make use of a single illustration as follows.

(2) Three numbers are given

first. (23:3) Tradesmen will at once tell us that they know what is requir
given to them arbitrarily without proof by their masters; others construc
rth number is self-evident, as in the case of 2, 4, 3, 6; here it is evident th
the first, the quotient is 6; when they see that by this process the numbe
hat the process always holds good for finding a fourth number proportio
position ff Spinoza of the seventh book of Euclid, what numbers are pr
the product of the first and fourth will be equal to the product of the sec
umbers, or, if they do see it, they see it not by virtue of Euclids propositi
hese modes of perception the best may be selected, it is well that we sho
an exact knowledge of our nature which we desire to perfect, and to kn
nces, the agreements, and the oppositions of things. 3. To learn thus exa
nature and power of man. (4) We shall thus discern the highest degree o
position to see which mode of perception we ought to choose. (2) As to
ncertain, and, moreover, can give us no insight into the essence of a thin
ng through knowledge of its essence, as will hereafter appear. (3) We may
e scientific in its character. (4) For simple hearsay cannot affect anyone
mode of perception cannot be said to give us the idea of the proportion o
for we shall never discover anything in natural phenomena by its mean
e essence of the things in question be known first. (3) Wherefore this m
in a manner that it gives us A New Antiqua from FontFont the idea of th
t it is not by itself sucient to put us in possession of the perfection we
ut danger of error. (2) This mode, therefore, must be the one which we c
rth kind of knowledge with the least delay concerning things previously
of the instruments supplied by nature to accomplish very easy pieces of
wrought other things more dicult with less labour and greater perfect
ools, and from the making of tools to the making of more complex tools
anisms which they now possess. (31:2) So, in like manner, the intellect, b
es strength for performing other intellectual operations, and from these
rther, and thus gradually proceeds till it reaches the summit of wisdom.

a new antiqua

ETHICA
Ordine Geometrico demontrata,
ET
In quinque Partes Ditincta,
in quibus agitur,
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.

De Deo.
De Natur & Origine Mentis.
De Origine & Natur Affectuum.
De Servitute Human, eu de Affectuum
De Potentia Intellectus, eu de Liberta

Baruch Spinoza is widely considered to be one of the forefathers of the Enlightenment. 

His Ethics, published in 1677, sought to demonstrate the unity and perfection of reality, and
proposed rational understanding as the highest human virtue. To support his philosophical
writings, he worked as a lens-grinder. In both of his professions, he aimed for clarity.
And so does ff Spinoza. It is an elegant workhorse: crisp, sturdy, economical, and versatile. A classic and highly readable Antiqua, it was inspired by the rigor of mid-century
German text faces like Trump Mediaval and the lucidity of Janson revivals like Monotype
Ehrhardt. Its x-height and aperture are generous, though not exaggerated. Its proportions
are compact and its contrast relatively low. Robust thin strokes and pronounced serifs and
terminals make it suitable for setting in small sizes under challenging conditions, both in
print and on the Web. Abruptly tapered junctures keep characters sharply dened and,
in the heavier weights, create enlivening light traps. Caps are comparatively light and do
not interrupt the ow of the line. The italic is narrow, angular, and upright, with a 9.5 slope.
ff Spinozas intended virtues are rmness, modesty, and, above all, clarity.
ff Spinozas understated design makes it ideal for books and longer texts, but closer
examination reveals distinctive details that suit it for advertising, branding, packaging, and
other types of more highly flavored work. Its curves are subtly faceted, with extra corners
and unexpectedly straight edges that add interest in display sizes and energy in text sizes.

features

Substantial shoulders join branches and bowls rmly to their stems, which helps avoid the
picket-fence eect sometimes created by daintier typefaces.

mun

ff Spinoza includes a comprehensive set of diacritics providing support for more than 70
languages, from Afrikaans to Zulu. The Pro version supports more than 130 languages.

