Fuels and Combustion

Training Session on Energy
Equipment
Thermal Systems/Fuels
Fuels & Combustion

Presentation from the
Energy Efficiency Guide for Industry in Asia
www.energyefficiencyasia.org
1
UNEP 2006
Training Agenda: Fuels &

Combustion
Introduction
Type of fuels
Performance evaluation
Energy efficiency opportunities
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UNEP 2006
Introduction
The Formation of Fuels

Solar energy is converted to chemical
energy through photo-synthesis in
plants
Energy produced by burning wood or
fossil fuels
Fossil fuels: coal, oil and natural gas
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Combustion
Introduction
Type of fuels
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Type of Fuels
Liquid Fuels
Usage
Used extensively in industrial applications
Examples
Furnace oil
Light diesel oil
Petrol
Kerosine
Ethanol
LSHS (low sulphur heavy stock)
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Type of Fuels
Liquid Fuels
Density
Ratio of the fuels mass to its volume at 15 oC,
kg/m3
Useful for determining fuel quantity and quality
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UNEP 2006
Type of Fuels
Liquid Fuels
Specific gravity
Ratio of weight of oil volume to weight of same
water volume at a given temperature
Specific gravity of water is 1
Hydrometer used to measure
Table 1. Specific gravity of various fuel oils (adapted
from Thermax India Ltd.)
Fuel oil
type
LDO
(Light Diesel Oil)
Furnace oil
LSHS (Low Sulphur

Heavy Stock)
Specific
Gravity
0.85-0.87
0.89-0.95
0.88-0.98
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UNEP 2006
Type of Fuels
Liquid Fuels
Viscosity
Measure of fuels internal resistance to flow
Most important characteristic for storage and use
Decreases as temperature increases
Flash point
Lowest temperature at which a fuel can be
heated so that the vapour gives off flashes when an
open flame is passes over it
Flash point of furnace oil: 66oC
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UNEP 2006
Type of Fuels
Liquid Fuels
Pour point
Lowest temperature at which fuel will flow
Indication of temperature at which fuel can be
pumped
Specific heat
kCal needed to raise temperature of 1 kg oil by
1oC (kcal/kgoC)
Indicates how much steam/electricity it takes to
heat oil to a desired temperature
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UNEP 2006
Type of Fuels
Liquid Fuels
Calorific value
Heat or energy produced
Gross calorific value (GCV): vapour is fully
condensed
Net calorific value (NCV): water is not fully
condensed
Fuel Oil
Kerosene
Diesel Oil
L.D.O
Furnace Oil
LSHS
Gross Calorific Value (kCal/kg)

11,100
10,800
10,700
10,500
10,600
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Type of Fuels
Liquid Fuels
Sulphur content
Depends on source of crude oil and less on the
refining process
Furnace oil: 2-4 % sulphur
Sulphuric acid causes corrosion
Ash content
Inorganic material in fuel
Typically 0.03 - 0.07%
Corrosion of burner tips and damage to
materials /equipments at high temperatures
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UNEP 2006
Type of Fuels
Liquid Fuels
Carbon residue
Tendency of oil to deposit a carbonaceous solid
residue on a hot surface
Residual oil: >1% carbon residue
Water content
Normally low in furnace oil supplied (<1% at
refinery)
Free or emulsified form
Can damage furnace surface and impact flame
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Type of Fuels
Liquid Fuels
Storage of fuels
Store in cylindrical tanks above or below
the ground
Recommended storage: >10 days of
normal consumption
Cleaning at regular intervals
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Type of Fuels
Liquid Fuels
Typical specifications of fuel oils
(adapted from Thermax India Ltd.)
Properties
Fuel Oils
Furnace Oil
L.S.H.S
L.D.O
Density (Approx.
g/cc at 150C)
0.89-0.95
0.88-0.98
0.85-0.87
Flash Point (0C)
66
93
66
Pour Point (0C)
20
72
18
G.C.V. (Kcal/kg)
10500
10600
10700
Sediment, % Wt.
Max.
0.25
0.25
0.1
Sulphur Total, %
Wt. Max.
< 4.0
< 0.5
< 1.8
Water Content, %
Vol. Max.
1.0
1.0
0.25
Ash % Wt. Max.
0.1
14
0.1
0.02 UNEP 2006
Type of Fuels
Solid Fuels
Coal classification
Anthracite: hard and geologically the
oldest
Bituminous
Lignite: soft coal and the youngest
Further classification: semi- anthracite,
semi-bituminous, and sub-bituminous
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Type of Fuels
Solid Fuels
Physical properties
Heating or calorific value (GCV)
Moisture content
Volatile matter
Ash
Chemical properties
Chemical constituents: carbon, hydrogen,
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oxygen, sulphur
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Type of Fuels
Solid Fuels (Physical properties)

Heating or calorific value
The typical GVCs for various coals are:
Parameter
GCV
(kCal/kg)
Lignite
(Dry
Basis)
Indian
Coal
Indonesian
Coal
4,500
4,000
5,500
South
African
Coal
6,000
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Type of Fuels

