the projection stage, the viewing
coordinates are transformed to projection
coordinates,which effectively converts the
view volume into a rectangular parallelepiped.
DTEIT
19/8/
CG-6284
275
NORMALIZED VIEW
VOLUMES
Modeling
coordinates
Modeling
transformation
World
Coordinates
Projection
Transformation
Projection
Coordinates
Workstation
Transformation
Device
Coordinates
Viewing
Transformation
Normalization
Transformation
Viewing
Coordinates
Normalized
Projection
Coordinates
PHIGS Transformation
DTEIT Expanded
19/8/
CG-6284 Pipeline
276
NORMALIZED VIEW
VOLUMES
Then, the parallelepiped is mapped into the
unit cube, a normalized view volume called
the normalized projection coordinate
system.The mapping to normalized
projection coordinates is accomplished by
transforming points within the rectangular
parallelepiped into a position within a
specified three-dimensional viewport,which
occupies part or all of the unit cube.
DTEIT
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277
NORMALIZED VIEW
VOLUMES
#
Finally, at the workstation stage,

normalized projection coordinates are
converted to device coordinates for display.
# The normalized view volume is a region
defined by the planes
x=0, x=1, y=0, y=1, z=0, z=1
DTEIT 19/8/
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278
NORMALIZED VIEW
VOLUMES
A similar transformation sequence is used
in other graphics packages,with individual
variation depending on the system.The GL
package, for example, maps the rectangular
parallelepiped into the interior of a cube
with boundary planes at position +-1in each
coordinate direction.
DTEIT 19/8/
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279
NORMALIZED VIEW
VOLUMES
ADVANTAGES: The normalized view volume provides a standard
shape for representing any sized view volume.
The clipping procedures are simplify and

standardized with unit clipping plans or the view
port plans,and additional clipping plans can be
specified within the the normalized space before
transforming to device coordinates.
DTEIT
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CG-6284
280
NORMALIZED VIEW
VOLUMES
The depth cueing and visiblesurface determination are simplified,
since the z axis always points toward
the viewer .
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NORMALIZED VIEW
VOLUMES
Mapping positions within a rectangular
view volume to a three-dimensional
rectangular viewport is accomplished with a
combination of scaling and translation,
similar to the operations needed for a twodimensional window-to-viewport mapping .
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NORMALIZED VIEW
VOLUMES
We can express the three-dimensional

transformation matrix for these operation in
the form
Dx
Kx
Dy
Ky
Dz
Kz
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NORMALIZED VIEW
VOLUMES
#
Factors Dx, Dy and Dz are the ratios of

the dimensions of viewport and regular
parallelepiped view volume in the x, y and
z directions.
Dx = (XVmax-XVmin) / (YVmax-YVmin)
Dy = (YVmax-YVmin) / (YWmax-YWmin)
Dz = (ZVmax-ZVmin) / (Zback-Zfront)
(12.34)
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Dimensions of the view volume and three dimensional viewport
(XWMAX,YWMAX,ZBACK)
(XWMIN,YWMIN,ZFRONT)
PARALLELPIPED
VIEW VOLUME
(xvmax,yvmax,zvmax)
X
Z
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Unit cube
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285
VIEWPORT CLIPPING
Lines and polygon surfaces in a scene
can be clipped against the viewport

boundaries with procedures similar to those
used for two dimensions, except that objects
are now processed against clipping planes
instead of clipping edges.
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VIEWPORT CLIPPING
Curved surfaces are processed using the
defining equations for the surface boundary

and locating the intersections lines with the
parallelepiped planes.
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VIEWPORT CLIPPING
The two dimensional concept of region
codes can be extended to three dimensions

by considering positions in front and in
back of three
dimensional viewport , as
well as positions that are left ,right

,below ,or above the volume.
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VIEWPORT CLIPPING
For two dimensional clipping,we used a
four digit binary region code to identify the
position of a line endpoint relative to the
viewport boundaries.For three dimensional
points we need to expand the region code to
six bits.
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VIEWPORT CLIPPING
Each point in the description of the
scene is then assigned a six bit region code

that identifies the relative position of the
point with respect to the viewport.
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VIEWPORT CLIPPING
#
For a line endpoint position (x,y,z), we assign the

bit positions in the region code from right to left as :
Bit 1=1, if x<xvmin (left)
Bit 2=1,
if x>xvmax(right)
Bit 3=1,
if y<yvmin(below)
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VIEWPORT CLIPPING
Bit 4=1,
if y>yvmax(above)
Bit 5=1,
if z<zvmin (front)
Bit 6=1,
if z>zvmax (back)
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VIEWPORT CLIPPING
As in two dimensional line clipping, we
use the calculated intersection of a line with

a viewport plane to determine how much of
the line can be thrown away.
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VIEWPORT CLIPPING
The remaining part of the line is checked
against the other planes, and we continue
until either the line is totally discarded or a
section is found inside the volume.
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VIEWPORT CLIPPING
Equations for three dimensional line
segments are conveniently expressed in
parametric form. The two dimensional
parametric clipping methods of cyrus-beck
or liang-barsky can be extended to three
dimensional scenes.
For a line segment with endpoints