Each of the eight fonts includes small caps and eight types of gures: proportional oldstyle, tabular oldstyle, proportional lining, tabular lining, numerator, denominator, superior,
and inferior. Tabular gures are uniform in width across all weights to aid in the setting of
columnar matter.

$1234567890
$1234567890
$1234567890
$1234567890

1234567890
1234567890
1234567890
1234567890

In addition to the conventional Euro signa makeshift intended to minimize the aws
of the original EU designff Spinoza includes a more rational (and compact) alternative:
a double-crossbarred uppercase E. It can be accessed through Stylistic Set 1.

Kieler
Woche

18. bis 26. Juni 201

glyph set

Noticed

12,000 new
profiles a day.
275 new
channels a day.
have you seen me?

The following glyphs are included in all weights of ff Spinoza Pro:

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz

abcdefghIjklmnopqrstuvwxyz

.,:;!?(([[{{}}]]))&*#@
/\^_--

1234567890 1234567890 $ %
1234567890 1234567890 $
1234567890 1234567890 1234567890 1234567890

+<=>|~

regular

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz & !?
abcdefghIjklmnopqrstuvwxyz
1234567890$ & 1234567890$

italic

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz & !?
abcdefghIjklmnopqrstuvwxyz
1234567890$ & 1234567890$

8/10 when they see that by this process the number is produced which they knew beforehand to be the proportional, they infer
that the process always holds good for nding a fourth number proportional. Mathematicians, however, know by the proof of the
nineteenth proposition of the seventh book of Euclid, what numbers are proportionals, namely, from the nature and property of
proportion it follows that the product of the rst and fourth will be equal to the product of the second and third: still they do not see the
adequate proportionality of the given numbers, or, if they do see it, they see it not by virtue of Euclids proposition, but intuitively,

8/10 when they see that by this process the number is produced which they knew beforehand to be the proportional, they infer that the process
always holds good for nding a fourth number proportional. Mathematicians, however, know by the proof of the nineteenth proposition of the
seventh book of Euclid, what numbers are proportionals, namely, from the nature and property of proportion it follows that the product of the rst
and fourth will be equal to the product of the second and third: still they do not see the adequate proportionality of the given numbers, or, if they
do see it, they see it not by virtue of Euclids proposition, but intuitively, without going through any process. In order that from these modes of

9/11 without going through any process. In order that from these modes of perception the best may be selected, it
is well that we should briey enumerate the means necessary for attaining our end. To have an exact knowledge of our
nature which we desire to perfect, and to know as much as is needful of nature in general. To collect in this way the
dierences, the agreements, and the oppositions of things. To learn thus exactly how far they can or cannot be modied.
To compare this result with the nature and power of man. We shall thus discern the highest degree of perfection to

9/11 perception the best may be selected, it is well that we should briey enumerate the means necessary for attaining our end.
To have an exact knowledge of our nature which we desire to perfect, and to know as much as is needful of nature in general. To
collect in this way the dierences, the agreements, and the oppositions of things. To learn thus exactly how far they can or cannot
be modied. To compare this result with the nature and power of man. We shall thus discern the highest degree of perfection to
which man is capable of attaining. We shall then be in a position to see which mode of perception we ought to choose. As to the

10/12 which man is capable of attaining. We shall then be in a position to see which mode of perception
we ought to choose. As to the rst mode, it is evident that from hearsay our knowledge must always be
uncertain, and, moreover, can give us no insight into the essence of a thing, as is manifest in our illustration; now one can only arrive at knowledge of a thing through knowledge of its essence, as will hereafter
appear. We may therefore clearly conclude that the certainty arising from hearsay cannot be scientic

10/12 first mode, it is evident that from hearsay our knowledge must always be uncertain, and, moreover, can
give us no insight into the essence of a thing, as is manifest in our illustration; now one can only arrive at knowledge
of a thing through knowledge of its essence, as will hereafter appear. We may therefore clearly conclude that the
certainty arising from hearsay cannot be scientic in its character. For simple hearsay cannot affect anyone whose
understanding does not, so to speak, meet it halfway. The second mode of perception cannot be said to give us the