Moisture content
% of moisture in fuel (0.5 10%)
Reduces heating value of fuel
Weight loss from heated and then cooled powdered
raw coal
Volatile matter
Methane, hydrocarbons, hydrogen, CO, other
Typically 25-35%
Easy ignition with high volatile matter
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Weight loss from heated then cooled crushed

coal
UNEP 2006
Type of Fuels

Ash
Impurity that will not burn (5-40%)
Important for design of furnace
Ash = residue after combustion
Fixed carbon
Fixed carbon = 100 (moisture + volatile matter +
ash)
Carbon + hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen
residues
Heat generator during combustion
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Type of Fuels
Proximate analysis of coal

Determines only fixed carbon, volatile matter,
moisture and ash
Useful to find out heating value (GCV)
Simple analysis equipment
Ultimate analysis of coal

Determines all coal component elements: carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, other
Useful for furnace design (e.g flame temperature,
flue duct design)
Laboratory analysis
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UNEP 2006
Type of Fuels

Proximate analysis
Typical proximate analysis of various coals
(%)
Indian
Coal
Indonesian
Coal
South African
Coal
Moisture
5.98
9.43
8.5
Ash
38.63
13.99
17
Volatile
matter
20.70
29.79
23.28
Fixed Carbon
34.69
46.79
51.22
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UNEP 2006
Type of Fuels
Solid Fuels (Chemical Properties)

Ultimate analysis
Typical ultimate analysis of coal (%)
Parameter
Moisture
Mineral Matter (1.1 x Ash)
Carbon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Sulphur
Oxygen
GCV (kCal/kg)
Indian Coal, %
5.98
38.63
41.11
2.76
1.22
0.41
9.89
4000
Indonesian Coal, %
9.43
13.99
58.96
4.16
1.02
0.56
11.88
5500
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Type of Fuels
Solid Fuels (Chemical Properties)

Storage, Handling & Preparation
Storage to minimize carpet loss and loss due
to spontaneous combustion
Reduce carpet loss: a) a hard surface b)
standard concrete/brick storage bays
Coal preparation before use is important for
good combustion
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UNEP 2006
Type of Fuels
Gaseous Fuels
Advantages of gaseous fuels
Least amount of
handling
Simplest burners systems

Burner systems require least
maintenance
Environmental benefits: lowest GHG
and other emissions
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UNEP 2006
Type of Fuels
Gaseous Fuels
Classification of gaseous fuels
(A) Fuels naturally found in nature
-Natural gas
-Methane from coal mines
(B) Fuel gases made from solid fuel
-Gases derived from coal
-Gases derived from waste and biomass
-From other industrial processes
(C) Gases made from petroleum
-Liquefied Petroleum gas (LPG)
-Refinery gases
-Gases from oil gasification
(D) Gases from some fermentation
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UNEP 2006
Type of Fuels
Gaseous Fuels
Calorific value
Fuel should be compared based on the net
calorific value (NCV), especially natural gas
Typical physical and chemical properties of various gaseous fuels
Fuel
Gas
Relative
Density
Higher Heating
Value kCal/Nm3
Air/Fuel
ratio m3/m3
Flame
Temp oC
Flame
speed m/s
Natural
Gas
0.6
9350
10
1954
0.290
Propane
1.52
22200
25
1967
0.460
Butane
1.96
28500
32
1973
0.870
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UNEP 2006
Type of Fuels
Gaseous Fuels
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
Propane, butane and unsaturates, lighter C2
and heavier C5 fractions

Hydrocarbons are gaseous at atmospheric
pressure but can be condensed to liquid state
LPG vapour is denser than air: leaking gases
can flow long distances from the source
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UNEP 2006
Type of Fuels
Gaseous Fuels
Natural gas
Methane: 95%
Remaing 5%: ethane, propane, butane,
pentane, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, other gases
High calorific value fuel
Does not require storage facilities
No sulphur
Mixes readily with air without producing smoke or
soot
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UNEP 2006
Type of Fuels
Comparing Fuels
Fuel Oil
Coal
Natural
Gas
Carbon
84
41.11
74
Hydrogen
12
2.76
25
Sulphur
0.41
Oxygen
9.89
Trace
Nitrogen
Trace
1.22
0.75
Ash
Trace
38.63
Water
Trace
5.98
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Combustion
Introduction
Type of fuels
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Performance Evaluation
Principles of Combustion
Combustion: rapid oxidation of a fuel
Complete combustion: total oxidation of
fuel (adequate supply of oxygen needed)
Air: 20.9% oxygen, 79% nitrogen and other
Nitrogen: (a) reduces the combustion
efficiency (b) forms NOx at high
temperatures
Carbon forms (a) CO2 (b) CO resulting in
less heat production
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Principles of Combustion
Control the 3 Ts to optimize combustion:
1T) Temperature
2T) Turbulence
3T) Time
Water vapor is a by-product of burning fuel
that contains hydrogen and this robs heat
from the flue gases
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Principle of Combustion
Oxygen is the key to combustion
Bureau of Energy Efficiency, India, 2004
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Stochiometric calculation of air

required
Stochiometric air needed for combustion of
furnace oil
Theoretical CO2 content in the flue gases
Actual CO2 content and % excess air
Constituents of flue gas with excess air
Theoretical CO2 and O2 in dry flue gas by
volume
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UNEP 2006
Measure CO2 in flue gases to estimate

excess air level and stack losses
Excess air (%)
Concept of Excess Air
Carbon dioxide (%)