p1=(x1,y1,z1) and p2=(x2,y2,z2),
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VIEWPORT CLIPPING
# We can write the parametric line equations
as
X= x1 + (x2-x1)u, 0<=u<=1
Y= y1 + (y2-y1)u
Z= z1 + (z2-z1)u
Coordinates (x,y,z) represents any point on
the line between the two endpoints.At
u=0,we have the point p1, and u=1 puts us
at p2.
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VIEWPORT CLIPPING
# To find the intersection of a line with a plane of
the viewport, we substitute the coordinate value
for that plane into the appropriate parametric
expression.for instance,suppose we are testing a
line against the zvmin plane of the viewport.then
u=zvmin -z1/z2-z1
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VIEWPORT CLIPPING
when the calculated value for u is not in the
range from 0 to 1, the line segment does not
intersect the plane under consideration at any
point between endpoints p1 and p2.if the
calculated value for u is in the interval from 0
to 1,we calculate the intersections x and y
coordinates as
x1= x1+ (x2-x1) (zvmin-z1)/z2-z1
y1= y1+ (y2-y1)(zvmin-z1)/z2-z1
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CLIPPING IN HOMOGENEOUS
COORDINATES
Although we have discussed the clipping
procedures in terms of three dimensions
coordinates, PHIGS and other packages
actually represent coordinate positions in
homogeneous coordinates. This allows the
various transformations to be represented as 4
by 4matrices, which can be concatenated for
efficiency.
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COORDINATES
#
As each coordinate position enters the

transformation pipeline, it is converted to a
homogeneous coordinate representation :
(x,y,z)
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y
Cross section of
3-dimensional
viewport
Pa2
yvmax
A
Pa1
B
yvmin
Pb2
Pb1
zvmin
zvmax
Side view of two line segments that are to be clipped against the Zvmin
plane of the viewport . For line A, eq-12-37 produces a value of u that is
outside the range from 0 to 1. For line B, eqs-12-38 produce intersection
coordinates that are outside the range from YVmin to Yvmax.
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The various transformation are applied and

we obtain the final homogeneous point:
xh
yh
zh
h
a11
a21
a31
a41
a12
a22
a32
a42
a13
a23
a33
a43
a14
a24
a34
a44
x
y
z
1
(12-39)
where the homogeneous parameter h may

not be 1. In fact, h can have any real value.
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COORDINATES
Clipping then performed in homogeneous
coordinates, and clipping homogeneous positions
are converted to nonhomogeneous coordinates in
three
dimensional
normalized-projection
coordinates.
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COORDINATES
x` = xh/h , y` = yh/h , z` = zh/h
(12-40)
# We will, of course, have a problem if the

magnitude of parameter h is very small or has
the value 0; what normally this will not
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COORDINATES
Occur, if the transformations are carried out
properly. At the final stage in the transformation
pipeline the normalized point is transformed
to a three-dimensional device coordinate point.
The XY position is plotted on the device, and the
Z component is used for depth-information
processing.
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COORDINATES
#
Setting up clipping procedures in

homogeneous
coordinates allows
hardware viewing implementations to
use a single procedure for both parallel
and
perspective
projection
transformation.
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COORDINATES
#
Objects viewed with a parallel projection

could be correctly clipped in threedimensional normalized coordinates, provided
the value h=1 has not been altered by other
operations. But perspective projections, in
general, produce a homogeneous parameter
that no longer has the value 1.
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COORDINATES
#
Converting the sheared frustum to a

rectangular parallelepiped can change the
value of the homogeneous parameter. So we
must clip in homogeneous coordinates to be
sure that the clipping is carried out
correctly. Also, rational spline
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COORDINATES
representation are set up in homogeneous
coordinates with arbitrary values for the
homogeneous parameters including h<1.
Negative values for the homogeneous
parameter
can
also
be
generated
in
perspective projections,
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COORDINATES
when coordinate positions are behind the
projection reference point. This can occur
in applications where we might want to
move inside of a building or other object to
view its interior.
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COORDINATES
To determine homogeneous viewport

clipping
boundaries,
we
note
that
homogeneous- coordinates positions (x h , yh ,
zh , h) is inside the viewport if it satisfies the
inequalities.
xv min<= xh/h <=xv max
yv min <= yh/h<=yv max
zv
min < zh/h <=zv max
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COORDINATES
Thus the homogeneous clipping limits are
hxv min <= xh<= hxv max
hyv min <= yh <= hyv max
hzv min <= zh <= hzv max
if h >0
hxv max <= xh <= hxv min

hyv max <= yh <= hyv min
hzv max <= zh <= hzv min
if h <0
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COORDINATES
And clipping is carried out with procedures
similar to those discussed in the previous
sections. To avoid applying both sets of
inequalities in 12-42, we can simply negate
the coordinates for any point with h<0 and
use the clipping inequalities for h>0.
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COMPUTER ANIMATION
Some typical applications of computer
generated animation are entertainment ,
advertising, scientific and engg. Studies and
training and education. We tend to think of
animation as implying object motions , the
term computer animation generally refers to
any time sequence of visual changes in a scene.
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COMPUTER ANIMATION
In addition to changing object postion with
translation or rotations , a computer
generated animation could display time
variations
in
object
size,
colour
transparency or surface texture.