11/13 in its character. For simple hearsay cannot affect anyone whose understanding does not,
so to speak, meet it halfway. The second mode of perception cannot be said to give us the idea of
the proportion of which we are in search. Moreover its results are very uncertain and indenite, for
we shall never discover anything in natural phenomena by its means, except accidental properties, which are never clearly understood, unless the essence of the things in question be known

11/13 idea of the proportion of which we are in search. Moreover its results are very uncertain and
indenite, for we shall never discover anything in natural phenomena by its means, except accidental
properties, which are never clearly understood, unless the essence of the things in question be known rst.
Wherefore this mode also must be rejected. Of the third mode of perception we may say in a manner that it
gives us the idea of the thing sought, and that it enables us to draw conclusions without risk of error; yet it

12/14.5 first. wherefore this mode also must be rejected. Of the third mode of perception we may say in a manner that it gives us the idea of the thing sought, and that it
enables us to draw conclusions without risk of error; yet it is not by itself sucient to put
us in possession of the perfection we aim at. The fourth mode alone apprehends the
adequate essence of a thing without danger of error. This mode, therefore, must be the

12/14.5 is not by itself sucient to put us in possession of the perfection we aim at. The fourth
mode alone apprehends the adequate essence of a thing without danger of error. This mode, therefore, must be the one which we chiey employ. How, then, should we avail ourselves of it so as to
gain the fourth kind of knowledge with the least delay concerning things previously unknown?
I will proceed to explain. But as men at rst made use of the instruments supplied by nature to

14/17 one which we chiey employ. How, then, should we avail ourselves
of it so as to gain the fourth kind of knowledge with the least delay concerning things previously unknown? I will proceed to explain. But as men at rst
made use of the instruments supplied by nature to accomplish very easy
pieces of workmanship, laboriously and imperfectly, and then, when these

14/17 accomplish very easy pieces of workmanship, laboriously and imperfectly,

and then, when these were nished, wrought other things more dicult with less
labour and greater perfection; and so gradually mounted from the simplest operations to the making of tools, and from the making of tools to the making of more
complex tools, and fresh feats of workmanship, till they arrived at devising

18/21 were finished, wrought other things more dicult

with less labour and greater perfection; and so gradually
mounted from the simplest operations to the making of tools,
and from the making of tools to the making of more complex tools, and fresh feats of workmanship, till they arrived

18/21 complicated mechanisms which they now possess.

So, in like manner, the intellect, by its native strength, makes
for itself intellectual instruments, whereby it acquires strength
for performing other intellectual operations, and from these
operations again fresh instruments, or the power of pushing its

Idea of the idea

Hence it is plain

nowy
system
009
2006
Spike River
sonoma

Sauvignon Blanc

In the summer of 1951, Larry and Miriam Colson bought eight acres
beside the swift, narrow stream where Larry had fished for steelheads as a boy,
raised two Army surplus Quonset huts, and planted their first vines.
Today, Spike River is one of the oldest family-run wineries in the Mayacamas
foothills. Were especially proud of our Sauvignon Blanc: a big, rich,
well-oaked wine, with bright citrus notes giving way to a satiny finish,
it has a crisp minerality that springs from our chalky volcanic soil.

Alc. 14.1% by Vol.

stodoa remix

medium

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz & !?
abcdefghIjklmnopqrstuvwxyz
1234567890$ & 1234567890$

medium italic

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz & !?
abcdefghIjklmnopqrstuvwxyz
1234567890$ & 1234567890$

8/10 when they see that by this process the number is produced which they knew beforehand to be the proportional, they infer
that the process always holds good for nding a fourth number proportional. Mathematicians, however, know by the proof of
the nineteenth proposition of the seventh book of Euclid, what numbers are proportionals, namely, from the nature and property
of proportion it follows that the product of the rst and fourth will be equal to the product of the second and third: still they do
not see the adequate proportionality of the given numbers, or, if they do see it, they see it not by virtue of Euclids proposition,