Source: Bureau of Energy Efficiency, India, 2004
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UNEP 2006
Concept of Excess Air
Excess air (%)
Measure O2 in flue gases to estimate

excess air level and stack losses
Residual oxygen (%)

Bureau of Energy Efficiency, India, 2004
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Draft System
To exhaust combustion products to
atmosphere
Natural draft:
Caused by weight difference between the hot gases

inside the chimney and outside air
No fans or blowers are used
Mechanical draft:
Artificially produced by fans
Three types a) balanced draft, b) induced draft and 37

c) forced draft
UNEP 2006

Combustion
Introduction
Type of fuels
38
UNEP 2006
Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Four main areas

Preheating of combustion oil
Temperature control of combustion
oil
Preparation of solid fuels
Combustion controls
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UNEP 2006

Preheating of Combustion Oil

Purpose: to make furnace oil easier
to pump
Two methods:
Preheating the entire tank
Preheating through an outflow heater as
the oil flows out
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UNEP 2006

Temperature Control of
Combustion Oil
To prevent overheating
With reduced or stopped oil flow
Especially electric heaters
Using thermostats
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UNEP 2006

Preparation of Solid Fuels

Sizing and screening of coal
Important for efficient combustion
Size reduction through crushing and
pulverizing (< 4 - 6 mm)
Screen to separate fines and small particles
Magnetic separator for iron pieces in coal
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UNEP 2006


Conditioning of coal:
Coal fines cause combustion problems
Segregation can be reduced by
conditioning coal with water
Decrease % unburnt carbon
Decrease excess air level required
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UNEP 2006


Blending of coal
Used with excessive coal fines
Blending of lumped coal with coal
containing fines
Limits fines in coal being fired to <25%
Ensures more uniform coal supply
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UNEP 2006

Combustion Controls
Assist burner to achieve optimum boiler
efficiency through the regulation of fuel
supply, air supply, and removal of
combustion gases
Three controls:
On/Off control: burner is firing at full rate or it is
turned off
High/Low/Off control: burners with two firing rates
Modulating control: matches steam pressure
demand by altering the firing rate
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UNEP 2006
Training Session on Energy

Equipment
Fuels & Combustion

THANK YOU
FOR YOUR ATTENTION
46
UNEP GERIAP
Disclaimer and References

This PowerPoint training session was prepared as part of

the project Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction from
Industry in Asia and the Pacific (GERIAP). While
reasonable efforts have been made to ensure that the
contents of this publication are factually correct and
properly referenced, UNEP does not accept responsibility for
the accuracy or completeness of the contents, and shall not
be liable for any loss or damage that may be occasioned
directly or indirectly through the use of, or reliance on, the
contents of this publication. UNEP, 2006.
The GERIAP project was funded by the Swedish
International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida)
Full references are included in the textbook chapter that is
47
available on www.energyefficiencyasia.org
UNEP 2006

Fuels and Combustion

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Training Session on Energy

Fuels & Combustion

Training Agenda: Fuels &

The Formation of Fuels

Training Agenda: Fuels &

LSHS (Low Sulphur

Gross Calorific Value (kCal/kg)

Flash Point (0C)

Pour Point (0C)

Ash % Wt. Max.

0.02 UNEP 2006

Solid Fuels (Physical properties)

Solid Fuels (Physical properties)

Weight loss from heated then cooled crushed

Solid Fuels (Physical properties)

Proximate analysis of coal

Ultimate analysis of coal

Solid Fuels (Physical properties)

Solid Fuels (Chemical Properties)

Solid Fuels (Chemical Properties)

Simplest burners systems

and heavier C5 fractions

Training Agenda: Fuels &

Bureau of Energy Efficiency, India, 2004

Stochiometric calculation of air

Measure CO2 in flue gases to estimate

Concept of Excess Air

Carbon dioxide (%)

Excess air (%)

Measure O2 in flue gases to estimate

Residual oxygen (%)

Caused by weight difference between the hot gases

No fans or blowers are used

Artificially produced by fans

Three types a) balanced draft, b) induced draft and 37

Training Agenda: Fuels &

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Four main areas

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Preheating of Combustion Oil

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

With reduced or stopped oil flow

Especially electric heaters

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Preparation of Solid Fuels

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Preparation of Solid Fuels

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Preparation of Solid Fuels

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Training Session on Energy

Fuels & Combustion

Disclaimer and References

This PowerPoint training session was prepared as part of

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