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COMPUTER ANIMATION
Advertising animations often transmission
one object shape into another e.g. Transforming

a can of motor oil into an automobile engine.
Computer animation can also be generated by
changing camera parameters, such as postion,
orientation and focal length.
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COMPUTER ANIMATION
And we can produce computer
animations by changing lighting effects or
other parameters associated with
illumination and rendering.
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COMPUTER ANIMATION
Many applications of computer animation
require
realistic
representation
of
displays.An
at
the
shape
accurate
of
thunderstorm or other natural phenomenona

described with a numerical model is important
for evaluating the reliability of the model.
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COMPUTER ANIMATION
Also, simulators for training aircraft
pilots and heavy-equipment's operators

must produce reasonably accurate
representations of the environment.
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DESIGN OF ANIMATION
SEQUENCES
An animation sequence is designed with

the following steps:
Storyboard layout.
Object definitions.
Key-frame specifications.
Generation of in-between frames.
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DESIGN OF ANIMATION
SEQUENCES
Storyboard layout: The storyboard is an outline of the action.

It defines the sequence as a set of basic events
that are to take place. Depending on the type
of the animation to be produced, the
storyboard could consists of a set of rough
sketches or it could be the list of the basic
ideas for the motion.
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DESIGN OF ANIMATION
SEQUENCES
Object definitions: An object definition is given for each
participant in the action. Objects can be
defined in terms of basic shapes, Such as
polygons.The associated movements for
each object are specified along with the
shape.
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DESIGN OF ANIMATION
SEQUENCES
Key frame specifications:A key frame is a detailed drawing of
the scene at a certain time in the
animations sequence. Within each
key frame, each object is positioned
according to the time for that frame.
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DESIGN OF ANIMATION
SEQUENCES
Key frame specifications: Some key frames are chosen at extreme
in the action; others are spaced so that the
time interval between key frames is not too
great.More key frames are specified for
intricate motions than for simple, slowly
varing motions.
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DESIGN OF ANIMATION
SEQUENCES
Generation of in-between frames:In-between are the intermediate frames
between the key frames. The number of inbetweens needed is determined by the
media to be used to display the animation.
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DESIGN OF ANIMATION
SEQUENCES
Generation of in-between frames: Film requires 24 frames per second, and
graphics terminals are refreshed at the rate
of 30to 60 frames per second. Depending
on the speed specified for the motion, some
key frames can be duplicated.
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DESIGN OF ANIMATION
SEQUENCES
Generation of in-between frames:
For a 1- minute film sequence with no

duplication, we would need 1440
frames.
If the motion is not too complicated, we
could space the key frame a little farther
apart.
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GENERAL COMPUTER ANIMATION FUNCTIONS

Some steps in the development of an
animation sequence are well suited to
computer solution. This include object
manipulation and rendering, camera motions,
and the generations of in-between. Animation
packages, such as Wavefront, for example,
provide special functions for designing the
animation and processing individual objects
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GENERAL COMPUTER ANIMATION FUNCTIONS

One function available in animation
packages is provided to store an manage the
object database.Another typical function
simulates camera movements.Standard
motions are zooming, panning, and tilting.
Finally, given the specifications for the key
frames, the in-betweens can be
automatically generated.
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RASTER ANIMATIONS
On raster systems, we can generate realtime animation in limited applications using
raster operations.To rotate a block of pixels,
we need to determine the percent of area
coverage for those pixels that overlap the
rotated block.
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RASTER ANIMATIONS
We can also animate objects along twodimensional motion paths using the colortable transformations. Here we predefine
the object at successive positions along the
motion path, and set the successive blocks
of pixel values to color-table entries.
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COMPUTER-ANIMATION
LANGUAGES
Design and control of animation
sequences are handled with a set of
animation routines. A general purpose
language, such as C, LISP, PASCAL, or
FORTRAN is often used to program the
animation functions, but several specialized
animation languages have been developed.
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COMPUTER-ANIMATION
LANGUAGES
Animation functions include a graphics
editor, a key frame generator, an inbetween generator and standard
graphics routines.
The graphics editor allows us to design
and modify objects shapes, using spline
surfaces, constructive solid-geometry
methods.
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COMPUTER-ANIMATION
LANGUAGES
A typical task in an animation