8/10 when they see that by this process the number is produced which they knew beforehand to be the proportional, they infer that the
process always holds good for nding a fourth number proportional. Mathematicians, however, know by the proof of the nineteenth
proposition of the seventh book of Euclid, what numbers are proportionals, namely, from the nature and property of proportion it follows
that the product of the rst and fourth will be equal to the product of the second and third: still they do not see the adequate proportionality of the given numbers, or, if they do see it, they see it not by virtue of Euclids proposition, but intuitively, without going through any

9/11 but intuitively, without going through any process. In order that from these modes of perception the best
may be selected, it is well that we should briey enumerate the means necessary for attaining our end. To have an
exact knowledge of our nature which we desire to perfect, and to know as much as is needful of nature in general.
To collect in this way the dierences, the agreements, and the oppositions of things. To learn thus exactly how far
they can or cannot be modied. To compare this result with the nature and power of man. We shall thus discern

9/11 process. in order that from these modes of perception the best may be selected, it is well that we should briey
enumerate the means necessary for attaining our end. To have an exact knowledge of our nature which we desire to
perfect, and to know as much as is needful of nature in general. To collect in this way the dierences, the agreements, and
the oppositions of things. To learn thus exactly how far they can or cannot be modied. To compare this result with the
nature and power of man. We shall thus discern the highest degree of perfection to which man is capable of attaining.

10/12 the highest degree of perfection to which man is capable of attaining. We shall then be in a
position to see which mode of perception we ought to choose. As to the rst mode, it is evident that
from hearsay our knowledge must always be uncertain, and, moreover, can give us no insight into the
essence of a thing, as is manifest in our illustration; now one can only arrive at knowledge of a thing
through knowledge of its essence, as will hereafter appear. We may therefore clearly conclude that

10/12 we shall then be in a position to see which mode of perception we ought to choose. As to the rst
mode, it is evident that from hearsay our knowledge must always be uncertain, and, moreover, can give us no
insight into the essence of a thing, as is manifest in our illustration; now one can only arrive at knowledge of
a thing through knowledge of its essence, as will hereafter appear. We may therefore clearly conclude that
the certainty arising from hearsay cannot be scientic in its character. For simple hearsay cannot affect

11/13 the certainty arising from hearsay cannot be scientic in its character. For simple
hearsay cannot affect anyone whose understanding does not, so to speak, meet it halfway.
The second mode of perception cannot be said to give us the idea of the proportion of which
we are in search. Moreover its results are very uncertain and indenite, for we shall never
discover anything in natural phenomena by its means, except accidental properties, which

11/13 anyone whose understanding does not, so to speak, meet it halfway. The second mode of
perception cannot be said to give us the idea of the proportion of which we are in search. Moreover
its results are very uncertain and indenite, for we shall never discover anything in natural
phenomena by its means, except accidental properties, which are never clearly understood, unless
the essence of the things in question be known rst. Wherefore this mode also must be rejected.

12/14.5 are never clearly understood, unless the essence of the things in question
be known rst. Wherefore this mode also must be rejected. Of the third mode of
perception we may say in a manner that it gives us the idea of the thing sought, and
that it enables us to draw conclusions without risk of error; yet it is not by itself
sucient to put us in possession of the perfection we aim at. The fourth mode alone

12/14.5 of the third mode of perception we may say in a manner that it gives us the
idea of the thing sought, and that it enables us to draw conclusions without risk of error;
yet it is not by itself sucient to put us in possession of the perfection we aim at. The
fourth mode alone apprehends the adequate essence of a thing without danger of error.
This mode, therefore, must be the one which we chiey employ. How, then, should we

14/17 apprehends the adequate essence of a thing without danger of

error. This mode, therefore, must be the one which we chiey employ.
How, then, should we avail ourselves of it so as to gain the fourth kind of
knowledge with the least delay concerning things previously unknown?
I will proceed to explain. But as men at rst made use of the instruments

14/17 avail ourselves of it so as to gain the fourth kind of knowledge with

the least delay concerning things previously unknown? I will proceed to
explain. But as men at rst made use of the instruments supplied by nature
to accomplish easy pieces of workmanship, laboriously and imperfectly, and
then, when these were nished, wrought other things more dicult with less

18/21 supplied by nature to accomplish very easy pieces

of workmanship, laboriously and imperfectly, and then,
when these were nished, wrought other things more
dicult with less labour and greater perfection; and so
gradually mounted from the simplest operations to the

18/21 labour and greater perfection; and so gradually

mounted from the simplest operations to the making of
tools, and from the making of tools to the making of more
complex tools, and to fresh feats of workmanship, till they
finally arrived at making complicated mechanisms which

They see it not

But intuitively

Orario
SFSM Circumv
A Napoli
Sorrento
S. Agnello
Vico
C/Mare
Pompeii
Ercolano
Napoli

5.01
5.03
5.12
5.21
5.31
5.49
6.08

5.37
5.39
5.48
5.57
6.07
6.25
6.44

6.07f
6.09
6.18
6.27
6.37
6.55
7.14

6.25
6.27
6.36
6.45
6.55
7.13
7.32

6.55d 7.22
6.57 7.24
7.06 7.31
7.14 7.39
7.21 7.48
7.36 8.07
7.46 8.27

7.38
7.40
7.48
7.57
8.07
8.26
8.44

A Sorrento
Napoli
Ercolano
Pompeii
C/Mare
Vico

5.09f
5.28
5.47
5.57
6.06

5.39
5.58
6.17
6.27
6.36

6.09f
6.28
6.47
6.57
7.06

6.40d 7.09
6.53 7.28
7.07 7.47
7.16 7.57
7.24 8.06

7.39
7.58
8.17
8.27
8.36

8.11
8.23
8.37
8.46
8.54

such, that I shrunk almost from the thought of going away, even to travel, w
is generally so much desired by young men. He roused me by manly and spi
conversation. He advised me, when settled in any place abroad, to study wi
eagerness after knowledge, and to apply to Greek an hour every day; and wh
moving about, to read diligently the great book of mankind.
On Wednesday, August 3, we had our last social meeting at the Turks He
house, before my setting out for foreign parts. I had the misfortune, before w
irritate him unintentionally. I mentioned to him how common it was in the w
absurd stories of him, and to ascribe to him very strange sayings. Johnson
they make me say, Sir? Boswell. Why, Sir, as an instance very strange in
(laughing heartily as I spoke,) David Hume told me, you said that you woul
before a battery of cannon, to restore the Convocation to its full powers. Li
apprehend that he had actually said this: but I was soon convinced of my er
with a determined look he thundered out, And would I not, Sir? Shall the Presb
Kirk of Scotland have its General Assembly, and the Church of England be denied
vocation? He was walking up and down the room while I told him the anecd
when he uttered this explosion of high-church zeal, he had come close to m
his eyes flashed with indignation. I bowed to the storm, and diverted the for
leading him to expatiate on the influence which religion derived from maint
church with great external respectability.
On Friday, August 5, we set out early in the morning in the Harwich stag
A fat elderly gentlewoman, and a young Dutchman, seemed the most inclin
us to conversation. At the inn where we dined, the gentlewoman said that s
her best to educate her children; and particularly, that she had never suere
be a moment idle. Johnson. I wish, madam, you would educate me too; fo
been an idle fellow all my life. I am certain, Sir, (said she) you have not bee
Johnson. Nay, Madam, it is very true; and that gentleman there (pointing
has been idle. He was idle at Edinburgh. His father sent him to Glasgow, wh
{132}

bold

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz & !?
abcdefghIjklmnopqrstuvwxyz
1234567890$ & 1234567890$

bold italic

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz & !?
abcdefghIjklmnopqrstuvwxyz
1234567890$ & 1234567890$