specification is scene description. This
includes the positioning of objects and light
sources,
defining
the
photometric
parameters camera parameters
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ANIMATOR
Definition:
Animator defines the motion of
the models,cameras, and lighting
according to storyboards and
experience.
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ANIMATOR
The animator must:
Understand the structure and
intricacies of the model.
Be familiar with the principles
and practice of photography,
lighting, and film direction.
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ANIMATOR
The animator must:
Have the ability to breathe life
into the scene through realistic,
fluid motion.
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ANIMATOR
3D Software Recommendations
Suggestions for the best software
packages:More interested in simpler,
designer images, a package with
more shader options and nicer
rendering may be in order.
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ANIMATOR
3D Software Recommendations
Artists needing a moderately
priced tool for Mac or PC 3D
illustration work should weigh
truespace2 alongside others at or
below its price point.
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ANIMATOR
`3D Software Recommendations
In the mid-range, LightWave is
available for several different
platforms.The moderately priced
Mac package Strata StudioPro is a
good choice.
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ANIMATOR
Choosing a Hardware platform:
There are three major platforms for
3D graphics, namely PC,Mac and
Unix-type workstations.
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ANIMATOR
Besides shopping for a particular
manufacturer and model of system
you also should investigate the
peripherals and cards provided.
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ANIMATOR
The heart of any computer is
printed circuit card called the
motherboard,
which
contains
numerous electronic components, such
as CPU which is brain of the system.
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ANIMATOR
Choosing a Hardware platform
Two main considerations of
processors are architecture and
speed.Chip architecture refers to
the internal design of the processor.
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ANIMATOR
The second consideration is
clock speed, which is basically
how fast a processor executes
instructions, it is measured in
millions of cycles per second.
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ANIMATOR
In addition to processor, there
are other chipsets on PC
motherboards that can affect
performance.Final consideration is
tech support.
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ANIMATOR
SGI/Unix
Silicon Graphics Workstations
have long been considered the
ultimate platform for creating
computer graphics.
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ANIMATOR
SGI/Unix
SGI Workstations hold the top
position in computer graphics due
to their speed and advanced
scaleable
3D
acceleration
hardware.
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ANIMATOR
SGI/Unix
There are also high-powered Unix
workstations as well, including the
Sun SparcStation, DEC alpha, IBM
RS6000,
and
others.
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ANIMATOR
PC:
The PC is the overwhelming
winner in the desktop computer wars.
They are relatively inexpensive,
going for less than $1,000 for a
decent P5/133 to about $6,000.
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ANIMATOR
Macintosh:
The Macintosh has been a
substantial rise in computing power,e
specially since Apple finally started
licensing its architecture and OS to
third parities.
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ANIMATOR
Platform Recommendations:
The right platform to buy is one
that runs the software you want.
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ANIMATOR
Platform Recommendations:
The PC is most popular platform,
and the intense competition among
manufacturers keeps driving the
price/performance ratios at a
breakneck pace.
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ANIMATOR
Choosing Peripherals:
Every computer system needs
some peripheral devices to be truly
usable, be it a monitor, hard drive
or other mass storage device,
printer or modem.
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ANIMATOR
Peripherals, such as cartridge hard
drives and modems are available in
either
internal
or
external
configurations, means that you either
install them inside your CPU or in
their own enclosure.
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ANIMATOR
Storage: The first law of

computing states that files expand
to overflow your storage capacity.
An example is desktop video.
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ANIMATOR
Hard Drive Basics: Hard drives
were a bulky, expensive rarity, and
practically unheard of for desktop
systems.
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ANIMATOR
Hard Drive Basics: Are sealed
units containing a motor that spins a set
of metal disks called magnetic
platters.A read/write head, moves back
and forth reading and writing data with
a set of electromagnetic pulses.
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ANIMATOR
Hard Drive Basics: There are five
terms that will gauge drive performance:
Seek Time:The maximum time it
takes to move the read/write head to a
specific location on the disk.
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ANIMATOR
Choosing Peripherals
Track-to-track seek time: The time it
takes to move the read/write head from
one track to another.
Data transfer rate: The maximum rate
at which information is delivered from
the drive to computer.
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ANIMATOR
Revolution Per Minute:This is

related to the data transfer rate,because
the faster the drive spins the faster the
data transferred.
Interface: The interface on the drive
must match the one in the system.
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ANIMATOR
Cartridge: Is a storage system that
uses removable media to store data.The
cartridge have magnetic platters in
them just like regular hard drive.
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ANIMATOR
Optical Media: Magneto-Optical
drives are another form of cartridgebased
storage
that
offered
comparatively
high
storage
capabilities.
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ANIMATOR
Tape Media: There are several different
types of backup formats and systems

available, including Colorado, Travan,QIC,
DLT, and DAT.The main considerations for
selecting one system over another are
capacity and cost.
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ANIMATOR
Video display Cards: The video
display card is responsible for
converting the text and graphics data in
the computer into a form that the
computer monitor can display.
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ANIMATOR
Video display Cards:
Video card Recommendation: Choice of
graphics card depend on motherboard,
because you will want to use the fastest bus
available
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ANIMATOR
Display: Computer display is the
most overlooked component in the
system.For 3D and graphic arts, a 15
monitor should be considered minimum
size, with 17 or larger desirable.
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ANIMATOR
Input Devices: Input devices are:
Trackball.
Flying Mice.
Spaceballs.
Dial boxes.
Graphics tablets: One of them are Pressuresensitive tablets.
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ANIMATOR
Input Devices:
Scanners: 1.Document Scanner