8/10 when they see that by this process the number is produced which they knew beforehand to be the proportional, they
infer that the process always holds good for nding a fourth number proportional. Mathematicians, however, know by the
proof of the nineteenth proposition of the seventh book of Euclid, what numbers are proportionals, namely, from the nature
and property of proportion it follows that the product of the rst and fourth will be equal to the product of the second and
third: still they do not see the adequate proportionality of the given numbers, or, if they do see it, they see it not by virtue of

8/10 when they see that by this process the number is produced which they knew beforehand to be the proportional, they infer
that the process always holds good for nding a fourth number proportional. Mathematicians, however, know by the proof of the
nineteenth proposition of the seventh book of Euclid, what numbers are proportionals, namely, from the nature and property of
proportion it follows that the product of the rst and fourth will be equal to the product of the second and third: still they do not
see the adequate proportionality of the given numbers, or, if they do see it, they see it not by virtue of Euclids proposition, but

9/11 euclids proposition, but intuitively, without going through any process. In order that from these modes
of perception the best may be selected, it is well that we should briey enumerate the means necessary for
attaining our end. To have an exact knowledge of our nature which we desire to perfect, and to know as much as
is needful of nature in general. To collect in this way the dierences, the agreements, and the oppositions of
things. To learn thus exactly how far they can or cannot be modied. To compare this result with the nature

9/11 intuitively, without going through any process. In order that from these modes of perception the best may
be selected, it is well that we should briey enumerate the means necessary for attaining our end. To have an exact
knowledge of our nature which we desire to perfect, and to know as much as is needful of nature in general. To
collect in this way the dierences, the agreements, and the oppositions of things. To learn thus exactly how far they
can or cannot be modied. To compare this result with the nature and power of man. We shall thus discern the

10/12 and power of man. We shall thus discern the highest degree of perfection to which man is
capable of attaining. We shall then be in a position to see which mode of perception we ought to
choose. As to the rst mode, it is evident that from hearsay our knowledge must always be uncertain, and, moreover, can give us no insight into the essence of a thing, as is manifest in our illustration; now one can only arrive at knowledge of a thing through knowledge of its essence, as will

10/12 highest degree of perfection to which man is capable of attaining. We shall then be in a position
to see which mode of perception we ought to choose. As to the rst mode, it is evident that from hearsay
our knowledge must always be uncertain, and, moreover, can give us no insight into the essence of a
thing, as is manifest in our illustration; now one can only arrive at knowledge of a thing through
knowledge of its essence, as will hereafter appear. We may therefore clearly conclude that the certainty

11/13 hereafter appear. We may therefore clearly conclude that the certainty arising
from hearsay cannot be scientic in its character. For simple hearsay cannot affect anyone
whose understanding does not, so to speak, meet it halfway. The second mode of perception cannot be said to give us the idea of the proportion of which we are in search. Moreover its results are very uncertain and indenite, for we shall never discover anything in

11/13 arising from hearsay cannot be scientic in its character. For simple hearsay cannot
affect anyone whose understanding does not, so to speak, meet it halfway. The second mode of
perception cannot be said to give us the idea of the proportion of which we are in search.
Moreover its results are very uncertain and indenite, for we shall never discover anything in
natural phenomena by its means, except accidental properties, which are never clearly

12/14.5 natural phenomena by its means, except accidental properties, which are
never clearly understood, unless the essence of the things in question be known
rst. Wherefore this mode also must be rejected. Of the third mode of perception
we may say in a manner that it gives us the idea of the thing sought, and that it
enables us to draw conclusions without risk of error; yet it is not by itself sucient

12/14.5 understood, unless the essence of the things in question be known rst.
Wherefore this mode also must be rejected. Of the third mode of perception we may say
in a manner that it gives us the idea of the thing sought, and that it enables us to draw
conclusions without risk of error; yet it is not by itself sucient to put us in possession
of the perfection we aim at. The fourth mode alone apprehends the adequate essence of

14/17 to put us in possession of the perfection we aim at. The fourth

mode alone apprehends the adequate essence of a thing without
danger of error. This mode, therefore, must be the one which we chiey
employ. How, then, should we avail ourselves of it so as to gain the
fourth kind of knowledge with the least delay concerning things

14/17 a thing without danger of error. This mode, therefore, must be the
one which we chiey employ. How, then, should we avail ourselves of it so
as to gain the fourth kind of knowledge with the least delay concerning
things previously unknown? I will proceed to explain. But as men at rst
made use of the instruments supplied by nature to accomplish very easy

18/21 previously unknown? I will proceed to explain.