2.Slide Scanner.
Cameras.
Digitizers.
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ANIMATOR
Animation basics: Animation is
modifying any kind of object,
light, material or camera by
moving or changing it overtime.
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ANIMATOR
Animation basics
Frame Rates:The speed at which
the images are displayed is called
the frame rate and is measured in
frames per second.
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ANIMATOR
Animation basics
Keyframing: To control animation
most programs use a method called
keyframing, in which you pose
your objects in key positions at
specific frames.
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ANIMATOR
Animation basics
Motion Paths: A useful capability
in 3D programs is the ability to work
directly with the motion path of an
object, which is a graphical
representation of its movement.
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ANIMATOR
Animation basics
Pivot Points and axes: In

animation an object may be
transformed around one of several
axes or points of rotation or pivot
points.
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ANIMATOR
Animation basics
Preview: In the animation

process,you will want to see a
representation of how things are
moving,there will be some preview
mode that will display a simplified
version of the scene in real time.
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ANIMATOR
Animation basics
Links : A link is a connection
between two objects so that
animation affecting one also
influences the other.
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ANIMATOR
Animation basics
One object is called the parent
and movement applied to it is
transferred to the second is called
child.
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ANIMATOR
Animation basics
Chains: A chain is a series of
linked objects,using the same
parent and child relationship,but
extending
it
by
additional
generations to grandchild and so.
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ANIMATOR
Animation basics
nulls:Nulls or dummy objects
are used as invisible components
chain or as reference points for
establish remote axes for rotation.
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ANIMATOR
Animation basics
Forward Kinematics: Forward

kinematics is the default method of
animating linked objects, in which the
movement of the parent object affects
all the offspring on down the chain.
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ANIMATOR
Animation basics
Inverse Kinematics: Is a method
of controlling linked objects by
moving the end of the chain and
having the rest of it conform.
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ANIMATOR
Animation basics
Bones Deformation: Is the

technique of animating an object
by defining and animating an
internal skeleton that automatically
deforms the surrounding mesh.
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ANIMATOR
Animation basics
Morphing: Animation is a
technique that allows smooth
changes to occur to an objects shape
by defining beginning, end and
possibly intermediate forms as target.
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ANIMATOR
Animation basics
Deformation Grids:Space Wraps
are a means of defining an area in
3D space that has an automatic
effect on objects passing through
its influence.
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ANIMATOR
Animation basics
Particle Systems: These are 3D
animation modules that enable you
to generate and control the
behavior of vast number of tiny
objects.
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ANIMATOR
Animation basics
Procedural
motion: The
movement of particle systems is
sometimes
referred
to
as
procedural motion.
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ANIMATOR
Character Animation:
Character animation is the process of

imbuing objects not just with simple
movement, but with personality.The key to
compelling characters is making them act
naturally.
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ANIMATOR
Our graphics system might be useful in
producing animated films.

Animation is done by
photographing a sequence of drawings.
Each is slightly different from the
previous .
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ANIMATOR
To show a person moving his arm , a series
of drawings is photographed , each drawing

showing the arm at a different position.
When the images are displayed on the after
another by a movie projector, we perceive the

arm as moving through the sequence.
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ANIMATOR
ANIMATION OF ARM BY A SERIES OF PICTURE

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ANIMATOR
Our graphics system could be used to
generate the background drawing.
The scene is a city street . to show a
character moving down the street , we

really want to keep the character centered
and move the secenery past him.
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ANIMATOR
Each frame will show the background
shifted a little more to the right. This will

give the impression that our character has
moved to left.
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APPARENT MOVEMENT BY TRANSLATION

OF THE BACKGROUND
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VECTOR METHOD FOR SPLITTING

CONCAVE POLYGONS
E5
3
2
E4
E6
1
E1
0
E2
E3
2
SPLITTING A CONCAVE POLYGON USING

THE VECTOR METHOD
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VECTOR METHOD FOR

SPLITTING CONCAVE
POLYGONS
Previous figure shows a concave
Polygon with six edges. Edge vector for
this polygon can be expressed as :
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PARALLEL PROJECTION
In a parallel projection, parallel lines in the
world-coordinate scene project into parallel
lines on the two-dimensional display playing.
This technique is used in engineering and
architectural drawings tools to represent and
object with set of views that maintain relative
properties of the object .
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PARALLEL PROJECTION
TOP
SIDE
FRONT
Fig:- Parallel-projection views of an object,

showing relative proportion from different viewing positions
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PARALLEL PROJECTION
The appearance of the solid object can then
be reconstructed from the major views.
In the perspective projection, parallel lines
in a scene that are not parallel to display plane
are projected into converging lines.
Scenes displayed using perspective

projections appear more realistic.
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DEPTH CUEING
With few exceptions, depth information is
important so that we can easily identify, for a
particular viewing direction, which is the front
and which is the back of displayed objects.
A simple method indicating depth with

wire frame displays is to vary the intensity of
objects according to their distance from the
viewing position.
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DEPTH CUEING
The lines closest to the viewing position are

displayed with the highest intensities and lines
further away are displayed with decreasing
intensities.
Depth cueing is applied by choosing maximum
and minimum intensity values and range of
distances over which the intensities are to the
vary.
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DEPTH CUEING
Depth cueing is used in modeling the
effect of atmosphere on the perceived
intensity of objects .
Some atmospheric effects can change
the perceived color of an object, and we
can model these effects with depth cueing.
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VISIBLE LINE AND