But as men at rst made use of the instruments supplied by nature to accomplish very easy pieces of workmanship, laboriously and imperfectly, and then, when
these were done, wrought other things more dicult

18/21 pieces of workmanship, laboriously and imperfectly, and then, when these were completed, wrought
other things more dicult with less labour and greater
perfection; and so gradually mounted from the simplest
operations to the making of tools, and from the making

For we possess

Circumference

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black italic

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abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz & !?
abcdefghIjklmnopqrstuvwxyz
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8/10 when they see that by this process the number is produced which they knew beforehand to be the proportional,
they infer that the process always holds good for nding a fourth number proportional. Mathematicians, however, know
by the proof of the nineteenth proposition of the seventh book of Euclid, what numbers are proportionals, namely, from
the nature and property of proportion it follows that the product of the rst and fourth will be equal to the product of the
second and third: still they do not see the adequate proportionality of the given numbers, or, if they do see it, they see it

8/10 when they see that by this process the number is produced which they knew beforehand to be the proportional, they
infer that the process always holds good for nding a fourth number proportional. Mathematicians, however, know by the
proof of the nineteenth proposition of the seventh book of Euclid, what numbers are proportionals, namely, from the nature
and property of proportion it follows that the product of the rst and fourth will be equal to the product of the second and
third: still they do not see the adequate proportionality of the given numbers, or, if they do see it, they see it not by virtue of

9/11 not by virtue of Euclids proposition, but intuitively, without going through any process. In order that
from these modes of perception the best may be selected, it is well that we should briey enumerate the
means necessary for attaining our end. To have an exact knowledge of our nature which we desire to perfect, and to know as much as is needful of nature in general. To collect in this way the dierences, the
agreements, and the oppositions of things. To learn thus exactly how far they can or cannot be modied.

9/11 euclids proposition, but intuitively, without going through any process. In order that from these
modes of perception the best may be selected, it is well that we should briey enumerate the means necessary
for attaining our end. To have an exact knowledge of our nature which we desire to perfect, and to know as
much as is needful of nature in general. To collect in this way the dierences, the agreements, and the oppositions of things. To learn thus exactly how far they can or cannot be modied. To compare this result with

10/12 to compare this result with the nature and power of man. We shall thus discern the highest degree of perfection to which man is capable of attaining. We shall then be in a position to
see which mode of perception we ought to choose. As to the rst mode, it is evident that from
hearsay our knowledge must always be uncertain, and, moreover, can give us no insight into the
essence of a thing, as is manifest in our illustration; now one can only arrive at knowledge of a

10/12 the nature and power of man. We shall thus discern the highest degree of perfection to
which man is capable of attaining. We shall then be in a position to see which mode of perception
we ought to choose. As to the rst mode, it is evident that from hearsay our knowledge must
always be uncertain, and, moreover, can give us no insight into the essence of a thing, as is manifest in our illustration; now one can only arrive at knowledge of a thing through knowledge of its

11/13 thing through knowledge of its essence, as will hereafter appear. We may
therefore clearly conclude that the certainty arising from hearsay cannot be scientic
in its character. For simple hearsay cannot affect anyone whose understanding does
not, so to speak, meet it halfway. The second mode of perception cannot be said to give
us the idea of the proportion of which we are in search. Moreover its results are very