SURFACE IDENTIFICATION
We can clarify depth relationships in a wire
frame display by identifying visible lines in
some way .
The simplest method is to highlight the visible
lines or to display them in different color.
Another technique commonly used for

engineering drawings is to display the non
visible lines as dashed lines.
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SURFACE RENDERING
Added realism is attained in displays by

setting the surface intensity of object according
to the lighting conditions in the scene and
according to assigned surface characteristic.
Lighting specifications include the intensity

and positions of light sources.
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SURFACE RENDERING
Surface properties of objects include degree
of transparency and how rough or smooth
the surfaces are to be.
Procedures can then be applied to generate
the correct illumination and shadow
regions for the scene.
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EXPLODED AND CUTAWAY

VIEWS
Many graphics packages allow objects to be
defined as hierarchical structures, so that the
internal details can be stored.
Exploded and cutaway views of such objects
can then be used to show the internal
structure and relationships of the object parts.
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THREE DIMENSIONAL AND

STEREOSCOPIC VIEWS
It is the method for adding a sense of realism to
a computer- generated scene is to display objects
using either three dimensional or stereoscopic
views .
Three dimensional views can be obtained by
reflecting a raster image from a vibrating
flexible mirror.
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STEREOSCOPIC VIEWS
The vibrations of the mirror synchronized with
the display of scene on the CRT.
As the mirror vibrates the focal length varies so
that each point in the scene is projected to a
position corresponding to its depth.
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STEREOSCOPIC VIEWS
Stereoscopic devices present two views of a scene :
# One for the left eye
# other for the right eye.
The views are generated by selecting viewing
positions that correspond to the two eye positions
of a single viewer.
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STEREOSCOPIC VIEWS
These two views then can be displayed on
alternate refresh cycles of a raster monitor
and viewed through glasses that alternately
darken first one lens then the other in
synchronization with the monitor refresh
cycles.
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THREE-DIMENSIONAL
DISPLAY METHODS
To obtain a display of a three dimensional
scene that has been modeled in world coordinates, we must first set up a coordinate
reference for a camera.
This coordinate reference defines the
position and orientation for the plane of the
camera film, which is the plane we want to use
to display a view of the object in the scene.
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THREE-DIMENSIONAL
DISPLAY METHODS
Object descriptions are then transferred to the
camera reference coordinates and projected onto
the selected display plane.
We can then display the objects in wire
frame form or we can apply lighting and surfacerendering techniques to shade the visible
surfaces.
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THREE-DIMENSIONAL
DISPLAY METHODS
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COORDINATE
PRESENTATIONS
Refresh
display
Picture
Definition in
World
Coordinates
Normalized
Coordinates
Device
coordinates
Plotter
Other
displays
Ymax
1
x
0
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415
COORDINATE
PRESENTATIONS
A transformation from a users picture

definition (world coordinates) to normalized
coordinates is often performed by graphics
system in order to provide an interface to
different types of output device.
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VIEWING IN 3-D
3D WORLD
COORDINATE
OUTPUT PRIMITIVES
CLIPPED
WORLD
COORDINATES
CLIP AGAINST
VIEW
VOLUME
PROJECT ONTO
PROJECTION
PLANE
2D DEVICE
COORDINATES
TRANSFORM
INTO VIEWPORT
IN 2D DEVICE
COORDINATES
FOR DISPLAY
CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF THE 3D VEIWING PROCESS

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VIEWING IN 3-D
In 3d viewing, we specify a view volume in
the world, a projection on to a projection plane,
& a viewport on the view surface. Conceptually,
objects in 3d world are clipped against the 3d
view volume & are then projected. The contents
of the projection of the view volume onto the
projection plane called the window, are then
transformed into the viewport for display.
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GENERAL PARALLEL PROJECTION

TRANSFORMATION
In phigs, the direction of a parallel
projection is specified with a projection
vector from the reference point to the
center of the view window.
The general shape of a finite view
volume for a given projection vector
and projection window in the view
plane.
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View-plane positioning to simulate a camera Frame for an

animation sequence.
MOTION
WINDOW
SCIENCE
ZPRP=0
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ZV
VIEW PLANE
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GENERAL PARALLEL
PROJECTION TRANSFORMATION
We obtain the oblique-projection transformation
with a shear operation that converts the view
volume to the regular parallelepiped.
The elements of the shearing transformation
needed to generate the view volume are obtained
by considering the shear transformation of the
projection vector.
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Regular parallelepiped view volume obtained by

shearing the view volume.
ZV
N
VP
VIEW VOLUME
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OBLIQUE PROJECTION VECTOR AND

ASSOCIATED VIEW VOLUME.
ZV
N
WINDOW
VP
VIEW VOLUME
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GENERAL PARALLEL
Suppose the elements of the projection vector in
coordinates are
vp=(px,py,pz).
We need to determine the elements of a shear matrix
that will align the projection vector vp with the view
plane normal vector n. This transformation can be
expressed as
VP=MPARALLEL.VP
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0
0
=
PZ
0
Where Mparallel is equivalent to projection matrix 12-10

and represents a 2-axis shear of the form
1 0 a 0
MPARALLEL=
0 1 b 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
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GENERAL PARALLEL
The explit transformation equations from
12-20 in terms of shear parameters a and b are
0 = px + apz
0 = py + bpz
So that the values for the shear parameters are
a= - px/pz, b= -py/pz
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GENERAL PARALLEL
Thus,we have the general parallelprojection matrix in terms of the elements
of the projection vector as
1 0 -PX/PZ 0
MPARALLEL=
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0 1 -PY/PZ 0
0 0
0 0
1
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GENERAL PARALLEL
This matrix is then concatenated with
transformation r .T1 to produce the

transformation from world coordinates to
parallel-projection coordinates.
For an orthographic parallel projection,
px=p x=0 and m parallel is the identity

matrix.
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GENERAL PARALLEL
We can relate the components of the
projection vector to parameters l,
and
phi.By similar triangles,we see that
l cos /z = - px/pz
L sin /z = - py/pz
which illustrate the equivalence of the
elements of transformation matrices 12-10
and 12-24.
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Relationship between the parallel projection vector V p

and parameters l,alpha and phi.
YY
(XP,YP,0 )
VP
PY
PZ
PX
(X,Y,O)
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XY
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ZY
430
GENERAL PERSPECTIVE
With the PHIGS programming standard,
the projection reference point can be
located at any position in the viewing
system,except on the view plane or
between the front and back clipping planes.
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GENERAL PERSPECTIVE
The figure shows the shape of a finite
view volume for an arbitrary position of the
projection reference point.
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GENERAL PARALLEL
We can obtain the general perspective
projection
transformation
with
the
following two operations:
Shear the view volume so that the

centerline of the frustum is perpendicular to
the view plane.
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GENERAL PARALLEL
Scale the view volume with a scaling
factor that depends on 1/z.
The second step (scaling the view volume)
is
equivalent
to
the
perspective
transformation.
A shear operation to align a general

perspective view volume with the projection
window.
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General shape for the perspective view volume with a

projection reference point that is not on the zv axis.
FRUSTUM CENTERLINE
ZY
VIEW PLANE
CENTER OF WINDOW
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435
GENERAL PARALLEL
This transformation has the effect of
shifting all positions that lie along the
frustum centerline ,including the window
center ,to a line perpendicular to the view
plane.With the projection reference point at
a general position (xprp,yprp,zprp),the
transformation involves a combination zaxis shear and a translation:
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GENERAL PARALLEL
MSHEAR =
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-azprp
-bzprp
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437
GENERAL PARALLEL
Where the parameters are :
a= (-xprp-(xwmin+xwmax)/2)/zprp
b= (-yprp-(ywmin+ywmax)/2)/zprp
Points within the view volume are
transformed by this operation as
the zp axis, xprp= yprp= 0
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GENERAL PARALLEL
x= x + a(z-zprp)
y= y + b(z-zprp)
z= z
when the projection reference point is on
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Shearing a general perspective view volume to center it

on the projection window.
Frustum
centerline
(x,y,z)
zv
(x,y,z)
View plane
Center of window
(xprp,yprp,zprp)
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GENERAL PARALLEL
The complete transformation from world
coordinates to perspective projection
coordinates is obtained by right
concatenating m perspective with the
composite viewing transformation R.T
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PARALEL PROJECTION
We have talked about creating and transforming
three-dimensional objects, but since our viewing
surface is only two-dimensional, we must have some
way of projecting our three -dimensional object onto
the two -dimensional screen.
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PARALEL PROJECTION
Perhaps the simplest way of doing this is
just to discard the z coordinate. This is a
special case of a method known as parallel
projection. A parallel projection is formed
by extending parallel line from each vertex
on the object until by they intersect the plan
of the screen.
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PARALEL PROJECTION
Y AXIS
X AXIS
3 D OBJECT
Z AXIS
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PARALEL PROJECTION
Y AXIS
X AXIS
PROJECTION OF OBJECT
A THREE- DIMENSIONAL OBJECT AND ITS PROJECTION
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ALGORITHM PARALLELTRANSFORM (X, Y, Z)

Parallel projection of a point :Arguments X,Y,Z the point to be projected,
also for return of result
Global
SXP,SYP the parallel projection
vector
ratios
BEGIN
X <-- X - Y * SXP ;
Y <-- Y - Z * SYP ;
RETURN ;
END ;
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ALGORITHM PERSPECTIVETRANSFORM (X, Y, Z)

For perspective projection of a point:Arguments X,Y,Z the view plane coordinates of
the point
Global
XC,YC,ZC the center of projection
Local
D the denominator in the calculation
Constant
ROUNDOFF some small number
greater than any roundoff error
VERY-LARGE a very-large number
approximating infinity
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447

BEGIN
D <-- ZC - Z
IF |D| < ROUNDOFF THEN
BEGIN
X <-- ( X - XC ) * VERY - LARGE
Y <-- ( Y- YC ) * VERY- LARGE
Z <-- VERY-LARGE
END
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448

ELSE
BEGIN
X <-- ( X * ZC - XC * Z ) / D;
Y <-- ( Y * ZC - YC * Z ) / D;
Z <-- Z / D ;
END;
RETURN;
END;
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THE VARIOUS KINDS OF