11/13 essence, as will hereafter appear. We may therefore clearly conclude that the
certainty arising from hearsay cannot be scientic in its character. For simple hearsay
cannot affect anyone whose understanding does not, so to speak, meet it halfway. The
second mode of perception cannot be said to give us the idea of the proportion of which we
are in search. Moreover its results are very uncertain and indenite, for we shall never

12/14.5 uncertain and indefinite, for we shall never discover anything in

natural phenomena by its means, except accidental properties, which are never
clearly understood, unless the essence of the things in question be known rst.
Wherefore this mode also must be rejected. Of the third mode of perception we
may say in a manner that it does give us the idea of the thing sought, and that it

12/14.5 discover anything in natural phenomena by its means, except accidental

properties, which are never clearly understood, unless the essence of the things
in question be known rst. Wherefore this mode also must be rejected. Of the third
mode of perception we may say in a manner that it does give us the idea of the
thing sought, and that it enables us to draw conclusions without risk of error;

14/17 enables us to draw conclusions without risk of error; yet it is

not by itself sucient to put us in possession of the perfection we
aim at. The fourth mode alone apprehends the adequate essence of
a thing without danger of error. This mode, therefore, must be the
one which we chiey employ. How, then, should we avail ourselves

14/17 yet it is not by itself sucient to put us in possession of the

perfection we aim at. The fourth mode alone apprehends the adequate
essence of a thing without danger of error. This mode, therefore, must
be the one which we chiey employ. How, then, should we avail ourselves of it so as to gain the fourth kind of knowledge with the least

18/21 of it so as to gain the fourth kind of knowledge

with the least delay concerning things previously
unknown? I will proceed to explain. But as men at
rst made use of the instruments supplied by nature
to accomplish very easy pieces of workmanship,

18/21 delay concerning things previously unknown?

I will proceed to explain. But as men at rst made use
of the instruments supplied by nature to accomplish
very easy pieces of workmanship, laboriously and imperfectly, and then, when these were nished, wrought

Investigation

Mechanisms

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Excerpts from Benedictus de Spinozas On the
Improvement of the Understanding, translated by
R. H. M. Elwes, are drawn from wikisource.org
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75 Fra

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3] (1) In order that the whole matter may be put in a clearer light, I will m
uired to find a fourth, which shall be to the third as the second is to the
d the fourth number, for they have not yet forgotten the rule which was g
versal axiom from their experience with simple numbers, where the four
second number be multiplied by the third, and the product divided by t
duced which they knew beforehand to be the proportional, they infer th
(1) Mathematicians, however, know by the proof of the nineteenth prop
nals, namely, from the nature and property of proportion it follows that t
d third: still they do not see the adequate proportionality of the given nu
uitively, without going through any process. [25] (1) In order that from th
efly enumerate the means necessary for attaining our end. 1. (2) To have
ch as is needful of nature in general. 2. To collect in this way the dieren
w far they can or cannot be modified. 4. To compare this result with the
tion to which man is capable of attaining. [26] (1) We shall then be in a p
t mode, it is evident that from hearsay our knowledge must always be un
nifest in our illustration; now one can only arrive at knowledge of a thin
refore clearly conclude that the certainty arising from hearsay cannot be
derstanding does not, so to speak, meet it halfway. [27] (1) The second m
are in search. (2) Moreover its results are very uncertain and indefinite,
ept accidental properties, which are never clearly understood, unless the
o must be rejected. [28] (1) Of the third mode of perception we may say i
ght, and that it enables us to draw conclusions without risk of error; yet
e fourth mode alone apprehends the adequate essence of a thing withou
ploy. (3) How, then, should we avail ourselves of it so as to gain the four
own? (4) I will proceed to explain. [31] (1) But as men at first made use o
nship, laboriously and imperfectly, and then, when these were finished,
d so gradually mounted from the simplest operations to the making of to
sh feats of workmanship, till they arrived at making, complicated mecha
ive strength, makes for itself intellectual instruments, whereby it acquire
ns again fresh instruments, or the power of pushing its investigations fur