PROJECTION
We can construct different projections
according to the view that is desired. It
provides a taxonomy of the families of
perspective and parallel projections. Some
projections have names -cavalier,cabinet,
isometric , and so on. Other projections qualify
the main type of projection - one principle
vanishing-point perspective, and so forth.
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PROJECTIONS
Perspective
One principal
vanishing point
Parallel
Oblique
Projectors not
perpendicular
Two principal
vanishing point
Three principal
vanishing point
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to projection
plane
Orthographic
Projectors not
perpendicular
to projection plane
Multiview Axonometric
Projection
Projection
General
plane llel to
plane not llel
principal
to principal
Cavalier
planes
planes
Isometric, Dimetric
Cabinet Three views ,
Trimetric 451
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Auxiliary
views
PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION
BASIC PRINCIPLES:The techniques of perspective projection are
generalizations of the principles used by artists
in preparing perspective drawings of threedimensional objects and scenes. The eye of the
artists is placed at the center of projection,and
the canvas,or more precisely the plane
containing the canvas,becomes the view plane
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An image point is located at the intersection of
a projector with the view plane.
Perspective drawings are characterized by
perspective foreshortening and vanishing
points.
Perspective foreshortening is the illusion that
objects and lengths appear smaller as their
distance from the center of projection increases.
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The illusion that certain sets of parallel lines
appear to meet at a point is another feature of
perspective drawings. These points are called
vanishing points.
Principle vanishing points are formed by the
apparent intersection of lines parallel to one of
the three principle x,y,or z axes.
The no. of principle vanishing points is
determined by the no. of principle axes
intersected by the view plane.
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EXAMPLE:-The standard perspective projection.
The view plane is the xy plane , and the center of
projection is taken as the point C(0,0,-d) on the
negative z axis.
Using similar triangles ABC and A 0C , we find
x`=d*x/z+d
y`=d*y/z+d
z`=0
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The perspective transformation between
objects and image point is nonlinear & so
cannot be represented as a 3*3 matrix
transformation.
However , if we use homogeneous
coordinates, the perspective transformation
can be represented as a 4*4 matrix:
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456
X`
Y`
D* X
=
Z`
1
D* Y
0
0 0
D 0
1 D
Z+D
The general form of perspective transformation is

developed
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PERSPECTIVE ANOMALIES
The process of constructing a perspective
view introduces certain anomalies which
enhance realism in turns of depth cues but
also distort actual sizes and shapes.
Perspective foreshortening:- The farther an
object is from the center of projection, the
smaller it appears.
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Vanishing point:-Projections of lines that
are not parallel to the view plane(i.e.,lines
that are not perpendicular to the view plane
normal) appear to meet at some point on
view plane. A common manifestation of
this anomaly is the illusion that railroad
tracks meet at a point on the horizon.
19/8/
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459
VIEW PLANE
Y
C(0,0,-D)
Sphere B is 2.5 times the size of sphere A ; yet both spheres

appear to be the same size when projected on to the view plane
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DTEIT 19/8/

This section introduces the basic 2-D and 3-D

size of objects in a drawing.

rotation to orient the symbols &

scaling to size the symbols.

SHAPE ARE ACCOMPLISHED WITH

The mathematical statement of the

transformations applied to each point of the

This effect is attained through the

application of coordinate transformations.

Let us impose a coordinate system on a

An object obj in the plane can be

considered as a set of points.

Every set point p has coordinates ( x, y )

and so the object is the sum total of all its

Every set point p has coordinates ( x, y ) and

If the object is moved to a new position,

it can be regarded as a new object obj ,

all of whose coordinate points p can be

obtained from the original points p by the

A translation is applied to an object by a

In translation , an object is displaced a

TRANSLATE A 2-D POINT

(x,y) to move the point to a new position (x`,y`)

This allow us to write the 2-D.

Translation location in matrix form

Translation is a rigid body transformation

A two dimensional rotation is applied to

we specific rotation angle and the

Positive values for the rotation angle define

Negative values rotate objects in the

This kind of transformation can also be

We first determine the transformation

The angular and coordinate relationships of

Rotation of a point from

so, x=xcos - ysin

ROTATION ABOUT THE ORIGIN

The convention is that the direction of

clockwise if is a negative angle.

ROTATION ABOUT THE ORIGIN

The transformation of rotation R is

ROTATION ABOUT THE ORIGIN

Scaling factor sx scales object in the x

direction ,while sy scales in the y direction.

The transformation equation can also be written

in the matrix form.

IN THE MATRIX FORM, THIS IS

Values less than 1 reduce the size of objects.

Values greater than 1 produce an enlargement.

Specifying a value of 1 for both sx and sy

uniform scaling is produced that maintain relative

Unequal values for sx and sy result in a

differential scaling that

with values less than 1 move object

closer to the coordinate origin,

while values greater than 1 move

coordinate positions farther from the origin.

SCALING WITH RESPECT OF THE

Scaling is the process of expanding or

compressing the dimensions of an object.

Positive scaling constants sx and sy are

used to describe changes in the length with

SCALING WITH RESPECT OF

Scaling transformation with scaling